CHAPTER 1

Introduction to PL/SQL

1.1 What Is PL/SQL?

A computer language is a particular way of giving instructions to (that is,
programming) a computer. Computer languages tend to have a small vocabulary
compared to regular human language. In addition, the way you can use the
language vocabularythat is, the grammaris much less flexible than human
language. These limitations occur because computers take everything literally;
they have no way of reading between the lines and assuming what you
Intended.
Procedural refers to a series of ordered steps that the computer should follow to
produce a result. This type of language also includes data structures that hold
information that can be used multiple times. The individual statements could be
expressed as a flow chart (although flow charts are out of fashion these days).
Programs written in such a language use its sequential, conditional, and Iterative
constructs to express algorithms. So this part of the PL/SQL's definition is just
saying that it is in the same family of languages as BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN,
Pascal, and C.
Language Categories
Saying that PL/SQL is a procedural language makes more sense when you
understand some other types of programming languages. There are at least four
ways to categorize popular languages.
Procedural programming languages
Allow the programmer to define an ordered series of steps to follow in order to
produce a result. Examples: PL/SQL, C, Visual Basic, Perl, Ada.
Object-oriented programming languages
Based on the concept of an object, which is a data structure encapsulated with a
set of routines, called methods that operate on the data. Examples: Java, C++,
JavaScript, and sometimes Perl and Ada 95.
Declarative programming languages
Allow the programmer to describe relationships between variables in terms of
functions or rules; the language executor (interpreter or compiler) applies some
fixed algorithm to these relations to produce
a result. Examples: Logo, LISP, and Prolog.

Markup languages
Define how to add information into a document that indicates its logical
components or that provides layout instructions. Examples:
HTML, XML.
Structured Query Language is a language based on set theory, so it is all about
manipulating sets of data. SQL consists of a relatively small number of main
commands such as SELECT, INSERT, CREATE, and GRANT; in fact, each
statement accomplishes what might take hundreds of lines of procedural code to
accomplish. That's one reason SQL-based databases are so widely used.
Learning Oracle PL/SQL
PL/SQL, Oracle's programming language for stored procedures, delivers a world
of possibilities for your database programs. PL/SQL supplements the standard
relational database language, SQL, with a wide range of procedural features,
including loops, IF-THEN statements, advanced data structures, and rich
transactional control--all closely integrated with the Oracle database server.
PL/SQL is a procedural structured Query Language, is an extension to SQL
where we can write programs using all the SQL statements and procedural
statements.
Various procedural statements we can use in PL/SQL are

Assignment statements
Conditional statements
Loops
Transactional processing statements

Assignment statements In any programming language, we use = as

assignment operator and == as comparison operator. Where as in PL/SQL
we use = as comparison operator and: = as assignment operator and the
statement used with this operator is called as assignment statement.
Ex. c: = a + b;

Conditional statements Generally in any programming language, we use If

statement as conditional statement.
Syntax: - Simple IF condition
IF <CONDITION> THEN
ST1;
ST2;
ELSE
ST3;
END IF;

Nested IF
IF <CONDITION1> THEN
ST1;
ST2;
ELSIF <CONDITION2> THEN
ST3;
ST4;
ELSIF <CONDITION3> THEN
ST5;
ELSE
ST6;
END IF;
In addition to these IF statements, we can also use SQL functions DECODE ()
and CASE.

1.

Loops In any programming language, we use tow different types of Loops

1. Iterative Loops
2. Conditional Loops
Iterative Loops These loops performs operation for a range of
values. For loop is used as iterative loop.

FOR loop_counter IN [REVERSE] lower_bound .. upper_bound

LOOP
Statements
END LOOP;
Where:
loop_counter
An identifier that has not been declared in the program, this variable gives you a
way of detecting the trip number through the loop.
Lower_bound
A numeric expression that Oracle uses to compute the smallest value assigned
to loop_counter. Often, this will just be the number 1. You should make this an
integer, but if you dont, PL/SQL automatically rounds it to an integer. If the lower
bound is greater than the upper bound, the loop will not execute; if it is null, your
program will end in a runtime error.

REVERSE
Without this keyword, the loop counter increases by one with every trip through
the loop, from the lower to the upper bound. With REVERSE, though, the loop
will decrease by one instead, going from the upper to the lower bound.
FOR n IN REVERSE 1..3
LOOP

END LOOP;
Also, the low and high values in the FOR loop range do not have to be literals, as
you can see in the next example:
FOR month_num IN 1 .. TO_NUMBER(TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, MM))
LOOP
Statements;
END LOOP;
As youre working with loops, its important to know that PL/SQL declares the
loop counter variable for you automatically, and there can be problems if it has
the same name as a variable youve declared in the usual place (the programs
declaration section). The scope (the only part of the code in which it can be
referenced) of the loop counter is between the LOOP and END LOOP keywords.
FOR Loops
Use a FOR loop to shortcut the test for the number of iterations
Do not declare the counter; it is declared implicitly
Lower_bound .. upper_bound is required
Reference the counter within the loop only; it is undefined outside the loop.
Do not reference the counter as the target of an assignment.

Conditional Loops
The simple loop is the, well, simplest loop structure. It has the following syntax:
LOOP
EXIT WHEN <CONDITION>;
Statements
END LOOP;
We can use this exit condition any where within the loop.
While Loop
While <Condition>
LOOP
Statements;
End Loop;
Transactional Processing Statements
We can use COOMIT and ROLLBACK as transactional processing statements.
Once the transaction is over then you decide whether you save the data or not to
save the data.
Note: - PL/SQL supports 4GL (object oriented programming language) features.
Every language uses some structure in writing programs. PL/SQL also uses two
different types of block structures in writing programs.
1. Unnamed PL/SQL block structure
2. Named PL/SQL block structure

1. Unnamed PL/SQL block structure

They are also called as anonymous blocks; they do not have names in the
database.
Structure of anonymous PL/SQL block structure
DECLARE
Declaration section (optional)
BEGIN
Executable section (mandatory)
EXCEPTION
Exception section (optional)
END;

Between DECLARE and BEGIN we can declare all the variables,

constants which are going to be used in the program. It is called as
DECLARATIONSECTION
(optional).

The BEGIN and END keywords are mandatory and enclose the body of
actions to be performed. This section is referred to as the EXECUTABLE
SECTION (mandatory) where we write actual logic of the program.

The section between EXCEPTION and END is referred to as the

exception section. The exception section traps error conditions.

Errors are of two types.

a) Primitive errors
b) Logical or runtime errors
Primitive (syntax) errors are handled at the time of compiling the program itself.
Logical or runtime errors are handled only at runtime.
These logical errors are handled in the EXCEPTION SECTION.
This section is optional.
The keywords DECLARE, semicolons do not follow BEGIN and EXCEPTION,
but END and all other PL/SQL statements do require statement terminators.

Summary
Section
Description
Declarative Contains all variables, constants,
cursors, and user-defined exceptions
that are referenced in the executable
and declarative sections
Executable Contains
SQL
statements
in
manipulate data in the database and
PL/SQL statements to manipulate
data in the block
Exception Specifies the sections to perform
when errors and abnormal conditions
arise in the executable section

Inclusion
Optional

Mandatory

Optional

Naming Rules for Identifiers

Identifiers are the names given to PL/SQL elements such as variables,
procedures, variables, and user-defined types. These names must follow certain
rules of the road; namely, they:
o Are no more than 30 characters in length. Start with a letter.
o Consist of any of the following: letters, numerals, the dollar sign ($), the
hash sign (#), and the underscore (_).
o Cannot be the same as a PL/SQL reserved word.
o Are unique within its scope. You cannot, in other words, declare two
variables with the same name in the same block of code.
These are valid names for variables:
Birthdate
vote_total
sales_year7
contribution$
item#
These names, on the other hand, will cause compilation errors:
the_date_of_birth_of_my_grandchildren -- TOO LONG
1st_choice -- STARTS WITH DIGIT
Myemail@stevenfeuerstein.com -- CONTAINS INVALID CHARACTER

Scope of Variables
The scope of a variable is the portion of PL/SQL code in which that variable can
be referenced (i.e., its value read or modified). Most of the variables you define
will have as their scope the block in which they were defined. Consider the
following block:
DECLARE
book_title VARCHAR2 (100);
BEGIN
book_title := 'Learning Oracle PL/SQL';
END;
/

The variable book_title can be referenced within this block of code, but
nowhere else. So if I happen to write another separate block of code, any attempt
to read or change the value of book_titlewill result in a compilation error:
SQL> BEGIN
2 IF book_title LIKE '%PL/SQL%'
3 THEN
4 buy_it;
5 END IF;
6 END;
Types of Variables
PL/SQL variables:
All PL/SQL variables have a data type, which specifies a storage format,
constants, and valid range of values. Pl/SQL supports four data type
categories--
Scalar

Composite

Reference

LOB(large objects)

Non-PL/SQL variables:

They include host language variables declared in precompiler programs,

screen fields in Forms applications, and SQL*Plus or iSQL*Plus host
variables.

