BATLS

J R Army Med Corps 2000; 146: 110-114
BATLS
Battlefield Advanced Trauma Life Support
(BATLS)
A new BATLS manual has now been
prepared under the Authority of the
Professor of Military Surgery. In order
to disseminate this information widely
within the Corps, this Manual will
appear in sections in the Corps Journal.
This version of the Manual supercedes
all previous versions and is now in use
on current and future courses.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
History of Advanced Trauma

Life Support
0101. There are marked differences in the
epidemiology of trauma in different
countries. In 1983, only eight people died
from gunshot wounds in the United
Kingdom. In the same year, the figure in
West Germany was 53, approximately one
per million of population. Canada had the
same ratio with 20 deaths, but in the United
States of America with a population of 226
million the figure was 10,838. By 1994, this
figure had risen to a shattering 37,500 deaths
due to firearms related injury from all causes.
In the same year, the United Kingdom with
a population of 58.5 million had 261 deaths
from firearms. It is not surprising the
Americans have a concept of trauma that we
in Britain do not have. In America there is
also a geographical problem: the nearest
major trauma centre can be 150 miles away.
0102. In February 1976, a surgeon
piloting his own aeroplane crashed in a rural
cornfield in Nebraska. He was badly injured,
his wife was killed, three of his children had
critical injuries and a fourth child minor
injuries. He considered the treatment that he
and his children received to be woefully
inadequate and said When I can provide
better care in the field with limited resources than
what my children and I received at the primary
care facility, there is something wrong with the
system and the system has to be changed. (Sic).
0103. As a consequence of this incident
the need for training was identified.With the
help of the Lincoln Medical Education
Foundation and the Southeast Nebraska
Emergency Medical Services, a prototype
Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS)
course was devised.
0104. The project developed and was
adopted in 1979 by the American College of
Surgeons Committee on Trauma. As a result
and with further revisions, a national trauma
programme was established. The original

targets were those doctors who do not
normally deal with trauma as part of their
daily lives, but now all doctors are expected
to be capable of managing the trauma patient
during the immediate post-trauma phase.
0105. The Advanced Trauma Life Support
courses are now run in many centres
throughout the United Kingdom. It has also
been modified in various parts of the world.
In Australia, for example, it has become the
Early Management for Severe Trauma
(EMST) course.
0106. In the United Kingdom, road traffic
accidents are the most common cause of
trauma deaths in peacetime; this is still true
in most states in America but the proporation
of penetrating trauma (gunshot and stab
wounds) is much higher.
In America and Australia, trauma services
are regionalized with all major cases
bypassing the smaller hospitals in favour of a
regional trauma centre. In general, this does
not apply in the United Kingdom.
History of Battlefield Advanced

Trauma Life Support
0107. Following the attendance on one of
the American courses by the late Brigadier
Ian Haywood, a former Professor of Military
Surgery, the need was identified for a similar
course modified for military requirements.
The Department of Military Surgery at the
Royal Army Medical College [now the Royal
Defence Medical College (RDMC)] and the
Army Medical Services Training Group [now
the Defence Medical Services Training
Centre (DMSTC)] were tasked with
devising a course for the British Army.
0108. Although the Battlefield Advanced
Trauma Life Support (BATLS) Course is
about training doctors for war, there is
nothing new in this. Medical officers in
former times had to deal with the injuries of
the day - contusions, lacerations, penetrating
wounds and broken bones - and under the
primitive conditions prevailing at the time.
The Modern Era

0109. Todays medical services still have to
deal with similar wounds, but they also have
to contend with injuries produced by
modern weapons - including not only
gunshot wounds, but more importantly,
multiple injuries produced by fragments with
relatively high velocities and capable of
111
BATLS Chapters 1&2
producing high energy-transfer wounds.

They also have the problems of the effects of
blast and the horrors of extensive burns.
Fragments and bullets

0110. Bombs, shells, grenades and other
explosive devices, cause death and injury due
to victims being hit by primary and
secondary fragments and due to the effects of
blast. In older weapons, primary fragments
were derived from the weapon casing and, as
such, had wide variation in size, shape and
weight. These weapons produced random
fragmentation.
0111. Modern fragmentation munitions
are designed to deliver many hundreds of
preformed fragments of different types.
These fragments are much more uniform in
size, shape and weight. Examples include, the
pre-notched wire in a hand grenade, flechets
in bomblets and etched plates in shells and
mortar bombs. These weapons are referred
to as improved (pre-formed) fragmentation
devices.
0112. Improved fragmentation devices are
designed not to increase lethality but, to
increase the likelihood of a hit. In fact, the
lethality has fallen (See Table 1-1). The
concept of the use of these weapons is a
simple one: increase the likelihood of a hit,
generate more enemy casualties and choke
his logistic evacuation chain. The same
concept also applies when these weapons are
used by the enemy against friendly forces!
Table 1-1 Lethality of penetrating missiles
Type
Lethality
Random fragmentation
devices
Improved (Pre-formed)
Fragmentation devices
Military bullet
1 in 5 (Shell)
1 in 10 (Grenade)
1 in 7 (Shell)
1 in 20 (Grenade)
1 in 3
0113. Early rifle bullets depended on their

mass and shape in order to produce injury,
velocity was less important. For modern rifle
and machine gun bullets, mass has fallen
considerably but velocity risen dramatically.
Given that the energy of a missile is derived
from the formula 1/2JMV2 [M = mass, V =
velocity], this means the available energy in a
modern military bullet has risen several fold.
The potential lethality of these bullets is
shown in Table 1-1 and well illustrated by the
figures in Table 1-2.
Table 1-2 Site of injury and outcome for 67 soldiers injured
by Armalite rifle bullets (5.56mm), Northern Ireland 19691979 (1)
Site of Injury
Dead on
arrival
Died in
hospital
Survived
Head (brain)
Head (face)
Neck
Chest
Thoracoabdominal
Abdominal
Upper limb
Lower limb
2
1
4
4
2
9
1
5
11
13
Total
14
45
Injuries caused by fragments

and bullets
0114. The severity of injuries caused by
fragments and bullets is not just a question of
what hits you and what is struck, it is
multifactorial. Amongst the many factors
that determine the severity of injury caused
by missiles are:
Mass
Velocity
Shape and stability: both are determinants
of the amount of energy deposited in the
tissue struck.
Density of tissue: the denser the tissue the
greater the retardation of fragment or
bullet allowing for higher absorption of
energy with more tissue damage.
Length of wound track: the longer the
track the greater the chance of energy
exchange.
Cavitation/shock
wave: high-energy
transfer wounds caused by military rifle
bullets cause both.The role of cavitation in
causing
tissue
damage
remains
controversial, the role of the shock wave in
damaging structures such as bone, arteries
and nerves is well established.
0115. The ballistic characteristics of a
fragment or bullet should not be confused
with the pathophysiological effects of injury.
A bullet may enter a thigh, hit the femur and
deposit all its energy. In so doing, it can
shatter the femur causing considerable tissue
damage.The same bullet can enter the thigh,
miss the femur and exit without hitting any
vital structures causing considerably less
tissue damage. The ballistic characteristics
are the same, the pathophysiological results
are fundamentally different.
0116. Despite advances in weapon
technology, the hospital mortality following
battlefield injury has been reduced
significantly during this century; from 8.1%
in World War One, to half that in World War
Two (due mainly to advances in resuscitation
and surgery) and reduced still further in
Korea and Vietnam.
0117. In the Falklands Campaign of 1982
there were over 250 deaths; the majority
occurring before arrival at a surgical facility.
Those casualties who reached a field hospital
had a survival rate of 99.5%. In the Gulf War
of 1991, casualties were fewer than
anticipated and the survival rate was high. In
one British Army field hospital, 63 casualties
with penetrating missile injuries underwent
surgery; most had multiple fragment wounds
involving two or more body systems, ranging
from 1 to 47 hits with an average of 9 hits.
The average lag-time before surgery was over
10 hours for allied casualties and 24 hours
for enemy casualties.
0118. To continue to improve survival
rates we must look at the situation before
casualties reach hospital. They must be kept
alive from point of wounding to arrival at a
BATLS Chapters 1&2
112
surgical centre, otherwise the expert

facilities there will be to no avail.
The aim of BATLS is to give the
surgeon a live casualty.
Scope of the BATLS/BARTS

Course
0119. Much research has been devoted to
finding out why and when casualites die. A
United States Army Medical Corps officer,
Colonel Ronald F Bellamy, has analysed a
large number of deaths in battle. His data
are supported by analysis of various British
campaigns including that of Urban Terrorist
activity in Northern Ireland. These data
provide a model for a military trauma
population and for the role of resuscitation
in the field.
Killed in action (KIA)

0120. This group are those who die on
the battlefield before reaching a fixed
medical facility; 90% of US soldiers fatally
wounded in Vietnam were in this category
and 70% of these died within five minutes
of wounding.
0121. The common causes of KIAs are:
Exsanguinating haemorrhage (46%) (2):
80% bleeding from major vessels and
structures within the torso (non
compressible haemorrhage).
20% bleeding from major vessel and soft
tissue injury in one or more limbs
(compressible haemorrhage).
Penetrating brain injury (21%)(2). These
are devastating injuries and offer little
potential for improved outcome even with
early surgical intervention.
Respiratory injury (4.5%)(2):
Airway obstructions.
Open penumothorax.
Tension penumothorax.
Combinsations of the above (9%)(2). A
combination of brain injury and
exsanguination is the most common.
Mutilating blast injury (10%)(2).
Died of wounds (DoW)

0122. These are casualties who expire
after reaching a fixed treatment facility and
constitute 10% of this military trauma
population. Available data indicate half of
them die within 24 hours of wounding.
There are three main causes of death:
Brain injury (4%).
Hypovolaemic shock (2%). This was
usually due to continued bleeding from
the liver and/or pelvis with or without
coagulopathy.
Sepsis and multi-organ failure (4%).
0123. Analysis of mainly civilian trauma
data shows a trimodal death distribution:
Instantaneous. These occur within seconds
to minutes of injury and include injuries
to the brain, spinal cord, heart and major

vessels.
Early. These extend from the first few
minutes to a few hours. Examples include
airway and respiratory compromise,
continuing haemorrhage and subdural
and extra-dural haematomas. It is in this
phase, often referred to as The Golden
Hour of trauma management, that
properly trained individuals can save
many lives.
Late. These occur from a few hours to
days or even weeks after injury. The
majority are due to sepsis with associated
multi-organ failure.
The role of BATLS and BARTS

0124. The concept of managing the
severely injured within the golden hour may
be applicable during operations other than
war. In war fighting, this concept will be
severely constrained by the tactical situation
on the battlefield, particularly the problems
of time and distance. So where does BATLS
fit into the concept of medical care on the
battlefield in war fighting? Rather than
consider a trimodal death distribution, it is
probably better to think of three casualty
population groups:
KIAs (17-20%). This group have fatal
injuries and will die irrespective of the
level of sophistication of available medical
care.
Moderate to minor injuries (65-70%).
This group require the well documented
methods of battlefield care for example,
analgesia, antibiotics, limb splintage and
soft tissue wound excision. The majority
of this group are limb injuries.
Severe but potentially survivable injury
(10-15%). A favourable outcome for this
group is effected by timely application of
sophisticated trauma care. This group is
recognised by appropriate triage and
includes;
airway
and
respiratory
compromise,
management
of
compressible haemorrhage, recognising
those
with
non
compressible
haemorrhage needing urgent or early
surgery and appropriate use of
intravenous fluid resuscitation. BATLS
and BARTS training is aimed at giving you
the skills to save lives in this third group.You
can also significantly influence the late
outcome (death due to multi-organ
failure) by vigorous and correct initial
management, for example: restoration of
tissue
perfusion
oxygenation,
minimizing wound sepsis and, vitally, by
recognising the need for early surgical
intervention, followed by intensive
medical and nursing care.
0125. The battlefield casualtys chance of
survival improves significantly after arrival
at a field hospital. Military constraints limit
how far forward hospital surgical facilities
can be deployed. This is why it is vital to
113
BATLS Chapters 1&2
provide trauma life support in the prehospital phase of casualty management.

Despite changing concepts of the
deployment of surgical teams on the
battlefield of the future, it is vital that:
Every medical attendant possesses the
basic skills to keep casualties alive at
Role One and Role Two or until they
reach a surgical facility.
0126. The BATLS course concentrates
on teaching these skills. You must learn to
assess casualties using the five senses,
tempered by the sixth sense commonsense! These are likely to be the
only diagnostic aids available to you until
the casualty is moved to a field medical
facility. The correct application of
BATLS/BARTS principles, particularly in
an austere and potentially hostile
environment with limited equipment and
diagnostic aids, will enable you to save lives.
0127. The responsibility for BATLS
training rests with the Professor of Military
Surgery. Under his guidance, a group of
experienced lecturers from all three
Services - both Regular and Reserve, form
the BATLS Training Team.
0128. Satisfactory performers receive a
BATLS or BARTS certificate. The
certificate is valid for six years for BATLS
and four years for BARTS, after which a
revalidation course is necessary.
References
1. Derived from Hostile Action Casualty System
Survey of British Service personnel injured - NI.
2. Percentage figures derived from the collective date
referred to in paragraph 0119.
CHAPTER 2
INITIAL
ASSESSMENT &
MANAGEMENT
0201. On successfully completing this

topic, you will be able to:
Identify the correct sequence to be
followed in assessing and managing
battlefield casualties.
Understand the concept of primary and
secondary survey.
Carry out an initial assessment and
management survey on a casualty.
Trauma Management
0202. Managing trauma is stressful even
in a good working environment. On the
battlefield, conditions are far from ideal. It
may be dark and uncomfortable, noisy, wet
and cold; it will certainly be dangerous
and you may be tired, hungry and
frightened.
0203. Training allows you to respond
automatically regardless of fear and
environment. In military terms you acquire
a drill. In the heat of battle you can perform,
with a minimum of mental effort, a drill ( a
practical skill) that you have learnt in

peacetime.
0204. When dealing with casualites you
must consider their management in four
phases:
Primary survey
Identify lifethreatening
problems
Resuscitation
Deal with these
problems
Secondary survey Top-to-toe
examination
Definitive care
Specific
management
Primary Survey
0205. The primary survey is the most
important phase; it is easily remembered as
ABCDE
Airway and cervical spine control.
Breathing and ventilation.
Circulation and haemorrhage control.
Disability (Displaced brain ) or
neurological status.
Exposure depending on environment.
0206. Do the primary survey as follows:
Airway and cervical spine control. Do not be
distracted by other injuries; the airway must
take priority. BATLS does not attribute
the same emphasis to potential cervical
spine injury as the equivalent civilian
course (ATLS). Nevertheless, the
integrity of the cervical spine must be
considered. It is always safer to assume a
cervical spine fracture in casualties with
multiple injuries, especially if there is
blunt injury above the level of the clavicle
or in an unconscious casualty. Then
consider:
Breathing and ventilation. Look at the neck
to see if the trachea is deviated or the neck
veins engorged. Look at the casualtys
chest to see if it is expanding equally and
for obvious open chest wounds. If there is
compromised ventilation:
What is the reason? Do something about it!
Remember that of all those who die from
chest injuries, 25% die unnecessarily and
85% of these could be saved by primary
care! Then consider:
Circulation and haemorrahge control.
Haemorrhage must be arrested if possible
and the circulating volume restored to an
acceptable level. This applies to casualties
with
compressible
haemorrhage.
Uncontrollable (non compressible)
haemorrhage requires urgent surgical
intervention and a different approach to
fluid volume restoration (see paragraph
0527 and Table 5.2). Only now should
you consider:
Disability or neurological status. This is a
simple AVPU assessment of the casualtys
BATLS Chapters 1&2
114
level of consciousness and pupil state.You

