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Hierarchical architecture of self-assembled carbon nitride

nanocrystals{
Published on 05 March 2007. Downloaded by University of California - Riverside on 17/03/2014 21:43:42.

Li Yang,*a Paul W. May,a YiZhong Huangb and Lei Yinc

Received 7th February 2007, Accepted 26th February 2007
First published as an Advance Article on the web 5th March 2007
DOI: 10.1039/b701914a

A range of complex nanostructures have been observed

by the self-assembly of carbon nitride nanocrystals, which
involved an increase of the structural complexity from
0D A 1D A 2D A 3D evolution.
Over the past decade, self-assembly and alignment of nanostructured materials have been widely investigated.1 It is believed that
the ability of nanostructures to self-assemble in this manner
provides potential building blocks for microscale or nanoscale
devices. Many types of inorganic nanoparticles have been investigated, including metals, metal oxides, and other semiconductors.
These inorganic nanocrystals self-assemble into a range of structures, such as compact hexagonal networks, rings, strips, tubes,
columns and labyrinths.2 For example, ZnO forms micron- and
submicron-scale dandelion-like structures, which are comprised
of single-crystalline building units (either nanorods (NRs) or
nanoparticles (NPs)),3 and which can be constructed via a modified
Kirkendall process in solution, where the pre-formed oxide layer
serves as a shell template for the initial nucleation and growth.
Also, uniform Sb2S3 nanorod bundles have been synthesized on a
large scale using a hydrothermal technique, at a temperature of
180 uC for 20 h.4
However, to date, there has been little effort devoted toward the
understanding of the self-assembly processes of Group IVV
compounds, such as carbon nitride. Carbon nitride has been the
subject of numerous publications since the prediction by Liu and
Cohen5 in 1989 that crystalline C3N4 should have superhard
properties. However, successful synthesis of bulk amounts of this
material still remains a challenge. The synthesis difficulties are
due to its low thermodynamic stability and complex bonding
environment. Recently Li and co-workers6 demonstrated a range
of self-assembled carbon nitride morphologies (including nanotube
bundles, aligned nanoribbons and microspheres) can be prepared
by a solvothermal technique. Also, our recent findings7 indicated
that the instantaneous high temperature, high pressure and high
density conditions that arise when a high-intensity focused laser
beam impinges upon a graphite target confined by a thin layer of
liquid ammonia can promote growth of crystalline carbon nitride
nanoparticles. In this communication, we will demonstrate a
a

School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantocks Close, Bristol,

UK BS8 1TS. E-mail: Li.Yang@bristol.ac.uk; Fax: +44-117-925-0612;
Tel: +44-117-33-17555
b
Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK OX1 3PH
c
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, Queens
Building, University Walk, Bristol, UK BS8 1TR
{ Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: a wavelengthdispersed optical emission spectrum of the plume accompanying the laser
ablation process. See DOI: 10.1039/b701914a

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry 2007

successful synthesis of carbon nitride hierarchical nanostructures

via liquid phase pulsed laser ablation (LP-PLA), whereby the
nanocrystals self-assemble into complex three-dimensional (3D)
superstructures. Fabrication of these 3D carbon nitride structures
from small building blocks via self-organization suggests that
LP-PLA may be a brute force method of synthesizing novel
materials that have hitherto been inaccessible using milder, more
conventional techniques.
The nanostructures were prepared via a LP-PLA system detailed
elsewhere.7a Briefly, a solid graphite target was placed in a sealed
stainless steel cell at room temperature containing 35 ml of
2535% ammonia solution (about 510 mm liquid layer). The laser
beam (Nd : YAG, 532 nm, pulse duration 15 ns, operating at
10 Hz, fluence 50125 mJ pulse21) was directed by a prism and
then focused using a 25 mm focal-length lens through a quartz
window in the top wall of the cell, then through ammonia to form
a y0.5 mm diameter spot on the surface of the graphite target.
Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) was used to monitor the
composition of the plasma accompanying the LP-PLA process
(see ref. 7(d) for further details). Following ablation for 0.510 h,
a suspension containing a mixture of unreacted graphite and
ablation product, both in the form of NPs, remained in the cell.
This suspension changed from colourless, to pale brown (2 h), and
then dark brown (5 h), dependent on the ablation time, indicating
an increase in solid product and/or a change in composition of the
solid due to prolonged interaction with the laser. The suspension
was stable, with no precipitate being observed for months or even
longer. The graphite sediments were filtered and removed as much
as possible by boiling with 70% perchloric acid before further
characterization.
For materials analysis, the suspension was pipetted onto a
silicon wafer or TEM grid, and then allowed to dry in air or in a
sealed tube. This procedure allowed the time taken to evaporate
the liquid to be controlled. The product was characterized using
X-ray diffraction (XRD, Bruker-AXS D8 Powder Diffractometer,
Cu Ka radiation), field emission scanning electron microscopy
(FE-SEM, JEOL 6300 F), transmission electron microscopy
(TEM, JEOL 1200 EX, 120 kV), high-resolution (HR) TEM
(JEOL 3000 F, 300 kV), energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX)
and micro-diffraction analysis (MDA).
It was found that the size and morphology of the ablation
products were a complicated function of laser power, ablation
time, ammonia concentration and drying time. Four main classes
of structure are identified in the ablation product, categorised
based upon their shape and size. The first of these were irregular,
but roughly spherical NPs which were found in large quantities
after every experiment (Fig. 1a). They have been identified as
crystalline carbon nitride7 and are about 10 nm in diameter. The
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Fig. 1 (a) Dense clumps of NPs deposited on the Si substrate. (b)