Using SQL or iSQL*plus Variables Within PL/SQL Blocks

o PL/SQL does not have input or output capability of its own.
o You can reference substitution variables within a PL/SQL block with a
preceding ampersand.
o ISQL*Plus host( or bind ) variables can be used to pass run time values
out of the PL/SQL block back to the iSQL*Plus environment.

Declaration section
A variable in PL/SQL can be declared in two different ways
1) Declaring variable by giving its data type and size

Syntax :
Identifier [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [ := | DEFAULT expr];
Example
V_joindate DATE;
V_empno
Number(3) NOT NULL := 1001;
V_location VARCHAR2(10)
:= sec-bad;
C_comm.
CONSTANT NUMBER: = 1400;
Note: 1. = Used as comparison operator and

:= as assignment operator.

2. Naming convention for variable, variable name starts with v and

constant start with c.
3. We can also give integrity constraints at the time of declaring variable
Vename varchar2 (10) not null.
4. Only one variable is allowed to declare in each line.
5. Follow naming conventions.

Scalar Data Types

Hold a single value

Have no internal components

Base Scalar Data Types

Data Type
CHAR [(max-Len)]
VARCHAR2 (max-Len)
LONG

Data type
LONG RAW
NUMBER(precision,
scale)
BINARY_INTEGER
PLS_INTEGER

BOOLEAN
DATE

Description
Base type for fixed-length character data up to
32,767 bytes. If you do not specify a maximum
length, the default length is set to 1.
Base type for variable-length character data up o
32,767 bytes. There is no default size for
VARCHAR2 variables and constants.
Base type for variable-length character data up to
32,760 bytes. Use the LONG data type to store
variable-length character strings. You can insert any
LONG value into a LONG database column because
the maximum width of a LONG column is 2 ** 31
bytes. However, you cannot retrieve a value longer
than 32760 bytes from a LONG column into a LONG
variable.
Base type for binary data and byte strings up to
32,760 bytes.
Number having precision p and scale s. the precision
p can range from 1 to 38.
Base type for integers between 2,147,483,647 and
2,147,483,647
BASE type for signed integers between

2,147,483,647 and 2,147,483,647. PLS_INTEGER

values require less storage and are faster than
NUMBER and BINARY_INTEGER values.
Base type that stores one of three possible values
Base type for date and time

The %TYPE Attribute

A variable declared by referring column of a table. We can also use %TYPE
attribute to declare a variable according to another previously declared variable.
Example
1. V_empno EMP.empno%type;
2. v_salary NUMBER(8,2);
3. v_comm. V_salary%type;
Note :- A NOT NULL database column constraint does not apply to variables that
are declared using %TYPE. Therefore, if you declare a variable using the

%TYPE attribute that uses a database column defined as NOT NULL, you
can assign the NULL value to the variable.
Composite Data Types
A scalar type has no internal components. A composite type has internal
components that can be manipulated individually. Composite data types ( Also
known as collections) are of TABLE,RECORD, NESTED
<variable> <Tablename>%rowtype;
rec emp%rowtype;

Use of variables
Variables can be used for:
Temporary storage of data Data can be temporarily stored in one or more
variables for use when validating data input and for processing later in the
data flow process.
Manipulation of stored values Variables can be used for calculation and
other data manipulations without accessing the database.
Reusability After they declared, they can be used repeatedly in an
application simply by referencing them in other statements, including other
statements, including other declaratie statements.
Ease of maintenance When we declare variables using %TYPE and
%ROWTYPE, if any underlying definition changes, the variable definition
changes accordingly at run time. This provides data independence,
reduces maintenance costs.

Program
Write a program to maintain students information with
Rollno, Student_name, sub1,sub2, Total,average
Where sub1,sub2 are the marks in different subjects.
Solution
Step 1
Step 2

create student table with above structure

In SQL*plus environment, open the system editor using a command
SQL> EDIT student
Or

In iSQL*plus environment, write the code in Executable window and

save the script into a file.

DECLARE
Stu
STUDENT%rowtype;
BEGIN
-- generate rollno automatically
SELECT nvl(max(rollno),0) + 1 into stu.rollno from student;
-- input name and marks in two subjects
stu.sname := &name;
stu.sub1 := &marks1;
stu.sub2 := &marks2;
Stu.total
:= stu.sub1 + stu.sub2;
Stu.average:= stu.total/2;
INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES stu;
COMMIT;
END;
/
To run PL/SQL program
From SQL*Plus Environment
SQL> start student
Or
SQL> @student
From iSQL*Plus Environment
Use Execute button

Bind Variables
A bind variable is a variable that you declare in a host environment. Bind
variables can be used to pass run-time values, either number or character, into or
out of one or more PL/SQL programs.
The PL/SQL program use bind variables as they would use any other variable.
You can reference variables declared in the host or calling environment in
PL/SQL statements, unless the statement is in a procedure, function, or package.
Creating Bind Variables
To declare a bind variable In the iSQL*Plus environment, use the command
VARIABLE.
For example, we can declare a variable of type number and VARCHAR2 as
follows:
VARIABLE vsal NUMBER
VARIABLE getmsg as VARCHAR2 (30)
Both SQL and iSQL*Plus environment can reference the bind variable, and
iSQL*Plus can display its value through PRINT command
Using Bind Variables
To reference a bind variable in PL/SQL, you must prefix its name with a colon ( :)
Example
SQL>VARIABLE g_salary number
BEGIN
SELECT sal INTO :g_salary FROM EMP WHERE empno = 7521;
END;
/
SQL> PRINT g_salary

Referencing Non-PL/SQL Variables

To reference host-variables, you must prefix the references with a colon ( :) to
distinguish them from declared PL/SQL variables
Example
VARIABLE g_month_sal NUMBER
DEFINE
p_annual_sal = 50000
SET VERIFY OFF
DECLARE
V_sal NUMBER(9,2) := &p_annual_sal; -- reads the value from host
variable
BEGIN
:g_monthly_sal := v_sal/12;
END;
/
PRINT g_monthly_sal

Note The DEFINE command specifies a user variable and assigns it a CHAR
value. Even though you enter the number 50000, iSQL*Plus assigns a CHAR
value to p_annual_sal consisting of the characters, 5,0,0,0 and 0.
Programming Guidelines
Make code maintenance easier by:

Documenting code with comments

Developing a case convention for the code
Developing naming conventions for identifiers and other objects
Enhancing readability by Indenting

Code Conventions
The following table provides guidelines for writing code in uppercase or
lowercase to help you distinguish keywords from named objects.
Category
SQL statements
PL/SQL keywords
Data types
Identifiers and parameters
Database
tables
and

Case Convention
Uppercase
Uppercase
Uppercase
Lowercase
Lowercase

Examples
SELECT, INSERT
DECLARE,BEGIN,IF
VARCHAR2, BOOLEAN
V_sal_emp_cursor, g_sal
Emp, empno

columns

Summary
A Pl/SQL block is a basic, unnamed unit of a Pl/SQL program. It
consists of a set of SQL or PL/SQL statements and it performs a
single logical function. The declarative part is the first part of a
PL/SQL block and is used for declaring objects such as
variables, constants, cursors and exceptions. The executable
part is the mandatory part of a PL/SQL block, and contains SQL
and PL/SQL statements for querying and manipulating data. The
exception-handling part is embedded inside the executable part
of a block and is placed at the end of the executable part.
An anonymous PL/SQL block is the basic, unnamed unit of a
PL/SQL program. Procedures and functions can be compiled
separately and stored permanently in an Oracle database, ready
to be executed.