want to know if the casualty is:
Alert. Voice responsive. Pain responsive.
Unresponsive.
You also want to know if the pupils are
equal, the pupillary size and if they react to
light (indicating Displaced brain). There is
not much you can do about the neurological
state at this stage other than ensuring
cerebral oxygenation and perfusion, but you
need to record the findings so that any
change can be appreciated later. Remember
that the level of consciousness not only
refelcts the neurological status, but can be
influenced
by
hypovolaemia
and
hypoperfusion.
Exposure. In hospital, this must be total
but at Role One and Role Two there may
be constraints.
0207. Remember also to speak to the
casualty at the very beginning; an alert
response can tell you a lot about his
respiration and cerebral perfusion. To be
able to speak, the casualty must:
Have a patent airway.
Have a reasonable tidal volume to
phonate.
Have reasonable cerebral perfusion to
comprehend and answer.
Resuscitation
0208. The resuscitation phase is carried
out simultaneously with the primary survey,
with life-threatening conditions not only
identified but managed as they are found.
0209. If available, administer supplementary oxygen to all serious casualties
with maximum flow rate through a tightfitting mask and reservoir. Establish and
maintain a minimum of two large-calibre
intravenous lines; 16 gauge is the smallest
adequate size. Assess resuscitation efforts
and monitor the casualty by measuring
physiological parameters. These include:
Alertness, is it improving or deteriorating?
Respiratory rate
Pulse rate and rhythm
Pulse pressure
Capillary refill time
Blood pressure (presence of radial,
femoral, or carotid pulse (See paragraph
0517)
Urinary output
Arterial blood gases (if facilities are
available)
0210. Consider the insertion of urinary

and nasogastric catheters during this phase.
Once you have successfully completed the
primary survey and resuscitation phases,
you can then proceed to the secondary
survey.
Secondary Survey
0211. You carry out the secondary survey
when the casualty is stable. Remember that
casualties have backs and sides as well as
fronts; bottoms as well as tops; and lots of
holes, both natural and as a result of injury.
You must be systematic, going through a
top-to-toe process as follows:
Scalp and vault of skull
Face and base of skull
Neck and cervical spine
Chest
Abdomen
Pelvis
Remainder of spine and limbs
Neurological examination
0212. Do not forget the holes. Every
orifice merits a finger, a light or a tube.
Definitive Care
0213. In the forward areas, you will rarely
be concerned with definitive care. This is
more likely to take place in the rear areas.
Nevertheless, it is important to realize that
definitive care forms the fourth and final
phase in BATLS management. It is equally
important to remember that if you do not
get the primary survey and resuscitation
phases correct, definitive care may be in the
hands of the War Graves Commission!
Summary
No matter where you are, remember - as
you approach every casualty the following
questions should be going through your
mind;
Is the airway patent?
Is the casualty breathing?
Is there life-threatening external or
internal blood loss?
A consistent, systematic approach to
the primary survey is vital to the
casualtys survival.
The BATLS manual is prepared by the
BATLS Training Team under the authority
of the Professor of Military Surgery who
remains responsible for its technical
content.
J R Army Med Corps 2000; 146: 215-227
BATLS
(BATLS)
CHAPTER 3
TRIAGE
Aim
0301. On successfully completing this
topic you will have a sound understanding
of how to prioritise casualties for treatment
and evacuation, so that the survival of the
maximum number is ensured.
Introduction
0302. The management of a single
seriously injured casualty in peacetime
military or civilian practice is frequently
problematic. On the battlefield, problems
are compounded by: environment, difficult
terrain and tactical constraints. The
situation is even more difficult when faced
with large numbers of casualties.
0303. If a system for prioritisation of care
of the injured is not in place, many
salvageable
casualties
may
die
unnecessarily. Triage (from the French verb
trier, to sieve or to sort), has evolved
through military conflicts dating from the
Napoleonic Wars to recent civilian disasters.
Definition
0304. The process of triage is complex. The
preferred definition is:
Sorting casualties and the assignment of
treatment and evacuation priorities to
wounded at each role of medical care.
Triage Priorities
0305. There are four triage priorities:
Priority One (P1). Those needing
immediate life-saving resuscitation and/or
surgery.
Priority Two (P2). Those needing early
resuscitation and/or surgery, but some
delay is acceptable.
Priority Three (P3). Those who require
treatment but where a longer delay is
acceptable.
Dead.
0306. This is the P (Priority) System, of
triage. Triage must be repeated at every link
of the evacuation chain and the priority
adjusted to reflect deterioration or
improvement in the casualtys clinical
condition.
Mass Casualties
0307. A
mass
casualty
situation
overwhelms the available medical and
logistic capabilities (JSP 110). In these

circumstances the aim of the medical
services must be to give care to the greatest
benefit of the largest number - that is to do
most for the most.
0308. The term mass casualties is
reserved for a situation when medical
resources are overwhelmed.When resources
are adequate, the incident is said to be
compensated. In a military setting, an
uncompensated situation may exist
temporarily or over a prolonged period. It
may be appropriate for the local
commander to introduce mass casualty
triage without a formal declaration having
been made by a higher authority.
0309. The
triage
system
in
an
uncompensated situation thus becomes;
P1 - Immediate Treatment. Those needing
emergency
life-saving
treatment.
Procedures should not be time
consuming and concern only those with a
high chance of good quality survival.
Examples
are
remedial
airway
obstruction, accessible haemorrhage and
emergency amputations.
P2 - Delayed Treatment. Those needing
major surgery (after initial sustaining
treatment such as intravenous fluids,
antibiotics and splinting), or medical
treatment, but where conditions permit
delay without endangering life. Examples
are open fractures of long bones, large
joint dislocations and burns covering 1530% BSA.
P3 - Minimal Treatment. Those with
relatively minor injuries who can
effectively take care of themselves or be
helped by untrained personnel. Examples
are minor lacerations and uncomplicated
fractures.
P1 Hold - Expectant Treatment. Those
with serious multiple injuries needing
extensive treatment or with a poor chance
of survival. These casualties receive
appropriate
supportive
treatment
compatible with resources, for example,
analgesia. Examples are severe head and
spinal injuries, extensive burns and large
doses of radiation.
0310. The T (Treatment) System of
triage, is an alternative to the P System and
is routinely used by the RN, the RAF,
BATLS Chapters 3 & 4
216
NATO allies, the International Committee

of the Red Cross, civilian ambulance
services
and
in
civilian
disaster
programmes.
0311. The relationship between the two
systems is as follows;
P1 is equivalent to T1
P1 Hold is equivalent to T4
Dead is still Dead.
Triage for Treatment
Table 3.1 The triage sieve
0312 A simple, safe, rapid and

reproducible system is required that can be
applied by any Serviceman with appropriate
medical training. Physiological systems that
look at the consequences of injury (a change
in the vital signs: Respiratory Rate, Pulse Rate
and Capillary Refill Time [CRT] are more
reliable than anatomical systems (which
require extensive clinical knowledge and a
need to undress the casualty).
0313. A widely accepted physiological
method of triage for treatment is the Triage
Sieve. This involves an assessment of the
casualtys mobility, then an assessment of
the airway, breathing and circulation (see

Table 3.1).
0314. Triage is only a snapshot of how
the casualty is at the time of assessment. In
order to identify changes in the casualtys
condition, the triage sieve must be repeated
at each link of the evacuation chain. It is
important initially not to try to predict how
a casualty may deteriorate, this will lead to
over-triage (a higher than necessary triage
category) and can overwhelm the system
with P1 and P2 casualties.
Triage for Evacuation

0315. Limited time and personnel
resources may prohibit a more detailed
triage assessment other than that given by
the triage sieve. When possible, the Triage
Sort can be used to refine triage sieve
decisions. Triage sort uses the respiratory
rate, systolic blood pressure and Glasgow
Coma Scale, to numerically score the
casualty from 0 to 12 and give an indication
of priority for evacuation and/or the need
for further intervention. This score has a
proven direct relationship to outcome from
severe injury.
Table 3.2 Triage sort coded values
Physiological variable
You must Triage all casualties before treatment; assess

priority, write on forehead, move to next casualty.
Respiratory rate
Remember
DONT PAUSE TO TREAT or

You will have failed in your task.
Start
here
Walking?
Yes
Systolic blood pressure
P3
NO
BREATHING?
Airway opening
procedures
Still NO
Dead
Yes
Yes
Breathing
Rate
Starts to Breath
P1 (A)
Under 10 or over 30/min
P1 (B)
10-30/min
Over 120/min CRT>2 secs
P1 (C)
Under 120/min CRT<2 secs
P2
Pulse
Rate
and CRT2
Now TREAT the injured

1 It must also be realised that some in this group, despite being ambulatory, may have injuries of sufficient
magnitude to cause a clinical deterioration requiring a change in priority. 2 Is unreliable in the cold or
dark.
Glasgow Coma Scale
Measured value
Score
10-30
>30
6-9
1-5
0
>90
89-76
75-50
<49
0
15-13
12-9
8-6
5-4
3
4
3
2
1
0
4
3
2
1
0
4
3
2
1
0
0316. Priorities are assigned as follows:

P1 (T1)
1-103
P2 (T2)
11
P3 (T3)
12
P1 Hold (T4) 1-33
Dead
0
0317. The coded values for the Triage
Sort are given in Table 3.2. After coding
each of the three parameters, add them
together to give a score ranging from 0
(dead) to 12 (physiologically normal).
0318. Evacuation will be delayed when
the number of casualties outstrips available
transport. In this situation, the greater time
spent with the casualty will allow additional
anatomical assessment of injuries. Where
the priority determined by physiology does
not match the anatomical severity of
injuries, the priority can be upgraded.
Example: A soldier loses his left leg in a
landmine incident. Immediate first aid is
effective in stopping haemorrhage. He is
3. The overlap in scores allows for the seriously injured to be
placed in either category, depending on number of casualties
and resources available for evacuation.
217
transported to the RAP. He cannot walk, his

respiratory rate is 22 and his pulse is
110/minute. He is triaged P2 for treatment
(Triage Sieve). He then receives intravenous
fluids and analgesia. His systolic BP is 115
mmHg, his respiratory rate is 20, he is fully
alert, with a GCS of 15. He scores 12 on his
Triage Sort, which is P3 for evacuation.
Clearly, he requires early surgical treatment
and the RMO upgrades his priority to P2
for evacuation to the field hospital.
0319. To help understand priority
allocations for evacuation, it is appropriate
to consider the standard casualty evacuation
chain which is usually through the logistical
Lines of Support. These lines of support
relate to the Combat Services Support
(CSS) provided at levels of operational
deployment, that is, First Line at unit level,
Second Line at brigade or divisional level,
Third Line between the divisional rear
boundary and point of entry, and Fourth
Line at the base4. These should not be
confused with Roles of Medical Support
which is the term used throughout NATO
to define the levels of medical capability5.
Role 1 Treatment to restore and stabilise
vital functions. (Regimental Aid
Post/Medical Section(s)).
Role 2 Resuscitation and stabilising
treatment - may include stabilising
(Damage Control) surgery
(Dressing Station).
Role 3 Hospitalisation and life-saving
surgery, definitive surgery (Field
Hospital).
Role 4 Time consuming specialist and
long term treatment (NHS
Hospital).
0320. It should be assumed that early
surgery takes place at the field hospital, with
subsequent care taking place back in the
United Kingdom, within the National
Health Service. There will be occasions
when surgery, through a field surgical team
being attached, is available forward of field
hospitals. This will be the norm in
airborne and airmobile operations and
when FIRST 6 teams are attached to Close
Support Squadrons of Medical Regiments.
Sepcialist teams, such as burns teams and
head and neck teams, can be allocated to
selected field hospitals: this will influence
the disposal and transfer of candidate
casualties.
0321. United
Kingdom
military
operations are increasingly Joint Service in
nature, for example, surgical support at
Role Three may be found from the RN
in the form of a Primary Casualty
Receiving Ship (PCRS). An intermediate
hospital may be set up, at a convenient
location on either the tactical or strategic
LOCs.
Application at Role One and

Role Two
0322. For the regimental medical officer
(RMO) and the dressing station medical
officer, casualties are likely to be graded for
treatment and/or evacuation as follows:
P1
Airway:
Obstruction including that
due to maxillofacial injury.
Airway burns with the
potential for obstruction.
Breathing: Tension pneumothorax - open
chest
wound
flail
chest/pulmonary contusion.
Respiratory rate <10>30.
Triage Sort Score 1-10.
Circulation: Major haemorrhage - external
or internal - compressible or
non compressible. CRT >2S.
Pulse rate >120/mm. Massive
muscle injuries.
Multiple
fractures and/or multiple
wounds. Burns between 15
and 30% Body Surface Area
(BSA).
P2
Lesser visceral injuries.
Vascular injuries not having
features of P1. Cerebral
injuries that are deteriorating
(See table 8.2). Burns of less
than 15% BSA involving face,
eyelids, hands, perineum and
across joints (see paragraph
1222).
Large
joint
dislocations.
P3
Lesser
fractures
and
dislocations. Lesser soft tissue
injuries ultimately requiring
surgery. Maxillofacial injuries
with no airway problems.
Eye injuries. Other burns less
than 15% BSA.
0323. Expectant (P1 Hold [T4]) cases
would include, for example, burns of greater
than 30% BSA, gunshot wounds to the
brain and other injuries with a poor
prognosis.
0324. Medical cases are categorised in
exactly the same way in relation to their
need for resuscitation and timely
intervention by a physician. Psychiatric
cases invariably tend to fit into the P3
bracket, with the particular caveat they
should be treated as far forward as possible;
this approach will result in the maximum
number being rendered fit and returned to
duty. The further rearward a psychiatric
case is evacuated, the less likely this is to
happen.
Application at Role Three

0325. The critical decision at the field
hospital is whether the casualty needs
resuscitation and surgery now, or whether
4. See Army Doctrinal Publication Vol 3 Logistics (Army Code 71566). 5. For example, there will be Role 1 and Role 2 medical units at
Third Line. 6. Forward Immediate Resuscitation and Surgery Teams.
218
he can withstand further delay. The

identification of casualties requiring expert
treatment by specialist teams must also be
considered.
0326. At this level, in the presence of
mass casualties, the P1 Hold (T4) category
will represent:
Cases whose survival is uncertain.
Cases who require prolonged surgery,
who must wait until time and facilities are
available.
Major burns cases who are kept for 48
hours prior to transfer to a specialist
burns team.
0327. When there are many casualties,
the expedient of the greatest good of the
greatest number must prevail.
Summary
Triage is the sorting of casualties into
orders of priority for treatment and
avacuation. The triage process is dynamic
and needs reassessment throughout the
casualty evacuation chain. It will be
coloured by doctrinal and organisational
factors which affect time between and
location of, medical echelons in the chain.
Even when faced with large numbers of
casualties, the A B C routine must be
followed in order to identify life-threatening
problems and indicate priorities.
The principles of management of the
injured remain as primary survey,
resuscitation, secondary survey and
definitive care, albeit that the last two may
be carried out at a more rearward
echelon. The philosophy of treatment for
large numbers of casualties is:
To evacuate rearwards all those who can
withstand the journey.
To address the medical resources towards
those who have the best chance of
survival.
This is achieved through effective and
efficient triage.
CHAPTER 4
AIRWAY
MANAGEMENT
AND VENTILATION
Aim
0401. On successfully completing this topic
you will be able to:
Recognize those conditions causing
airway and breathing difficulty in the
battlefield casualty.
Discuss the principles of airway and
ventilatory management.
Demonstrate basic and advanced
methods of airway management.
Anatomy and Physiology of the

Airway
0402.The upper airway consists of the nose,
mouth and pharynx. The lower airway
consists of the larynx, trachea and lungs. An

open airway allows air (containing oxygen)
to enter the lungs, oxygenate the blood,
which is then carried to the tissues. A
reduction in oxygen levels in the blood or
tissues, is termed hypoxia. Tissue hypoxia
causes cell damage and, if prolonged, can
lead to organ failure and death. Some
organs are more sensitive to hypoxia than
others. For example, cerebral hypoxia even
for a short period of time will cause agitation,
then a decreased level of consciousness and
eventually, irreversible or fatal brain damage.
0403. Carbon dioxide is produced by
cellular metabolism and carried in the
blood to the lungs; it is then exhaled. If
there is airway obstruction, there is a build
up of carbon dioxide in the blood
(hypercarbia). This causes drowsiness.
Supplementary oxygen must be
administered to all seriously injured
battle casualties as early as possible in
the evacuation chain.
0404. Obstruction to either the upper or
lower airway can compromise ventilation of
the lungs and quickly result in cerebral
hypoxia. Management of the upper and lower
airway is the first concern in any battlefield
casualty.
The airway must be opened,
maintained and protected, with
ventilatory support provided if necessary.
Airway and Breathing

