Wastewater Treatments 1

1. INTRODUCTION


1.1 GENERAL ABOUT WASTEWATER TREATMENT


Wastewater collected from urban areas ( cities, towns, villages ) and from
different industries, must ultimately be returned to receiving waters or to
the land. The complex question of which contaminants in wastewater must
be removed to protect the environment and to what extent must be
answered specifically for each case. This requires analyses of local
conditions and needs, together with the application of scientific
knowledge, engineering judgement based on past experience, and
consideration of federal, state and local requirements and regulations./1/

The presence of different pollutants in the wastewater makes it almost
impossible to treat all the wastewater in the same manner.

Some important contaminants ( pollutants ) of concern in wastewater
treatment are given in the Table 1 ./1/

In order to treat the wastewater it is generally necessary to combine a
number of basic processes, which may be physical, chemical or
biological in character and which have the effect of removing first of all
the suspended solids, followed by the colloids and any dissolved
inorganic or organic pollutants, and the elimination of pathogenic
organisms.
Finally, some characteristics of water and wastewater need adjustment./2/

In addition to these, above mentioned, classical basic processes, some new
directions are also evident in various specific areas of wastewater
treatment, including :

- modification in treatment operations, processes and
concepts;
- the changing nature of the wastewater to be treated;
- the problem of industrial wastes;
- wastewater treatability studies;
- environmental and energy concerns;
- land treatment;
- small and individual onsite systems./1/





Wastewater Treatments 2
Table 1 Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment


Contaminants

Reason for importance

Suspended solids


Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge
deposits and anaerobic conditions when untreated wastewater
is discharged in the aquatic environment;


Biodegradable
organics


Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates and fats,
biodegradable organics are measured most commonly in
terms of BOD and COD. If discharged untreated to the
environment, their biological stabilization can lead to the
depletion of natural oxygen resources and to the development
of septic conditions;


Pathogens


Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogenic
organisms in wastewater;


Nutrients


Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with carbon, are
essential nutrients for growth. When discharged to the water
these nutrients can lead to the growth of undesirable aquatic
life. When discharged in excessive amounts on land they can
also lead to the pollution of groundwater;


Refractory
organics


These organics tend to resist conventional methods of
wastewater treatment. Typical examples include surfactants,
phenols, and agricultural pesticides;


Heavy metals


Heavy metals are usually added to wastewater from
commercial and industrial activities and may have to be
removed if the wastewater is to be reused;


Dissolved
inorganic solids


Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium, and sulfate
are added to the original domestic water supply as a result of
water use and may have to be removed if the wastewater is to
be reused .


Source : Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater engineering, /1/
Wastewater Treatments 3

1.2 BIODEGRADABLE AND NON-BIODEGRADABLE WASTEWATER

The wastewater originating from various sources can be broadly divided
into two categories :

- biodegradable wastewater,
- non-biodegradable wastewater.

1.2.1 Biodegradable wastewater

The biological wastes in general have a predominance of biodegradable
organic matter, and are generally treated in a similar manner.

The stabilization of organic matter is accomplished biologically using a
variety of microorganisms. The microorganisms are used to convert the
colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous organic matter into various gases
and into cell tissue. Because cell tissue has a specific gravity slightly
greater than that of water, the resulting tissue can be removed from the
treated liquid as a sludge by gravity settling. /3/

Based on bacterial relationship to oxygen ( ability or inability to utilize
oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor in oxidation/reduction reactions ),
the microorganisms can be :

- obligate aerobes,
- obligate anaerobes,
- facultative anaerobes
-- denitrifiers.

The general term that describes all of the chemical activities performed by
a bacterial cell is metabolism which is divided into catabolism and
anabolism. Catabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which a
substrate ( food ) is degraded to end products with the release of energy.
Anabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium
synthesizes new cells.

The type of electron acceptor available for catabolism determines the type
of decomposition used by a mixed culture of microorganisms.

Decomposition of wastes and particularly of wastewater can be :

- aerobic decomposition,
- anaerobic decomposition,
- anoxic decomposition.

Wastewater Treatments 4
For aerobic decomposition the molecular oxygen ( O
2
) must be present as
the terminal electron acceptor to proceed by aerobic oxidation. The
chemical end-products of aerobic decomposition are primarily carbon
dioxide ( CO
2
), water, and new cell material.

Anoxic decomposition occurs when some microorganisms will use nitrate
( NO
3
-
) as the terminal electron acceptor in the absence of molecular
oxygen. Oxidation by this route is called denitrification.

In order to achieve anaerobic decomposition, molecular oxygen and
nitrate must not be present as terminal electron acceptors. Sulfate ( SO
4
2-
),
carbon dioxide, and organic compounds that can be reduced serve as
terminal electron acceptors. The end-products of anaerobic decomposition
are hydrogen sulfide ( H
2
S ), mercaptans, methane ( CH
4
), carbon
dioxide, ammonia and water./3/


1.2.2 Non-biodegradable wastewater

The non-biological wastes in general and the wastewater in particular are
rich in non-biodegradable matter consisting of solids and liquids in
suspended or dissolved form, including various inorganics and organics,
many of which may be highly toxic.
Examples are domestic or industrial wastewater containing excessive
dissolved solids ( minerals ), inorganic or organic compounds or naturally
occuring organics such as humic and fulvic acids.

Treatment processes are available for removing these contaminants. The
physical processes frequently used in engineered systems include
sedimentation, filtration and gas-transfer.

Chemical processes includes the usage of different chemicals for
wastewater treatment. Chemicals may be added to alter equilibrium
conditions and cause precipitation of undesirable species. It should be kept
in mind that chemical processes are conversion processes and that actual
removal is accomplished by physically separating the solid, liquid, or
gaseous products of the chemical reactions. The chemical processes
frequently used in engineered systems include neutralization, coagulation,
flocculation, chemical precipitation and oxidation & reduction.

Some wastewater must be treated by means of highly sophisticated
processes and equipment, requiring highly skilled operators, and therefore
quite expensive. Such processes are physico-chemical processes and
include : demineralization, desalinization, ion-exchange, reverse osmosis,
electro-dialysis, adsorption, evaporation, incineration, etc. /4/

Wastewater Treatments 5
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF WWT


The contaminants ( pollutants ) in wastewater are removed by physical,
chemical and/or biological means, and the individual methods usually are
classified as physical-, chemical- and biological unit processes or
operations.

Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces
predominate are known as physical unit operations. Typical physical unit
operations are: screening, mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, flotation,
filtration and membrane filter operations.

Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of contaminants is
brought about by the addition of chemicals or by other chemical reactions
are known as chemical unit processes.
Neutralization, oxidation, reduction, precipitation, gas transfer,
adsorption, ion-exchange, electro-dialysis etc. are the most common
examples of these processes used in water and wastewater treatment.

Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is brought about
by biological activity are known as biological unit processes.
Biological treatment is used primarily to remove the biodegradable
organic substances ( colloidal or dissolved ) in wastewater. Basically, these
substances are converted into gases that can escape to the atmosphere and
into biological cell tissue that can be removed by settling. The most
common approaches in the biological wastewater treatments are: aerobic
processes such as trickling filters, activated sludge, oxidation ponds ( or
lagoons ) , and anaerobic processes such as anaerobic lagoons, sludge
digestion, etc.

Usually in the municipal wastewater treatment, but also in other
wastewater processing all the above mentioned unit operations and
processes are grouped together to provide what is known as primary,
secondary and tertiary ( or advanced ) treatment.

The term primary refers to physical unit operations and in some cases to
chemical unit processes; secondary refers to biological unit processes;
and tertiary refers to combinations of all three.