2.0 Exception Handling

Objectives
After completing this lesion, you should be able to
do the following:
Define PL/SQL exceptions
Recognize unhandled exceptions
List and use different types of PL/SQL exception
handlers
Trap unanticipated errors
Describe the effect of exception propagation in
nested blocks
Customize PL/SQL exception messages

2.1 Introduction
In PL/SQL, errors and warnings are called as exceptions. Whenever a predefined
error occurs in the program, PL/SQL raises an exception. For example, if you try
to divide a number by zero then PL/SQL raises an exception called
ZERO_DIVIDE
and if SELECT can not find a record then PL/SQL raises
exception No_DATA_FOUND.
PL/SQL has a collection of predefined exceptions. Each exception has a name.
These exceptions are automatically raised by PL/SQL whenever the
corresponding error occurs.
In addition to predefined exceptions, user can also create his own exceptions to
deal with errors in the application.
An exception is an identifier in PL/SQL that is raised during the execution of a
block that terminates its main body of actions. A block always terminates when
PL/SQL raises an exception, but can you specify an exception handler to perform
final actions.
PL/SQL allows developers to raise and handle errors (exceptions) in a very
flexible and powerful way. Each PL/SQL block can have its own exception
section, in which exceptions can be trapped and handled (resolved
or passed on to the enclosing block).
When an exception occurs (is raised) in a PL/SQL block, its execution section
immediately terminates. Control is passed to the exception section.
Every exception in PL/SQL has an error number and error message; some
exceptions also have names.

Handling Exceptions with PL/SQL

An exception is an identifier in PL/SQL that is raised during
execution.
How is it raised?
- An Oracle error occurs.
- You raise it explicitly.
How do you handle it?
- Trap it with a handler.
- Propagate it to the calling environment.
2.1.1 Declaring Exceptions
Some exceptions (see the following table) have been pre-defined by Oracle in
the STANDARD package.
You can also declare your own exceptions as follows:
DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
An exception can be declared only once in a block, but nested blocks can
declare an exception with the same name as an outer block. If this multiple
declaration occurs, scope takes precedence over name when handling the
exception. The inner block's declaration takes precedence over a global
declaration.
When you declare your own exception, you must RAISE it explicitly. All declared
exceptions have an error code of 1 and the error message "User-defined
exception," unless you use the EXCEPTION_INIT pragma.
You can associate an error number with a declared exception with the PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT statement:
DECLARE
Exception_name EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT (exception_name,error_number);

Where error_number is a literal value (variable references are not allowed). This
number can be an Oracle error, such as -1855, or an error in the user-definable
-20000 to -20999 range.

2.1.2 Raising Exceptions

An exception can be raised in three ways:

By the PL/SQL runtime engine

By an explicit RAISE statement in your code
By a call to the built-in function RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR
The syntax for the RAISE statement is:
RAISE exception_name;
Where exception_name is the name of an exception that you have declared, or
that is declared in the STANDARD package.
If you use the RAISE statement inside an exception handler, you can leave off an
exception name to re-raise

Handling Exceptions
Trap the Exceptions

Propagate the exception

DECLARE

DECLARE

BEGIN

BEGIN

Exception
Is raised
EXCEPTION
Exception
Is trapped

EXCEPTION

END;

Exception
is raised
Exception
is not

trapped
END;

Exception propagates
To calling
Environment.

Trapping an Exception
If the exception is raised in the executable section of the block, processing
branches to the corresponding exception handler in the exception section of the
block. If PL/SQL successfully handles the exception, then the exception does not
propagates to the enclosing block or environment. The PL/SQL block terminates
successfully.
Propagating an Exception
If the exception is raised in the executable section of the block and there is no
corresponding exception handler, the PL/SQL block terminates with failure and
the exception is propagated to the calling environment.

Exception Types

Predefined Oracle Server

}
}
}
No predefined Oracle Server }

Implicitly
raised

User-defined

Explicitly raised

You can program for exceptions to avoid disruption at run time. There are three
types of exceptions.
Exception
Predefined Oracle Server
error
No predefined Oracle
Server error
User-defined error

Description
One of approximately 20
errors that occur most
often in PL/SQL code
Any other standard
Oracle Server error
A condition that the
developer determines is
abnormal

Directions for Handling

Do not declare and allow
the Oracle server to raise
them implicitly
Declare within the
declarative section and
allow the Oracle Server
to raise them implicitly.
Declare within the
declarative section, and
raise explicitly.

Trapping Exceptions
Syntax
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception1 [ OR exception2 ] THEN
Statement1;
Statement2;
WHEN exception3 [ OR exception4 ] THEN
Statement3;
Statement4;
WHEN OTHERS THEN
Statement5;
Statement6;

The following PL/SQL block attempts to select information from the employee
and includes an exception handler for the case in which no data is found:
DECLARE
vempno NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT empno INTO vempno FROM EMP WHERE ename = 'RAM';
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, job, deptno)
VALUES
(101,'RAM', 'EXECUTIVE', 10);
END;
In other words, if I am not already an employee in the company, the SELECT
statement fails and control is transferred to the exception section (which starts
with the keyword EXCEPTION). PL/SQL matches up the exception raised with
the exception in the WHEN clause (NO_DATA_FOUND is a named, internal

exception that represents ORA-01403-no data found). It then executes the

statements in that exception handler, so I am promptly inserted into the employee
table.

The WHEN OTHERS clause

EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
...
Use the WHEN OTHERS clause in the exception handler as a catch all to trap
any exceptions that are not handled by specific WHEN clauses in the exception
section. If present, this clause must be the last exception handler in the exception
section.
The OTHERS handler traps all exceptions not already trapped. Some Oracle
tools have their own predefined exceptions that you can raise to cause events in
the application. The OTHERS handler also traps these exceptions.

Trapping Exceptions Guidelines

The EXCEPTION keyword starts exception-handling section.
several exception handlers are allowed.
only one handler is processed before leaving the block.
WHEN OTHERS is the last clause.
Exceptions cannot appear in assignment statements or SQL statements.
You can have only one OTHERS clause.

Trapping Predefined Oracle Server Errors

Reference the standard name in the Exception-handling routine.
Sample predefined exceptions:
- NO_DATA_FOUND
- TOO_MANY_ROWS
- INVALID_CURSOR
- ZERO_DIVIDE
- DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX

For a complete list of predefined exceptions, see PL/SQL Users Guide and
Reference Error Handling
Note : PL/SQL declares predefined exceptions in the STANDARD package.
It is good idea to always handle the NO_DATA_FOUND
TOO_MANY_ROWS exceptions, which are the most common.

and

Trapping Nonpredefined Oracle Server

Errors

Declare

Associate

Declarative Section
Name the exception

Code the PRAGMA

EXCEPTION_INIT

Reference
Exception-handling
section
Handle the raised
exception

declare
deptno_in number;
still_have_employees EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(still_have_employees, -2292);
BEGIN
deptno_in := &deptno;
DELETE FROM d1
WHERE deptno = deptno_in;
EXCEPTION
WHEN still_have_employees
THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE
('Please delete employees in dept first');
ROLLBACK;
-- RAISE; /* Re-raise the current exception. */
END;
You trap a nonpredefined Oracle server error by declaring it first, or by using the
OTHERS handler. The declared exception is raised implicitly. In PL/SQL, the
PRAGMA_EXCEPTION_INIT tells the compiler to associate an exception name
with an Oracle error number. That allows you to refer to any internal exception by
name and to write a specific handler for it.

Note: PRAGMA (also called pseudoinstructions) is the keyword that signifies that
the statement is a compiler directive, which is not processed when the
PL/SQL block is executed. Rather, it directs the Pl/SQL compiler to
interpret all occurrences of the exception name within the block as the
associated Oracle server error number.

Trapping User-Defined Exceptions

Declare
Declarative
section
Name the
Exception

Raise
Executable
Section

Reference
Exception-handling
Section

Explicitly raise the

exception by using the
RAISE statement.

Handle the
raised
Exception.

PL/SQL allows you to define your own exceptions. User-defined PL/SQL

exceptions must be:

Declared in the declare section of a PL/SQL block

Raised explicitly with RAISE statements

Example:
DEFINE p_department_desc = Accounts
DEFINE p_department_number = 50
DECLARE
E_invalid_department EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
UPDATE dept
SET
dname = &p_department_desc
WHERE
deptno = &p_department_number;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
RAISE e_invalid_department;
END IF;
COMMIT;
EXCEPTION
WHEN e_invalid_department THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(No such department id);
END;

Program 1
Write a program to maintain students information with
Rollno, Student_name, sub1,sub2, Total,average
Where sub1,sub2 are the marks in different subjects.
Solution
Step 1
Step 2

create student table with above structure

In SQL*plus environment, open the system editor using a command
SQL> EDIT student
Or

In iSQL*plus environment, write the code in Executable window and

save the script into a file.