0405. Early preventable deaths from
airway problems after injury are frequently
due to:
Failure to recognize the urgent need for
intervention in casualties with a
compromised airway.
Limited experience in airway clearing
skills.
Faulty judgement in selecting the correct
airway manoeuvre.
Failure to secure the airway prior to
evacuation.
Becoming distracted by less urgent
problems.
Awareness
0406. Particular problems that will
endanger the airway:
Head injury with decreased level of
consciousness (see paragraph 0822).
Other causes of decreased level of
consciousness (poisoning, alcohol, low
oxygen, carbon monoxide).
Maxillofacial injuries:
Mid face fractures can move
backwards and block the airway.
Mandible fractures can allow the
tongue to fall backwards.
Bleeding and secretions caused by
these injuries can block the airway.
Injuries to the neck:
219
Direct trauma to the larynx and

supporting structures.
Bleeding inside the neck
compressing the hypopharynx or
trachea.
Burns to the face and neck:
Swelling of the upper and lower
airway due to direct burns or
inhaling hot smoke, gases or steam,
will cause airway obstruction.
0407. Airway problems may be:
Immediate (block the airway quickly) or,
Delayed (come on after a time delay minutes or hours) or,
Deteriorate with time; this is often insidious
because of its slow progression and is
easily overlooked.
0408. An airway that has been cleared
may obstruct again if the casualtys level of
consciousness decreases, there is further
bleeding into the airway or there is
increasing swelling in or around the airway.
Recognition
0409. Talk to the casualty! Failure to
respond implies an altered level of
consciousness with the potential for airway
compromise. A positive appropriate reply in
a normal voice indicates that the airway is
patent, breathing normal and brain
perfusion adequate. Any inappropriate or
incomprehensible response may suggest
airway or breathing compromise, or both.
0410. Look to see if the casualty is
agitated, drowsy or cyanosed. The absence
of cyanosis does not mean the casualty is
adequately oxygenated.
Remember that a casualty who refuses
to lie down quietly may be trying to sit
up in an attempt to keep his airway
open and/or his breathing adequate.
0411. Listen for abnormal sounds.
Snoring, gurgling and gargling sounds are
associated with partial obstruction of the
pharynx. Hoarseness implies laryngeal
injury. The abusive casualty may be hypoxic
and should not be presumed to be merely
insubordinate or intoxicated. Total
obstruction equals total silence!
0412. Feel for air movement on
expiration and check if the trachea is in the
midline.
Management
0413. Management comprises:
Clearing the obstructed airway.
Maintaining the intact airway.
Protecting the airway at risk.
0414. Techniques
for
clearing,
maintaining and protecting the airway need
to be modified in the trauma casualty when
cervical spine injury is suspected or present.
Cervical spine injury is suspected:
In falls from a height.
In vehicle collisions.
When pedestrians have been hit by a

vehicle.
Where casualties have been thrown by
explosions.
In the unconscious casualty (especially
where there is blunt injury above the
clavicle).
In the conscious casualty complaining of
neck pain or loss of sensation or motor
function in one or both arms. (see
paragraph 1002-1006).
0415. Moving a casualty with bony spinal
injury risks damaging the spinal cord.
Ideally, these casualties should only be
moved when the appropriate spinal
immobilization devices are in place. (see
paragraph 1007).
In situations where there is danger to
the casualty or rescuer, rapid
extraction of the casualty using
improvised immobilisation or none at
all, will be needed.
Priority is CLEAR THE AIRWAY but stay safe.
0416. Penetrating missile neck wounds
that directly involve the bony cervical spine
or spinal cord carry a 95% mortality. They
can be ignored in terms of cervical spine
protection; get on and manage the airway! A
combination of blunt and penetrating neck
injuries should be managed as for blunt
injury.
Clearing the airway
0417. In the casualty with suspected
cervical spine injury, manual inline
immobilization of the cervical spine and
airway clearance are carried out together. In
a casualty with an altered level of
consciousness, the tongue falls backwards
and obstructs the hypopharynx. This
obstruction can be readily corrected by the
jaw-thrust or chin-lift manoeuvres. Blood and
debris can be cleared by suction and finger
sweeps.
Fig 4.1 Jaw-thrust
Fig 4.2 Chin-lift
0418. Jaw-thrust. Grasp the angles of the

mandible, one hand on each side and move
the mandible forward. The jaw-thrust is
used for the injured casualty because it does
not destabilise a possible cervical spine
fracture and risk converting a fracture
without spinal cord injury to one with spinal
cord injury. This maneouvre will open 95%
220
of obstructed upper airways. The jaw-thrust

is illustrated at Fig 4.1.
0419. Chin-lift. Place the fingers of one
hand under the chin and gently lift it
upwards to bring the chin anteriorly. To
open the mouth, use the thumb of the same
hand to depress the lower lip slightly. The
thumb may also be placed behind the lower
incisors and, simultaneously, the chin gently
lifted.This will open the upper airway in 7080% of casualties. The chin-lift is illustrated
at Fig 4.2.
continue with the jaw-thrust or chin-lift or

try using an oropharyngeal airway or
nasopharyngeal airway.
0426. Oropharyngeal airway. The
oropharyngeal airway (Guedel type) is
inserted into the casualtys mouth over the
tongue. It stops the tongue falling back and
provides a clear passage for air flow. The
preferred method is to insert the airway
concavity upwards until the tip reaches the
soft palate and then rotate it 180, slipping
it into place over the tongue (see Fig 4.3).
Make sure you do not

hyperextend the neck.
Make sure that the airway does not

push the tongue backwards as this
will block rather than open the airway.
0420. Suction. Remove blood and

secretions from the oropharynx with a rigid
suction device (for example, a Yankauer
sucker). If there is bleeding at the external
nares clear this with suction. A casualty with
facial injuries may also have a cribriform
plate fracture; this means that suction
catheters should not be inserted through
the nose as they could enter the skull and
injure the brain.
0421. Finger sweeps. Finger sweeps into
the back of the mouth and pharynx may be
useful for dislodging foreign bodies,
particularly if no suction device is available.
0427. A casualty with a gag reflex may

reject the oral airway. If so, move on to the
nasopharyngeal airway.
0428. Nasopharyngeal airway. A
nasopharyngeal airway can be used when
Make sure that your fingers do not

inadvertently push foreign bodies
further into the airway.
0422. Displacement of fractured maxilla or
mandible. Where airway obstruction results
from a fractured maxilla, insert the index or
middle finger or both, through the mouth
behind the hard palate and pull it forward to
disimpact the displaced bone. When an
anterior mandibular fracture allows the
tongue to fall back into the hypopharynx
you may have to pull the mandible forward
manually.
Maintaining the airway
0423. How to maintain the casualtys
airway will depend on:
The casualtys injuries.
The casualtys level of consciousness.
The equipment available.
0424. Clearing the casualtys airway may
result in his level of consciousness
improving and being able to maintain his
own airway.
0425. If the casualty cannot maintain his
own airway you (or an assistant) need to
Fig 4.3 Nasopharyngeal airway
Fig 4.4 Nasopharyngeal airway
there is oral injury, a fractured mandible or

massetter spasm. It is better tolerated than
the Guedel by the more responsive casualty
and is less likely to be dislodged during
evacuation (see Fig 4.4). A suspected
fractured base of skull is not a
contraindication for use of this airway if an
oropharyngeal airway cannot be inserted.
0429. Lubricate the airway and insert it
through either nostril, straight backwards not upwards - so that its tip enters the
hypopharynx. A safety pin should be
applied across the proximal end before
insertion to prevent the tube disappearing
into the casualtys airway. If this happens it
could compromise rather than maintain the
airway. A complication of inserting the
221
nasopharyngeal airway is bleeding from the

nose. Gentle insertion, good lubrication and
using an airway that passes easily into the
nose will decrease the incidence of bleeding.
The oropharyngeal and
nasopharyngeal devices MAINTAIN
the airway but do not protect it from
aspiration.
0430. A casualty whose airway has been
cleared and maintained by the techniques
described above may need help with their
breathing if this is depressed due to injuries
or toxic agents.
0431. Ventilation is covered at paragraphs
0446-0451 and is practised in Skill Station 1.
Protecting the airway at risk - advanced airway
techniques
0432. Advanced airway techniques include:
Surgical cricothyroidotomy.
Surgical tracheostomy.
Endotracheal intubation.
0433. Indications for performing advanced
airway techniques are: Inability to clear or maintain an airway
using simple manoeuvres and airways in,
for example:
Injury around the face.
Face and airway burns (causing
swelling of the airway, see
paragraphs 0406 and 1213).
An obstruction in the upper airway
that cannot be removed and needs
to be by-passed.
Neck injury or swelling blocking
the lower airway.

To protect the airway from:
Obstruction due to swelling.
Aspiration of gastric contents or
other fluid. (Note: A cuffed
endotracheal tube or cuffed
surgical airway maintains a clear
passage and the cuff provides a seal).
To allow accurate control of oxygenation
and ventilation.
As part of head injury management by
helping to control oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels in cerebral blood flow (see
Chapter 8):
In the management of some chest
injuries.
In surgery and anasthesia.
DEFINITIVE AIRWAY
This is a cuffed tube placed in the
trachea by the surgical route or by
endotracheal intubation.
SURGICAL AIRWAY
0434. A surgical airway is used when:
A casualty needing a definitive airway for
resuscitation or evacuation is too awake to
tolerate endotracheal intubation without
the use of anaesthetic drugs.
Trauma to the face and neck make
endotracheal intubation impossible.
A casualty with face and neck burns
requires airway protection to pre-empt
delayed
obstruction
but
expert
anaesthetic help is unavailable to carry
out endotracheal intubation.
Surgical cricothyroidotomy
9435. Surgical cricothyroidotomy places a
tube into the trachea via the cricothyroid
membrane (See fig 4.5).
A small
tracheostomy tube (5-7 mm) is suitable.
This will be practised in skill station 2 and
is illustrated in Fig 4.6. During the
procedure, appropriate cervical spine
protection must be maintained when
indicated. There are also commercially
available cricothyroidotomy sets in use with
some NATO armies. A cricothyroidotomy
can be replaced by a formal tracheostomy
(if needed) at a later time.
Fig 4.5 Cricothyroid membrance
Emergency tracheostomy
0436. A formal surgical tracheostomy
takes longer and is more difficult, than a
surgical cricothyroidotomy. Commercial
sets are available for rapid tracheostomy
using a Seldinger (guide wire) technique.
Fig 4.6 Insertion of tracheostomy tube
Endotracheal intubation
0437. This technique uses a laryngoscope
to visualise the vocal cords. A cuffed
endotracheal tube is placed through the
vocal cords into the trachea. This skill is
illustrated at Fig 4.7 [shown in Skill Station
2] and will be practised in the Skill Station.
222
0438. At Role 1 and Role 2, in the

absence of anaesthetic skills and drugs,
endotracheal intubation will only be
achieved in deeply unconscious casualties
(GCS 4 or less). Attempting intubation in
the semiconscious casualty will result in
gagging on the laryngoscope and coughing
on the endotracheal tube. In casualties with
raised intracranial pressure this will increase
the pressure even further and worsen the
situation. If the casualty gags or coughs, stop
and try another method of airway
management.
Note: This presents a dilemma with head
injuries in coma (GCS 8 or less). Ideally
these casualties should be intubated and
ventilated to prevent cerebral hypoxia and
hypercabia worsening. In many of them,
attempting to do this without the aid of
anaesthetic drugs worsens the situation by
raising ICP. A surgical airway with
ventilation and oxygenation my be required.
0439. In casualties who are not deeply
unconscious, maintain the airway with simple
techniques. If protection is necessary, insert a
surgical cricothyroidotomy under local
anaesthesia.
0440. Where anaesthetic skills and drugs
are available or can be brought to the
casualty by an Incident Response Team
(IRT), endotracheal intubation can be
achieved using:
Rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia
with:
Application of cricoid pressure (Sellicks
manoeuvre) and,
Maintenance
of
cervical
spine
immobilisation when indicated.
0441. Intermittent oxygenation during
difficult intubation. Intubation of the
hypoventilating or apnoeic casualty may
require several attempts and even then, may
not be successful. If oxygen is available, you
must avoid prolonged efforts to intubate
without intermittently oxygenating and
ventilating the casualty. You should practise
taking a deep breath when starting an
attempt at intubation; if you have to take
further
breath
before
successfully
intubating the casualty, abort the attempt.
0442. Correct
placement
of
the
endotracheal tube is checked in Skill
Station 2. The main points are:
See if the endotracheal tube has passed
between the vocal cords. Remember to
maintain immobilisation of the cervical
spine when indicated.
Listen on both sides in the mid-axillary
line for equal breath sounds.
Listen over the stomach for gurgling
sounds during assisted ventilation for
evidence of oesophageal intubation.
Feel and listen for air movement at the
proximal end of the tube if the casualty is
breathing spontaneously.
Monitor end-tidal carbon dioxide levels if
equipment is available.
If in doubt about the position of the

endotracheal tube, take it out and
oxygenate the casualty by another method.
It is failure to oxygenate the casualty
that kills, not inability to intubate.
If you need to take over care of an
intubated casualty make sure the
endotracheal tube is in the correct place
and has not moved during evacuation
or transfer of the casualty.
Note: Other methods for maintaining the
airways. Both the laryngeal mask airway and
combitubes have been used in civilian
practice to manage the trauma casualtys
airway.Their role in military trauma has still
to be evaluated.
Oxygenation and Assisted

Ventilation
Oxygenation
0443. The primary goal in providing
supplementary oxygen is to maximise the
delivery of oxygen to the cells. This is done
by providing the highest possible oxygen
concentration to the lungs using high flow
oxygen at 10-15 litres per minute, as soon as
oxygen is available. A disposable face mask
without a reservoir bag can deliver 35-60%
oxygen, depending on type of mask and
oxygen flow. A face mask with an oxygen
reservoir can be used to deliver up to 85%
oxygen. A correctly fitting bag-valve-mask
system with a reservoir, can be used to
deliver up to 100% oxygen to the lungs.
Ventilation
0444. Spontaneous ventilation (self
ventilation) means the same as breathing.
Assisted (artificial) ventilation means the
casualty is receiving help with breathing.
The aim is to improve gaseous exchange in
the lungs and to breathe for the casualty if
spontaneous ventilation has stopped or is
inadequate. Indications for assisted
ventilation include:
Head injury.
Chest injury.
Respiratory depression due to drugs
(such as nerve agents and opiates).
0445. Assisted ventilation can be achieved
by the following techniques:
Mouth to mouth (or nose).
Mouth to mask.
Bag-valve-mask.
Bag-valve-endotracheal tube or surgical
airway.
Automatic ventilation (used by specialist
resuscitation teams in field hospitals for
prolonged casualty ventilation).
0446. Assisted ventilation is described in
Skill Station 1 and will be practiced there.
0447. Mouth to mouth (one man)
technique. If a pocket mask with a one-way
223
valve and oxygen inlet is not available, you

can give assisted ventilation by removing
the mask from the bag-valve-mask device
and blowing into the connecting port.
Note: Do not use the mouth to mask
technique if there is a chemical agent vapour
hazard either in the environment or on the
casualty.
0448. Bag-valve-mask. This technique can
be performed one or two handed and is best
performed with an oral or nasal airway in place.
0449. Bag-valve-endotracheal tube/surgical
airway. The technique you will use will
depend on the circumstances and
equipment available. If a manual bag-valveendotracheal tube/surgical airway technique
is used, the bag is squeezed to achieve
obvious chest movement at a rate of
approximately 12-15 breaths per minute,
that is, one second squeeze - three to four
seconds release. An oxygen source and a
reservoir should be attached to the bag as
soon as they are available.
Evacuation of Airway
Compromised Casualties
0450. Casualties who have lost their
normal protective airway reflexes are in
danger of aspirating gastric contents, blood
and debris and developing airway
obstruction; they become hypoxic.
Caring for and monitoring a casualty in
the back of military vehicles or helicopters
can be difficult, especially in low light
conditions. A balance has to be made
between:
The need to move the casualty.
The safety of the casualty during
evacuation.
The resources available to move the
casualty.
Distance for evacuation.
The tactical situation.
If available, seek specialist advice
from hospital teams, aeromed teams
or incident response teams.
spine immobilization as can best be

managed but airway management takes
precedence.
Unconscious casualties without a
definitive airway must not be
transferred lying on their backs.
The casualty at risk from airway blocking
during transfer.
0453. Where the casualtys airway is at
risk from blocking during transfer, for
example, airway burns:
Get specialist advice.
Consider providing a surgical airway, or
endotracheal intubation if anaesthetic
expertise is to hand.
Note: On balance, a surgical airway is the
method of choice. It may be difficult in the
extreme incising through burnt skin. Aim
not to go through burnt skin but, your
prime concern is to protect the airway
during casualty transfer!
Summary
Airway obstruction must be recognised
and relieved quickly.
Beware of cervical spine injury during
airway management.
Start with simple techniques such as jawthrust/chin-lift/oropharyngeal suction.
Try Guedel or nasopharyngeal airways.
Give high flow oxygen from a mask with a
reservoir.
Definitive airways protect against
aspiration of gastric contents and blood.
Definitive airways include:
Surgical cricothyroidotomy.
Endotracheal intubation.
Note: Choice of definitive airway will
depend on skills and equipment available:
Casualties with inadequate respiration
will need assisted ventilation.
This can be done by mouth, by bag and
mask or by automatic ventilators.
SKILLS STATIONS:
The casualty with a definitive airway in place

0451. Best practice is that they are
evacuated by trained personnel with
appropriate anaesthetic and intensive care
skills and electronic monitors. If there is
concern about the ability to care for an
intubated casualty (for example, replacing a
displaced endotracheal tube) during
evacuation, consider providing a definitive
surgical airway. In casualties being
evacuated by air, inflate the cuff with saline;
air expands at altitude.
The casualty at risk from aspiration but a
definitive airway cannot be provided
0452. Maintain the airway with a Guedel
or nasopharyngeal airway and transfer the
casualty in the lateral position with an
escort who has oxygen, suction and can care
for the casualty en route. Continue cervical
1. Basic Airway Management and Ventilation

2. Advanced Airway Management: Adult
Orotracheal Intubation
Aim
The aim of these skills stations is to
demonstrate and practise basic and
advanced airway management.You will also
discuss the indications for oral endotracheal
intubation and associated complications.
On successfully completing these stations,
you will be proficient in:
Basic airway clearing techniques.