The principal combination of all alternatives for municipal wastewater
treatment are shown in Figure 1 ./3/

The contaminants of major interest in wastewater and the unit operations
and processes or methods applicable to the removal of these contaminants
are shown in Table 2 ./1/
Wastewater Treatments 6
Figure 1 Categories of municipal wastewater treatment


RAW SEWAGE






Pretreatment





Pump
Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment



Tertiary Treatment
Advanced
Wastewater
Treatment
Secon-
dary
Settling
Biological
Treatment
Primary
Settling
Equalization
Basin
Grit
Chamber
Bar
Rack

















Receiving body





Wastewater Treatments 7
Table 2 Unit operations and processes and treatment systems
used to remove the major contaminants in wastewater


CONTAMINANTS


Unit operation, unit process or treatment
System

Suspended
solids


Sedimentation
Screening and comminution
Filtration variations, Flotation
Chemical addition, Coagulation/Sedimentation
Land treatment systems

Biodegradable
organics


Activated-sludge variations
Fixed film: trickling filters, rotating biol.contactor
Lagoon variations
Intermittent sand filtration
Land treatment systems
Physical-chemical systems

Pathogens


Chlorination, Hypochlorination
Ozonization
Land treatment systems

Nutrients :
- Nitrogen




- Phosphorus

Suspended-growth nitrification and denitrification
Fixed-film nitrification and denitrification
Ammonia stripping, Ion-exchange
Break point chlorination
Land treatment systems

Metal-salt addition
Lime coagulation/sedimentation
Biological-chemical phosphorus removal
Land treatment systems

Refractory
organics

Carbon adsorption, Tertiary ozonation
Land treatment systems

Heavy metals


Chemical precipitation, Ion-exchange
Land treatment systems

Dissolved
inorganic solids

Ion-exchange, Reverse osmosis
Electrodialysis, Evaporation

Source : Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater Engineering, /1/

Wastewater Treatments 8

Questions to the Chapter . :


1. Which are the three main categories of processes in the
wastewater treatment ?

2. Distinguish between the biological and non-biological
wastes !

3. Describe the stabilization process of organic matter !

4. What is terminal electron acceptor ?

5. Distinguish between anabolism and catabolism !

6. Describe short decomposition of wastes in wastewater !

7. Mention the treatment processes available for removing the
non-biodegradable matter !

8. Distinguish between unit operations and unit processes !
























Wastewater Treatments 9
2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS


2.1 PHYSICAL TREATMENT

Physical treatment or physical unit operations usually includes following
treatment techniques : cooling, equalization, screening, comminuting, grit
removal, oil and grease removal, mixing, sedimentation and filtration.

The principal applications of these unit operations are summarized and
given in the next Table 3 . /1/

Table 3 Application of physical unit operations in wastewater treatment


Operation

Application

Screening


Removal of coarse and settleable solids by
interception ( surface straining )

Comminution

Grinding of coarse solids to a more or less uniform
size

Flow equalization

Equalization of flow and mass loading of BOD and
suspended solids

Mixing


Mixing of chemicals and gases with wastewater,
and maintaining solids in suspension

Flocculation

Promotes the aggregation of small particles into
larger particles to enhance their removal by gravity
sedimentation

Sedimentation


Removal of settleable solids and thickening of
sludges

Flotation


Removal of finely divided suspended solids and
particles with densities close to that of water. Also
thickens biological sludges

Filtration
Microscreening
Removal of fine residual suspended solids
remaining after biological or chemical treatment
Same as filtration. Also removal of algae from
stabilization-pond effluents.

Source : Metcalf & Eddy : Wastewater Engineering, /1/

Wastewater Treatments 10
2.1.1 Cooling

Some hot process effluents will require cooling treatment ( temperature
reduction ) before being fed to any biological or some other treatment or
disposed into the receiving body.

The devices like different types of heat-exchangers, cooling towers, etc.
are employed in cooling processes.

Some examples of heat-exchangers are shown in the next Figure 2 ./16/

A example of an cooling tower is shown in the next Figure 3 ./16/


2.1.2 Equalization

Wastewater from some industrial activities generally show variations in
flow and some other characteristics like pH, BOD, COD, TSS, etc. These
could be regulated by retaining the wastewater in a basins so that the
resulting effluent is fairly uniform in flow and characteristics.


2.1.3 Screening

This unit operation is envisaged to protect following equipment like
pumps, valves, pipelines, etc. from damage or clogging by ranges and
large objects. The screening element may consist of parallel bars, rods or
wires, grating, wire mesh or perforated plates.

Some typical screening devices are shown in the next Figure 4 ./1/


2.1.4 Comminuting

This is a process where devices like grinders, cutters or shredders are
employed to break up solid material into smaller sizes.

Figure 5 ./6/ gives a diagramatic sketch of comminutor installation.


2.1.5 Grit removal

This process is employed to remove sand, dust, gravel, stones, cinders and
other heavy inorganic settleable material.

Wastewater Treatments 11
Grit chambers are provided to protect mechanical equipment from
abrasion and abnormal wear, to reduce formation of heavy deposits in
pipes and conduits, to reduce the size or frequency of cleaning of reactors
( e.g. digestors ).

Typical aerated grit chamber is shown in the next Figure 6 ./3/


2.1.6 Oil and grease removal

The wastewater contains floating substances which seriously affect the
working of various treatment units. The devices like a skimming tank or
different types of oil separators are used to remove such floating
substances which include oil, grease, soap, etc. from the effluent.

Figure 7 /8/ shows a typical skimming tank .

An example of a plate oil separator is shown in the Figure 8./9/

An other method for the removal of oil and grease (also removal of some
suspended solids) from wastewaters is the flotation. The waste flow or a
portion of clarified effluent is pressurized in the presence of sufficient air
to approach saturation. When this pressurized air-liquid mixture is
released to atmospheric pressure in the flotation unit, minute air bubbles
are released from solution. The sludge flocs, suspended solids, or oil
globules are floated by these minute air bubbles, which attach themselves
to and become enmeshed in the floc particles. The air-solids mixture rises
to the surface, where it is skimmed off. The clarified liquid is removed
from the bottom of the flotation unit; at this time a portion of the effluent
may be recycled back to the pressure chamber. /9/

A schematic presentation of flotation systems is shown in the Figure 9./9/

Emulsified oil and grease usually require some special treatment to break
the emulsions so that the oily materials will be free and can be separated
by gravity, coagulation or air-flotation.


2.1.7 Mixing

Mixing is an important unit operation in many phases of wastewater
treatment where one substance must be completely intermingled with
another. An example is the mixing of chemicals with wastewater (
chlorine, hypochlorite, lime, etc.).

Wastewater Treatments 12
Chemicals are also mixed with sludge to improve its dewatering
characteristics before vacuum filtration or centrifugation.
In the digestion tank, mixing is used frequently to assure intimate contact
between food and microorganisms.

In the biological process tank, air must be mixed with the activated sludge
to provide the organisms with the oxygen required. In this case, diffused
air is introduced in such a way as to fulfill the mixing requirements, or
mechanical turbine aerator-mixers may be used.

A typical mixer used in wastewater-treatment plants is shown in the next
Figure 10 ./1/


2.1.8 Sedimentation

This is one of the most widely used unit operations in wastewater
treatment. In the sedimentation process, comparatively bigger size
particles are allowed to settle down due to the force of gravity. Very fine
particles takes very long time to settle and not sometimes are not settleable
at all.

The process of settlement of a particle is obstructed or opposed by the
following three forces : velocity of flow, size and shape of particle and
viscosity of water.

The wastewater having high settleable/suspended solids are allowed to
pass through a gravity settling tanks. The tanks could be either rectangular
or circular.

Some typical and commonly used sedimentation tanks are shown in the
next Figures 11 ./12/


2.1.9 Filtration

This is a unit operation where the liquid/solid mixture under gravitational
force or under pressure is made to pass through a natural or synthetic
medium, leaving behind solids or a colloids of a very finely divided
nature. Some of the common filter media are sand, coal, activated carbon,
fibre glass screen, wiremesh, cloth , etc.

Some typical filter types are shown in the next Figure 13. /2/

Wastewater Treatments 13
Another type of filtration is micro-straining and is usually used for
removal of microorganisms and some other suspended solids from a
wastewater.

Typical microstrainer are shown in the next Figure 14 ./16/



Questions to the Chapter . :


1. Which are the physical WW treatments ?

2. Describe briefly all above mentioned physical treatments !

3. What are the different types of cooling equipment ?

4. Describe short the various types of screens !

5. What are shredders ?

6. What are the processes involved to remove the sand from the
wastewater !

7. What is the flotation ?

8. What are the various types of settling tanks ?

9. Which are the common filter-media used in the filtration
processes?

10. What is straining ?

11. To remove very fine suspended particles from water, the method
adopted is : a) screening; b) sedimentation; c) boiling; d) filtration.











Wastewater Treatments 14
2.2 CHEMICAL TREATMENT

Those processes used for treatment of wastewater in which change is
brought about by means of or through chemical reactions are known as
chemical unit processes.

Chemical treatment or chemical unit processes usually includes following
treatment processes and techniques : neutralization, coagulation and
flocculation, chemical precipitation, oxidation, reduction, ion-exchange,
chemical adsorption, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis .

The chemical unit processes mentioned above and their principal
applications are reported in the next Table 4 ./1/


Table 4 Applications of chemical unit processes in wastewater
treatment


Process

Application


Chemical
precipitation

Removal of phosphorus and enhancement of suspended
solids removal in primary sedimentation facilities used for
physical chemical treatment

Gas transfer

Addition and removal of gases

Adsorption

Removal of organics not removed by conventional chemical
and biological treatment methods. Also used for
dechlorination of wastewater before final discharge of
treated effluent

Disinfection

Selective destruction of disease-causing organisms.
Chlorine is the most commonly used chemical.
Disinfection with ozone.

Dechlorination

Removal of total combined chlorine residual that exists after
chlorination.

Others

Various other chemicals for specific objectives in WWT.

Source : Metcalf & Eddy : Wastewater Engineering , /1/



Wastewater Treatments 15
2.2.1 Neutralization

This is a unit process where the acid or alkaline wastes should be
neutralized before being discharged or transported to some additional
treatment.

The reagents usually used in the neutralization are caustic soda, lime and
sodium carbonate. Some other reagents are also employed for specific
applications ( ammonia, carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate, sodium
carbonate, sulphuric acid, etc.)

An simplified flow sheet of neutralization process is shown in the next
Figure 15 ./9/

2.2.2 Coagulation and flocculation

In that unit processes the wastewater is treated with certain chemicals
which form a flocs, that absorbs and entrains the suspended and colloidal
particles present.

In coagulation individual particles agglomerate or combine together. When
a coagulant is used in water, it forms a spongy gelatinuous precipitate
which absorbs fine size particles in water and bind them together. The
whole process results into bigger particles which are easily settleable.

Some important factors have to be followed : proper coagulant and
flocculant selection, adequate mixing, and efficient detention time.

In order to determine approximately the dosage of coagulant, the usual test
which is performed in the laboratory, is the jar test.

Figure 16 /13/ shows process of coagulation and flocculation.

Reactor clarifier designed for mixing, coagulation and flocculation and
clarification is shown in the next Figure 17 . / 7 /

2.2.3 Chemical precipitation

Chemical precipitation in the wastewater treatment involves the addition
of chemicals to alter the physical state of dissolved and suspended solids
and facilitate their removal by sedimentation.
They are mainly used for removal of heavy metals, phosphates and certain
soluble anionic colour components.


2.2.4 Oxidation
Wastewater Treatments 16

The toxicity of some contaminants can be reduced or destroyed by
oxidation. The oxidizing agents used in the process are usually sodium
hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, etc.

The cyanides are generally treated in this manner.
An typical cyanide oxidation system is shown in the Figure 18 . /10/


2.2.5 Reduction

Usually chromium is treated by reduction where the hexavalent form of
chromium is converted into trivalent chromium by means of liquid sodium
bisulphite or disodium metabisulphite, subsequently precipitated as
chromium hydroxide, and removed by sedimentation.

An typical hexavalent chromate treatment system is shown in the next
Figure 19 . /10/


2.2.6 Ion-exchange

This method is generally employed for the purification of raw water or for
upgrading the treated water to an acceptable level or for removal of
undesirable anions and cations from a wastewater.

The process involves the exchange of cations by hydrogen ions (H
+
) and
anions by hydroxil ions ( OH
-
). To facilitate these exchanges the use of
certain resins is made.
To regenerate the used resins some acid or alkali will be necessary.

The principles of ion-exchange process is shown in the next Figure 20./9/


2.2.7 Carbon adsorption

This method is chiefly employed for removal of dissolved organics such
as saturated oils, alkanes and alkenes, dyes, phenols, etc. Certain colours
and odours are also removed by this method. The method is based on the
principle of the charcoal filter where the surface tension on the activated
carbon particles causes molecules to adhere on it.

Activated charcoal filter which is usually used for carbon adsorption is
shown in the next Figure 21 ./9/


Wastewater Treatments 17
2.2.8 Reverse Osmosis

This is the physico-chemical process that separates pure water from its
pollutants. This membrane filter operation is also called as hyperfiltration
or superfiltration. The method requires a high pressure to be applied to the
waste to force out the liquid (water only) through a semi-permeable
membrane, leaving behind the dissolved solids.

Principle of reverse osmosis is shown in the next Figure 22 ./9/


2.2.9 Electro-dialysis

It is a method of separation of dissolved solids from the solution based on
the difference in the rates of diffusion. The permeation through the
membranes is enhanced by the application of electrical energy. The
membranes commonly employed are cellulose nitrate, cellophane and
parchment.

Principle of electrodialysis and the unit flow schematic are shown in the
next Figure 23 . /16/


2.2.10 Other methods

Some other methods of physico-chemical treatments include : gas
stripping, evaporation, distillation, incineration, etc.


Questions to the Chapter . :


1. Which are the chemical WW treatments ?

2. Describe briefly all above mentioned chemical treatments !

3. Mention some of the reagents usually used in the neutralization !

4. Sketch the process of lime neutralization !

5. Distinguish between coagulation and flocculation !

6. What is jar-test ?

7. Sketch an example of the flocculator !

Wastewater Treatments 18
8. Describe short the process for removal of heavy metals !

9. Distinguish between oxidation and reduction !

10. Sketch a diagram of a cyanide oxidation process !

11. Sketch a diagram of a chromium reduction process !

12. Which ion-exchange systems do you know ?

13. Sketch ion-exchange processes !

14. Describe short the regeneration of used resins !

15. Which pollutants can be removed by the process of carbon
adsorption ?

16. Sketch the reverse osmosis principles !

17. What is a permeator ?

18. Describe the electro-dialysis process!

19. Do you know also some other additional methods of chemical
treatments ?





















Wastewater Treatments 19
2.3 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

Biological treatment as indicated earlier, the biological wastes are rich in
decomposable organic matter and can be treated by biological processes
involving microbial decomposition of organic matter, aerobically or
anaerobically.

The main difference between aerobic and anaerobic processes is in the
presence or absence of oxygen.

The common methods of biological wastewater treatment are :

a) aerobic processes such as trickling filters, rotating biological
contactors, activated sludge process, oxidation ponds and lagoons,
oxidation ditches,
b) anaerobic processes such as anaerobic digestion, and
c) anoxic processes such as denitrification .

The major biological wastewater treatment processes are shown in the
next Table 5 ./5/



2.3.1 AEROBIC PROCESSES

The basic principle of aerobic processes is the usage of aerobic
microorganisms which need oxygen for their metabolism in the process of
decomposition of organic matter from the wastewater.

While the basic principles remain the same in all aerobic processes, the
techniques used in their application may vary widely, but may be broadly
classified as either attached (film) growth or suspended growth
processes .


A. ATTACHED GROWTH PROCESSES

Attached growth processes utilize a solid medium upon which bacterial
solids are accumulated in order to maintain a high population. Surface
growth processes include intermittent sand filters, trickling filters, rotating
biological contactors, and a variety of similar devices.





Wastewater Treatments 20
Table 5 Major biological treatment processes used for
Wastewater Treatment


Type Common name Use


AEROBIC PROCESSES

Suspended growth ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
- Conventional ( Plug flow ) Carbonaceous BOD
- Step aeration, Modified aeration
- Contact Stabilization
- Extended Aeration, Oxidation Ditch
+Nitrification

AERATED LAGOONS Carbonaceous BOD

AEROBIC DIGESTION HIGH
RATE ALGAL PONDS Carbonaceous BOD

Attached growth TRICKLING FILTERS
- Low rate Carbonaceous BOD
- High rate
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL
CONTACTORS


ANAEROBIC PROCESSES

Suspended growth ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
- Standard rate Stabilization
- High rate Single

Attached growth ANAEROBIC CONTACT PROC. Carbonaceous BOD
ANAEROBIC FILTER PROCESS
ANAEROBIC LAGOONS


ANOXIC PROCESSES - Suspended growth Denitrification
- Fixed film


Source : NPC Report, /5/

2.3.1.1 Trickling filters
Wastewater Treatments 21

This equipment consists of a bed of highly permeable media to which
micro organisms are attached and through which wastewater is
percolated. The surface of the media that comes into contact with
wastewater develops a Zoogleal film rich in microorganisms. The
microorganisms in this film degrade the organic material present in the
wastewater.

As the microorganisms grow, the slime layer increases. The adsorbed
organic matter is metabolised, before it can reach the microorganisms
near the media face. As a result of having no external organic source
available for cell carbon, the microorganisms near the media face enter
into an endogenous phase of growth and lose their ability to slime layer
stalks to grow. This phenomenon of losing the slime layer is called
sloughing and primarily a function of the organic and hydraulic loading
on the filter.