DECLARE
Stu
STUDENT%rowtype;
Negative
EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
-- generate rollno automatically
SELECT nvl(max(rollno),0) + 1 into stu.rollno from student;
-- input name and marks in two subjects
stu.sname := &name;
stu.sub1 := &marks1;
stu.sub2 := &marks2;
IF stu.sub1 < 0 or stu.sub2 < 0 then
RAISE negative;
END IF;
Stu.total
:= stu.sub1 + stu.sub2;
Stu.average:= stu.total/2;
INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES stu;
COMMIT;
EXCEPTION
WHEN negative THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( VE MARKS);
END;
/

To run PL/SQL program

From SQL*Plus Environment
SQL> start student
Or
SQL> @student
From iSQL*Plus Environment
Use Execute button

Program 2
Write a program to get the salary of an employee
DECLARE
Vempno emp.empno%TYPE;
Vsal
emp.sal%TYPE;
BEGIN
Vempno := &empno;
SELECT sal into vsal from emp where empno = Vempno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SALARY = || Vsal);
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Employee not found);
END;
/
a)Check what happened when we input a 5 digit number
b)Check what happens when we input employee number in single
quotes
c)Check what happens when we input alpha-numeric information
d)Check what happens when there is a duplicate empno

To handle all the above errors, we can modify the above program as
DECLARE
Vempno emp.empno%TYPE;
Vsal
emp.sal%TYPE;
BEGIN
Vempno := &empno;
SELECT sal into vsal from emp where empno = Vempno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SALARY = || Vsal);
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Employee not found);
WHEN others then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SQLCODE || SQLCODE);
END;
/
Note :- SQLCODE and SQLERRM are called as Error Trapping functions.
SQLCODE displays error number (ORA-00001)
SQLERRM displays SQL error message

Exercise
1) Write a program to maintain employee details with
Empno, Ename, basic, da, hra, gross, pf, net
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Generate Empno automatically

Input name and basic salary
Calculate da, hra, gross, pf and net
Assume da and hra some % on basic
Gross = basic + da + hra
Pf is 10% on gross
Net is gross pf

Handle required exceptions

Summary
In this lesion, you should have learned that:
Exception types:
- Predefined Oracle server error
- Nonpredefined Oracle server error
- User-defined error
Exception trapping
Exception handling
- Trap the exception within the PL/SQL block.
- Propagate the exception

LOOPS
1) Write a program to print the numbers in the format
1 2
4 5
7 8

3
6
9

2) Write a program to accept a string

only with lowercase letters

1) Solution
begin
dbms_output.new_line;
for i in 1 .. 8
loop
for j in 1 .. 8
loop
dbms_output.put(j||' ');
end loop;
dbms_output.new_line;
end loop;
end;

3.0 Cursors
What is a Cursor?
Oracle uses work area to execute SQL commands and store processing
information. PL/SQL allows you to access this area through a name using a
cursor.
Whenever you issue a SQL statement, the Oracle Server opens an area of
memory in which the command is parsed and executed. This area is called a
cursor.
When you execute a SQL statement from PL/SQL, the Oracle RDBMS
assigns a private work area for that statement. This work area contains
information about the SQL statement and the set of data returned or affected by
that statement.
The PL/SQL cursor is a mechanism by which you can name that work
area and manipulate the information within it. In its simplest form, you can think
of a cursor as a pointer into a table in the database.
Cursors are of two types in PL/SQL

Implicit cursor
Explicit cursor

Implicit cursor
PL/SQL declares a cursor implicitly for all SQL data manipulation statements,
including queries that return only one row. However, for queries that return more
than one row, you must declare an explicit cursor or use a cursor FOR loop. The
name of the implicit cursor is SQL. You can directly use the cursor without any
declaration.
Explicit Cursor
The set of rows returned by a query can consist of zero, one or multiple rows,
depending on how many rows meet your search criteria. When a query returns
multiple rows, you can explicitly declare a cursor to process the rows. The set of
rows returned by a multiple-row query is called the active set. It is
manipulated just like a file in programming languages.

Explicit cursor functions

Can process beyond the first row returned by the query, row by row.
Keep track of which row is currently being processed.
Allow the programmer to manually control them in the PL/SQL block.

Note: The fetch for an implicit cursor is an array fetch, and the existence of a
second row still raises the TOO_MANY_ROWS exception. Furthermore,
you can use explicit cursors to perform multiple fetches and to re-execute
parsed queries in the work area.

Handling Explicit Cursor

Explicit cursor is a name used to refer to an area where you can place multiple
rows retrieved by SELECT
STEPS
The following are the required steps to process an explicit cursor.

Declare the cursor in declare section

Open the cursor using OPEN
Fetch rows from the cursor FETCH
Close the cursor after the process is over using CLOSE

How a cursor works?

Let us understand the cursor, with C File. To make any changes in the file first we
have to open it (FOPEN () method). Once it is opened, it is placed in the memory
and a file pointer identifies this memory area (FP). To read a particular line of
information, we use a method (FREAD ()). The read information is stored into a
variable. The variable size is equal to the size of the information that you are
reading. To read each and every line from the file, we have to use a loop.
This loop is performed until it identifies EOF. Then we have to close the file
(FCLOSE () method), to free the memory space.
Assume that the file is there in the common share folder(in the server). Reading
each line from the server takes more time as well as we have to interact with the
server repeatedly, which increases the network traffic and reduces the efficiency.

Similarly, assume that your server is a Oracle server and the file is a database.
Every time we have to interact with server to get one row from the database. For
getting multiple records, each time we have to interact with database, which
reduces the efficiency. To over come this situation, we are defining a cursor,
through which we can get the required information into the memory and that
memory area is identified with cursor name (Like a file pointer).
In the place of fopen () method we are using OPEN () method. It places all the
required data into the memory.
We are using FREAD () method for reading each line of information from the file.
In the similar way we use FETCH method to get each record from memory.
After fetching one record, it should be placed into a variable. So, we have to
create a variable whose size is equal to the size of the information that we are
fetching.
Then we have to use a loop to read each and every record until nothing is there
to fetch.
Then close the cursor using CLOSE () method.
In more technical terms, a cursor is the name for a structure in memory, called a
private SQL area, which the server allocates at runtime for each SQL statement.
This memory area contains, among other things, a parsed version of the original
SQL statement.
If the host program uses any variables in the SQL statement, the cursor also
contains the memory addresses of these variables.
When you put SELECT statements into your PL/SQL, there are two ways to deal
with the data. You can use the SELECT INTO, as seen in the previous section, in
which case you are using an implicit cursor ("implicit" because you don't refer to it
specifically in your code; Oracle manages implicit cursors automatically). The
second way gives you more direct control over the creation, naming, and use of
cursors associated with your SELECTs. These cursors are called explicit cursors.

How to Code an Explicit Cursor

An explicit cursor in PL/SQL is one with which you "explicitly" code each of the
following steps:

1. Declare the cursor in declare section

2. Open the cursor using OPEN
3. Fetch rows from the cursor using FETCH
4. Close the cursor after the process is over using CLOSE.
Declare a Cursor
A cursor is declared in DECLARE section using CURSOR statement.
Syntax

Cursor <cursorname> is
Select <column(s)> from <tablename> where
<Condition>;
Example
Cursor emp_cur is
Select empno, ename, job, sal from EMP where empno >= 7521;
Note:

No data is actually retrieved at the time of cursor declaration. Data is

placed in the cursor when cursor is opened.

Opening a cursor using OPEN command

OPEN statement is used to execute the query associated with the cursor and
place the result into cursor.
Syntax
OPEN cursor_name;
Example
Open emp_cur;
When a cursor is opened, all the rows retrieved by SELECT, given at the time of
cursor declaration, are placed in the cursor.

Fetching rows from a cursor using FETCH command

Once cursor is opened using OPEN, cursor has a set of rows, which can be
fetched using FETCH statement.

Syntax
FETCH cursor_name INTO variable1, variable2,
For each column in the cursor there should be a corresponding variable in
FETCH statement.
FETCH statement is to be repeatedly executed to fetch all the rows of the cursor.