Oropharyngeal airway insertion.
Nasopharyngeal airway insertion.
Ventilation without intubation.
Orotracheal intubation.
224
Equipment
Adult intubation manikins.
Adult endotracheal tubes size 7.0, 8.0 and 9.0.
Laryngoscope handles.
Airway management in the casualty with a

fractured maxilla.
Using the Mr Hurt manikin with
maxillary fractures, practice pulling the
fracture forward to clear the airway.
Laryngoscope blades, adult, curved.

Extra batteries for laryngoscope handles.
Extra laryngoscope bulbs.
Stethoscopes.
Lubricant (for example, silicone spray that accompanies intubation manikin).
Semi-rigid cervical collar applied to one adult intubation manikin, or sandbags.
Magills forceps.
Malleable endotracheal introducers.
Oropharyngeal airways size 2, 3 and 4.
Nasopharyngeal airways size 6.0 and 7.0.
Bag-valve-mask devices.
Pocket face masks (with a one-way valve to prevent back-flow of air and secretions).
Rigid suction devices (Yankauer sucker).
Safety pins.
Airway management in the casualty whose

head is not in the neutral position.
Gently move the casualtys head into the
neutral position if the airway cannot be
cleared and maintained in the non-neutral
position.
Stop moving the head if:
There is resistance to movement.
The casualty complains of pain.
Airway management in the combative
casualty who will not accept sand bags and
tape
Compromise by using a semi-rigid
cervical collar only.
Scissors.
Oropharyngeal Airway Insertion
1 open weave cotton bandage.
SKILLS STATIONS 1
BASIC AIRWAY MANAGEMENT
AND VENTILATION
Aim
This skill station allows you to practice
basic airway techniques and develop a
system for airway management.
The order for performing tasks will
depend on the situation, the personnel
available and their skills. Some tasks will be
done simultaneously if more than one
person is available.
This skill station assumes there is an
assistant to help you.
Sequence of actions:
Approach and reassure casualty.
React to the casualtys response.
Provide manual inline immobilisation of
the cervical spine when indicated.
Hand over manual inline immobilisation
to your assistant (get them to place their
hands over yours then gently remove your
hands as they apply immobilisation). If
assistance is not available your sole aim is
to clear the airway.
Clear the airway using:
Finger sweeps to remove solid
debris (if safe to do so).
Magill forceps to remove solid
debris.
Yankauer sucker to remove blood
and fluid from the oropharynx.
Jaw-thrust.
Chin-lift.
Provide high flow oxygen from a mask
with a reservoir bag.
Decide if the casualty needs an
oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airway.
Select the correct sized airway. Place the

airway against the casualtys face. The
correct sized airway will extend from the
centre of the casualtys mouth to the angle
of the jaw.
Open the casualtys mouth with the chinlift manoeuvre.
Insert the tip of the airway along the roof
of the mouth to the soft palate (see fig
4.3).
Rotate the airway 180, directing the
concavity of the airway towards the feet
and slip the airway over the tongue.
If necessary, ventilate the casualty with
mouth-to-mask
or
bag-valve-mask
technique.
Nasopharyngeal Airway
Insertion
Assess the nasal passages for any apparent
obstruction (fractures, haemorrhage,
polyps). Choose a nostril that is patent.
Select the correct size airway. Size 7 for
the adult female and size 8 for an adult
male.
Insert the safety pin across the nostril end
of the airway.
Lubricate the nasopharyngeal airway with
a water-soluble lubricant or water.
Insert the tip of the airway into the nostril
and direct it posteriorly and towards the
ear lobe.
Gently slide the nasopharyngeal airway
through the nostril into the hypopharynx
with a slight rotating motion until the
flange rests against the nostril.
If an obstruction is encountered try the
other nostril or try a smaller
nasopharyngeal airway. Trying to force the
nasopharyngeal airway past an obstruction
may cause severe bleeding.
If necessary, ventilate the casualty with
mouth-to-mouth or bag-valve-mask
technique.
225
Ventilation Without Intubation

Mouth-to-mask ventilation, adult (one man
technique)
Attach oxygen tubing to the Laerdal
pocket mask.
Adjust the oxygen flow rate to 10 litres
per minute.
If there is no oxygen inlet, place the
oxygen tubing under the side of the mask.
Insert an oropharyngeal airway.
Apply the face mask to the casualty using
both hands.
Open the airway using the jaw-thrust
manoeuvre, three fingers on the
underside of the jaw.
Take a deep breath and place your mouth
over the mouth port and blow.
Assess the ventilatory efforts by
observing the casualtys chest movement.
Ventilate the casualty in this manner
every five seconds.
Bag-valve-mask ventilation, adult (two man
technique)
Select the correct sized mask to fit the
casualtys face.
Connect the oxygen tubing to the bagvalve device and adjust the flow of oxygen
to 10 litres per minute.
Ensure the patency of the casualtys
airway.
The first person applies the mask to the
casualtys face, making a tight seal with
both hands.
The second person ventilates the casualty
by squeezing the bag with both hands.
Assess the adequacy of ventilation by
observing the casualtys chest movement.
Ventilate the casualty in this manner
every five seconds.
Fig 4.7 Endotracheal tube insertion.
Ensure that adequate ventilation and

oxygenation are in progress.
Bag-valve-mask ventilation, adult (one man Connect the laryngoscope blade and
technique)
handle; check the bulb for brightness, also
Follow the first three steps for the two
check both small and larger endotracheal
man technique.
tubes are to hand, their cuffs are working
Use one hand to apply the mask to the
and the suction is working.
casualtys face. Use the index finger and If indicated, have an assistant manually
thumb to hold the mask in place and use
immobilize the head and neck.
the other fingers to perform a jaw-thrust. If indicated, have an assistant apply
Squeeze the bag with the other hand and
cricoid pressure.
ventilate as before.
Hold the laryngoscope in the left hand.
Insert the laryngoscope into the right side
SKILLS STATIONS 2
of the casualtys mouth, displacing the
ADVANCED AIRWAY MANAGEMENT
tongue to the left.
ADULT OROTRACHEAL INTUBATION
Look for the epiglottis and place the tip of
the blade in the vallecula. Lift the
epiglottis forward by pulling the handle of
Aim
the laryngoscope forward and visualize
This skill station allows you to practice
the vocal cords.
adult orotracheal intubation (see Fig 4.7).
It also helps you to develop systems to Gently insert the endotracheal tube into
the trachea without applying pressure to
substitute manual immobilization by using
the teeth or oral tissues.
a cervical collar, sandbags and tape, and
check that the endotracheal tube is Check the placement of the endotracheal
tube by bag-valve tube ventilation.
correctly placed.
Inflate the cuff with enough air to provide
a gas-tight seal.
Sequence of actions:
226
Visually observe lung expansion with

ventilation.
Attach end-tidal CO2 monitoring if
available.
Auscultate the chest with a stethoscope in
both axillae and over the abdomen to
check that the tube is not in a main
bronchus (usually the right) or in the
oesophagus.
If endotracheal intubation requires several
attempts, discontinue and ventilate the
casualty between each attempt with a bagvalve-mask device. You should practice
taking a deep breath when starting an
attempt at intubation. If you have to take
a further breath before intubation is
achieved, abort the attempt (at
intubation) and ventilate the casualty.
Remember that the best way to ensure
that the tube is not in the oesophagus is to
see it lying between the vocal cords.
Allow cricoid pressure to be released
when
correct
endotracheal
tube
placement is confirmed and the cuff is
inflated.
Fix the tube in position by tying it with an
open weave cotton bandage.
Reapply cervical spine immobilisation.
Consider placing a Geudel airway in the
casualtys mouth next to the endotracheal
tube to help stabilise the tubes position
and to protect it by acting as a bite block.
Complications of orotracheal intubation
Hypoxia from:
Prolonged attempts to intubate.
Unrecognised oesophageal intubation.
Aspiration of gastric contents during attempts to intubate.
Damage to the cervical spinal cord if the neck has not been immobilized when there is an unstable
neck fracture.
Pushing the tube too far down into one of the main bronchi (usually the right).
The unintubated lung does not get ventilated and eventually collapses.
Rupture or leak of the endotracheal tube cuff, resulting in loss of seal during ventilation and
necessitating re-intubation.
Airway haemorrhage secondary to injury.
Damage to the larynx.
Chipping or loosening of the teeth (caused by levering the laryngoscope blade against the teeth).
SKILLS STATIONS 3
SURGICAL AIRWAYS
Scalpel handle with blades.

Small artery forceps.
Tracheal dilating tongs.
Cuffed tracheostomy tubes size 6.0 with connector.
Lignocaine 1% (20 ml) with adrenaline.
Syringes 5 ml.
Blue needles 23 gauge.
Scissors.
Swabs.
Sharps disposable boxes.
Plastic rubbish bag.
Anatomical models.
Role of jet insufflation of oxygen via needle

cricothyroidotomy
This technique has only very limited
application on the battlefield but may have
a role in the field hospital (see Fig 4.8). A 12
or 14 gauge cannula is inserted over a
needle through the cricothyroid membrane
(needle cricothyroidotomy) and oxygen
insufflated into the lungs under pressure.
This technique can be done without an
insufflator by attaching the cannula to
oxygen running at 15 litres per minute. A Yconnector or side hole is incorporated into
the connector tubing. Occluding the open
end of the Y-connector or side hole one
second in every five, forces a stream of
oxygen into the trachea. Without a proper
insufflator, this technique will only be
effective in casualties with normal
pulmonary function in the absence of
significant chest injury. A casualty with little
or no ventilatory effort will not be
adequately oxygenated using the Yconnector/side hole technique in the
absence of an insufflator.
Because the chest wall in children is more
elastic than in adults, a needle
cricothyroidotomy attached to high flow
oxygen is a useful technique to achieve
oxygenation prior to tracheostomy in an
emergency (See supplement No 1). The
risks of barotrauma, including lung rupture
and tension pneumothorax, are high if the
technique is not applied with great care.
Aim
The aim of this skills station is to give you
the opportunity to practise and demonstrate
the technique of surgical cricothyroidotomy
on anatomical models.
The instructor will also demonstrate
needle cricothyroidotomy and oxygen
insufflation.
Fig 4.8 Needle cricothyroidotomy
Equipment
Procedure gloves and disposable aprons.
Medicut IV cannulae 12 gauge.
Bag-valve-mask devices.
Oxygen tubing and Y-connector.
Full oxygen cylinders with flow meters.
Surgical Cricothyroidotomy
Place the casualty supine with the neck in
the
neutral
position.
If
not
contraindicated, extend the neck and
place a sandbag (or suitable alternative)
227
under the shoulders; this will bring the

landmarks into more prominence. Palpate
the thyroid notch and cartilage,
cricothyroid membrane and cricoid
cartilage.
Clean the skin and infiltrate with local
anaesthetic (unless the casualty is deeply
unconscious). This is illustrated at Fig
4.9.
and rotate it 90 to open the airway. (You

can use artery forceps instead of the
scalpel handle).
Insert a 6 mm cuffed tracheostomy tube
into the cricothyroid membrance incision,
directing the tube distally into the
trachea.
Inflate the cuff.
If spontaneous breathing does not occur,
ventilate the casualty.
Observe lung inflations and auscultate the
chest for adequate ventilation.
Secure the tube by stitch or tape, or
both.
Complications of surgical cricothyroidotomy

Creation of a false passage into the tissues.
Asphyxia.
Aspiration (for example, blood).
Laceration of the trachea.
Fig 4.9 Surgical cricothyroidotomy
Stablise the thyroid cartilage with the left

hand.
Make a horizontal skin incision over the
cricothyroid membrane.
Carefully incise through the membrane
horizontally.
Insert the scalpel handle into the incision
Laceration of the oesophagus.

Haemorrhage or haematoma formation.
Mediastinal emphysema.
Subglottic stenosis/oedema.
The Professor of Military Surgery

wishes to thank the Technical Author
for his assistance with this project.
J R Army Med Corps 2001; 147: 187-194
BATLS
(BATLS)
CHAPTER 5
SHOCK
AIM
Define shock.
Identify clinical shock syndromes.
Understand the difference between
compressible and non-compressible
haemorrhage.
Relate the casualty's symptoms and signs
to the underlying shock syndrome.
Discuss the principles of treatment of
hypovolaemic shock.
Demonstrate
techniques
of
fluid
replacement.
Pathophysiology
0502. Shock is the general response of the
body to inadequate tissue perfusion and
oxygenation. This simple statement
encompasses a complex pathophysiological
process. If progressive and uncorrected, this
process will lead to cell death, organ failure
and the death of the casualty.
Shock is inadequate tissue perfusion.
Types of Shock
0503. Most cases will be caused by
hypovolaemia, that is, a reduction of
circulating volume due to haemorrhage or
fluid loss in burns.
0504. Cardiogenic shock and neurogenic
shock are both examples of hypoperfusion,
when failure to maintain circulating volume
is not due to blood loss. In cardiogenic shock
the heart fails to pump blood around the
body adequately. In neurogenic shock due to
a spinal injury, blood vessels dilate causing
pooling of blood and making the circulating
blood volume inadequate. A similar situation
arises in anaphylactic shock due to infection
as a late complication of trauma. Both these
mechanisms are related to the release of
vasodilatory mediators.
TYPES OF SHOCK
Hypovolaemic
Cardiogenic
Neurogenic
Anaphylactic
Septic
0505. The treatment of shock is directed

towards restoring cellular and organ perfusion
with adequately oxygenated blood. It
bears repeating that inadequately treated
tissue hypoperfusion causes cell damage
and organ failure. Death inevitably
follows.
The Pathological Mechanisms Early

0506. Fluids in the body lie within cells
(intracellular fluid), between the cells
(intercellular fluid), and within the blood
vessels. The intracellular and intercellular
fluids form the extravascular compartment;
fluid within the blood vessels forms the
intravascular compartment.
0507. Loss of circulating fluid causes
decreased venous return (preload) with
subsequent decreased stretch of the muscle
in the right and left ventricles of the heart. As
a result of this, cardiac output is reduced
resulting in hypotension and hypoperfusion
(Starling's Law). The body's response to loss
of tissue fluid or blood is directed at
maintaining circulating volume. The
principle corrective mechanisms involved in
this process are:
Fluid shifts from tissues into blood vessels,
that is, from the extravascular to the
intravascular compartment.
The heart rate rises (tachycardia) due to
increased sympathetic nervous system
outflow and reduced vagus nerve
inhibition.
Constriction
of
blood
vessels
(vasoconstriction) in the splanchnic bed
and limb peripheries, (the cold, pale
extremities of shock).
Fluid retention due to reduced urine
output.
The Pathological Mechanisms Late

0508. At the cellular level, hypoxic cells
initially compensate by shifting to anaerobic
metabolism. This results in the formation of
lactic acid and the subsequent development
of metabolic acidosis. If untreated, cells swell
and burst producing marked tissue oedema
and loss of function.These events compound
the effects of hypovolaemia. Replacement of
circulating volume is essential, as is adequate
tissue oxygenation, in order to prevent
further deterioration of this process of cell
death.
188
BATLS Chapter 5
Hypovolaemic Shock
0509. In the battlefield situation,
hypovolaemic shock due to trauma or burns
is by far the most common cause of the shock
syndrome. It is also the most amenable to
prompt management. Haemorrhage is the
acute loss of circulating blood. In adults, 7%
of body weight is circulating blood
(approximately five litres in a 70 kg adult or
70 ml/kg of body weight). In children,
circulating volume is calculated to be 8-9%
of body weight (90 ml/kg of body weight).
0510. Blood loss in trauma may be into five
sites ('blood on the floor and four more'):
External ('on the floor').