The trickling filter should also have an underdrain arrangement for
collecting the filtered effluent and a proper ventilation system to
maintain aerobic conditions.

A secondary settling tank should invariably follow the filter for removal
of the sloughed off solids.

The principal flow scheme for an trickling filter treatment is shown in
the next Figure 24 ./11/

A typical trickling filter is shown in the Figure 25 ./12/



2.3.1.2 Rotating biological contactors

A rotating biological contactor consists of a series of closely spaced
circular disks of polystyrene or PVC, or other materials. The disks are
partially submerged in wastewater and rotated slowly through it.

In operation, biological growths become attached to the surfaces of the
disks and form a slime layer over the entire wetted surface area of the
disks. The rotation of the disks alternately contacts the biomass with the
organic material in the wastewater and then with the atmosphere for
adsorption of oxygen.

A principal scheme of an rotating biological disc plant is shown in the
next Figure 26 ./1/
B. Suspended growth
Wastewater Treatments 22

Suspended growth processes maintain an adequate biological mass in
suspension within the reactor by employing either natural or
mechanical mixing. In most processes the required volume is reduced
by returning bacteria from the secondary clarifier in order to maintain a
high solids concentration. Suspended growth processes include
activated sludge and its various modifications, oxidation ponds, and
sludge digestion systems.


2.3.1.3 Activated sludge process

It is a treatment process in which biologically active mass, called
activated sludge is continuously mixed with the sewage flow in an
aeration basin in the presence of abundant oxygen. The liquid in the
aeration basin is called mixed liquor. The oxygen is supplied to the
mixed liquor either by diffused compressed air or by mechanical
agitation. The activated sludge is subsequently separated from the mixed
liquor by sedimentation process in a clarifier and a part of this sludge is
re-circulated to the aeration basin. The rest of the sludge, which is the
excess production of biological cell material, is disposed-off.

A principal scheme of an activated sludge process is given in the next
Figure 27 ./5/

Many modifications in basin configuration and aeration techniques have
been made in past. The more important types of activated sludge process
are described below :

- the conventional process (known also as the plug flow type )
consists of a aeration basin, a clarifier and a solid-return line
from the clarifier bottom. The return solids are mixed with the
incoming wastes and pass through the reactor in a plug flow
fashion.
Air is provided uniformly along the aeration basin.

Conventional activated sludge process is shown in the next
Figure 28 ./13/

- tapered aeration processes attempt to match the oxygen supply
to demand by introducing more air at the head end. The process
is otherwise the same as described for conventional aeration
process. The main advantage of tapered aeration is the optimum
use of air.

- step aeration processes distribute the incoming flow to a number
Wastewater Treatments 23
of points along the aeration basin, thus avoiding the locally high
oxygen demand encountered in conventional and tapered
aeration process.

A principal scheme for an step aeration is shown in the next
Figure 29 ./13/

- contact stabilization or biosorption takes advantage of the
observed adsorptive properties of activated sludge.
The sewage is mixed and aerated with activated sludge for a
short period ( - 1 hours) and the mixed liquor then passes into
a clarifier, where final effluent and sludge are separated by
gravity. The settled sludge in the clarifier is re-aerated in a
separate sludge re-aeration ( stabilization ) tank for a period of
some 3 6 hours. After the aerated sludge is fed into contact
tank for intimate mixing with the inflow. This process is suitable
for high organic loadings.

A principal scheme for an contact stabilization is shown in the
next Figure 30 ./13/

- completely mixed or a high rate aeration processes disperse the
incoming waste and return sludge uniformly throughout the
aeration basin. The main objective of high rate aeration is to
reduce the cost of construction.

A principal scheme of an completely mixed high rate aeration is
shown in the next Figure 31 ./13/

- extended aeration is a completely mixed process operated at a
long hydraulic retention time and a high sludge age. The process
is limited in application to small plants where its inefficiency is
outweighed by its stability and simplicity of operation. The
advantage of this process is that usually there is no provision for
excess activated sludge necessary.

A principal scheme of an extended aeration process is shown in
the next Figure 32 ./12/

- short-term aeration or high-rate activated sludge is a
pretreatment process where retention times and sludge age are
low, which leads to a poor effluent and relatively high solids
production. A possible application of this process is as the first
stage of a two-stage nitrification process.

- High purity oxygen activated sludge systems have been
Wastewater Treatments 24
developed in an attempt to permit easier matching of oxygen
supply to oxygen demand and higher-rate processes through
maintenance of higher concentrations of biological solids. / 7 /

A principal scheme for an oxygen activated sludge system is
shown in the next Figure 33 ./1/



2.3.1.4 Waste Stabilization Ponds

Waste stabilization ponds are low cost wastewater treatment units which
usually depend on natural processes. These systems are sometimes also
called oxidation ponds or lagoons. In these ponds the organic matter
from the wastewater is degraded by natural oxidation processes by the
action of microorganisms, both algae and bacteria.
If these processes take place in a stream water then it will be known as a
self-purification process.

Waste stabilization ponds or lagoons are classified according to the
biological process taking place as aerobic, anaerobic, facultative and
maturation ponds . /3/

The general reactions which occur in aerobic and facultative ponds are
illustrated schematically in the next Figure 34 ./14/

Aerobic ponds are shallow ponds, less than 1 m in depth, where
dissolved oxygen is maintained throughout the entire depth, mainly by
the action of photosynthesis.

Facultative ponds are ponds between 1 to 2.5 m depth, which have an
anaerobic lower zone, a facultative middle zone, and an aerobic upper
zone maintained by photosynthesis and surface reaeration.

A schematic presentation ( diagram ) of a facultative pond operation is
given in the next Figure 35 ./14/

Anaerobic ponds are deep ponds that receive high organic loadings
such that anaerobic conditions prevail throughout the entire pond depth.

Maturation or tertiary ponds are ponds used for polishing effluents
from other biological processes. Dissolved oxygen is furnished through
photosynthesis and surface reaeration. This type of pond is also known
as a polishing pond.

Wastewater Treatments 25
Aerated lagoons are these ponds which are oxygenated through the
additional action of surface or diffused air aeration.

A typical aeration system for the aerated lagoons is a static tube aerator
as shown in the next Figure 36./7/

Oxidation ditches are simple artificial ditches, dug in the ground for the
purification of wastewater using a very simplified technique. The basic
form of the plant is a ring shaped circuit or ditch. Oxygen as well as
circulation is provided by mechanical rotors . In fact, oxidation ditch is
a modified form of extended aeration of activated sludge process.

Some typical oxidation ditches are shown in the Figure 37 ./12/



2.3.1.5. Natural systems

Natural treatment systems are designed to take advantage of physical,
chemical and biological processes which occur in the nature when water,
soil, plants, microorganisms and the atmosphere interact.

The natural treatment systems are :
- the soil-based or land-treatment systems, (infiltration, irrigation, etc.),
- the aquatic-based systems (constructed and natural wetlands and
aquatic plant treatment systems.

Aquatic plant systems are schematically presented in the Figure 38 ./11/



2.3.2 ANAEROBIC PROCESSES

The anaerobic waste treatment is an effective method for the treatment
of highly concentrated organic wastes. In the absence of oxygen,
anaerobic bacteria convert organic material into gaseous end-products
such as CO
2
, CH
4
and H
2
S.

This biological process is called as anaerobic digestion and is one of the
oldest processes used for the stabilization of sludges.

Anaerobic digestion is a fermentation process which involves the
decomposition of organic and inorganic matter in the absence of
molecular oxygen. The process stabilizes the organic matter by
converting it as completely as possible into methane and carbon-dioxide
gas through the two stages:
Wastewater Treatments 26

- acid fermentation or liquefaction,
- methane fermentation or gasification.

In the first stage, so called liquefaction or acid fermentation, acid
forming bacterial group consisting of acid-producing bacteria is
responsible for converting complex organic compounds ( like fats,
proteins, carbohydrates ) into more simple organic compounds ( like
acetic, propionic and butyric acids ) which become a source of food for a
second group, the methane-forming bacteria.
In the second stage, so called gasification or methane fermentation, the
organic acids will be converted into gases, mainly methane ( CH
4
) and
carbon dioxide ( CO
2
).

The stages of oxidation of organic matter of sludge is given in the next
Figure 39 . /14/

Two types of digesters are at present in use, standard-rate and high-
rate.
In the standard-rate digestion process the content of the digester are
usually unheated and unmixed. Detention times for this process vary
from 30 to 60 days.
In a high-rate digestion process the contents of the digester are heated
and completely mixed. The required detention time is 15 days or less.
A combination of these two basic processes is known as the two-stage
process digestion.