Closing a Cursor using CLOSE command

CLOSE statement is used to close after the cursor is processed.
Syntax
CLOSE cursor_name

Example

CLOSE emp_cur;
Program
Write a program to test the cursor
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON -- SQL*plus Environment command
DECLARE
Cursor emp_cur is
Select empno, ename, job, sal from EMP where empno >= 7521;
Emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
BEGIN
/* open the cursor */
Open emp_cur;
/* fetch a record from cursor */
FETCH emp_cur into emp_rec;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(emp_rec.empno || emp_rec.ename|| emp_rec.sal);

-- closing the cursor

CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
/

Analysis
This program reads and prints only one record from cursor

Program
To read each and every record from the cursor
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
Cursor emp_cur is
Select empno, ename, job, sal from EMP where empno >= 7521;
Emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
BEGIN
/* open the cursor */
Open emp_cur;
/* fetch all the records of the cursor one by one */
LOOP
FETCH emp_cur into emp_rec;
/*
Exit loop if reached end of cursor
NOTFOUND is the cursor attribute
*/
exit when emp_cur%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (emp_rec.empno || emp_rec.ename|| emp_rec.sal);
END LOOP;
-- closing the cursor
CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
/

Passing parameters
Program
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
Cursor emp_cur(v_empno number) is -- formal parameter
Select empno, ename, job, sal from EMP where empno >= v_empno;
Emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
V_eno emp.empno%type;
BEGIN
/* input the employee number */
v_eno := &empno;
/* open the cursor */
Open emp_cur(v_eno); -- Actual argument
/* fetch all the records of the cursor one by one */
LOOP
FETCH emp_cur into emp_rec;
/*
Exit loop if reached end of cursor
NOTFOUND is the cursor attribute
*/
exit when emp_cur%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (emp_rec.empno || emp_rec.ename|| emp_rec.sal);
END LOOP;
-- closing the cursor
CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
/

Note : We can pass any number of arguments

Program
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
Cursor emp_cur(v_empno_from number, v_empno_to number ) is
-- formal parameter and called as input arguments
Select empno, ename, job, sal from EMP where empno between
v_empno_from and v_empno_to;
Emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
V_eno emp.empno%type;
BEGIN
/* input the employee number */
v_empno_from := &start_empno;
v_empno_to
:= &end_empno;
/* open the cursor */
Open emp_cur(v_empno_from,v_empno_to); -- Actual argument
/* fetch all the records of the cursor one by one */
LOOP
FETCH emp_cur into emp_rec;
/*
Exit loop if reached end of cursor
NOTFOUND is the cursor attribute
*/
exit when emp_cur%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (emp_rec.empno || emp_rec.ename|| emp_rec.sal);
END LOOP;
-- closing the cursor
CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
/

Declaring Multiple Cursors

SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
Cursor dept_cur is
Select * from dept;
Cursor emp_cur(v_deptno IN number) is
Select empno,ename,sal from EMP where deptno = v_deptno;
Dept_rec dept_cur%rowtype;
Emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
BEGIN
OPEN dept_cur;
LOOP
FETCH dept_cur into dept_rec;
EXIT when dept_cur%NOTFOUND:
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line (Employees working Under || dept_rec.deptno);
OPEN emp_cur (dept_rec.deptno);
LOOP
FETCH emp_cur into emp_rec;
EXIT when emp_cur%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (emp_rec.empno
|| emp_rec.ename||emp_rec.job);
END LOOP;
CLOSE emp_cur;
END LOOP:
CLOSE dept_cur;
END:
/

Cursor Attributes
Cursor attributes allow to get information regarding cursor. For example, you can
get the number of rows fetched so far from a cursor using ROWCOUNT
Use the following syntax to access cursor attributes
Cursor_name%Attribute
The following is the list of available cursor attributes:
Attribute

Data type

Significance

FOUND

BOOLEAN

TRUE if most recent fetch

found a row in the table;
otherwise FALSE

NOTFOUND

BOOLEAN

ROWCOUNT

BOOLEAN

This the just logical inverse

of FOUND
Number of Rows fetched so
far

Recommended time
to use
After opening and
fetching from the
cursor but before
closing it (will be
NULL before first
fetch)
Same as above
Same as above
(except it will be zero
before the first fetch)

In addition to those cursor attributes, there are some less-commonly used cursor
attributes that you might see from time to time. They include:
ISOPEN Returns TRUE or FALSE depending on whether cursor_name is open.

Program
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
Cursor emp_cur is
Select empno, ename, job, sal from EMP where empno >= 7521;
Emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
BEGIN
If not emp_cur%ISOPEN then
Open emp_cur;
End if;
LOOP
FETCH emp_cur into emp_rec;
If emp_cur%FOUND then
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(No of rows effected || emp_cur%ROWCOUNT);
Else
DBMS_OUTPT.put_line(END Of file );
END IF;
exit when emp_cur%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (emp_rec.empno || emp_rec.ename|| emp_rec.sal);
END LOOP;
CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
Cursor attributes can be used with both implicit and explicit cursors.
For example, the following shows how to use cursor attribute with implicit cursor:
Begin
Update EMP set sal = 1200 where ename like %E%;
/* If more than 5 rows are effected then rollback updation */
if SQL%ROWCOUNT > 5 then
Rollback;
else
commit;
end if;
End;
/

Note: 1) Except ISOPEN, all other attributes are implicit cursor attributes
2) When %ROWCOUNT is used with implicit cursor, it returns number of
rows effected by UPDATE, INSERT and DELETE commands. And when
used with explicit cursors, it returns the number of rows fetched so far
from the cursor.

Cursor For Loop

In order to process a cursor, you can use cursor FOR loop to automate the
following steps.

Opening cursor

Fetching rows from the cursor

Terminating loop when all rows in the cursor are processed

Closing cursor

Syntax
FOR rowtype_variable IN cursor_name
LOOP
Statements;
END LOOP;

Example
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
declare
cursor c1 is
select empno,ename from emp;
begin
for c in c1
loop
dbms_output.put_line(c.empno || c.ename);
end loop;
end;
/

The following are the important steps in the above program:

Cursor c1 is automatically opened by cursor for loop

C is declared automatically as :
C c1%ROWTYPE;

But C is available only inside the cursor for loop. It contains the same
columns as the cursor. In order to access a column of the current row of the
cursor, in the cursor for loop, use the format:
Rowtype_variable.columnname

Statements in the cursor for loop are executed once for each row of the
cursor. And for each row of the cursor, row is copied into
rowtype_variable.
Loop is terminated once end of cursor is reached. And cursor is closed.

Note : If parameters are to be passed to cursor, give the values after the
name of the cursor.
declare
cursor c1 (n number) is
Select empno, ename from EMP where empno >= n;
begin
for c in c1(7521)
loop
dbms_output.put_line (c.empno || c.ename);
end loop;
end;

For Update Of and Current Of

By default, Oracle locks rows while updating and deleting rows. But it is possible
to override default locking by using FOR UPDATE.
FOR UPDATE clause can be used with SELECT while declaring cursor to lock all
records retrieved by cursor to make sure they are not changed before we update
or delete them. As Oracle automatically locks rows for you. FOR UPDATE
clause is required only when you want to lock rows before the update or delete
at the time of opening cursor.
CURRENT OF clause can be used to refer to the current row in the cursor.

Note: FOR UPDATE must be given if you want to use CURRENT OF clause
to refer to current row in the cursor.

Exercise
Write a program to Modify a particular entry in the passbook and update the
corresponding balances.( Handle suitable exceptions).
PASSBOOK
SNO
1
2
3
4
5
6

TRNDATE TRNTYPE
SYSDATE
D
SYSDATE
W
SYSDATE
W
SYSDATE
D
SYSDATE
W
SYSDATE
D

AMOUNT
30000
10000
2000
5000
3000
8000

BALANCE
30000
20000
18000
23000
20000
28000

In the above table, if we modify the amount in one particular transaction, Write a
program to modify the corresponding balances.
Handle suitable exceptions, to accept only a positive amount and in no case,
balance should become negative.

Summary
A cursor is always used by PL/SQL to execute single-row queries and
DML command. But in order to use multi-row query, you have to use
an explicit cursor. An explicit cursor contains a row-set, which is
retrieved by multi-row query.
Specially designed cursor FOR loop for cursors make cursor handling
very easy and automatic. FOR UPDATE clause is used to override
default locking and CURRENT OF is used to refer to current record in
the cursor.

Subprograms
Subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can accept parameters and be
invoked from a calling environment.
PL/SQL has two types of subprograms, procedures and functions.
What Is a Procedure?
A procedure is a type of subprogram that performs an action.
A procedure can be stored in the database, as a schema object, for repeated
execution.
Definition of a Procedure
A procedure is a named PL/SQL block that can accept parameters (sometimes
referred to as arguments), and be invoked. Generally speaking, you use a
procedure to perform an action. A procedure has a header, a declaration section,
an executable section, and an optional exception-handling section.
A procedure can be compiled and stored in the database as a schema object.
Procedures promote reusability and maintainability. When validated, they can be
used in any number of applications. If the requirements change, only the
procedure needs to be updated.