Chest.
Abdomen.
Pelvis and retroperitoneum.
Around long bone fractures (especially the
Femur).
Note: The presence of significant amount of

blood in the chest will be identified during
Breathing in the primary survey.
Identification of other sites of bleeding is an
essential element of Circulation.
You must be highly suspicious in all
cases of blunt abdominal injuries;
these can result in massive, concealed
blood loss.
0511. Major soft tissue injuries and fractures
compromise circulating volume in two ways:
Blood lost at the site of the injury.
Oedema. Soft tissue injuries result in
obligatory oedema, the magnitude of
which is related to the severity of the injury.
Since plasma and extracellular fluid are in
continuity, loss of extracellular fluid will
inevitably affect circulating volume.
Approximately 25% of post-trauma
oedema will be derived from plasma.
0512. Some idea of blood volumes lost
from different injuries can be seen from the
following:
Closed femoral fracture

1.5 litres
Fractured pelvis
3 litres
Fractured ribs
150 ml each
One blood-filled hemithorax
2 litres
0513. The following may represent a loss of

500 ml:
A closed tibial fracture
An open wound the size of an adult hand.
A clot the size of an adult fist.
0514. The elderly tolerate shock less well
than the fit, young adult, and the very young
in whom shock may not be clinically
apparent until blood loss becomes quite
severe.
Rapid Assessment of the

Cardiovascular System
0515. Mental state. If the casualty is
conscious and talking sensibly, he is not only
breathing through an open airway, he is
perfusing his cerebral cortex with sufficient
oxygenated blood (50% of the normal
cardiac output). Increasing hypovolaemia
and subsequent cerebral hypoxia cause
alterations in the level of consciousness.
These alterations begin with anxiety and if
untreated, proceed through confusion and
aggressiveness to eventual unresponsiveness
and death.
0516. Colour. Hypovolaemic casualties
become pale, cold, sweaty and cyanosed.
0517. Pulse.The presence of a palpable radial
pulse implies that the systolic blood pressure
is at least 90 mmHg. Absent radial pulses,
but a palpable femoral pulse, imply a systolic
blood pressure between 80 and 90 mmHg; a
palpable carotid pulse, in the absence of
other pulses, indicates that the systolic
pressure is at least 70 mmHg.
Radial pulse indicates blood pressure
>90 mmHg.
Femoral pulse indicates blood pressure
80 mmHg.
Carotid pulse indicates blood pressure
70 mmHg.
0518. Capillary refill. This test is performed
by compressing a fingernail for five seconds.
The test is normal if colour returns within
two seconds of releasing compression (the
time taken to say the words 'capillary refill').
Capillary refill is not effective as a measure of
circulatory adequacy if the casualty is
hypothermic or if it is dark!
Normal capillary refill takes two
seconds.
0519. Blood pressure.This should be recorded
during the primary survey and observations
continued thereafter to ensure that the trend
is towards normotension.
Classification of Circulating
Volume Lost (See Table 5.1)
0520. Class I. Loss of less than 15% of
circulating volume (up to 750 ml in a 70 kg
adult). This is fully compensated by the
diversion of blood from the splanchnic pool.
There are no abnormal symptoms and signs
other than minimal tachycardia.
0521. Class II. Loss of 15 - 30% of
circulating volume (750 - 1500 ml in a 70 kg
adult) requires peripheral vasoconstriction to
maintain systolic blood pressure. The pulse
pressure is narrowed because of raised
diastolic blood pressure; this is a valuable
indicator of Class II.
0522. Class III. Loss of 30-40% of
circulating volume (1500-2000 ml in a 70 kg
adult) causes a measurable fall in systolic
blood
pressure
because
peripheral
BATLS Chapter 5
189
vasoconstriction fails to compensate for the

increasing loss. This manifests itself as the
classical symptoms and signs of shock.
0523. Class IV. Loss of more than 40% of
circulating volume (over 2000 ml in a 70 kg
adult) is immediately life-threatening.
Effective and aggressive treatment must be
initiated quickly. Loss of more than 50%
circulating volume results in loss of
consciousness.
This classification is the ultimate
tennis match for survival:
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
0-15
15-30
30-40
40-game, set and exit
tournament for good!
Table 5.1 Vital signs

Class
I
Up to 750 ml
<15% lost
II
750-1500 ml
15-30% lost
III
1500-2000 ml
30-40% lost
IV
>2000 ml
>40% lost
Heart rate
<100/min
100-120/min
120-140/min
>140/min
Systolic BP
Normal
Normal
Decreased
Decreased/
unrecordable
Pulse pressure
Normal
Narrowed
Narrowed
Very narrow/absent
Capillary refill
Normal
Prolonged
Prolonged
Prolonged/absent
Respiratory rate
14-20/min
20-30/min
>30/min
>35/min
Urine output
>30ml/hr
20-30 ml/hr
5-20 ml/hr
Negligible
Cerebral function
Normal/
slightly
anxious
Anxious/
frightened/
hostile
Anxious/
confused
Confused/
unresponsive
Initial Assessment and

Management
0524. Obvious signs of shock are easy to
recognise but they do not usually appear until
over 30% of circulating volume is lost. The
earliest
signs
are
of
peripheral
vasoconstriction and tachycardia followed by
narrowing of the pulse pressure. You must
assume that any injured casualty with cold
peripheries and a rapid heart rate is in shock,
until proved otherwise. Remember, a pulse of
80 in a young, fit athletic soldier, whose
normal resting pulse is 50, may represent a
significant loss of circulating volume.
Principles of Management of
Hypovolaemic Shock
0525. The principles of management are:
To save life.
To prevent deterioration.
To promote recovery.
0526. Diagnosis of hypovolaemic shock must
be promptly followed by appropriate
treatment, directed at restoring effective
tissue perfusion. Restoration of adequate
circulating volume is not a substitute for
definitive treatment (surgery). Remember:
circulation with haemorrhage control; attempts
should be made to treat, where possible, the
cause of the shock; for example, application
of pressure dressings and splinting of
fractures. Stop the bleeding!
0527. Shock is defined as inadequate tissue

perfusion. It is now accepted that the
appropriate end point for the initial
resuscitation of the shocked casualty is the
achievement of a blood pressure sufficient to
maintain tissue perfusion. This is generally
accepted to be a systolic blood pressure of 90
mmHg, that is, a palpable radial pulse.
Evidence suggests that a rapid return to
normal blood pressure is associated with
effects such as the displacement of blood clot
and a dilution of clotting factors. Both of
these effects may cause rebleeding and
adversely affect outcome. The foregoing
brings into question the traditional approach
of giving all shocked casualties a standard
intravenous fluid challenge of two or more
litres in an uncontrolled way. This is
especially the case when the haemorrhage is
non-compressible (see paragraph 0530 and
table 5.2).
Examination
0528. Physical examination is directed at the
assessment of the Airway, Breathing and
Circulation. Baseline recordings of vital signs
(see Table 5.1) taken at this stage are
important for subsequent decisions
regarding treatment. Additionally, a rapid
neurological survey (AVPU) will give
important clues about cerebral perfusion. A
more detailed secondary survey may offer
information on the cause of the shock and on
other conditions contributing to shock.
Resuscitation
0529. After establishing a clear airway (and
protecting the cervical spine when
appropriate) you should deliver oxygen,
when available, at a high flow rate (10-15
litres per minute), through a bag-valve-mask
reservoir system. After correcting any lifethreatening breathing difficulties you must
turn your attention to stopping obvious
haemorrhage. This can be achieved by direct
or indirect pressure, by wound packing and
judicious and correct use of a tourniquet.You
can minimise haemorrhage from limb
fracture sites by reducing and immobilizing
the fracture.
Haemorrhage
0530. When resuscitating the shocked
casualty, you should consider haemorrhage
to be of two types:
Compressible haemorrhage.
Non-compressible haemorrhage.
0531. Compressible haemorrhage is
controllable by direct pressure, limb
elevation, the application of a tourniquet or
by splintage; All of which can be carried out
by you.
0532. Non compressible haemorrhage is
bleeding into a body cavity (chest, abdomen,
pelvis or retroperitoneum) which can only be
controlled by urgent surgery. This cannot be
190
BATLS Chapter 5
carried out by you.

0533. In the case of pelvic fractures,
although surgery may be needed, some
control of bleeding may be achieved by
splinting the pelvis using some form of pelvic
splint as part of the resuscitation process.
0534. An algorithm for the man agement of
shock is given at Table 5-2, this can be
summarised as follows:
Fluid Resuscitation
Compressible haemorrhage
not shocked
Compressible haemorrhage
shocked
No fluids
IV fluids
Non compressible haemorrhage evacuation available No fluids

Non compressible haemorrhage evacuation delayed
IV fluids
Replacement of Lost Volume

0535. Intravenous access is best achieved by
inserting as large a cannula as possible into
each antecubical fossa. If peripheral
cannulation cannot be achieved consider:
Femoral vein cannulation
Intravenous cutdown
0536. Under no circumstances should
attempts to obtain intravenous access delay
casualty transfer to definitive care unless
journey times are going to be prolonged.
0537. The choice of fluids is between
crystalloid solutions and synthetic colloids;
blood will be available at role 2 and 3 medical
units.
Table 5.2 Management of shock
SURGERY
1
Never give cold fluids by rapid intravenous infusion. Ingenuity may be required to keep crystalloids and colloids warm.
For example, never leave fluids in vehicles overnight in a cold environment. If necessary take them to bed with you! Carry
packs of fluid under your smock close to your body, this will keep them warm, ready for immediate use. Blood taken straight
from a refrigerator should be administered through a blood warmer.
BATLS Chapter 5
191
Gaining intravenous access must not

delay transfer to definitive care.
Crystalloids
0538. Crystalloids are physiological
solutions which remain only temporarily in
the circulation (about 30 minutes) before
passing into the intercellular space. They are
useful for the immediate replacement of lost
volume, especially when evacuation times are
short and definitive medical care is nearby.
Initially, two litres of crystalloid (Hartmann's
Solution/Ringer's Lactate) should be infused
using wide-bore cannulae.
0539. The advantages of crystalloids are:
They are inexpensive, plentiful and have a
long shelf life.
They have no allergenicity.
They do not cause coagulation problems.
There is no risk of transmitted infection.
0540. The disadvantages are:
Three volumes are required for each
volume of blood lost (the 3:1 rule).
An overload may cause pulmonary and
cerebral oedema.
Colloids
0541. Colloids are either natural (derived
from blood products) for example plasma, or
synthetic (derived from starches and gelatins)
for example, polygeline (Haemaccel) which is
a gelatin suspended in physiological solution,
or Gelofusine.
0542. The advantages of colloids are:
They are inexpensive, plentiful and have a
long shelf life.
They replace lost volume on a one-to-one
basis.
They remain in the circulation for long
periods.
There is no risk of transmitted infection.
0543. The disadvantages are:
Occasionally (1:5000), they cause allergic
reactions.
When cold, they either become viscous or
form a jelly.
Treatment regimen
0544. The response to resuscitation by
intravenous fluids, and the need for further
intravenous fluids and/or surgery, can be
considered under four headings:
Type 1 response. The pulse rate falls below
100, the systolic blood pressure rises above
100 and the pulse pressure widens; these
signs remain stable. No further fluid
challenge is required.
Type II response. An initial fall of the pulse
rate below 100, a rise of systolic blood
pressure above 100 and widening of the
pulse pressure, then a regression to
abnormal levels of these vital signs. This
means that either the fluid has been
redistributed from the intravascular
compartment to the extravascular

compartment, or blood loss continues.
Give a further intravenous challenge of two
units of colloid or whole blood if available.
If the vital signs return to acceptable levels,
the response was due to redistribution of
fluid; if vital signs remain abnormal then
this is a Type III response.
Type III response. Continue intravenous
colloid or whole blood at flow rates
sufficient to sustain resuscitation (a palable
radial pulse). This casualty needs urgent
surgery within the hour.
Type IV response. No response to rapid
intravenous infusion of crystalloid, colloid
and/or blood. This casualty needs
immediate damage control surgery (to
'turn off the tap') if he is to survive.
0545. The above is a simple guide on how a
casualty may respond to fluid resuscitation.
More important is the question: has the
casualty got non-compressible haemorrhage
and can he be evacuated now? If the answer
is 'yes' - do it!
0546.To resuscitate children, the initial bolus
dose of crystalloid is 20 ml/kg of body
weight. Further boluses will depend on the
child's response. (see Supplement No 1).
Supplementary Treatments and

Supportive Measures
0547. Protect casualties from the
environment as hypothermia exacerbates
shock. Administer oxygen at the highest
possible percentage whenever it is available.
Blood is indicated for casualties who have
sustained a Class III or Class IV
haemorrhage. Whenever possible use type
specific blood although, in an emergency,
uncrossmatched whole blood can be lifesaving.
0548. Painful stimuli exacerbate shock. Use
analgesia in responsive casualties; remember
fracture stabilization and immobilization will
minimise haemorrhage at the fracture site in
addition to alleviating pain.
0549. Gastric dilation may occur despite the
presence of a nasogastric tube. To avoid the
risk of aspiration in unconscious casualties,
the airway must be protected by a cuffed
endotracheal tube, together with intermittent
aspiration of the nasogastric tube.
Monitoring
0550. Once stabilized, the casualty must be
continually monitored and reassessed to
prevent deterioration and to ensure that all
diagnoses have been made. Legible and
accurate records are essential, noting the date
and time of each intervention and
observation. The variables that must be
monitored are:
Pulse (rate, rhythm and pressure).
Capillary refill time.
Respiration
(rate, expansion
symmetry).
and
192
BATLS Chapter 5
Blood pressure
Neurological state (AVPU).
0551. An additional guide to the response to
resuscitation or casualty deterioration can be
gained from:
Pulse oximetry.
Urine output (ideal: adults 50 ml/hr children 1-2 ml/kg/hr).
Blood gas analysis.
Management Problems
Continuing haemorrhage
0552.You must consider all potential sources
of blood loss. Concealed haemorrhage is lifethreatening and must be in the forefront of
your mind in all hypovolaemic casualties who
respond poorly or do not respond to
treatment - Response types III and IV.
Urgent surgery is required. You must also
consider the possibility of dilution of clotting
factors when large volumes of fluids have
been infused. Remember that stored blood
contains fewer clotting factors than fresh
blood and fresh frozen plasma.
Fluid overload
0553. Fluid overload is unlikely to occur in
severely injured, previously fit young men.
Fluid replacement should be titrated against
haemodynamic effects, especially when
estimates of loss can be calculated from the
mechanism of injury and the haemorrhage is
compressible. If fluid overload does occur
and pulmonary oedema is detected, the
infusion should be slowed to maintain
intravascular access and you should consider
the use of intravenous diuretics and
intravenous morphine.
Acid/base imbalance
0554. Initial respiratory alkalosis is due to
tachypnoea. Metabolic acidosis may develop
with severe or long-standing shock as a result
of inadequate tissue perfusion and
subsequent anaerobic metabolism. When
arterial blood gas measurement is available
and indicates the presence of metabolic
acidosis, it should be treated with increasing
intravenous fluids.
Other Types of Stock