Some types of anaerobic sludge digesters are shown in Figure 40. /14/



2.3.3 ANOXIC PROCESSES

Under anoxic conditions, a group of facultative anaerobes called
denitrifiers utilizes nitrites ( NO2-) and nitrates ( NO3-) as the terminal
electron acceptor.
The removal of nitrogen in the form of nitrate from the wastewater by
conversion to nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen is a biological
process called anoxic denitrification.


Questions to the Chapter . :

1. Name the biological wastewater treatments !

2. Describe briefly all above mentioned biological treatments!
Wastewater Treatments 27
3. The purification of sewage in oxidation ponds is carried out by :
a)algae; b) bacteria; c) both ; d) non of these .

4. What is zoogleal film ?

5. In the trickling filter process : a) much skilled labour is required;
b) operation cost is higher than in ASP unit; c) has low adaptability
with varying load; d) power requirement is low as compare to ASP;

6. Sketch a principal schematic of a trickling filter !

7. Distinguish between suspended- and attached- growth processes !

8. Describe short RBC systems !

9. Sketch a principal scheme of a RBC plant !

10. Describe short an ASP !

11. Sketch a principal scheme of an ASP !

12. Which types of ASP do you know ?

13. Describe short a process of an extended aeration !

14. Distinguish between the diffused aeration and surface aeration !

15. Explain short the terms step aeration and tapered aeration !

16. When is usage of pure oxygen in ASP required ?

17. What are stabilization ponds ?

18. How are the stabilization ponds classified ?

19. Sketch different types of stabilization ponds !

20. Sketch an oxidation ditch !

21. What is anaerobic digestion ?

22. Distinguish between anaerobic and anoxic processes !

23. Explain the denitrification process !


Wastewater Treatments 28
3. SLUDGE TREATMENT

The main objective of any type of wastewater treatment is to get clear
effluent and good sludge. The sludge which is in the form of slurry is
produced in bulk quantities.
It is essential to classify a sludge in order to select the tratment method
applicable to it, and to forecast the performance of the equipment to be
used.


The Table 7 ./2/ shows the most usual sludge treatment process chains.


The main objectives of sludge treatment are, as follows :

- reduction in the volume of sludge for disposal by removing
some of the water,
- stabilization of the organic matter contained in the sludge,
- destruction of pathogenic organisms,
- collection of by-products which maybe used ( or ) sold to get
some revenue,
- disposal of the sludge in a safe and aesthetically acceptable
manner.

Sludge treatment and disposal comprise any following method or
combination of methods :

a) Concentration it is the reduction in the volume of sludge to be
treated by pressing the sludge to a higher solids content

b) Treatment it is intended to stabilise organic matter , destroy
pathogens or to get by-products of the process

c) Dewatering and drying - it is the removal of water from sludge,
which decreases the sludge volume.

d) Disposal if the receiving environment is legally, aesthetically and
ecologically acceptable, the sludge can be disposed on the land or into
the water.







Wastewater Treatments 29
TABLE 7
LIQUID SLUDGE DS 0.5-5%
(possibly DS up to 20%)















CHEMICAL ANAEROBIC AEROBIC

(Pasteurization)






THERMAL (175-200C)
CHEMICAL - inorganic
- polymer
OTHER FORMS - freezing
Open air drying beds
- sand
- improved


<< >>

Pressure : belt filter
filter-press Continuous
centrifuge
Vacuum : rotary filter
- remov. cloth
- precoat











I NORGANI C SLUDGE
(VS < 30%) DS 4 40%
FRESH ORGANI C SLUDGE
(30 < VS < 90%) DS 2 15%
THICKENING THICKENING
STABILIZATION
Disposal in liquid
form

authorized farm-
land land
DEWATERING
CONDITIONING
MECHANICAL
FILTRATION CENTRIFUGING
DRYNESS 15 - 80 % DS
DRYNESS 10 60 % DS
INCINERATION
DRYING
COMPOSTING
DRYING
INCINERATION
DISCHARGE
NATURAL
THICKENING
AGRICULTURE

Wastewater Treatments 30

The principal methods used for sludge processing and disposal are
reported in the next Table 8 . /1/


Table 8 Sludge processing and disposal methods


Processing, disposal
function


Unit operation, unit process, or treatment method

Preliminary
operations

Sludge pumping and grinding,
Sludge blending and storage

Thickening

Gravity thickening, Flotation thickening,
Centrifugation, Classification

Stabilization

Chlorine oxidation, Lime stabilization,
Anaerobic digestion, Aerobic digestion,
Pure-oxygen digestion, Heat treatment

Disinfection

Disinfection

Conditioning

Chemical conditioning, Elutriation

Dewatering

Centrifuge, Vacuum filter, Pressure filter,
Horizontal belt filter, Drying bed, Lagoon

Drying

Dryer

Composting

Composting, Co-composting

Thermal reduction

Multiple hearth incineration, Fluidized-bed incineration
Flash combustion, Co-incineration, Co-pyrolysis,
Pyrolysis, Wet-air oxidation, Recalcination

Ultimate disposal

Landfill, Land application

Reuse


Source : Metcalf & Eddy : Wastewater Engineering, /1/




Wastewater Treatments 31

3.1 Sludge Thickening

Thickening of sludge by gravity is the most common practice for
concentration of sludges. This method is the first and simplest stage in
reducing the volume of sludge without high energy consumption.

Also this is a useful pre-treatment prior to other mechanical methods of
sludge dewatering.

The sludge-laden suspension is fed into a tank, so called thickener, where
it remains for a long time so that the sludge can become compacted and
then be extracted from the bottom, while the interstitial liquid is drawn off
at the top.

Thickeners may be either without scrapers or mechanized.

An example of the scraper-type sludge thickener is shown in the next
Figure 41 . /9/



3.2 Sludge Dewatering and Drying

Filtration is so far the commonest method of dewatering sludge produced
by water or wastewater treatment. Filtration may consist solely of
draining through beds of sand or it may be mechanical, under vacuum or
under pressure, which requires more complicated equipment.

Drying beds this is one of the most common methods of sludge
dewatering and drying. Operation of drying beds is based on the following
principle :
- first stage : dewatering by drainage or filtration at very
low pressure. The free water is eliminated from the
sludge suspension by flowing down through the
sand/gravel layer.
- second stage : evaporation of part of the bound water.
Atmospheric drying can then produce dryness values of
up to 65% dry solids depending on retention time,
weather conditions, and sludge characteristics.

The typical cross section of an drying bed is shown in the next Figure
42. /2/


Wastewater Treatments 32
Vacuum filtration - this is the most widely used type of mechanical
dewatering techniques. The vacuum filters most commonly used for
wastewater treatment sludge are of the rotary drum type. Other types of
filters, used in some industries, are disc filters, vacuum belt filters,
horizontal table filters and paper filters.

The principles and the main phases of a vacuum-filtration cycle are shown
in the next Figure 43 . /2/

Pressure filtration - pressure filters can apply a large pressure
differential across the septum to give economically rapid filtration with
viscous liquids or fine solids. The most common type of pressure filtration
equipment are filter presses.

A plate-and-frame filter press is shown in the next Figure 44 . /13/

Centrifuges - are used both to thicken and to dewater sludges. Thickening
or dewatering by centrifugation involves the settling of sludge particles
under the influence of centrifugal forces. The three basic types of
centrifuges currently available for sludge thickening and dewatering are
nozzle-disk, solid-bowl, and basket centrifuges.

Centrifuges used for the processing of sludges are shown in the next
Figure 45 ./4/



3.3 Sludge Stabilization

Sludge stabilization or conditioning includes a variety of processes such as
anaerobic and aerobic digestion, chemical coagulation, and heat
treatment.

Anaerobic digestion process is described in the Chapter 2.3.2 .

Aerobic digestion may be employed to treat the sludge solids particularly
in small installations. The end product is very stable, and organic content
of the supernatant liquor is very low. Moreover, the digested solids are
odourless and can be disposed off easily. Cost of installation of such units
is low, but due to the requirement of power for the supply of air, the
running cost may be more compared to that in anaerobic digester.
Anaerobic digestion is usually accomplished in open tanks equiped with
diffused-air or mechanical aerators.

Wastewater Treatments 33
Chemical conditioning may be applied to sludges which have been
digested or to raw sludges. The chemicals used include the metallic and
polymeric coagulants, and lime.