Creating Procedures

Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to do the
following:

Distinguish anonymous PL/SQL blocks from named

PL/SQL blocks (subprograms)

List the benefits of using subprograms

List the different environments from which
subprograms can be invoked

Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to
do the following:
Describe PL/SQL blocks and subprograms
Describe the uses of procedures
Create procedures
Differentiate between formal and actual parameters
List the features of different parameter modes
Create procedures with parameters
Invoke a procedure
Handle exceptions in procedures
Remove a procedure
Lesson Aim
In this lesson, you learn the difference between anonymous PL/SQL blocks and
subprograms. You also learn to create, execute, and remove procedures.

Overview of Subprograms
A subprogram:
Is a named PL/SQL block that can accept parameters
and be invoked from a calling environment?
Is of two types:
A procedure that performs an action
A function that computes a value
Is based on standard PL/SQL block structure
Provides modularity, reusability, extensibility,
and maintainability.
Provides easy maintenance, improved data security
and integrity, improved performance, and improved
code clarity
A subprogram is based on standard PL/SQL structure that contains a declarative
section, an executable section, and an optional exception-handling section.
A subprogram can be compiled and stored in the database. It provides
modularity, extensibility, reusability, and maintainability.
Modularization is the process of breaking up large blocks of code into smaller
groups of code called modules. After code is modularized, the modules can be
reused by the same program or shared by other programs. It is easier to maintain
and debug code of smaller modules than a single large program. Also, the
modules can be easily extended for customization by incorporating more
functionality, if required, without affecting the remaining modules of the program.
Subprograms provide easy maintenance because the code is located in one
place and hence any modifications required to the subprogram can be performed
in this single location. Subprograms provide improved data integrity and security.
The data objects are accessed through the subprogram and a user can invoke
the subprogram only if appropriate access privilege is granted to the user.

Benefits of Sub Programs

Easy maintenance
Improved data security and Integrity
Improved performance
Improved code clarity
Procedures and functions have many benefits in addition to modularizing
application development:
Easy maintenance: Subprograms are located in one location and hence it is
easy to:
Modify routines online without interfering with other users
Modify one routine to affect multiple applications
Modify one routine to eliminate duplicate testing
Improved data security and integrity
Controls indirect access to database objects from nonprivileged users with
security privileges. As a subprogram is executed with its definers right by
default, it is easy to restrict the access privilege by granting a privilege
only to execute the subprogram to a user.
-

Ensures that related actions are performed together, or not at all.

Improved performance
After a subprogram is compiled, the parsed code is available in the shared
SQL area of the server and subsequent calls to the subprogram use this
parsed code. This avoids reparsing for multiple users.
Avoids PL/SQL parsing at run time by parsing at compile time

Reduces the number of calls to the database and decreases

network traffic by bundling commands.

Improves code clarity: Using appropriate identifier names to

describe the action of the routines reduces the need for comments
and enhances the clarity of the code.

Block structure for PL/SQL Subprograms

<header>
Subprogram Specification
IS | AS
Declaration Section
BEGIN
Executable Section

Subprogram Body

EXCEPTION (optional)
Exception Section
END;
Subprogram Specification
The header is relevant for named blocks only and determines the way that the
program unit is called or invoked.
The header determines:
The PL/SQL subprogram type, that is, either a procedure or a function
The name of the subprogram
The parameter list, if one exists
The RETURN clause, which applies only to functions
The IS or AS keyword is mandatory.

Subprogram Body
The declaration section of the block between IS|AS and BEGIN. The keyword
DECLARE that is used to indicate the start of the declaration section in
anonymous blocks is not used here.
The executable section between the BEGIN and END keywords is mandatory,
enclosing the body of actions to be performed. There must be at least one
statement existing in this section. There should be at least one NULL;
statement, which is considered an executable statement.
The exception section between EXCEPTION and END is optional. This section
traps predefined error conditions. In this section, you define actions to take if
the specified error condition arises.

Syntax for Creating Procedures

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
[(parameter1 [mode1] datatype1,
parameter2 [mode2] datatype2,. . .)]
IS|AS
PL/SQL Block;

The REPLACE option indicates that if the procedure exists, it will be

dropped and replaced with the new version created by the statement.

PL/SQL block starts with either BEGIN or the declaration of local variables
and ends with either END or END procedure_name.

Syntax Definitions
You create new procedures with the CREATE PROCEDURE statement, which
may declare a list of parameters and must define the actions to be performed by
the standard PL/SQL block. The CREATE clause enables you to create standalone procedures, which are stored in an Oracle database.
PL/SQL blocks start with either BEGIN or the declaration of local variables and
end with either END or END procedure_name. You cannot reference host or bind
variables in the PL/SQL block of a stored procedure.
The REPLACE option indicates that if the procedure exists, it will be dropped
and replaced with the new version created by the statement.
You can not restrict the size of the data type in the parameters.
Parameter
Procedure_Name
Parameter
Mode

Data type

PL/SQL block

Description
Name of the procedure
Name of PL/SQL variable whose value is passed to or
populated by the calling environment, or both, depending on
the mode being used
Type of argument
IN (default)
OUT
IN OUT
Data type of argument can be any SQL/ PLSQL data type.
Can be of %TYPE, %ROWTYPE, or any scalar or
composite data type. You can not restrict the size of the
data type in the parameters.
Procedural body that defines the action performed by the
procedure.

Formal versus Actual Parameters

Formal

parameters: variables declared in the

parameter list of a subprogram specification.
Example:
CREATE PROCEDURE raise_sal(p_id NUMBER,
p_amount NUMBER)
...
END raise_sal;

Actual parameters: variables or expressions

referenced in the parameter list of a subprogram
call.

Example:
raise_sal(v_id, 2000)

Procedural Parameter Modes

You can transfer values to and from the calling environment through parameters.
Select one of the three modes for each parameter: IN, OUT, or IN OUT.
Attempts to change the value of an IN parameter will result in an error.
Note: DATATYPE can be only the %TYPE definition, the %ROWTYPE definition,
or an explicit data type with no size specification.
Type of Parameter Description
IN (default) passes a constant value from the calling environment into the
procedure.
OUT passes a value from the procedure to the calling environment.
IN OUT Passes a value from the calling environment into the procedure and a
possibly different value from the procedure back to the calling environment using
the same parameter

Creating Procedures with Parameters

IN
Default Mode
Value is passed into
subprogram

OUT
Must be specified
Returned to Calling
Environment

Formal parameters acts

as a constant
Actual parameter can
be a literal, expression,
constant, or initialized
variable
Can be assigned a
default value

Uninitialized variable

IN OUT
Must be specified
Passed into
subprogram; returned
to calling environment.
Initialized variable

Must be a variable

Must be a variable

Cannot be assigned a
default value

Cannot be assigned a
default value

IN Parameters: Example
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE raise_salary
(p_id IN emp.empno%TYPE)
IS
Vsal emp.sal%type;
BEGIN
Select sal into vsal from emp WHERE empno = p_id;
Dbms_output.put_line(vsal);
END raise_salary;
/
IN Parameters: Example
The example shows a procedure with one IN parameter. Running this statement
in iSQL*Plus creates the RAISE_SALARY procedure. When invoked,
RAISE_SALARY accepts the parameter for the employee ID and gets the Salary
of that employee.
To invoke a procedure in iSQL*Plus, use the EXECUTE command.
EXECUTE raise_salary (176)
To invoke a procedure from another procedure, use a direct call. At the location
of calling the new procedure, enter the procedure name and actual parameters.
raise_salary (176);
IN parameters are passed as constants from the calling environment into the
procedure. Attempts to change the value of an IN parameter result in an error.