0555. In the battlefield situation, most
shocked casualties will have hypovolaemia.
The differential diagnosis should also include
cardiogenic, neurogenic, anaphylactic and
septic shock. Clues can be gained from the
history, careful secondary survey, selected
additional tests and the response to
treatment:
Cardiogenic shock. Myocardial dysfunction
may occur following cardiac tamponade,
myocardial contusion, air embolus,
pulmonary
embolus,
tension
pneumothorax or myocardial infarction.
Ideally, all casualties with blunt thoracic

injury should have constant ECG
monitoring. Measuring cardiac enzymes
will not alter the acute management of
myocardial infarction and are poor
indicators of myocardial contusion.
Neurogenic shock. Damage to some parts of
the brain stem or high thoracic/cervical
spinal cord, produces hypotension due to
interruption of the sympathetic chain, with
subsequent loss of vessel tone. Sympathetic
denervation also removes the cardiac
response to hypotension, that is,
tachycardia. The vagus is unopposed
resulting in bradycardia which may worsen
if the vagus nerve is stimulated, for
example, by passing an endotracheal tube
or nasogastric tube. The casualty with
neurogenic
shock
demonstrates
hypotension without tachycardia. The
immediate treatment of symptomatic
bradycardia in neurogenic shock is
atropine 0.5 - 1 mg intravenously.
Anaphylactic shock.You should suspect this
uncommon mechanism of shock in any
casualty who has recently received
medication or who has been exposed to
other allergens, especially when the history
is not known. Signs of anaphylactic shock
include peripheral vasodilatation, oedema,
bronchospasm and urticaria. Attention to
the airway is essential. The definitive
treatment is adrenaline 1 mg as 1 ml of
1:1000 solution intramuscularly or, in lifethreatening cases, 1 mg as 10 ml of
1:10000 solution intravenously slowly.
Septic shock. Septic (toxic) shock may occur
if evacuation is delayed for many hours. It
is most likely to occur in casualties with
penetrating abdominal injuries and in
whom the peritoneal cavity has been
contaminated by intestinal contents. The
mechanism of shock is one of vasodilatation
caused by bacterial toxins. If there has been
no haemorrhage (or if haemorrhage has
been adequately corrected) the casualty,
although hypotensive, will have a
tachycardia, warm pink skin and a wide
pulse pressure (a full bounding pulse).
Summary
Hypovolaemia is the cause of shock in most
battle casualties. A high index of suspicion is
essential during assessment of the casualty.
Management requires immediate control of
haemorrhage either by direct compression,
splintage, the application of a tourniquet or
where necessary, by urgent surgery.
BATLS Chapter 5
193
Skills Station 4
Peripheral Intravenous
Cannulation
Aim
The aim of this skills station is to give you the
opportunity to practise and demonstrate the
technique of peripheral intravenous
cannulation.
Equipment
Model arm or IV practice pads.
IV giving sets.
14 gauge cannulae.
Hartmann's Solution.
Haemaccel.
Micropore tape.
Adhesive tape 3 inch.
Alcohol sterets.
Blood sample bottles.
Venous tourniquet.
Surgical gloves.
Ties (3-0).
Scalpels (22 balde).
Small haemostat forceps.
Gauze swabs (4" x 4").
Venous tourniquet.
Surgical gloves.
Scissors.
Anatomical Considerations
The primary site for cutdown is over the
long saphenous vein above the ankle at a
point approximately 2 cm anterior and 2
cm superior to the medial malleolus - but
not if there is significant injury proximal to
this site. (See Fig 5.1).
The site of second choice is the median
basilic vein, located 2.5 cm lateral to the
medial epicondyle of the humerus in the
antecubital fossa.
Skills Procedures
Run the intravenous solution through the
giving set.
Identify the vein to be cannulated (first
choice is the antecubital fossa).
Check there are no fractures proximal to
the intended cannulation site.
Apply a venous tourniquet proximal to the
intended cannulation site.
Prepare the skin with an alcohol steret.
Insert the cannula into the vein; withdraw
the trocher and feed the cannula further
into the vein when blood is seen in the flash
chamber.
Draw 15 ml of blood for crossmatch, full
blood count and haematocrit.
Connect the giving set and commence flow
at the required rate.
Secure the cannula with Micropore tape.
Cover the cannula site with adhesive tape.
Secure the giving set tubing.
If the casualty is going to be moved or
evacuated ensure the taping of the cannula
and giving set is robust enough to survive
this; consider applying a POP backslab.
Skills Station 5
Peripheral Venous Cutdown /
Femoral Access
Aim
opportunity to practise and demonstrate the
technique of peripheral venous cutdown.
Equipment
Animal model or IV practice pads.
IV giving sets.
14 gauge cannulae.
Hartmann's Solution.
Micropore tape.
Alcohol sterets.
Sutures (3-0).
Fig 5.1 Cut down technique - long saphenous vein (right

ankle).
Skills Procedures
giving set.
Apply a venous tourniquet proximal to the
intended cannulation site.
Prepare the skin with an alcohol steret.
Infiltrate the area with local anaesthetic.
Make a full-thickness transverse incision
through the skin.
By blunt dissection, identify and display
the vein.
Free the vein from its bed and elevate a 2
cm length.
Ligate the distal end, leaving the suture in
place for traction.
Pass a tie around the proximal end of the
vein.
Make a small transverse venotomy and
gently dilate the opening with the tip of a
closed haemostate.
Introduced the plastic cannula (without
trochar) through the venotomy and secure
it in place by tying the proximal ligature.
Attach the giving set and commence flow
If possible, close the incision, otherwise
apply a sterile dressing and secure the
giving set tubing in place.
Complications
Haemorrhage or haematoma.
Perforation of the posterior wall of the vein.
Nerve transection.
Phlebitis.
Venous thrombosis.
194
BATLS Chapter 5
Femoral access
The femoral vein lies medial to the femoral
artery (see Fig 5.2). This anatomy can best
be remembered by use of the mnemonic
NAVY - Nerve, Artery, Vein, Y-front.
Fig 5.2 Anatomy of the femoral region.
Skills procedures
giving set.
Place a 10 ml syringe onto a brown venflon.
Prepare the skin with an alcohol steret and

ensure that suitable fastening materials are
available.
Identify the femoral artery and place the
middle and index finger of the left hand on
the pulsation.
Insert the cannula medial to the two finers
advancing towards the head with the
needle at 45 to the skin.
Apply continuous moderate suction to the
syringe by gently withdrawing the syringe
plunger as you advance.
When the vein is punctured blood will
enter the syringe rapidly. Stop advancing
the cannula, pause then gently advance the
cannula into the vein while simultaneously
withdrawing the needle.
Suture or tape the cannula into place.
Attach the giving set and commence flow
Apply an appropriate dressing.
J R Army Med Corps 2002; 148: 50-55
BATLS
(BATLS)
CHAPTER 7
ABDOMINAL INJURIES
AIM
0701. On successfully completing this topic,
Identify casualties who have sustained
abdominal injuries.
Recognise the differences in patterns of
abdominal injury based on the history and
mechanisms involved.
Establish management priorities and
institute appropriate treatment.
0702. Specifically, you will be able to:
Describe the anatomical regions of the
abdomen.
Recognise abdominal injury.
Recognise the difference in injury pattern
between blunt and penetrating injury.
Identify the signs indicative of
intraperitoneal, retroperitoneal and pelvic
injury.
List the diagnostic procedures specific to a
casualty with abdominal injury.
Understand the use of diagnostic
peritoneal lavage.
Understand the role of Focused

Abdominal Sonography for Trauma
(FAST).
INTRODUCTION
0703. You must correctly identify those casualties
who have sustained abdominal injury and
require surgery. This requires a high index of
suspicion. Unrecognised abdominal injury
frequently results in death that could have
been prevented, both in peace and war. In
young athletic people, such as soldiers, there
may be initially no apparent physical signs.
As many as 50% casualties with significant
intraperitoneal haemorrhage will have few or
no signs when assessed at Role One. These
casualties
have
non-compressible
haemorrhage and require urgent surgical
intervention.
The abdominal cavity is a silent
reservoir for major blood loss.
0704. Casualties presenting with penetrating
abdominal injury will pose little difficulty.
Always assume that visceral injury has
occurred. In casualties presenting with blunt
injury, the history is often the most vital
Clavicle
Aorta
Sternum
Lung
Pleural space
Heart
Diaphragm at
expiration
Xiphoid
Diaphragm at
inspiration
Stomach
Liver
Fig 7-1 Change in position of diaphragm at inspiration/expiration.
BATLS Chapter 7
51
indicator of abdominal trauma. You must

assume that the casualties who have sustained
significant deceleration have suffered intraabdominal trauma.
Anatomy
0705. The abdomen has three distinct
anatomical compartments - intraperitoneal,
retroperitoneal and the pelvis. The
intraperitoneal cavity can be further divided
into
intrathoracic
and
abdominal
components. The intrathoracic abdomen is
that portion protected by the lower rib cage
and includes the diaphragm, liver, spleen,
stomach and transverse colon. The
diaphragm can rise to as high as the fourth
intercostal space during full expiration (see
Fig 7-1), putting these abdominal viscera at
risk, particularly from thoracoabdominal
penetrating injury. In blunt injuries resulting
in lower rib fractures you should be
suspicious of damage to the liver or spleen.
0706. The retroperitoneal component
contains the aorta, inferior vena cava,
kidneys, ureters, the ascending and
descending colons, the duodenum and
pancreas. Injury to these structures is
frequently covert and you must have a high
index of suspicion. You should note
particularly that diagnostic peritoneal lavage
may be misleading: it can fail to detect
retroperitoneal haemorrhage.
Blunt versus Penetrating Injury

0707. The pattern following blunt injury is
quite different from that of penetrating injury.
Blunt Injury, particularly following road
traffic accidents, falls, or due to a blast,
results from rapid deceleration, deforming
or crushing which can cause visceral
disruption due to compression and shear
forces. The structures most at risk are the
liver, spleen, kidneys and retroperitoneal
duodenum. Seat belt compression can
result in injury to hollow viscera such as
the small and large bowel; it can also result
in spinal injury.
Penetrating injury may have direct and
indirect effects. Low energy-transfer
missiles and stab wounds involve
structures directly in their path and cause
damage by direct laceration. High energytransfer missiles usually cause considerably
more damage, not only to organs in their
path but also to adjacent viscera. This is
particularly so if solid organs such as the
liver, spleen and kidney are involved.
Energy-transfer and cavitation is much
greater in solid as opposed to hollow
viscera (see paragraph 0114). The
thoracolumbar spine is also at greater risk
of injury from high energy-transfer, as
opposed to low energy-transfer, missiles.
IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
Blunt Injury
0708. Blunt injury may be overt or covert.
Accurate initial assessment may depend on
knowing the circumstances leading to the
injury. Of particular importance are the time
and mechanism of injury; the nature of
impact particularly if a soft-skinned vehicle is
involved; whether seat belts were worn; and
the condition of other victims.Were any other
occupants of the vehicle killed or thrown
clear? If possible, get a description of the
wrecked vehicle; for example, was the
steering wheel buckled? This will point to
possible chest or upper abdominal injury. In
other words, read the wreckage. All these
factors are important in assessing whether or
not a high energy impact has occurred.
Details of earlier life support measures are
also important.
Penetrating Injuries
0709. While accepting as paramount the
maxim, treat the wound, not the weapon, you
should get as much valuable historical
information as you can. This should include
the time of injury; the weapon or other
munitions involved; how many shots were
fired; the casualtys location at the time of
injury, for example, inside an armoured
vehicle; and the position of the casualty when
hit (crouching, prone and so on - these may
give a pointer to the track of the missile). Any
earlier life support measures carried out
should also be determined.1
PRIMARY SURVEY AND

RESUSCITATION
0710. The primary survey and life-saving
resuscitation, as with all casualties, take
precedence. The secondary survey, the
specific in-depth assessment of abdominal
injuries, must not take place until completion
of the primary survey and resuscitation
phases.
Remember the A B C D E routine
0711. A confident clinical diagnosis of
abdominal injury is difficult even under ideal
conditions. It is even more difficult under
austere field conditions. Further, medical
attendants working at Role 1 will be junior
and relatively inexperienced. In the primary
survey, casualties with abdominal injuries
will come to light during assessment of C in
the A B C D E assessment. The problem
facing the medical officer or Cbt Med Tech
will be Where is the blood? In many cases
there will be no hard physical signs on
abdominal examination that will answer the
question. The possibility of an abdominal
injury should always be considered. Early
evacuation on suspicion alone is totally
appropriate. Delay until signs become
52
BATLS Chapters 7
obvious will result in mortality rates over

90%: this must be avoided. Your task is to
answer the question is the casualty bleeding
within the abdomen?. Later, it is the
surgeons task to answer what is bleeding?.
0712. Additional procedures in the

resuscitation phase, depending on the role at
which the casualty is treated, are:
Venous access. Refer to the shock lecture for
recommendations on the siting of venous
access cannulae.Withdraw blood from one
of the venous access cannulae and either
send it with the casualty on evacuation or
send it to the laboratory. Appropriate
immediate tests include full blood count,
haematocrit, group and crossmatch and
amylase.
Fluid Resuscitation. Refer to the algorithm
on fluid resuscitation in the shock lecture
(table 5-2). The overriding principle is to
stop the bleeding by early evacuation to a
surgical centre. Injudicious use of IV fluids
in a casualty with non-compressible
haemorrhage may result in exacerbation of
existing bleeding or rebleeding. This is
particularly true when managing a casualty
in the pre-hospital setting.
SECONDARY SURVEY
0713. You have already made a rapid
assessment of the abdomen during the
primary survey, identifying and treating all
life-threatening conditions. Now the cause of
the threat to the casualty may become
evident. Do the examination in a systematic
fashion:
Inspection. Whenever feasible, undress the
casualty completely. Examine the front of
the abdomen, the chest, pelvis and thighs.
Turn the casualty fully, log-rolling if
necessary, and examine the back. You are
looking for open wounds, bruising and
obviously swelling. Examine the perineum
and do a rectal examination at the same
time.
Palpation. This can yield subjective as well
as objective evidence of intra-abdominal
injury. Early pain is visceral in origin and
poorly localized. Later pain is somatic and
leads to involuntary guarding with or
without rigidity of the abdominal wall
muscles. Ridigity provides unequivocal
evidence of peritoneal irritation.
Percussion.This can yield the earliest sign of
peritoneal contamination by blood or
faeces, by evincing pain when the abdomen
is percussed.
Auscultation. The presence or absence of
bowel sounds may be difficult to determine
because of extraneous noise. The presence
of a bruit would suggest significant
vascular injury, for example arteriovenous
(AV) fistula.
Perineal and rectal examination. This
examination may draw attention to:
Fractured pelvis.
Ruptured urethra
High riding prostate.
Blood at the urinary meatus.
Scrotal haematoma.
Vaginal examination. Lacerations from
blunt or penetrating wounds or bony
spicules indicate serious injury.
Bladder Decompression. Bladder catheterization, either through the urethra or
suprapubic route is both diagnostic and
therapeutic. The first aim is to provide a
means of monitoring shock therapy by
measuring urinary output.The presence of
haematuria provides an important
indicator of genitourinary injury. It is
mandatory that a rectal examination must
precede bladder decompression if
uretheral injury is a possibility.
Gastric tube. Passing a gastric tube is both
therapeutic and diagnostic. You must
decompress the stomach by removing
gastric contents, thereby reducing the risk
of aspiration, this particularly applies
during casualty evacuation when supervision may be less than ideal. The presence
of blood in the aspirate suggests upper
gastrointestinal injury; this finding may
affect priority for evacuation or surgery.
Screening X-rays. Assuming that facilities
are available, the only X-rays indicated in
the primary survey and resuscitation
phases are cross table lateral cervical spine,
together with PA of chest and pelvis.
Further X-rays should be deferred until
the definitive care phase. The taking of Xrays should not delay resuscitation.
Note: Rectal and vaginal examinations and

urethral catherisation should only be
performed by an appropriately trained
medical officer at a static, well equipped
medical facility.
A positive abdominal examination
points to further action although a
negative examination does not preclude
significant injury. Repeated
assessments are typically required and
medical officers in the forward areas
may evacuate casualties on the basis of
history alone or a high index of
suspicion.
CRITICAL DECISION MAKING