Heat treatment actually destroys the cell structure releasing even the
bound water.
A schematic of an thermal sludge conditioning process is presented in the
next Figure 46 . /7/


3.4 Sludge Disposal

Whatever processes are used in handling the solids from wastewater
treatment a residue will still remain which must be disposed of. This
material may range from raw solids at a moisture content of over 95
percent to incinerator ash, and its handling will depend, in part, upon its
nature.

Sanitary landfills are the preferred disposal technique for solid wastes in
general. This method of disposal is most suitable if it is also used for
disposal of the other solid wastes of the community.

Land disposal of sludges is subject to biological,chemical and physical
constraints. Disease transmission, odours, heavy metal accumulation, and
social and aesthetic problems must be considered before land application
is selected.

Ocean disposal has been commonly practiced by coastal cities, but
nowadays is being phased out because of changes in water pollution
control regulations.

Dumping , such as in an abandoned mine quarry, is a suitable disposal
method only for sludges and solids that have been stabilized so that no
decomposition or nuisance conditions will result.



Questions to the Chapter :

1. What is the objective of a sludge treatment ?

2. What are the methods for sludge treatment ?

3. Describe short every of, above mentioned, sludge treatment
methods !

Wastewater Treatments 34
4. Describe sludge thickening !

5. What types of sludge thickeners do you know ?

6. Sketch a sludge thickener !

7. Describe briefly the methods for sludge dewatering !

8. Distinguish between vacuum-filter and filter-press !

9. Give sketch on a drying bed !

10. What is sludge stabilization ?

11. Differentiate between effluent, supernatant and sludge !

12. What is the necessity of sludge disposal ?

13. Describe briefly the various methods of sludge disposal.



























Wastewater Treatments 35
4. SMALL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

A small community is usually defined as one with a population of 1000 or
less. Because of their size, small communities are faced with a variety of
problems that make the construction and operation of community-wide
managed wastewater facilities a difficult undertaking.

The principal problems are related to :

- stringent discharge requirements;
- high per capita costs;
- limited finances;
- limited operation and maintenance budgets.

4.1 CHARACTERISTICS of SMALL WWT SYSTEMS

Small system flowrate and wastewater characteristics differ significantly
from those of large systems.
Per capita flowrates and variations must be considered for the effective
design of wastewater facilities for individual residences as well as for
cluster of homes and small communities.

A typical flowrate per capita value for residence in unsewered areas (in
USA) is about 210 l/capita _d , given by Metcalf&Eddy /1/.
In Germany this typical flowrate value is about 150 l/capita _d ,
prescribed by ATV-agency.

The typical characteristics of the wastewater quality from individual
residences are presented in the next Table 9 /1/.


4.2 TYPES OF SMALL WWT SYSTEMS

Small wastewater systems vary in size from systems designed to serve
individual residences with a flow of 190 to 1900 l/d, to systems designed
for wastewater flows of up to 380 m/d .

Two general types of small WWT systems are usually implemented :

a) systems for individual residences and other community
facilities in unsewered areas,

Alternative wastewater management options for unsewered
areas are reported in Table 10 /1/.
Some of these individual systems are shown in Figures 46a,
b and c. /1/
Wastewater Treatments 36


Table 9 Typical data on the unit loading factors and expected wastewater
constituent concentrations from individual residences


Value


Item

Unit loading
factor,
lb/capita d
Unit

Range

Typical


BOD
5

SS
NH3 as N
Org. N
TKN as N
Org. P
Inorg. P
Grease
Total coliform


0.180
0.200
0.007
0.020
0.027
0.003
0.006


mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
Number/100ml

216-540
240-600
7-20
24-60
31-80
4-10
6-17
45-100
10
7
-10
10


392
436
14
43
57
7
12
70
10
8


Temperature
pH


F
unitless

59-79
5-8

70
7.2

Note : lb/capita d x 0.4538 = kg/capita d
0.555 ( F 32 ) = C


Source : Metcalf&Eddy ; Wastewater Engineering; /1/














Wastewater Treatments 37

Table 10 Wastewater management options for unsewered areas


Source of wastewater

Wastewater treatment
and/or containment

Wastewater disposal

Individual residences
Combined wastewater
Black water
Gray water

Public facilities

Commercial establish-
ments


Primary treatment
Septic tank
Imhoff tank

Secondary treatment
Aerobic/anaerobic unit
Aerobic unit
Intermittent sand filter
Recirculating granular
filter
Constructed wetlands

Recycle treatment system

Onsite containment
Holding tank
Privy


Subsurface disposal
Disposal fields
Seepage beds
Shallow sand-filled
disposal trenches
Mound systems
Evapotranspiration/
percolation beds
Drip application

Evaporation systems
Evapotranspiration
beds
Evaporation pond

Wetland ( marsh )

Discharge to water
bodies

Combinations of the
above


Source : Metcalf&Eddy ; Wastewater Engineering ; /1/














Wastewater Treatments 38

b) systems for clusters of homes and small communities that
are to be sewered or are already sewered.

Commercially available prefabricated treatment plants, known
as package plants, are often used for the treatment of
wastewater for individual properties and small communities.
Although package plants are available in capacities up to 4000
m/d , they are used most commonly for wastewater flows in
the range from 40 to 1000 m/d .

The most common types of package plants are : extended
aeration, contact stabilization, sequencing batch reactors,
rotating biological contactors and physical/chemical plants.

Typical example for a RBC package unit is shown in the next
Figure 46d ./1/

A package WWT-plant with extended aeration is shown in next
photograph in Figure 46e .

Some typical design criteria for package treatment plants and
other treatment systems for small communities are presented in
the next Table 11 ./1/






















Wastewater Treatments 39
Table 11. Design criteria for package treatment plants and other
treatment systems for small communities

Value
Design parameter

Unit Range Typical
Plant loadings
BOD
5

SS
TKN N
NH
3

PO
4
P
Extended aeration process
Pretreatment
Detention time (aeration
tank)
BOD
5
loading
MLSS (aeration)
Oxygen required
Average at 20C
Peak at 20C
Excess sludge
Settling tank overflow rate
Aerobic digestion
Solids detention time
VSS loading
Sand drying beds
Equalization basin volume
Rapid sang filter
Chlorination
Dosage at peak flow
Detention time at peak
Contact stabilization process
Pretreatment
Detention time (contact t.)
Detention time (reaeration)
BOD
5
loading
MLSS (contact tank)
MLSS (reaeration)
Oxygen required
Average at 20C
Peak at 20C
Excess sludge
Settling tank overflow rate

lb/capita d
lb/capita d
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l


h

lb BOD/lb MLVSS d
mg/l

lb/lb BOD applied
(value) x avg. flow
lb/lb BOD remov.
gal/ft d

d
lb/ft d
ft/capita
% of avg. flow
gal/ft d

mg/l
min


min
h
lb/10ft d
mg/l
mg/l

lb/lbBOD applied
(value) x avg.flow
lb/lbBOD removed
gal/ftd

0.13-0.24
0.13-0.25
15-50
5-25
5-15

Bar screen,
18-36

0.05-0.15
1500-5000

2-3
1.25-2.0
0.3-0.75
600-1000

10-30
0.05-0.25
1.5-2.5
25-100
4-6

15-40
15-45


20-40
20-36

1000-3000
4000-8000

2-3
1.25-2.0
0.3-0.75
600-1000

0.18
0.20
25
15
10

communition
24

0.10
2500

2.5
1.5
0.4
800

15
0.15
2.0
50
5

25
30


30
24

1800
5000

2.5
1.5
0.4
800

(continued)

Wastewater Treatments 40
Table 11 - continued
Value
Design parameter

Unit Range Typical

Sequencing batch reactor
Pretreatment
Detention time
BOD5 loading
MLSS
Oxygen required
Average at 20C
Peak at 20C

Rotating biological contactors
Pretreatment
Surface loading
Total BOD5 loading
Other factors




min
lb BOD/lb MLVSS d
mg/l

lb/lbBOD applied
(value) x avg.flow



gal/ft d
lb/10ft d
see extend. aeration


Bar screen
16-36
0.05-0.15
1500-5000

2-3
1.25-2.0


bar screen
1-2.5
6-10




communition
24
0.10
2500

2.5
1.5


communition
1.5
8

Source : Metcalf&Eddy : Wastewater Engineering; /1/

























Wastewater Treatments 41

5. DESIGN & ANALYSIS OF WWTS

Treatment-plant and detail/specific plant-objects design is one of the most
important aspects of the planing of the wastewater treatment plant.

The proper planing includes : treatment-process flowsheets, tables of
design criteria, solids balances, hydraulic profiles, and plant layouts.


