AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AND
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY MANHATTAN
SPRING FREEZE
INJURY
TO KANSAS WHEAT
Int r oduct i on
Wheat in Kansas is subjected to adverse weather
condit ions during much of its growth period. Low-
temperat ure injury during winter and spring can be
part icularly destruct ive. The winter hardiness of
modern variet ies and good management pract ices
have reduced winterkilling of wheat, so injury
during winter is less common than it was years ago.
Wheat has lit tle resistance to low temperat ures
after it begins growing in the spring; therefore,
injury from freezes at this t ime can occur in any
part of the state. This publicat ion describes tem-
perat ure condit ions that cause spring freeze injury,
symptoms of injury at different spring growth
st ages, and management pract ices to use when
wheat is injured.
When and Wher e
Spr i ng Fr eeze Inj ur y Occur s
Spring freeze injury occurs when low
temperat ures coincide with sensit ive plant growth
stages. Injury can cover large areas of the state or
only a few fields or parts of fields. It is most severe
along rivers, valleys, and depressions in fields where
cold air set tles.
The risk of spring freeze injury is greater when
wheat init iates spring growth early due to higher
than average temperat ures and inadequate moist ure
and advances through its development al stages
quicker than normal. If a freeze occurs, wheat has
a greater chance of being damaged because it is
further advanced.
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
October November December January February March April May June
WHEAT RESISTANCE TO FREEZE INJURY
Just Emerged
0 - 1 Leaves
2 or More Leaves
Maximum
Resistance
Just Sprouted
Starting
to Joint
Jointing
Boot
Bloom
Soft Dough
Figure 1. Temperatures that cause
freeze injury to winter wheat at
dif ferent growth stages. Winter
wheat rapidly loses hardiness
during spring growth and is easily
injured by late freezes (graph
adapted f rom A.W. Pauli).
Tillering
Jointing
Boot
Heading
Flowering
Milk
Dough
Approximate
Growth injurious temperature Primary Yield
stage (two hours) symptoms effect
Table 1. Temperatures that cause freeze injury to wheat at spring growth stages and symptoms and yield
effect of spring freeze injury.
Slight to moderate
Moderate to severe
Moderate to severe
Severe
Severe
Moderate to severe
Slight to moderate
Leaf chlorosis; burning of leaf tips; silage odor; blue cast to fields
Death of growing point; leaf yellowing or burning; lesions,
splitting, or bending of lower stem; odor
Floret sterility; spike trapped in boot; damage to lower stem; leaf
discoloration; odor
Floret sterility; white awns or white spikes; damage to lower
stem; leaf discoloration
Floret sterility; white awns or white spikes; damage to lower
stem; leaf discoloration
White awns or white spikes; damage to lower stems; leaf
discoloration; shrunken, roughened, or discolored kernels
Shriveled, discolored kernels; poor germination
12 F (-11 C)
24 F (-4 C)
28 F (-2 C)
30 F (-1 C)
30 F (-1 C)
28 F (-2 C)
28 F (-2 C)
Early mat uring wheat is more likely to be
injured by freezes than late-mat uring wheat. Suscep-
t ibilit y to freezing temperat ures steadily increases
as mat urit y of wheat advances during spring (Figure
1). Some variet al difference in resistance to spring
freeze injury has been reported, but it is mostly
caused by differences in plant growth stages when
freezes occur. There is lit tle or no difference in
suscept ibilit y among wheat variet ies at the same
growth stage and, therefore, lit tle opport unit y to
increase freezing resist ance in improved variet ies.
Wheat that has had good growing condit ions,
opt imum fert ilit y, part icularly nitrogen, and is
act ively growing is sensit ive to freeze injury be-
cause of its lush growth and high moist ure content.
Drought stress tends to harden plants to cold and
decreases their water content and the severit y of
freeze injury. Ample soil moist ure, cool tempera-
t ures, and high soil fert ilit y slow plant mat urit y,
however, so that injury may be less severe than
when plants have less favorable growing condit ions
and are at a more advanced growth stage when
freezing occurs.
Temper at ur es t hat Cause
Spr i ng Fr eeze Inj ur y
During fall, winter wheat goes through a com-
plex process of cold hardening that increases its
resistance to cold during winter. Wheat quickly loses
its cold hardiness when growth resumes in the spring.
Lit tle resistance to freezing is present at that t ime.