Blunt Injuries
0714. In many cases, the decision to evacuate
the casualty early will be self-evident, (a
penetrating injury in a shocked casualty
demands priority 1 evacuation). Other
casualties with significant abdominal injury
may not be so obvious. A finding of bruising
of the abdominal wall, lower thoracic injury,
obvious pelvic fracture or other positive
physical findings may indicate the need for
early evacuation.
BATLS Chapters 7
53
0715. Within field surgical facilities,

diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL) may yield
valuable information particularly if the
casualty has suffered severe multi-system
injuries or is unconscious following blunt
trauma and cannot give a history.
DPL is an operative procedure and
should only be performed by the
surgeon in charge of the casualty.
Placement of a nasogastric tube and
bladder catheter are mandatory
before DPL.
0716. Diagnostic peritoneal lavage is
contraindicated if there are obvious signs that
indicate the need for laparotomy. Relative
contraindicators include previous abdominal
surgery, morbid obesity and advanced
pregnancy. Cirrhosis or established preexisting coagulopathy, possibly present if
dealing with civilian casualties, are also
relative contraindications.
0717. The indications for diagnostic
peritoneal lavage are: history of severe blunt
thoracoabdominal injury, altered pain
response (that is, reduced level of consciousness), unexplained hypovolaemia, multiple
injuries, or if a casualty is not available for
reassessment of the abdomen - such as being
under anaesthesia during prolonged
orthopaedic or neurosurgical procedures.
0718. A positive diagnostic peritoneal lavage
result is indicated by bloody aspirate, obvious
faeces, bile or small bowel contents
appearing in the catheter, or lavage fluid
appearing through a chest drain or bladder
catheter. A positive result is also indicated by
laboratory findings that show greater than
100,000 rbc/mm3, greater than 500
wbc/mm3, amylase in excess of 175 IU in the
aspirate, or the presence of vegetable fibres.
0719. Decision making in the forward
areas is usually easy. On the battlefield there
is no place for conservative management of
penetrating wounds - all should be evacuated
early with the highest priority.
Gunshot or fragment wounds. Early
laparotomy is mandatory even in an
apparently stable casualty.
Stab wounds. These are relatively
uncommon on the battlefield. Whereas a
conservative approach may be appropriate
in peacetime, it is inappropriate in war.
Early evacuation and exploration are
mandatory.
Lower chest wounds. The lower chest lies
between the nipple line (fourth/fifth
intercostal space) anteriorly, the tips of the
scapulae posteriorly (seventh intercostal
space), and the costal margin. Penetrating
wounds to this region are likely to involve
abdominal viscera. The incidence of

significant organ injury has been estimated
as 15 to 25% after stab wounds and 45 to
50% after bullet or fragment wounds. On
the battlefield, you should assume
abdominal injury in all cases and evacuate
to the nearest surgical facility.
Flank and back wounds. Penetrating
wounds in this region may involve the
retroperitoneum and can be notoriously
silent. A missed retroperitoneal wound to
the colon or duodenum can be fatal. The
incidence rates for visceral injuries are:
Back penetration: 5 to 15%
Flank penetration: 20 to 30%
GENITOURINARY TRACT
INJURIES
0720. You should assume genitourinary
injury in all casualties following blunt
decelerating injury or penetrating wounds
entering the peritoneal or pelvic cavlities. The
absence of haematuria does not exclude injury to
the genitourinary tract. If the injury is obvious
or the index of suspicion indicating
genitourinary tract injury is high, early
evacuation is necessary.
Blunt Injuries
0721. Back and loin contusions, haematomas
or ecchymosis found during the secondary
survey point to possible underlying renal
injury; associated fractures of the lower ribs
posteriorly increase the probability.
0722. Perineal haematomas and pelvic
fractures indicate bladder or urethral injury
until proved otherwise. Inability to void
urine, or blood at the meatus is absolute
evidence of injury. Anterior urethral injury is
associated with straddle impact and is usually
isolated to that part of the urethra.
0723. Penetrating injuries by bullets or
fragments involving the back, loin or pelvis
indicate a probability of urological injury. Do
not rely on finding haematuria.
Aids to Diagnosis
0724. In the forward areas, a high index of
suspicion is essential and casualties should be
evacuated early. At role 3 it may be possible
to perform a limited range of investigations if
time and the casualtys condition permit.
Intravenous pyelography (IVP). High dose
intravenous bolus injection of a suitable
contrast medium may give valuable
information on renal anatomy and
function. For example, unilateral nonfunction of a kidney implies serious
disruption of the kidney or its blood
supply. Delayed films may give additional
information.
Abdominal ultrasound scanning. This may
reveal, for example, disruption of renal
54
BATLS Chapter 7
substance, perinephric haematoma, retroperitoneal haematoma and free intraperitoneal fluid indicating the presence of
urine or blood, or both.
Focused abdominal sonography for trauma
(FAST). FAST is an emerging technology
which may be performed as an adjunct to
the primary survey in contradistinction to
normal abdominal ultrasound scanning,
which is a secondary survey activity taking
place in the radiology department of a field
hospital facility. It involves the use of a
hand held scanning device and may be
utilised at all roles of medical care,
provided appropriately trained and skilled
personnel are available. In trained hands,
FAST may be used to detect blood in the
pericardial sac, free blood or fluid in the
peritoneal cavity, assess the integrity of
solid organs such as liver, spleen or kidney
and may also detect the presence of a
disrupted bladder.
Note: The gold standard for detecting free
blood in the peritoneal cavity remains
diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL). The
utility of FAST as an aid to diagnosis in the
field has recently been trialled in Kosovo2.
Urethrography. This can be performed by
securing a small (12 French gauge) urethral
catheter in the meatal fossa and gently
instilling contrast medium. Subsequent Xrays will reveal any urethral tear.
Computed
tomography
(CT). This
investigation, when available, will play a
significant role in planning definitive
surgery following complex genito-urinary
injury. Mobile CT scanners are planned
for Role 3 facilities.
PELVIC INJURIES
0725. Pelvic fractures in war are commonly
associated with high energy blunt trauma
causing widespread disruption. Three
mechanisms are recognised:
Anteroposterior compression. This typically
results from a pedestrian/vehicle impact,
motorcycle accident or crush injury
following a fall from a height of greater
than 3.5 m. Disruption of the pelvis occurs
at multiple sites, causing widening of the
pelvic ring and may be associated with
catastrophic haemorrhage.
Lateral compression. This mechanism of
injury is associated with motor vehicle
side-impact crashes and motor cycle
accidents. Injury is usually to one
hemipelvis on the impact side, which is
disrupted and internally rotated. Major
bleeding is uncommon.
Vertical shear.This mechanism is associated
with falls from a height, including
parachute accidents and results in shearing
of the hemipelvis in the vertical plane.
Widespread bony and soft tissue
disruption is a feature resulting in major
haemorrhage.
0726. Casualties with abdominal injuries

associated with pelvic fractures have a high
mortality rate and merit special attention.
Major haemorrhage is usual in battlefield
pelvic injuries. Such haemorrhage is difficult
to control and is time consuming and
resource intensive to manage. Mixed arterial
and venous haemorrhage from large bones
and bulky muscle is the underlying problem.
Additionally, numerous large, thin-walled
veins and major arteries lie within the pelvic
cavity and are readily disrupted. Mortality
rates associated with open pelvic fractures
exceed 50% in peacetime and are
significantly higher on the battlefield.
0727. Major pelvic injury is life-threatening
and should be detected in the primary
survey; its presence will be confirmed during
the secondary survey. Key signs include open
wounds in the pelvic region, bruising
(particularly in the perineum), and pain or
grating on gentle pelvic compression. (Do
this only once! Done repeatedly it will
increase blood loss). Casualties with a major
pelvic fracture are often in excruciating pain. Xray examination of the pelvis is one of the
three radiological investigations allowed in
the resuscitation phase of the BATLS
programme.
Initial Management
0728.This to some extent will be dictated by
where the casualty is being managed.
Adequate volume replacement is essential at
all roles of care, bearing in mind
haemorrhage is non-compressible or only
partially compressible until pelvic fixation is
applied. Class IV haemorrhage will be typical
and fluid volumes given intravenously must
be realistic. Careful monitoring of vital signs
and urinary output after each bolus will aid
calculation of further requirements.
Following immediate resuscitation, a careful
and full secondary evaluation must be
performed to determine the presence of
other injuries and other sources of blood loss.
Pelvic binders should be used to support and
compress the pelvic ring before the casualty
is evacuated early to a surgical centre (see
table 7-2)
Management at Role Three

0729. Early compression of mobile bony
elements is the key to haemorrhage control.
External fixation is the method of choice and can
be applied rapidly, if necessary by nonorthopaedic surgeons. In hospital, immobilization should continue to be used if
external fixation is not available. Civilian
techniques such as arterial or venous
emobilization are unavailable on the
battlefield.
0730. Continuing shock, despite vigorous
fluid therapy2 and external fixation, should
suggest an additional source of haemorrhage,
usually intraperitoneal and diagnostic
BATLS Chapter 7
55
suggests
contained
retroperitoneal
haemorrhage, a positive lavage needs to be
evaluated with caution. In the absence of
intraperitoneal haemorrhage, a laparotomy is
best avoided as it may lead to uncontrollable
haemorrhage by releasing abdominal wall
tamponade.
SUMMARY
Table 7-2 Management of unstable pelvic fractures in war3.
peritoneal lavage by a surgeon should be

considered. But there are hazards. Lavage
should be performed well above the
umbilicus to avoid disruption of a
retroperitoneal haematoma. Such disruption
may lead to catastrophic and uncontrollable
haemorrhage. Whereas negative lavage
Recognise the possibility of abdominal

injury.
Two major types of abdominal injury may be
present in war, blunt and penetrating. In either
case, early surgery is essential.
With blunt injuries, a high index of
suspicion is required. Diagnosis in the early
stages may be very difficult. Serial
examination is required; even then,
evacuate early. Aids to diagnosis include:
DPL, FAST, CT
Casualties with penetrating injuries must be
given the highest priority for evacuation
and surgical evaluation. Penetrating injury
to the loin, back, buttocks, lower chest and
thighs, should raise suspicion of intraabdominal injury.
Management of abdominal injury follows
normal BATLS protocol and includes:
Primary survey: Remember the A B C D
E routine.
Resuscitation: This involves:
Continued oxygenation
Appropriate therapy for hypovolaemic
shock (refer to Chapter 5)
Continued monitoring of response by
assessment of vital signs, aided by
additional parameters such as pulse
oxymetry and blood gas analysis, when
available.
Placement of nasogastric tube and
bladder catheter.
Secondary survey: Following stabilization,
but not before, you may proceed to full
assessment of the mechanism and location of
injury. This demands a full secondary survey
and continued monitoring of the casualty.
1. Remember the mnemonic MIST. M = Mechanism of injury; I = Injuries found; S = Symptoms and signs;T = Treatment given.
2. High mortality (50%) and management difficult.
3.The dilemma of IV fluid resuscitation causing re-bleeding and dilution of clotting factors, is a difficult one. Adequate fluid resuscitation should
compliment attempts at temporary pelvic compression, with vigorous resuscitation complimenting surgical stabilization of the pelvis and surgical control of
other sources of blood loss (see table 7.2)
J R Army Med Corps 2002; 148: 151-158
BATLS
CHAPTER 8
HEAD INJURIES
Aim
Discuss general management of the
unconscious casualty with a head injury.
Understand
the
anatomy
and
pathophysiology of head injury.
Understand than an altered level of
consciousness is the hallmark of brain
injury.
Demonstrate the initial assessment and
management of a casualty with a head
injury.
Assess the criteria for neurosurgical
referral in war.
Introduction
0802. Head injury is common: it carries a
high mortality both in peacetime and on the
battlefield. The aim of initial management of
a casualty with a head injury is:
1. To prevent secondary brain
injury due to cerebral hypoxia
2. To identify injuries needing
urgent surgery.
0803. This is done by appropriate
management of:
Airway, Breathing,
Circulation, and D - repeated assessment for
neurological DEFICIT.
inside the skull. Because the skull is a rigid

box, an increase in the size of the brain, the
volume of blood or amount of
cerebrospinal fluid within it, will cause an
increase in ICP. Cerebral perfusion refers to
the supply of oxygenated blood to the
brain.
Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP)
depends on the blood pressure pushing
blood into the brain and the resistance to
this blood flow from the ICP. If the ICP
rises then a higher blood pressure is
needed to supply blood to the brain. In
other words CPP = MAP - ICP
Note: MAP (Mean Arterial Pressure)1.
Normal value 70 to 90 mmHg.
Normal ICP 10 mmHg
If CPP is less than 50 mmHg, cerebral
hypoxia will follow.
Lack of oxygen (hypoxia) makes the brain
swell. Raised carbon dioxide levels in the
blood causes cerebral blood vessels to
dilate which increases the volume of blood
in the head and further raises ICP. This is
why management of Airway and Breathing
is essential.
Raised ICP may also be due to obstruction
of venous drainage from the head.
This may be due to:
Anatomy and Pathophysiology
Pressure on the neck veins.

Increased pressure inside the chest.
0804. The skull is a rigid box containing

brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood
vessels:
The brain is surrounded by a series of
membranes. The outer, thick membrane is
called the dura. Beneath the dura is a more
flimsy membrane called the arachnoid. The
CSF flows in the space deep to the
arachnoid. Bleeds are described as
occurring outside or inside these
membranes hence extradural, subdural and
subarachnoid.
Blood is supplied to the brain by the
internal carotid and vertebral arteries and
eventually drains via the internal jugular
veins.
The brain is very active and needs a lot of
oxygen and substrate to survive. Loss of
oxygenated blood flow for more than three
minutes will cause brain damage.
Intracranial pressure (ICP) is the pressure
0805. Rising ICP, brain swelling or

expanding haematomas inside the head can
cause a variety of neurological signs:
Pressure of the third cranial nerve
(oculomotor) will result in a dilated pupil
on the same side as the injury.
Damage to the motor or sensory cortex (or
tracts leading from them) will result in a
motor or sensory DEFICIT on the
contralateral side to the injury.
A decrease in level of consciousness is the
marker of brain injury. Generally, the more
deeply unconscious a casualty becomes,
the more serious is the injury. Coma is a
term used for unconsciousness although to
be accurate it should only be used for
deeply unconscious casualties (see
paragraph 0829).
Pressure on the lower part of the brain
(brain stem) where the respiratory and
1.This is not the same as the systolic pressure.
152
BATLS Chapter 8
cardiovascular centres lie, produces

respiratory or cardiovascular abnormalities
(change in heart rate and blood pressure,
change in breathing pattern and rate).
0806. It follows that preventing a rise in
intracranial pressure or a fall in cerebral
perfusion is vital in the overall management
of head injury. This must never be
forgotten.
Brain Injury
0807. Primary brain injury is the neurological
damage produced by the traumatic event, for
example, a blow to the head or damage from
a gunshot wound. Secondary brain injury is
the neurological damage produced by what
follows on from the traumatic event. Causes
include:
hypoxia, reduced cerebral
perfusion, raised ICP, convulsions and
infection.
Primary Brain Injury

0808. Primary brain injury may be diffuse or
focal.
Diffuse Brain Injury

0809. Blunt injury to the brain may cause
diffuse brain injury, particularly when rapid
head motion (acceleration or deceleration)
leads to widespread damage within the brain
substance. Such injuries form a spectrum
extending from mild confusion to severe
injury.
Concussion
0810. Concussion is a brain injury
accompanied by a brief loss of consciousness
and, in its mildest form, may cause only
temporary confusion or amnesia. With mild
forms of concussion, most casualties will be
slightly confused and may be able to describe
how the injury occurred. They are likely to
complain of mild headache, dizziness or
nausea. The mini-neurological examination
will not show localising signs. With more
severe concussion there is a longer period of
unconsciousness, longer amnesia (for time
both before and after the injury) and there
may be focal signs. The duration of amnesia
needs to be recorded.
Diffuse axonal injuries

0811. At the other end of the spectrum from
mild concussion, diffuse axonal injury is so
severe as to cause a characteristically long
coma, present in 44% of cases. The overall
mortality rate is over 30%, rising to 50% in
its most severe form. The treatment of such
injury involves prolonged controlled
ventilation in an intensive care unit, a facility
that may not be available. Because the
mortality is so high, these casualties have a
low priority for evacuation.
Focal Brain Injuries

0812. Brain injuries that produce a contusion
or haematoma in a relatively small area of the
brain are amenable to emergency surgery.