OUT Parameters: Example

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE query_emp
(p_id emp.empno%TYPE,
p_name OUT emp.ename%TYPE,
p_salary OUT emp.sal%TYPE,
p_comm OUT emp.comm%TYPE)
IS
BEGIN
SELECT ename, sal, comm. INTO p_name, p_salary, p_comm
FROM emp WHERE empno = p_id;
END query_emp;
/
OUT Parameters: Example (continued)
Run the script file shown in the slide to create the QUERY_EMP procedure. This
procedure has four formal parameters. Three of them are OUT parameters that
return values to the calling environment.
The procedure accepts an EMPNO value for the parameter P_ID. The name,
salary, and commission values corresponding to the employee ID are retrieved
into the three OUT parameters whose values are returned to the calling
environment.
Viewing OUT Parameters
VARIABLE g_name VARCHAR2(25)
VARIABLE g_sal NUMBER
VARIABLE g_comm NUMBER
EXECUTE query_emp(171, :g_name, :g_sal, :g_comm)
PRINT g_name

How to View the Value of OUT Parameters with iSQL*Plus

1. Run the SQL script file to generate and compile the source code.
2. Create host variables in iSQL*Plus, using the VARIABLE command.
3. Invoke the QUERY_EMP procedure, supplying these host variables as the
OUT parameters.
Note the use of the colon (:) to reference the host variables in the EXECUTE
command
4. Variables which are used with : are called as binded variables. The meaning of
binded is, getting the value that we are getting from Pl/SQL environment to SQL
environment.
.
5. To view the values passed from the procedure to the calling environment, use
the PRINT command.
The example shows the value of the G_NAME variable passed back to the
calling environment. The other variables can be viewed, either individually, as
above, or with a single PRINT command.

PRINT g_name g_sal g_comm

Do not specify a size for a host variable of data type NUMBER when using the
VARIABLE command. A host variable of data type CHAR or VARCHAR2 defaults
to a length of one, unless a value is supplied in parentheses.

IN OUT Parameters
Example
Create a procedure with an IN OUT parameter to accept a character string
containing 10 digits and return a phone number formatted as (800) 633-0575.
Calling environment FORMAT_PHONE procedure
8006330575 (800)633-0575 p_phone_no
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE format_phone
(p_phone_no IN OUT VARCHAR2)
IS
BEGIN
p_phone_no := ( || SUBSTR(p_phone_no,1,3) ||
) || SUBSTR(p_phone_no,4,3) ||
- || SUBSTR(p_phone_no,7);
END format_phone;
/
Using IN OUT Parameters
With an IN OUT parameter, you can pass values into a procedure and return a
value to the calling environment. The value that is returned is the original, an
unchanged value, or a new value set within the procedure.
An IN OUT parameter acts as an initialized variable.
Run the statement to create the FORMAT_PHONE procedure.
Viewing IN OUT Parameters
VARIABLE g_phone_no VARCHAR2(15)
BEGIN
:g_phone_no := 8006330575;
END;
/
PRINT g_phone_no
EXECUTE format_phone (:g_phone_no)
PRINT g_phone_no

Exercise
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Write a procedure to get the salary of an employee

Write a procedure to get the name and hiredate of an employee
Write a procedure to get all the details of a particular employee
Write a procedure to delete particular employee
Write a procedure to encrypt and decrypt your password
Write a procedure to get the total salary of all the managers
Write a procedure to get the name and salary of the highest paid
employee

Creating Functions
Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able

to do the following:
Describe the uses of functions
Create stored functions
Invoke a function
Remove a function
Differentiate between a procedure and a function
Lesson Aim
In this lesson, you will learn how to create and invoke functions.

Overview of Stored Functions

A function is a named PL/SQL block that returns a value.
A function can be stored in the database as a schema object for repeated
execution.
A function is called as part of an expression.
Stored Functions
A function is a named PL/SQL block that can accept parameters and be invoked.
Generally speaking,
You use a function to compute a value. Functions and procedures are structured
alike. A function must return a value to the calling environment, whereas a
procedure returns zero or more values to its calling environment. Like a
procedure, a function has a header, a declarative part, an executable part, and
an optional exception-handling part. A function must have a RETURN clause in
the header and at least one RETURN statement in the executable section.
Functions can be stored in the database as a schema object for repeated
execution. A function stored in the database is referred to as a stored function.

CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name

[(parameter1 [mode1] datatype1,
parameter2 [mode2] datatype2,. . .)]
RETURN datatype
IS|AS
PL/SQL Block;
The PL/SQL block must have at least one RETURN
statement.

Example
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_sal
(p_id emp.empno%TYPE)
RETURN NUMBER
IS
v_salary emp.sal%TYPE ;
BEGIN
SELECT sal INTO v_salary FROM emp WHERE empno = p_id;
RETURN v_salary;
END get_sal;
/

Executing Functions
Invoke a function as part of a PL/SQL expression.
Create a variable to hold the returned value.
Execute the function. The variable will be
populated by the value returned through a RETURN statement.
Example
VARIABLE g_salary NUMBER
EXECUTE :g_salary := get_sal(117)
PRINT g_salary

Exercise
1.
2.
3.
4.

Write a function to get the retirement date of a particular employee

Write a function to calculate income tax
Write a function to get the details of a particular employee
Write a program to maintain cashbook
Vchno vchdate trntype amount balance

How Procedures and Functions Differ

1. You create a procedure to store a series of actions for later execution. A
procedure can contain zero or more parameters that can be transferred to and
from the calling environment, but a procedure does not have to return a value.
2. You create a function when you want to compute a value, which must be
returned to the calling environment. A function can contain zero or more
parameters that are transferred from the calling environment. Functions should
return only a single value, and the value is returned through a RETURN
statement.
3. Functions used in SQL statements cannot have OUT or IN OUT mode
parameters.

Procedure to Encrypt and Decrypt a password

create or replace procedure encry(u varchar2,p varchar2)
is
x varchar2(100);
begin
for i in 1 .. length(p)
loop
x := x || chr(ascii(substr(upper(p),i,1)) - 42) ;
end loop;
insert into logram values(u,x);
dbms_output.put_line(x);
end;
/

create or replace procedure decry(u1 varchar2)

is
nm varchar2(20);
x varchar2(20);
begin
select p into nm from logram where u=u1;
for i in 1 .. length(nm)
loop
x := x || chr(ascii(substr(nm,i,1))+42);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(x);
end;
/

PACKAGES
What is A Package?
Packages are containers of related procedures, functions and variables.
When we create different procedures and functions, they are stored as
independent objects. To group these objects together, we are creating packages.
Each package contains the following parts:

Package specification
Package body

Package Specification
Contains all declarations for variable, cursor, procedures and functions that are to
be made public. All public objects of package are visible outside the package.

Syntax
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE package_name
IS
/* declare public objects of package */
END;

Package Body
Defines all the objects of the package. Objects declared in the specification are
called as public objects and the objects directly defined in the body without
declaring in the specification, are called as PRIVATE members.

Syntax

The package body:

CREATEorREPLACEPACKAGEBODYpackage_name
IS
[declarationsofvariablesandtypes]
[specificationandSELECTstatementofcursors]
[specificationandbodyofmodules]
[BEGIN
executablestatements]
[EXCEPTION
exceptionhandlers]
END[package_name];
In the body you can declare other variables, but you do not repeat the
declarations in the specification.
The body contains the full implementation of cursors and modules. In the case of
a cursor, the package body contains both specification and SQL statement for the
cursor. In the case of a module the package body contains both the specification
and body of the module.
The BEGIN keyword indicates the presence of an execution or initialization
section for the package. This section can also optionally include an exception
section.
As with a procedure or function, you can add the name of the package, as a
label, after the END keyword in both the specification and package

The body of a package can contain

Procedures declared in the package specification

Functions declared in the package specification

Definitions of cursors declared in the package specification

Local procedures and functions, not declared in the package specification.

Local variables

Program
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE SAMPLEPAK
IS
PROCEDURE PROC1( N NUMBER, N1 OUT NUMBER);
FUNCTION FUN1(N NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;
END;
/
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY SAMPLEPAK
IS
PROCEDURE PROC1(N NUMBER, N1 OUT NUMBER)
IS
BEGIN
N1 := N * 5;
END PROC1;
FUNCTION FUN1(N NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER
IS
N1 NUMBER;
BEGIN
N1 := N * 2;
RETURN N1;
END FUN1;
END SAMPLEPAK;
/

Execution
VARIABLE N NUMBER
EXECUTE SAMPLEPAK.PROC1(5,:N)
PRINT N
EXECUTE :N := SAMPLEPAK.FUN1(4)
PRINT N

Program to define private member

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE SAMPLEPAK
IS
PROCEDURE PROC1( N NUMBER, N1 OUT NUMBER);
FUNCTION FUN1(N NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;
END;
/
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY SAMPLEPAK
IS
PROCEDURE TEST -- private member definition
IS
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(I AM A PRIVATE MEMBER);
END;
PROCEDURE PROC1(N NUMBER, N1 OUT NUMBER)
IS
BEGIN
TEST; -- private member called
N1 := N * 5;
END PROC1;
FUNCTION FUN1(N NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER
IS
N1 NUMBER;
BEGIN
N1 := N * 2;
RETURN N1;
END FUN1;
END SAMPLEPAK;
/

Execution
VARIABLE N NUMBER
EXECUTE SAMPLEPAK.PROC1(5,:N)
PRINT N
EXECUTE :N := SAMPLEPAK.FUN1(4)
PRINT N
Note :- A private member can not be accessed by referring package object. They
are called only through public members of the package object.