Cold temperat ures that cause injury to winter
wheat after hardening in the fall and dehardening
in the spring are shown in Figure 1. Wheat is most
sensit ive to freeze injury during reproduct ive
growth, which begins with pollinat ion during late
boot or heading stages. Temperat ures that are only
slightly below freezing can severely injure wheat
at these reproduct ive stages and greatly reduce
grain yields.
The degree of injury to wheat from spring
freezes is influenced by the durat ion of the low
temperat ures as well as the low temperat ure
reached. Prolonged exposure to freezing causes
much more injury than brief exposure to the same
temperat ure. Temperat ures at which injury can be
expected, shown in Figure 1 and Table 1, are for
t wo hours of exposure to each temperat ure. Less
injury can be expected from shorter exposure
t imes. Injury might occur at somewhat higher
temperat ures from longer exposure t imes.
Figure 4:
A healthy
growing point
has a crisp,
whit ish-green
appearance.
Figure 2: Leaf t ip burn and yellowing are common spring
freeze symptoms at the t illering stage.
Figure 3: More severe freeze damage causes the ent ire leaf to
turn yellowish-white and the plant s to be f laccid. A silage
odor may be detected af ter several days.
The many factors that influence spring freeze
injury to wheat plant growth stage, plant mois-
t ure content, durat ion of exposure, wind, and
precipitat ion make it difficult to predict the
extent of injury. This is complicated st ill further by
differences in elevat ion and topography in and
bet ween wheat fields. Official weather stat ions may
not reflect true in-field temperat ures. It is not
unusual, for instance, for wheat growers to report
markedly lower temperat ures than are recorded at
the nearest official weather stat ion.
The probabilit y of a late spring freeze on a given
date is lower in the south central and southeastern
areas than in other parts of Kansas (Table 2). Wheat
init iates growth earlier in those areas, however, and
is at a more sensit ive, advanced st age of develop-
ment on a given date. The crop develops latest in
the northwestern part of the state, so it is usually
most resistant in areas where the chance of freeze
is greatest.
Table 2.
Probability of a 32freeze at various Kansas locations.
Location April 25 May 2 May 9 May 16 May 23
Probability (%)
Colby 79 57 33 15 5
Tribune 80 60 37 18 7
Garden City 57 34 16 6 2
Phillipsburg 60 37 19 8 2
Hays 56 35 17 6 2
Winfield 14 4 1 <1 0
McPherson 26 11 4 1 <1
Horton 50 26 10 3 1
Clay Center 44 24 10 3 1
Iola 14 4 1 <1 0
Sympt oms of Spr i ng Fr eeze Inj ur y
Knowing the symptoms of freeze injury enables
early assessment of the extent of injury. This gives
more t ime for choices on ways to use the damaged
crop or to replant to alternat ive crops. Waiting unt il
harvest to learn that wheat has been damaged by
freezing decreases the value of the damaged crop for
some uses and limits management choices.
Assessment of freeze injury is aided by several
characterist ic symptoms that develop at each
growth stage. Cold temperat ures after spring freezes
delay development of injury symptoms, but injury
to vital plant parts usually can be detected by
careful examinat ion. It is important to know the
plant parts that are most vulnerable at each growth
stage, where they are located on the plant, and their
appearance when they are normal as well as when
they have been injured.
Figure 6: A
yellow or
necrot ic leaf
emerging f rom
the whorl
indicates the
growing point is
damaged.
Figure 5: A
growing point
that has been
damaged loses
it s turgidity
and greenish
color within
several days
af ter a freeze. A
hand lens will
help detect
subtle f reeze
damage
symptoms.
Ti l l er i ng St age
Spring t illering of wheat in Kansas usually
begins during late February and cont inues through
March. The growing point is near the soil surface
during this st age and is protected against injury.
Most damage at this stage occurs to leaves, which
become t wisted and light green to yellow in color
and are necrot ic (burned) at the t ip within one or
t wo days after freezing (Figures 2 and 3). A strong
odor of dehydrat ing veget at ion may be present after
several days.
Injury at this stage slows growth and may reduce
t iller numbers, but growth of new leaves and t illers
usually resumes with warmer temperat ures.
Joi nt i ng St age
The joint ing stage of wheat usually occurs from
late March through April. Leaves of freeze-injured
plants show the same symptoms as at the t illering
st age, but the most serious injury occurs to the
growing points.