Representative XRD pattern. (c)(e) SEM images of carbon nitride nanopetals for ablation times of: (c) 0.5 h, (d) 2 h, and (e) 3 h. (f) Overall
flower-like structure following 5 h laser irradiation (synthesis conditions:
35% ammonia solution, laser power 125 mJ).

quantity of these NPs and their location with respect to the larger
structures (see later) were dependent upon the deposition and
drying conditions.
The second class of structure had the shape of thin plates with
rounded edges. Since they were the components of the larger
flower-like structures (described later), they have been termed
nano-petals. XRD analysis of these nano-petals showed that they
were crystalline, and all the diffraction peaks were consistent with
(h00) preferential orientation, as shown in Fig. 1b. The crystallographic information was indexed to hexagonal b-C3N4 (P63/m
and c0 = 2.4041 A
.8
(176)) with lattice constants a0 = 6.4017 A
This indicated that these nano-petals were two-dimensional (2D)
aligned crystallites of b-C3N4 which preferentially aligned
themselves perpendicularly to the surface of the Si substrate, as
shown in Fig. 1c and 1d. The number and length of these nanopetals increased with increasing laser ablation time from 0.52 h
for the same laser fluence. With even longer ablation times (3 h),
the concentration of these nano-petals in the suspension increased,
and upon subsequent drying of the liquid, they began to aggregate
and self-assemble (Fig. 1e). By carefully controlling the drying
process, flower-like spiked, crystalline superstructures were
formed (Fig. 1f). This third class of structure, now fully threedimensional, with sizes 120 mm, is created when many nano-petal
structures coalesce at a common centre with multi-fold symmetry.
Fig. 2a shows a symmetric carbon nitride flower together with
its nano-petal building blocks (which look like flattened rods in the
TEM). Fig. 2b shows that these nano-petals appear fused together
and interwoven to form a lattice-like framework of the flower-like
superstructure. The figure also shows the NPs that surround each
nano-petal, and which fill in the holes within the framework to
produce a dense, solid structure. EDX analysis confirms that
carbon and nitrogen are present in all these structures, and MDA
(Fig. 2c) was also consistent with crystalline hexagonal b-phase
1256 | J. Mater. Chem., 2007, 17, 12551257

Fig. 2 (a) TEM image of samples produced by LP-PLA of a graphite

target in 35% ammonia solution (laser fluence 125 mJ pulse21) for 5 h. (b)
A higher magnification image of the framed region in (a), showing high
density of NPs surrounding the nano-petal framework. (c) [001] Zone axis
MDA pattern from the tips of nano-petals in (b). Arrows point to different
sets of [001] reflections (see text). (d) HR-TEM image recorded from the
edge of the flower nanostructure that is oriented along [001]. (e) TEM
image of a hollow flower formed after 8 h LP-PLA and prolonged drying.