Program to test Polymorphism

Program
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE POLYPACK
IS
PROCEDURE PROC1( N NUMBER, N1 OUT NUMBER);
PROCEDURE PROC1 (X VARCHAR2,Y VARCHAR2,Z OUT VARCHAR2);
END;
/
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY POLYPACK
IS
PROCEDURE PROC1(N NUMBER, N1 OUT NUMBER)
IS
BEGIN
N1 := N * 5;
END PROC1;
PROCEDURE PROC1(X VARCHAR2,Y VARCHAR2, Z OUT VARCHAR2)
IS
BEGIN
Z := CONCAT(X,Y);
END PROC1;
END POLYPACK;
/

Execution
VARIABLE N NUMBER
VARIABLE ST VARCHAR2(100)

EXECUTE POLYPACK.PROC1(5,:N)
PRINT N

EXECUTE POLYPACK.PROC1(RAVI, KIRAN,:ST)

PRINT ST

Creating Database Triggers

Objectives
After completing this lesion, you should be able to
do the following:
Describe different types of triggers
Describe database triggers and their use
Create Database triggers
Describe database trigger firing rules
Remove database triggers

Trigger - Levels
These Triggers are written at three different levels
Schema

TABLE

ROW

A Schema level trigger is a trigger which is written at

database level or user level.. These triggers can be
written by DBA only.
Any user can write table and ROW level triggers. Table
level triggers are ment for providing security at object
(Table) level.
Row level triggers are ment for validations

Types of Triggers
A trigger:
is a PL/SQL block or a PL/SQL procedure
associated with a table, view, schema, or the
database.
Executes implicitly whenever a particular event
takes place
Can be either
Application trigger : Fires whenever an event
occurs with a particular application.
Database trigger: Fires whenever a data event
(such as DML) or system event (such as logon
or shutdown) occurs on a schema or database.

Types of Triggers

ROW Triggers and Statement Triggers

BEFORE or AFTER Triggers
INSTRAD-OF triggers
Triggers on System events and User Events

Row Triggers : A row trigger is fired each time the table is affected by triggering
statement. For example, if an UPDATE statement updates multiple rows of a
table, a row trigger is fired once for each row affected by the UPDATE statement.
If a triggering statement affects no rows, a row trigger is not executed at all.
A Row trigger is fired once for each row affected by the command. These triggers
are used to check for the validity of the data in the triggering statements and
rows affected.

Statement Triggers A statement trigger is fired once on behalf of the

triggering statement, regardless of the number of rows in the table that the
triggering statement affects (even no rows are affected). For example, if a
DELETE statement deletes several rows from a table, a statement level
DELETE trigger is fired only once, regardless of how many rows are
deleted from the table.
BEFORE and AFTER Triggers When defining a trigger, you can specify the
trigger timing- whether the trigger action is to be executed before or after the
triggering statement. BEFORE and AFTER apply to both statement and row
triggers.
BEFORE and AFTER triggers fired by DML statements can be defined only on
tables, not on views. However, triggers on the on the base table(s) of a view fired
if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement is issued against the view.
BEFORE and AFTER triggers fired by DDL statements can be defined only on
the database or a schema, not on particular tables.

INSTEAD-OF Triggers These triggers provide a transparent way of modifying

views that cannot be modified directly through SQL DML statements. These

triggers are called INSTEAD-OF triggers because, unlike other types of triggers,
Oracle fires the trigger instead of executing the triggering statement.

Guidelines for Designing Triggers

Design triggers to:
- Perform related actions
- Centralize global operations
Do not design triggers :
- Where functionality is already built into the Oracle
server
- That duplicates other triggers
Create stored procedures and invoke them in a trigger, if
the PL/SQL code is very length.
The excessive use of triggers can result in complex
interdependencies, which may be difficult to maintain in
large applications.

How triggers are Used?

Triggers can supplement the standard capabilities of Oracle to provide a highly
customized database management system.
For example,

A trigger can restrict DML operations against a table to those issued

during regular business hours.

A trigger could also restrict DML operations to occur only at certain times
during weekdays.

Other uses of triggers are to

Prevent invalid transaction

Enforce complex security authorizations

Enforce complex business rules

Gather statistics on table access

Modify table data when DML statements are issued against views

Syntax for Table Level Trigger

CREATE OR REPLCE TRIGGER <triggername>
BEFORE | AFTER INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE ON <table>
[DECLARE]
BEGIN
ST1;
ST2;
[EXCEPTION]

END;

Syntax for ROW Level Trigger

CREATE OR REPLCE TRIGGER <triggername>
BEFORE | AFTER INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE ON <table>
FOR EACH ROW
[DECLARE]
BEGIN
ST1;
ST2;
[EXCEPTION]

END;

Example to create Table level or Statement triggers

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER secure_emp
BEFORE INSERT ON emp
BEGIN
IF TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DY) IN(SAT,SUN) OR
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,HH24:MI) NOT BETWEEN 08:00 AND 18:00 THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001,You may Insert into EMP table only
during business hours..);
END IF;
END;
/
Note:- RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is a server-side built-in procedure that
returns an error to the user and causes the PL/SQL block to fail.
When a database trigger fails, the Oracle server automatically rolls the triggering
statement back.

Testing secure_emp
INSERT INTO EMP (empno, ename) VALUES (101,ravi);
ERROR at line 1
ORA-20001 You may insert into EMP table only during business hours
ORA-06512 at PLSQL SECURE_emp, LINE 4
Ora-04088 error during execution of trigger PLSQL SECURE_EMP
Note : The row might be inserted if you are in a different time zone from the
database server. The trigger fires even if your system clock is within these
business hours.

Combining Triggering Events

You can combine several triggering events into one by taking advantage of the
special conditional predicates INSERTING, UPDATING and DELETEING within
the trigger body.
Example
Create one trigger to restrict all the data manipulation events on the EMP table to
certain business hours, Monday through Friday.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER secure_emp
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE ON emp
BEGIN
IF TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DY) IN(SAT,SUN) OR
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,HH24:MI) NOT BETWEEN 08:00 AND 18:00 THEN
IF INSERTING THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001,You may Insert into EMP table
only during business hours..);
ELSIF UPDATING THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001,You may UPDATE EMP table
only during business hours..);
ELSIF DELETING THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001,You may DELETE from EMP
table only during business hours..);
END IF;
END IF;
END;
/

Creating ROW Trigger

You can create a BEFORE row trigger in order to prevent the triggering operation
from succeeding if a certain condition is violated.
Create a trigger to allow only certain employees to be able to earn a salary of
more than 15,000.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER restrict_salary
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF sal ON emp
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF (:NEW.job NOT IN (CLERK, SALESMAN) AND :NEW sal > 15000
THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20002,Employees cannot earn this
amount);
END IF:
END;
/

Using OLD and NEW Qualifiers

Within a ROW trigger, reference the value of a column before and after the data
change by prefixing it with the OLD and NEW qualifiers.

Data Operation
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE

Old Value
Null
Value before update
Value before delete

New Value
Inserted value
Value after update
NULL

The OLD and NEW qualifiers are available only in ROW triggers
Prefix these qualifiers a colon ( : ) in every SQL and PL/SQL statement
There is no colon ( : ) prefix if the qualifiers are referenced in the WHEN
restricting condition

Note :- Row triggers can decrease the performance if you do a lot of

updates on larger tables.

Using OLD and NEW Qualifiers

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER AUDIT_EMP_VALUES
AFTER INSERT ON emp
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO audit_emp_table
(user_name,timestamp,id,old_name,new_name,old_salary,new_salary)
values(user,sysdate, :OLD.empno, :OLD.ename, :NEW.ename, :OLD.sal,
:NEW.sal);
END;
/

Exercise
1) Write a trigger to access the table in a specified time
2) Write a trigger to accept only valid updations (Example, fire the trigger if
the employee salary is modified with lesser value than his original salary)
3) Write a trigger to accept unique values in to a particular column of a table,
when we are placing a new record.
4) Write a trigger to update stock automatically when customer makes a
transaction
Itemmaster
Itemno

itemname stock
Itemtran

Transaction_no

itemno transaction_date transaction_type Quantity

ROSEDAWSON*315
EXPECTO*315
J@NUARY:-)h0ME315