The growing point, which is just above the
uppermost node, can be located by split t ing stems
longit udinally with a sharp blade. A normal, unin-
jured growing point is bright white to yellow-green
and t urgid (Figure 4); freeze injury causes it to
become off-white or brown and water soaked in
appearance (Figure 5). This injury can exist even
in plants that appear otherwise normal because the
growing point is more sensit ive to cold than are
other plant parts.
Damaged t illers remain green, but growth of
stems in which the growing points are injured stops
immediately. A chlorot ic or dead leaf may appear in
the whorl, indicat ing that the growing point is dead
(Figure 6). Growth from later uninjured t illers may
obscure damage. Part ial injury at this stage may
cause a mixt ure of normal t illers and late t illers and
result in uneven mat urit y and some decrease in
grain yield.
Injury to the lower stems in the form of discol-
orat ion, roughness, lesions, and enlargement of
nodes frequently occurs at the joint ing st age and
the following stages after freezing (Figure 7). In-
jured plants often break over at the affected areas
of the lower stem so that one or t wo internodes are
parallel to the soil surface.
Mild stem injury does not appear to interfere
with abilit y of wheat plants to take up nutrients
from the soil and translocate them to the develop-
ing grain. Microorganisms might infect injured
Figure 7:
Discoloring and
roughening of
the lower stem
are symptoms
of spring freeze
damage.
Figure 8:
Splitt ing of
stems occurs
with severe
freeze damage.
areas causing further stem deteriorat ion. Lodging,
or falling over, of plants is the most serious problem
following stem injury. Wind or hard rain will lodge
the plants easily, slowing harvest and decreasing
grain yields. With severe stem injury, split t ing of
stems and collapse of internodes is common (Fig-
ures 8 and 9). The growing point does not appear
damaged immediately after a freeze. It will become
dry and off-white to brown if the stem is damaged.
Also, the growing point will not move upward. The
loss of these early t illers releases the later t illers that
would not normally develop because of too much
compet it ion.
Boot St age
Freeze injury at the boot st age causes a number
of symptoms when the spikes, commonly referred
to as heads, are enclosed in the sheaths of the flag
leaves. Freezing may trap the spikes inside the boots
so that they cannot emerge normally. When this
happens, the spikes will remain in the boots, split
out the sides of the boots, or emerge base-first from
the boots (Figure 10).
Somet imes spikes emerge normally from the
boots after freezing, but remain yellow or even
white instead of their usual green color (Figure 11).
When this happens, the spikes have been killed.
Frequently, only the male parts (anthers) of the
flowers in the spikes die because they are more
sensit ive to low temperat ures than the female parts.
Since wheat is self-pollinated, sterilit y caused by
freeze injury results in poor kernel set and low
grain yield. Injury can be detected soon after freez-
ing by examining the anthers inside each floret.
Anthers are trilobed and normally light green and
t urgid when young and become yellow about the
t ime they are extruded from the florets after anthe-
sis or flowering (Figure 12). The anthers, st ill green,
become t wisted and shriveled within 48 hours after
a freeze (Figures 13 and 14), but they t urn white to
whit ish-brown quickly and may not be extruded
from the florets (Figure 15). The female parts
(st igma, st yle, and ovary) may be damaged, but if
they are, the anthers also will have been injured.
The st igma normally has a greenish-white, feathery
appearance. A damaged st igma becomes off-white
to brown and will not open. The ovary will also
t urn off-white to brown. Use of a hand lens will be
helpful in detect ing symptoms.
Many symptoms of freeze injury that occur at
early stages might also be present at the boot stage
(Figure 16). Leaves and lower stems might exhibit
Figure 9:
Collapse of
internodes,
which may
lead to lodging,
occurs with
severe f reeze
damage.
Figure 10: The twisted spike on the right was trapped in the
boot and split out the side of the sheath. The awns of the
middle spike were damaged while it was st ill in the boot
stage. The spike on the lef t had partially emerged when
freezing occurred so only the upper port ion of the spike was
damaged.
symptoms described for the joint ing st age, but these
plant parts are less sensit ive than are the anthers.
It is import ant, for this reason, to examine the
anthers. Freezing temperat ures that are severe
enough to injure leaves and lower stems are nearly
always fatal to male flower parts, but less severe
freezing may cause male sterilit y without any
symptoms appearing on plant vegetat ive parts
(leaves and stems).