carbon nitride oriented along the [001] zone axis.8 Several [001]
patterns in Fig. 2c can be identified at the same time, indicating
that the nano-petals consist of several domains, with different
rotational orientations contributing to the diffraction pattern. The
HR-TEM image in Fig. 2d shows that the nano-petals at the
very edge of the flower contain very few defects and are single
crystalline, as was anticipated from the MDA pattern. The lattice
fringes (d200 = 0.28 nm, d140 = 0.15 nm) and their angles (106u)
are in good agreement with the calculated values for hexagonal
b-C3N4.8
The smaller NPs, which lie in and around the nano-petal
framework comprising the flowers, appeared to be mobile with
respect to this framework, and diffused outward from the centre of
the flower with longer drying times. The results of this diffusion
can be seen in Fig. 2e, where the solid carbon nitride flower
(similar to that in Fig. 2a) has become hollow. The nanoparticles
have diffused from the centre but remain loosely attached to the
outside, making the outer shell of the flower appear fuzzy. The
thickness of the fuzzy shell was y140 nm and that of the hollow
core was y200 nm (shown as a lighter colour in the image). When
the suspension was placed onto a hot-plate at 200 uC, the
hollowing process was accelerated, but there was no obvious
morphology change of the overall flower.
For lower ammonia concentration (25%), a fourth class of
structure was observed. Instead of nano-petals, the carbon nitride
formed one-dimensional (1D) elongated nanoneedles or nanorods
(NRs). For low laser power (50 mJ) and short ablation time (2 h),
the product contained mostly a sparse collection of these isolated
NRs (Fig. 3a). However, with increasing laser power (125 mJ) and
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Fig. 3 (a) TEM image of isolated carbon nitride NRs obtained by

LP-PLA in 25% ammonia solution (laser fluence at 50 mJ pulse21, 2 h
ablation time). (b) TEM image of an incomplete carbon nitride flower
(25% ammonia solution, laser fluence at 125 mJ pulse21, 10 h ablation
time) formed by the coalesced NRs. The arrows highlight the channels
between the shell and the core. (c) After drying for 12 h, numerous aligned
interwoven NRs form the framework of the flower. (d) After 24 h drying,
the NRs have restructured to form 3D shapes.

ablation time (10 h), the concentration of NRs increased, and in

some regions they began to coalesce into incomplete flowers
(Fig. 3b). Just as for the nano-petals mentioned earlier in Fig. 2(b),
these NRs also appeared to be fused together into a similar
lattice-like framework (Fig. 3c), and the radial distribution of the
NRs formed channels leading from the centre of the flower to the
edge. These channels may form the conduits along which the NPs
diffuse outwards. When the evaporation time of the liquid was
increased to from 12 h to 24 h, the interwoven NRs developed a
more complicated 3D structure, as shown in Fig. 3d. A possible
explanation is that the longer time for evaporation of liquid
allows sufficient time for the diffusion of all the NPs out of the
flowers, leaving some liquid trapped in the gaps between the NR
framework. With prolonged time, the wet NR framework has
the opportunity to recrystallise or restructure into the shapes
shown in Fig. 3d.
In order to investigate the source of the energetic species present
during the laser ablation, the constituents of the plasma were
measured using OES. ESI{ Fig. S1 shows a wavelength-resolved
emission spectrum of the ablation plume induced by 532 nm laser
excitation. Emission from atomic C and C+ is observed as a direct
result of the ablation process. But the presence of very sharp
atomic H, N+ and N peaks shows that the ammonia is also being
dissociated in the PLA process, either directly by interaction with
the high energy laser, or indirectly as a result of reactions with the

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry 2007

high-kinetic-energy ejected atoms and particles in the plume. Such

intense plume reactions have been seen previously during PLA of
graphite in vacuum or in gaseous nitrogen or argon backgrounds.9
In the spectral range 350425 nm, intense emission from the CN
Violet band was observed, and this confirms that a reaction has
occurred between carbon atoms from the ablated solid and N
from the liquid ammonia. The spectrum also displays strong C2
Swan band emission. The highly energetic CN and C2 species
in the ablation plume may serve as potential sources for carbon
and nitrogen combination.10 When CN species reached the
supersaturation level, heterogeneous nucleation in such a short
time might result in the self-assembly of the hierarchical superstructures described here. Further investigation of this proposed
mechanism is required.
In summary, this work has shown that it is possible to form
self-assembled nanostructures and microstructures of crystalline
carbon nitride. Through pulsed laser ablation of graphite in
ammonia solutions, 3D well-arranged architectures could be
generated. The mechanism appears to involve an increase of the
structural complexity from 0D NPs to 1D NRs, and then
broadening of these into 2D nano-petals, which finally coalesce to
3D flowers. Factors such as the ammonia concentration, the
reaction time and the rate of evaporation of the liquid are
important in defining the structures observed. It is proposed
that CN radicals in the ablation plasma play a key role in the
growth mechanism. This unique process provides more insight
into laser-induced chemical reactions in general, and of crystalline
carbon nitride phases in particular, and may provide an alternative
synthesis method for other composite nanostructures.
This work was supported by Universities UK via the Overseas
Research Scholarship (ORS) scheme and the University of Bristol.

Notes and references

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