5.1 Flow sheets for WWT systems

Depending on the pollutants that must be removed from wastewater, a
great number of different treatment-process flowsheets can be developed,
using preliminary and/or primary, secondary and tertiary treatments ( unit
operations and unit processes ).

To develop the proper treatment flowsheet it is necessary a detailed
process analysis of the suitability of every possible individual treatment
method to be prepared.

The detailed process analysis of the suitability of an individual treatment
method ( unit operations and processes ) is given in the next Table 12 ./1/

Apart from the process analysis and the evaluation of treatment, given
before in the previous Table, the exact flowsheet configuration selected
will also depend on following factors :

c) engineers experience,
d) company and regulatory agency policies,
e) availability of equipment,
f) the maximum use of existing facilities,
g) initial construction costs,
h) future operation and maintenance costs.



Some typical flowsheets for the wastewater treatment are shown in the
next Figures 47 , 48 , 49 , and 50 ./1,2,3/

Some simplified examples of flow-diagram for WWT of different
industrial wastewater are shown in Figures 50a to 50f .




Wastewater Treatments 42
Table 12 Important factors that must be considered when selecting and
evaluating unit operations and processes


Factor


Comment

1. Process
applicability



2. Applicable
flow range


3. Applicable
flow variation


4. Influent-
wastewater
characteristics

5. Inhibiting
and unaffected
constituents

6. Climatic
constraints


7. Reaction
kinetics and
reactor
selection

8. Performance



9. Treatment
residuals


The applicability of a process is evaluated on the basis of past
experience, data from full-scale plants, and pilot data from plant
studies. If new or unusual conditions are encountered, pilot-plant
studies are necessary.

The process should be matched to the expected flow range. For
example, stabilization ponds are not suitable for extremely large
flows.

Most unit operations and processes work best with a constant flow
rate, although some variation can be tolerated. If the flow variation
is too great, flow equalization may be necessary.

The characteristics of the influent affect the types of processes to
be used (e.g. chemical or biological) and the requirements for their
proper operation.

What constituents are present that may be inhibitory, and under
what conditions? What constituents are not affected during
treatment?

Temperature affects the rate of reaction of most chemical and
biological processes. Freezing conditions may affect the physical
operation of the facilities.

Reactor sizing is based on the governing reaction kinetics. Data
for kinetic expressions usually are derived from experience, the
literature, and the results of pilot-plant studies ( e.g. the complete
mixing reactor with continuous flow, or plug-flow reactor) .

Performance is most often measured in terms of effluent quality,
which must be consistent with the given effluent-discharge
requirements.

The types and amounts of solid, liquid, and gaseous residuals
produced must be known or estimated. Often, pilot-plant studies
are used to identify residuals properly.

( continued )
Wastewater Treatments 43
Table 12 ( continued )


Factor

Comment


10. Sludge-
handling
constraints


11. Environmental
constraints



12. Chemical
requirements

13. Energy
requirements

14. Other resource
requirements


15. Reliability




16. Complexity



17. Ancillary
processes

18. Compatibility

Are there any constraints that would make sludge handling
expensive or infeasible ? In many cases, a treatment method
should be selected only after the sludge processing and handling
options have been explored.

Nutrient requirements must be considered for biological treatment
processes. Environmental factors, such as the prevailing winds and
wind directions, may restrict the use of certain processes,
especially where odors may be produced.

What resources and amounts must be committed for a period of
time for the successful operation of the unit operation or process ?

The energy requirements, and probable future energy costs, must
be known if cost-effective treatment systems are to be designed.

What, if any, additional resources must be committed to the
successful implementation of the proposed treatment system using
the unit operation or process in question ?

What is the long-term record of the reliability of the unit operation
or process under consideration ? Is the operation process easily
upset ? Can it stand periodic shock loadings ? If so, how do such
occurrences affect the quality of the effluent ?

How complex is the process to operate under routine conditions
and under emergency conditions such as shock loadings ? What
level of training must the operator have to operate the process ?

What support processes are required ? How do they affect the
effluent quality, especially when they become inoperative ?

Can the unit operation or process be used successfully with
existing facilities ? Can plant expansion be accomplished easily ?
Can the type of reactor be modified ?


Source : Metcalf & Eddy,Inc.: Wastewater engineering /1/


Wastewater Treatments 44

Figure 47 General flowsheet (diagram) for municipal WWT


RAW SEWAGE


Bar
Rack



Grit
Chamber






Pump
Equalization
Basin





Secon-
dary
Settling
Biological
Treatment
Primary
Settling











Advanced
Wastewater
Treatment





Receiving body (river)


Source : M.L.Davis, D.A.Cornwell, Environmental Engineering /10/

Wastewater Treatments 45


Figure 48 WWT plant flow chart ( CETP for tanneries in
Pallavaram, Chennai )


Raw effluent from tanneries





Tanneries
CETP







Pre-treatment unit
(Cr-recovery)
Grit chamber Mechanical screen
Receiving sump
Collection wells






Treated effluent













Equalization tank
Flash mixer Clariflocculators
Aeration tanks Secondary clarifiers
Belt filter
press
Sludge
drying bed
Sludge thickener
To the landfill


Source : Pallavaram Tanners Industrial Effluent Treatment Company Ltd.,
Chromepet, Chennai
Wastewater Treatments 46

Figure 49 Process flowsheet for an WWT in USA


Influent
wastewater







Sludge to processing
Grit removal




Excess sl.


Recycle sl.






Primary
settling


Aeration

Aeration
Disinfection
Final
settling

Final
settling
Primary
settling














Final effluent



Source : Metcalf&Eddy; Wastewater Engineering, /1/
Wastewater Treatments 47
5.2 Process Design Criteria

Determination of the sizes of the treatment plant components and physical
facilities needed is the next step in the planing and developing the wastewater
treatment plant.

The sizes of each plant component are depending on the process design
criteria that are adopted.
It is necessary that all the key design criteria should be listed in a summary
table. A typical example of such a table ( for the process flowsheet shown in
Figure 49 ) is presented in the next Table 13./1/


Table 13 Example of summary table listing basic design data for WWT

Item Design value or description

Year 1985
Population served
- sewered 29,000
- unsewered 13,000
Per capita contributions
- sewered
Average daily flow, [l/capitad] 450
5-d BOD, [g/capita d] 100
Suspended solids, [g/capita d] 120
- unsewered
5-d BOD, [g/capita d] 18
Suspended solids, [g/capita d] 45
Total flows, [m
3
/d]
Average daily 15,000
Maximum daily 30,000
Minimum daily 4,000
Maximum hourly 45,000
Total loadings, [kg/d]
5-d BOD, (average daily) 3,100
Suspended solids,(average daily) 4,100
Type of treatment Secondary (activated sludge)
Expected average removal efficiencies:
Percent BOD
5
removal
Primary 30
Overall 90
Percent SS removal
Primary 60
Overall 90
(Continued)
Wastewater Treatments 48
Table 13 (continued)

Item Design value or
description

Plant components

Communition equipment
Number of units, [pcs] 2
Size, [mm] 900
Maximum unit capacity,[m
3
/d] 57,000
Bypass rack yes
Main pumping station
Number of variable speed pumps 3
Unit capacity range, [m
3
/d] 0-24,000
Type of variable-speed drive Wound rotor
Method of pump control Liquid rheostat
Flow metering equipment
Type Flow tube
Size, [mm] 600
Flow range ,[m
3
/d] 2,500 50,000
Aerated grit chamber
Number of units 1
Length,[m] 9
Width,[m] 3.5
Average water depth,[m] 3
Detention time at max. hour flow,[min] 3.0
Air-supply range, [m
3
/ m h] 10 35
Air blowers
Number of units 2
Type Centrifugal
Unit capacity range, ,[m
3
/h] 100 350
Method of grit removal Clam shell bucket
Primary settling tanks
Number of tanks 2
Diameter, [m] 18
Sidewall water depth, [m] 3
Bottom slope, [mm/m] 150
Detention period, [h]
At average flow 29.5
At maximum hour flow 88.4


(continued)


Wastewater Treatments 49
Table 13 (continued)