Headi ng St age
Wheat spikes usually emerge from the boots
during the first three weeks of May. Most symptoms
of freeze injury at this stage st erilit y, leaf desicca-
t ion or drying, and lesions on lower stems are
similar to symptoms at earlier growth stages. The
most apparent symptom, however, is usually chloro-
sis or bleaching of the awns (beard) so they are
white instead of the normal green color (Figure 17).
Freezing temperat ures that injure the awns may also
kill the male flower parts (Figure 18).
A light green or white frost ring may encircle
the stems one to t wo inches below the spikes several
days after exposure to freezing temperat ures (Fig-
ure 19). This area of yellowed chlorot ic t issue marks
the junct ure of the stem and the flag leaf at the t ime
the freeze occurred. The frost ring may be present
on injured plants as well as on plants that show no
other injury symptoms. It does not seem to inter-
fere with movement of nutrients from the plant to
the developing grain. As the plants mat ure, however,
the spikes may break over at the frost ring. That is
most likely to happen to well-filled spikes, part icu-
larly during windy condit ions.
Fl ower i ng ( Ant hesi s) St age
Wheat usually flowers about one week after the
spikes appear. Symptoms of freeze injury at the
flowering and heading stages are nearly similar.
The flowering st age is the most freeze-sensit ive
st age in wheat. Small differences in temperat ure,
durat ion of exposure, or other condit ions can cause
large differences in amount of injury.
Exposure to freezing temperat ures at the flower-
ing st age kills the male parts of the flowers and
causes sterilit y as described for the boot and head-
ing st ages. After freezing, the anthers are white and
desiccated or shriveled instead of their normal light
green or yellow color.
Freeze injury at the flowering st age causes either
complete or part ial sterilit y and void or part ially
filled spikes because of the extreme sensit ivit y.
Figure 11: This
spike is
emerging
normally, but
the yellow,
water soaked
appearance,
instead of the
normal crisp,
green spike
indicates it is
damaged.
Figure 12:
Healthy wheat
anthers are
trilobed, light
green and
turgid before
pollen is shed.
Each wheat
f loret contains
three anthers.
Healthy
st igmas are
white and have
a feathery
appearance.
Flowering proceeds from florets near the center
of wheat spikes to florets at the top and bot tom of
the spikes over a 2- to 4-day period. This small
difference in flowering stage when freezing occurs
produces effects shown in Figure 20. The center or
one or both ends of the spikes might be void of
grain because those florets were at a sensit ive stage
when they were frozen. Grain might develop in
other parts of the spikes, however, because flower-
ing had not started or was already completed in
those florets when the freeze occurred.
Mi l k St age
Young developing kernels normally grow to full
size (volume) within 12 to 14 days after flowering,
but do not reach maximum grain weight for an-
other t wo weeks (Figures 21 and 22). Injured ker-
nels may fail to develop after freezing temperat ures.
Injured kernels also may be white or gray and have
a rough, shriveled appearance instead of their
normal light green, plump appearance (Figure 23).
Cool weather frequently delays these other symp-
toms, so failure of the kernels to develop may be
the major indicat ion of injury.
Kernels that are slightly injured at the milky-
ripe stage may grow to normal size, but produce
light, shriveled grain at mat urit y. Examinat ion of
these kernels before mat urit y, as at the early dough
stage, may show that their contents are gray and
liquid instead of white and viscous as they should
be at this stage (Figure 24). The interior of the
rachilla, the small stems that at tach the spikelets to
the stems, may also be dark instead of light-colored,
so that the spikelets are easily stripped from the
stems. These symptoms result from gradual deterio-
rat ion of t issues and usually do not show up for a
week or more after freezing occurred.
Wheat that has been injured by freezing at the
milky-ripe stage often shat ters easily at mat urit y,
and the shriveled kernels cause the grain to have a
low test weight. Freeze injury may also seriously
reduce germinat ion.
Dough St age
Wheat kernels reach full size and nearly full
weight by mid-dough stage in late May to early
June. Because kernel development is nearly com-
plete and kernel moist ure content may have de-
creased, wheat is usually more resist ant to freezing
temperat ures at this stage than at most earlier
spring growth stages. The only visible sign of freeze
Figure 13:
Anthers become
twisted and
shriveled, yet
they are st ill
their normal
color within 24
to 48 hours
af ter a freeze. A
hand lens is
necessary to
detect these
symptoms.
Figure 14: Close-up of twisted anthers and unopened
whit ish st igma shown in Figure 13.
Figure 15: If
damaged,
anthers become
white af ter
3 to 5 days and
eventually turn
whit ish-brown.
The anthers
will not shed
pollen or
extrude from
the f loret s.
injury at the dough st age may be an unsightly
wrinkled appearance of the kernels and a slightly
reduced test weight.
The most serious consequence of freeze injury
at the dough stage is reduced germinat ion of ker-
nels. The embryo or germ usually has a higher
moist ure content than other kernel parts, and its
complex of cellular contents and struct ures makes it
more vulnerable to freezing.
Management of Fr eeze-Inj ur ed Wheat
Har vest for Grain
Freezing frequently injures only part of the
wheat spike or only plants in certain parts of fields
such as low areas. In addit ion, late t illers that
normally would not produce significant grain may
develop rapidly after a freeze, part icularly when it
occurs at early spring growth stages. These late
t illers may produce appreciable yields if suitable
weather condit ions follow the freeze. However, hot
and dry condit ions usually prevent late t illers from
producing worthwhile yields when freezes occur at
late spring growth stages.
When freeze injury is only part ial, when alter-
nat ive management pract ices might disrupt estab-
lished rotat ion systems, or when good alternat ive
uses or crops are unavailable, the best management
pract ice might be pat ience. Except in the most
severe cases, wheat that has been injured often
produces yields that exceed harvest ing and hauling
costs. This might be offset somewhat, however, by
the possibilit y of lodging caused by lower stem
damage, which slows harvest, and by increased
shat tering losses of freeze-injured wheat.
Grain produced by wheat injured after the
flowering stage is frequently of poor qualit y for
making bread. Test weight may be low, kernels may
be shriveled or discolored, and the grain may be a
mixt ure of kernels of different sizes and mat urit ies.
Wheat grain that is shriveled or germinates
poorly makes excellent cat tle feed. It is usually high
in protein content, which enables the amount of
protein from other sources to be decreased. Wheat
grain should be gradually incorporated into the
livestock rat ion over a one week period; in no case
should it const it ute more than one-third to one-
half of the tot al grain in the rat ion.
Use for Seed
The germinat ion of grain from freeze-injured
plants that is to be used for seed should be checked
before plant ing. Grain of most wheat variet ies has
a nat ural dormancy that causes low germinat ion
Figure 16: Damage to the lower stem and nodes can occur
at the boot and heading stages. Freeze damage causes nodes
to become enlarged and the stem to bend or have a crooked
appearance.
Figure 18: Freeze damage at heading causes glumes to become
yellow and have a water-soaked appearance instead of green
and turgid. The rachilla, the short stem that connect s the f loret
to the spike, may become purplish-brown, indicat ing damage.
Figure 17:
Symptoms of
slight freeze
damage may
occur only on
the awns as the
spike is
emerging f rom
the boot or
af ter heading.
Awns become
twisted and
bleached or
white instead of
their normal
green color.
There may be
no other
damage to the
rest of the
plant.
for several weeks after harvest. The grain should
be given a cold treatment before test ing, or
germinat ion tests should be delayed for about
four weeks after harvest. If germinat ion is slow and
germinat ion percentage is low four weeks or more
after harvest, the wheat should not be used as seed.
Shriveled seed should not be used in any case
because field emergence is poor even if germinat ion
percentage is high. In addit ion, shriveled seeds
produce less vigorous seedlings that usually yield
less grain than seedlings from good qualit y wheat
seed.
The suitabilit y of grain from freeze-damaged
wheat for use as seed might be improved by condi-
t ioning. This can be part icularly important if the
damage is widespread and the supply of seed for the
next years crop is short.
Proper condit ioning removes the small, shriv-
eled, or immat ure kernels, leaving the largest
kernels and raising the test weight to acceptable
levels. The amount of clean-out depends on the
severit y of freeze injury, but may be high. Germina-
t ion of the grain that is saved for seed should be
tested after condit ioning and after any period of
storage. Condit ioned seed will usually maint ain a
high level of germinat ion for one year if it is stored
under proper condit ions.
Hay or En silage
Cut t ing freeze-injured wheat for hay or ensilage
may be the most economical and pract ical use if the
forage is needed or can be marketed and equipment
is available. The feeding qualit y of hay or ensilage is
good through the soft dough stage. Moreover, it
might be necessary to kill freeze-injured wheat
plants so they will not become weeds if the land is
replanted to other crops. It is also usually desirable
to remove the wheat veget at ion instead of directly
working it into the soil to prevent excessive soil
moist ure loss.