Item Design value or
description

Aeration tanks
BOD
5
applied, [kg/d]
Average 2,170
Peak (1.5 x average) 3,255
Number of tanks 2
Length, [m] 25
Width, [m] 25
Average water depth, [m] 3.5
Number of tanks in operation 2
Detention time, [h]
At average flow 7.0
At max. daily flow 3.5
Return sludge range, [m
3
/d] 0 15,000
MLSS concentration, [mg/l] 2,500
MLVSS concentration, [mg/l] 2,000
F/M ratio, [kg BOD
5
/kg MLVSS] 0.25
BOD
5
to volume ratio, [kg/m
3
d] 0.50
Aeration equipment
Type mechanical
Number of aerators 8
Unit power, [kW] 15
Total power, [kW] 120
Oxygen transfer capacity, [kgO
2
/d] 5.000
BOD
5
applied, [kg/kg]
Average 2.3
Peak 1.5
Final settling tanks
Number of tanks 2
Diameter, [m] 25
Sidewall water depth, [m] 3.5
Bottom slope, [mm/m] 20
Detention time, [h]
At average flow 5.5
At max. hour flow 1.8
Overflow rate, [m
3
/m
2
d]
At average flow 15.3
At max. hour flow 45.8


(continued)

Wastewater Treatments 50
Table 13 (continued)

Item Design value or
description

Chlorination system
Chlorinators
Number of units 2
Unit capacity range, [kg/d] 450
Dosage, [mg/l] with largest unit
out of service
At average flow 30
At max. hour flow 10
Chlorine contact tank
Number of units 2
Length, [m] 12
Width, [m] 6
Depth, [m] 6.5
Detention time at max. hour flow, [min]
Contact tank 11.5
Outfall 4.5
Total 16.0
Sludge dewatering units
Type Vacuum filters
Number of units 2
Unit filtration area, [m
2
] 35
Unit filtration capacity, [kg/h] 650
Total filtration capacity, [kg/h] 1,300
Estimated operating period, [h/wk] 24


Source : Metcalf&Eddy; Wastewater Engineering, /1/














Wastewater Treatments 51

5.3 Solids balance

After the design criteria are established, solids balances should be prepared for
each process flowsheet.
Such information must be available for the following reasons :

i) to assess the need for sludge storage facilities and their
capacity,
j) to determine the proper size of the sludge piping and
pumping equipment.

The preparation of a solids balance for a flowsheet given in the Figure 50 is
illustrated in the next Figure 57 ./1/


5.4 Hydraulic profile

After the flowsheet has been selected and the size of the corresponding
physical facilities and interconnecting piping is determined, hydraulic profiles
should be prepared for both average and peak flowrates.
These profiles are prepared for following reasons :
k) to ensure that the hydraulic gradient is adequate for the
wastewater to flow through the treatment facilities by
gravity,
l) to establish the head requirement for the pumps where
pumping will be needed,
m) to ensure that the plant facilities will not be flooded or
backed up during periods of peak flow.

Hydraulic profiles for the treatment plant given before as flowsheet in the
previous Figure 49 are shown in the next Figure 58 ./1/


5.5 Plant lay-out

Plant lay-out refers to the spatial arrangement of the physical facilities
required to achieve a given treatment objective. The overall plant lay-out
includes all treatment plant units, infrastructure, the location of the control and
administrative buildings and any other necessary buildings and objects.

Among the factors that must be considered when laying out a treatment plant
are following :
n) geometry of the available treatment-plant sites,
o) topography,
p) soil and foundation conditions,
Wastewater Treatments 52
q) location of the influent sewer,
r) location of the point of discharge,
s) transportation access,
t) types of processes involved,
u) effects of the length of process piping on treatment,
v) process performance and efficiency,
w) reliability and economy of operation,
x) aesthetics,
y) environmental control, and
z) an additional area for future plant expansion.

Some examples of treatment plant layouts are shown in the next Figures 59,
60 /1/ , and photographs in Figures 61 to 64.


5.6 Civil works considerations

Preparation of construction plans, detailed drawings for plant-facilities, and
specifications of material used and necessary works which has to be provided,
is the final step in the design of an treatment plant.
These plans and specifications become the official documents on which
contractors base their bids for the construction of the facilities. They are also
the documents under which construction administrators hold the constructor
responsible for the completion of the project as specified.


5.7 Mechanical engineering considerations

Preparation of specification lists ( sometimes called also Bills of quantity )
of the selected equipment for the treatment plant units ( facilities ) is the next
step in the design of an wastewater treatment plant.

An example of Bill of quantities for a wastewater treatment plant is
presented in the Table 14.

These specification lists become later together with civil work plans and
specifications the official documents for construction of an wastewater
treatment plant.


5.8 Electrical engineering considerations

The operation of facilities accounts for the major component of energy
consumption at wastewater treatment plants.
Because energy consumption of different unit processes and operations varies
greatly and because there are innumerable combinations of process
Wastewater Treatments 53
flowsheets, electrical engineering data must be available for each prospective
treatment operation or process.
The basis of comparison of the wastewater treatment plant alternatives is the
consumption of primary energy per unit of time.

The computed energy requirements are important elements of the cost-analysis
and of the environmental impact assessments.


5.9 Cost Analysis

Of major significance in the selection and design of alternative wastewater
treatment facilities is the question of costs not only initial construction
costs but also annual operation and maintenance costs.

When preparing the cost estimate, the same basis of comparison should be
used to evaluate all the alternatives.


5.10 Environmental Impact Assessment

An environmental impact assessment ( EIA ) is required for any activity
that significantly affects the quality of the human environment, and that is
supported by federal grants, subsidies, loans, permits, or licenses.

The preparation of environmental impact assessment reports is an
interdisciplinary activity ( environmental engineering, ecology, biology,
geology, soil science, economics, sociology, etc. ).



Questions to the Chapter . :

1. What are components of WWT-planing ?

2. Explain short the analysis of treatment methods to be used in
planing of WWT-plant!

3. Draw a flowsheet for an municipal WWT-plant !

4. What are the process design criteria ?

5. Describe the preparation of solids balance sheet !

6. What are the reasons for preparation of the hydraulic profiles ?

Wastewater Treatments 54
7. Draw a hydraulic profile for a WWT-plant !

8. What is plant lay-out ?

9. Mention some of the factors important for the preparation of the
WWT-plant lay-out !

10. Draw a WWT-plant lay-out !

11. Describe short the term official documents (for construction of
the facilities and for completion of the project ) !

12. What is cost-analysis ?

13. What are the elements of a cost-analysis for a WWT-plant ?

14. What is EIA, and what is its importance ?

15. Describe short the preparation of an EIA-report for a WWT-plant !

16. Describe short the preparation of TENDER-Documents !

























Wastewater Treatments 55

5. REFERENCES

/1/ METCALF & EDDY, INC.: Wastewater engineering
Treatment, Disposal and Reuse ; McGraw-Hill,Inc. USA,
1989.

/2/ DEGREMONT : Watern Treatment Handbook ; Paris,
1979.

/3/ Mackenzie L. Davis, D.A.Cornwell : Introduction to E
nvironmental Engineering ; McGraw-Hill, Inc., Singapore,
1991.

/4/ H.S.Peavy, D.R.Rowe, G.Tchobanoglous : Environmental
Engineering ; McGraw-Hill Inc., Singapore, 1986.

/5/ National Productivity Council : Training Programme on
Water Pollution Prevention and Control ; Madras; 1996 .

/6/ A.K.Chatterjee : Water Supply, Waste Disposal and
Environmental Pollution Engineering ; Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 1996.

/7/ E.W.Steel, T.J .McGhee : Water Supply and Sewerage ;
McGraw-Hill Inc., Singapore , 1988.

/8/ S.C.Rangwala : Water Supply and Sanitary Enineering ;
Charotar Publishing House, Anand, 1997 .

/9/ W.W.Eckenfelder: Industrial Water Pollution Control ;
McGraw-Hill Inc., Singapore , 1989.

/10/ H .F.Lund : Industrial Pollution Control Handbook ;
McGraw-Hill Co., New York, 1984.

/11/ S.J .Arceivala : Wastewater Treatment for Pollution Control;
Tata McGraw-Hill Publ. Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1998.

/12/ M.N.Rao, A.K.Datta: Wastewater Treatment ; Oxford &
IBH Publishing Co., Pvt.,Ltd., New Delhi , 1987 .

/13/ P.N.Cheremisinoff : Wastewater Treatment ; Pudvan
Publishing Co., Northbrook (USA), 1987 .

Wastewater Treatments 56
/14/ B.S.N.Raju : Water Supply and Wastewater Engineering ;
Tata McGraw-Hill Publ.Co.Ltd., New Delhi , 1995 .

/15/ ATV : Lehr- und Handbuch der Abwassertechnik ; Band III
und IV, Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin
Mnchen, 1983.

/16/ W.L.McCabe, J .C.Smith, P.Harriott : Unit Operations of
Chemical Engineering; McGraw-Hill Inc., Singapore, 1993.