The nitrate content of wheat used for hay or
ensilage after freezing should be checked to avoid
toxicit y to livestock. Because late freezing usually
injures only certain parts of the wheat spike and
rarely kills the whole plant, plants may cont inue to
absorb nitrate from the soil but lack any developing
grain to ut ilize the nitrogen. Nitrate might accumu-
Figure 19: A whit ish frost ring encircles the stem at the
juncture of the stem and f lag leaf at the t ime of the freeze.
Figure 20: Damage may occur in different areas of the spike
because f lowering, which is the most sensit ive stage to
freeze, does not occur at the same t ime in all f loret s.
Figure 21:
Shortly af ter
pollinat ion
healthy kernels
begin to
develop and are
greenish-white.
Figure 22: As
healthy kernels
cont inue to
develop, they
will contain a
clear liquid.
late under those condit ions and poison livestock
unless the feed is diluted with adequate quant it ies
of low-nitrate feed.
Cat tle on wheat hay or ensilage that was cut
after the anthesis (flowering) growth stage should
be closely observed for development of
act inomycosis, commonly known as big jaw or
lumpy jaw. The problem occurs when t issues inside
the mouth of cat tle are punct ured by wheat awns
and become infected. Act inomycosis is less likely
when wheat is cut at young stages of mat urit y and
when it is fed as ensilage than when it is fed as hay.
Altern at ive Crops
Ample t ime usually is available after early
assessment of spring freeze injury to wheat for
replant ing the land to other crops. The most likely
alternat ive crop possibilit ies are soybeans and
sorghum in eastern Kansas and sorghum in western
Kansas. Other possibilit ies are sunflowers or corn, if
damage is assessed early and the soil profile has at
least 3 feet of moist ure or irrigat ion is available.
Freeze-injured wheat needs to be killed with a
herbicide or t illage if it is not cut for hay or ensilage
to prevent it from becoming a weed in replanted
crops. This is necessary because freezing rarely kills
the ent ire plant. If the wheat is not removed, it
should be chopped to prevent rapid drying of the
soil.
With wheat-fallow or wheat-sorghum-fallow
rot at ions, an alternat ive crop, usually sorghum or
sunflower, may be planted on fallowed land with
adequate moist ure condit ions. Cropping opt ions
may be limited if residue from a herbicide that was
applied to the wheat remains in the soil. The land
with injured wheat can be summer-fallowed and
replanted to wheat in the fall. This scheme requires
bet ter-than-average moist ure condit ions for both
the spring-seeded crop and for the wheat in the fall.
Before destroying damaged wheat and plant ing
another crop, growers should consider that produc-
t ion costs, except for harvest ing and hauling, have
been incurred. Plant ing a new crop will have its
own product ion and fixed costs. Therefore, the
ret urn of the new crop over its product ion costs
must be greater than the wheats value over harvest-
ing/ hauling costs to make it worthwhile.
Figure 24: These healthy kernels at the milk to early dough
stage contain a whit ish f luid. Damaged kernels contain a
gray to brownish liquid that is less viscous than the whit ish
f luid in undamaged kernels.
Figure 23: Kernel development stops immediately af ter
freeze damage. Damaged kernels are grayish-white, rough
and shriveled.
We would like to acknowledge the Kansas Wheat Commission, Kansas Association of Wheat Growers and the Finnup
Foundat ion for their support of this project.
We would also like to thank Paul Maginness for assistance with the photography in this publicat ion.
Gar y M. Paul sen
Crop Research Physiologist
Kansas Agricultural Experiment
Station
Mer rel E. Mi kesel l
Extension Specialist
Crops and Soils, Nor thwest
James P. Shroyer
Extension Specialist
Crop Production
Publications from Kansas State University are available on the World Wide Web at: http://www.oznet.ksu.edu
Contents of this publication may be freely reproduced for educational purposes. All other rights reserved. In each case, credit James P. Shroyer,
Merrel E. Mikesell, and Gary M. Paulsen, Spring Freeze Injury to Kansas Wheat, Kansas State University, March 1995.
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
C-646 March 1995
It is the policy of Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service that all persons shall have equal opportunity and
access to its educational programs, services, activities, and materials without regard to race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age or disability. Kansas State
University is an equal opportunity organization. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas
State University, County Extension Councils, Extension Districts, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Marc A. Johnson, Director.
File code: Crops and Soils 1-1