These conditions must be diagnosed early as
rapid evacuation to a surgical or
neurosurgical unit for early surgery, greatly
reduces the morbidity and mortality.
Contusions
0813. These are caused by blunt injury
producing acceleration and deceleration
forces on the brain tissue resulting in tearing
of the small blood vessels inside the brain.
Contusions can occur immediately beneath
the area of impact when they are known as
coup injuries, or at a point distant from the
area of impact in the direction of the applied
force when they are known as contrecoup
injuries. If the contusion occurs near the
sensory or motor areas of the brain, these
casualties will present with a neurological
deficit. Precise diagnosis requires appropriate
imaging (CT scanning), consequently, the
treatment is supportive, aimed at the
avoidance of secondary brain injury.
Intracranial haemorrhage
0814. Haemorrhage may arise either from
meningeal vessels or from vessels within the
brain substance.
Extradural haemorrhage
0815. This is caused by a tear in a dural
artery, most commonly the middle
meningeal artery.This can be torn by a linear
fracture crossing the temporal or parietal
bone and injuring the artery lying in a groove
on the deep aspect of the bone (see Fig 8.1).
Isolated extradural haemorrhage is unusual,
accounting for only 0.5% of all head injuries
and less than 1% of injuries causing coma.
The importance of early recognition of this
injury lies in the fact that, when treated
appropriately, the prognosis is good because
of the lack of underlying serious injury to
brain tissue. If missed, the rapidly expanding
haematoma causes ICP to rise, reducing
cerebral perfusion and leading to cerebral
hypoxia, coma and death.
0816. The typical symptoms and signs of
extradural haemorrhage are:
Loss of consciousness followed by a lucid
interval (which may not be a complete
return to consciousness).
Secondary depression of consciousness.
Dilated pupil on the side of injury.
Weakness of the arm and leg on the
contralateral side to the injury.
Subdural haematoma
0817. This is more common than extradural
haemorrhage and is found in 30% of all
severe head injuries. The mortality rate is up
to 60% because, in addition to the
compression caused by the subdural clot,
there is often major injury to the underlying
brain tissue. The haematoma can arise from
BATLS Chapter 8
Fig 8.1 Acute extradural haematoma
Fig 8.2 Subdural haematoma
153
154
BATLS Chapter 8
tears in the bridging veins between the cortex

and the dura or from laceration of the brain
substance and the cortical arteries (see Fig
8.2). Levels of consciousness will vary
depending on the underlying brain damage
and rate of haematoma formation. The pupil
on the affected side will become dilated
together with contralateral limb weakness.
Subarachnoid haemorrhage
0818. Where haemorrhage has occurred into
the subarachnoid space, the irritant effect of
the bloody cerebrospinal fluid causes headache, photophobia and neck stiffness. On its
own this is not serious, but prognosis is poor
if associated with a more severe head injury.
Intracerebral laceration
0819. These can be caused by:
Impalement injury. All foreign bodies found
protruding from the skull must be left in
place; these will be removed at the
neurosurgical unit. Skull X-rays will show
the angle and depth of penetration. Care
must be taken during evacuation to ensure
there is no further penetration.
Gunshot wounds and fragment wounds.
Prognosis is determined by the size of
missile and energy transfer, the number of
penetrating fragments and the length of the
wound track. Casualties with these injuries
who are in coma have a very high mortality
rate. (See Table 8.1).
Table 8.1 Mortality rates - penetrating head injuries
Level of
Consciousness
Percentage
Mortality
Approximates
to:
Alert
11.5
Drowsy
33.3
Reaction to pain
79.1
Coma
100
Note: Through-and-through injuries, sideto-side injuries and injuries in the lower

region of the brain stem, all have a poor
outcome. All these factors must be
considered when deciding the priority for
evacuation. Open brain injury in a conscious
casualty carries a good prognosis if surgery is
not delayed. Scalp haemorrhage should be
stopped, entrance and exit wounds covered
with sterile dressings and the casualty
evacuated to a neurosurgical unit.
Assessment of Head Injury

History
0820. Knowing the mechanism of injury
provides important information for both
prognosis and early selection for evacuation
to a neurosurgical unit. For example, a fall
from a height, as opposed to involvement in
a road traffic accident, quadruples the
likelihood of an intracranial haematoma.
With gunshot and fragment injuries to the
head, the initial level of consciousness is
related to mortality.
Primary Survey
0821. This follows the BATLS A B C D E
protocols. For head injury understand:
A. Airway.
A casualty with a reduced level of
consciousness is likely to have a
compromised airway.
B. Breathing.
Good ventilation ensures the brain receives
blood containing enough oxygen and not
excess carbon dioxide.
Raised intrathoracic pressure (as happens in
tension pneumothorax) will interfere with
venous drainage from the head and raise
ICP.
C. Circulation.
Never presume the brain injury is the cause
of hypotension. Scalp lacerations may bleed
profusely but hypotension secondary to an
isolated brain injury is uncommon and
usually fatal.
Always presume that hypotension is
due to hypovolaemia not brain
injury and look for a source of blood
loss elsewhere.
Cushings
response
(progressive
hypertension, bradycardia and slowing of
respiratory rate) is an acute and potentially
lethal response to rapidly rising intracranial
pressure. This usually indicates a need for
immediate surgery or precedes death.
D. Disability.
A rapid assessment of conscious level is
made in the primary survey using AVPU,
that is, is the casualty Alert or responding to
Voice or only responding to Pain or
Unresponsive?
SECONDARY SURVEY
Mini-neurological examination
0822. In the secondary survey, the minineurological examination is carried out to:
Identify neurological injuries.
Establish anatomical diagnosis.
Identify casualties needing early evacuation
for surgery.
0823. The mini-neurological examination
assesses:
Pupillary Function.
Lateralised limb weakness.
Level of consciousness by the Glasgow
Coma Scale.
0824. The mini-neurological examination
serves to determine the severity of the brain
injury. When applied repeatedly at various
points in the evacuation chain, it can be used
to determine objectively any neurological
deterioration. Remember:
BATLS Chapter 8
155
Alteration of the level of

consciousness is the hallmark of
brain injury.
Mini-neurological examination pupils

0825. Evaluate the pupils for their equality
and response to bright light. A difference in
diameter of the pupils of more than 1 mm is
abnormal, but remember that a local injury
to the eye may be responsible for this
abnormality. Normal reaction to a bright
light is brisk constriction of the pupil; a more
sluggish response may indicate brain injury.
A dilated pupil on the same side as the injury
indicates compression of the brain on that
side.
Mini-neurological examination extremity movement

0826. Observe the spontaneous limb
movements for equality; if movement is
negligible then you must assess the response
to a painful stimulus1. Any delay in onset of
movement, or late realization of movement
following a painful stimulus, is significant.
Obvious limb weakness localized to one side
suggests an intracranial injury causing brain
compression on the opposite side.
Mini-neurological examination Glasgow Coma Scale

0827. This provides a quantitative
assessment of the level of consciousness. It is
the sum of scores awarded for three types of
response:
Eye opening (E). The scoring of eye
opening is not possible if the eyes are so
swollen as to be permanently shut. This
fact must be documented.
Spontaneous, that is, open with normal
blinking.
4 points
Eye opening to speech on request.
3 points
Eye opening only to pain stimulus.
2 points
No eye opening despite stimulation.
1 point
Verbal response (V). The scoring of verbal

response is not possible if the casualty
cannot speak because of endotracheal
intubation. This fact must be documented.
Orientated, spontaneous speech; knows
name, age and so on.
5 points
Confused conversation but answers

questions.
4 points
Inappropriate words, that is, garbled

speech but with recognizable words.
3 points
Incomprehensible sounds or grunts.
2 points
No verbal response.
1 point
Motor response (M). The best response

obtained for either of the upper extremities
is recorded even though worse responses
may be present in other extremities.
1. Supraorbital nerve compression
Obeys commands and moves limbs to

command.
6 points
Localizes, for example, moves upper arm

to pain stimulus on head.
5 points
Withdraws from painful stimulus on limb.
4 points
Abnormal flexion or decorticate posture.
3 points
Extensor response, decerebrate posture.
2 points
No movement to any stimulus.
1 point
The Glasgow Coma Scale is scored

differently in children - See Supplement
No 1.
0828. The Mini-neurological examination
can thus be used to determine the severity of
brain injury at a particular time. Subsequent
reassessment can be used to detect any
deterioration. For example, if the Glasgow
Coma Scale has decreased by two points or
more, deterioration has occurred. A decrease
of three points or more is a bad prognostic
indicator
and
demands
immediate
treatment. Dramatic changes in the Glasgow
Coma Scale are often preceded by more
subtle signs indicating deterioration, notably:
A very severe headache or increase in the
severity of headache.
An increase in the size of one pupil or the
development of unilateral limb weakness.
Changes in the casualtys
neurological condition can be
detected only if the minineurological examination is
repeated and re-documented at
various points along the evacuation
chain.
All previous efforts will be wasted if
the deterioration is not detected,
recorded and acted upon.
Definition of Coma
0829. Coma can be defined as that state in
which:
There is no eye opening despite stimulus.
The casualty does not follow commands.
There is no verbalization.
0830. Consequently the objective Glasgow
Coma Scale score that equates to coma is 8
or less.The scale gives some indication of the
severity of brain injury as follows:
Score 8 or less
Score 9 to 12
Score 13 to 15
Severe
Moderate
Minor
0831. When dealing with a closed head

injury you must never assume that coma is
due to alcohol or sedative drugs, even if the
casualty has had access to them. You must
still consider the mechanism of injury in
156
BATLS Chapter 8
addition to the possible pharmaceutical

effects of alcohol and drugs.
In BATLS,
The unconscious casualty who has
been drinking has a head injury
until proved otherwise.
Secondary Survey Specific Injuries

Scalp Wounds
0832. The scalp is arranged in layers. It is
highly vascular and a laceration will often
result in profuse haemorrhage. The bleeding
point should be located and the haemorrhage
arrested. This may include the use of
haemostatic surgical clips and ligatures,
particularly where the laceration is deep.
Direct pressure may not be sufficient. The
wound should be inspected carefully for
signs of skull fracture and irrigated to remove
debris and dirt.
0833. Gentle palpation of the scalp wound
wearing a sterile glove may enable you to
diagnose the presence of a skull fracture. If
an open or depressed fracture is detected,
close the wound with sutures, apply a
dressing, give antibiotics and evacuate the
casualty to a neurosurgical unit. Do not
remove any bone fragments at this stage.
Skull Fractures
0834. Although skull fractures are common,
many major brain injuries will occur without
the skull being fractured and many skull
fractures are not associated with severe brain
injury. Where the mini-neurological
examination identifies the presence of a
severe brain injury, time taken to search for a
skull fracture should never delay definitive
management. The significance of a skull
fracture is that it identifies a casualty with a
higher probability of having or developing an
intracranial haematoma. All casualties with
skull fractures should be detained for
observation.
Linear skull fractures. These are particularly
important when the fracture crosses the
line of intracranial vessels indicating an
increased risk of intracranial haemorrhage.
Depressed skull fractures. All depressed skull
fractures should be evacuated for
neurosurgical unit assessment; they may be
associated with underlying brain injury and
require operative elevation to reduce the
risk of infection.
Open skull fractures. By definition, there is
direct communication between the outside
of the head and brain tissue because the
dura covering the surface of the brain is
torn. This can be diagnosed if brain tissue
is visible on examination of the scalp
wound or if cerebrospinal fluid is seen to
be leaking from the wound.These fractures

all require operative intervention as the risk
of infection is high. Give prophylactic
antibiotics in accordance with Casualty
Treatment Regimes.
Basal skull fractures. The base of the skull
does not run horizontally backwards but
diagonally (See Fig 8.3); basal skull
fractures will produce signs along this
diagonal line. They can be diagnosed
clinically in the presence of cerebrospinal
fluid leaking from the ear (otorrhoea) or
the nose (rhinorrhoea). When cerebrospinal fluid is mixed with blood it may be
difficult to detect; the ring sign can be used
to detect its presence. Allow a drop of the
fluid to fall on a piece of absorbant
material, such as filter paper; if
cerebrospinal fluid is present the blood
remains in the centre with one or more
concentric rings of clearer fluid developing
around it. Bruising in the mastoid region
(Battles sign) also indicates basal skull
fracture, but the bruising usually takes 12
to 36 hours to develop. Blood seen behind
the tympanic membrane (haemotympanum) may also indicate a basal skull
fracture. Fractures through the cribriform
plate are frequently associated with
bilateral periorbital haematomas. Subconjunctival haematoma may occur from
direct orbital roof fracture, in which case
there is no posterior limit to the
haematoma. All these signs may take
several hours to develop and may not be
present in a casualty seen immediately after
injury. Basal fractures are very difficult to
diagnose from plain X-ray films. If X-ray
facilities are available you should look for
the presence of intracranial air or bleeding
into anatomically related air sinuses.
Fig 8.3 Diagonal line showing the level of the base of the
skull.
Triage of Head Injuries

Which casualties should be evacuated?
0835. In peacetime practice, head injury
management guidelines are usually agreed
between local A&E and neurosurgical
centres. In ideal circumstances:
BATLS Chapter 8
157
a. Severe head injuries need neurosurgical

referral:
Coma score (GCS) less than 8.
Compound or depressed skull fracture.
Skull fracture with neurological signs.
Fractured base of skull.
b. Moderate head injuries should be
admitted to hospital for further investigation and observation including CT
scanning:
Simple skull fracture.
Neurological signs (including confusion).
Casualty is difficult to assess because of
drugs or alcohol.
0836. In less than ideal circumstances on the

battlefield, the task is to identify those
casualties who will benefit from evacuation
to a neurosurgical unit and those whose
outlook is so poor that they should not be put
into the evacuation chain ahead of priority.
This decision must be made on the basis of
clinical findings. In short, casualties who
require emergency surgery are those with
depressed or open skull fractures and those
with focal lesions causing symptoms of raised
intracranial pressure. The head injury triage
scheme at Table 8-2 is not foolproof but will
act as a guide.
Summary
c. Minor head injuries following the loss of
consciousness need 24 hours observation,
done by designated personnel. These
casualties are:
Fully orientated.
No skull fracture.
No neurological signs.
d. Should the casualty develop any of the
following, then they need to be assessed by
a medical officer with a view to hospital
admission:
Vomiting.
Drowsiness.
Fits.
Double/blurred vision.
Remember the A B C D E routine.

Prevent secondary injury by:
Preventing hypoxia, hypercarbia and
hypovolaemia.
Giving oxygen if available and ensure a
clear airway at all times.
Treating fits with diazepam in appropriate
doses.
Establishing a working diagnosis.
Searching for associated injuries.
Constantly repeating the mini-neurological
examination.
Identifying and evacuating appropriate
casualties to a neurosurgical unit.
158
Table 8-2 head injury triage scheme

* Lateralised motor weakness
BATLS Chapter 8
J R Army Med Corps 2002; 148: 270-273
BATLS
Battlefield advanced trauma life support
Chapter 9
Maxillofacial Injuries
AIM
you will be able to demonstrate the techniques of assessing and managing battlefield
maxillofacial injuries. Specifically you will be
able to:
ANATOMY
0903. The face is of crucial importance because it encompasses the airway and is in
close proximity to the brain and the spinal
cord. The face is usually divided into three
parts - the mandible, the middle-third and
the upper-third (see Fig 9.1).The upper-third
forms part of the cranium; injuries in this
region are covered in Chapter 8.
Discuss the general management of unconscious, facially injured casualties.

Discuss the anatomy and physiology of
specific facial injuries.
Identify the criteria for stabilisation and
evacuation.
Demonstrate your ability to assess specific
injuries using a head injury manikin.
The Mandible
INCIDENCE
Middle-third
0902. On the battlefield, between 10 to 15%

of casualties who reach role one care have
maxillofacial injuries. Approximately 50% of
jaw injuries on the battlefield are of the blunt,
civilian type. With penetrating injuries, more
are caused by fragments than by gunshot.
0905. The middle-third of the face is

composed of many relatively thin plates of
bone, particularly those related to the orbits,
nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Fractures
of this area may involve the base of the skull.
Obstruction of the airway may occur and
Frontal bone
Supraorbital ridge
Nasal bones
Zygoma
Infraorbital ridge
Maxilla
Mandible
Fig 9.1 Anatomy of the facial skeleton.
0904. This is a single bone to which

numerous muscles are attached, notably the
muscles of the tongue. Certain types of
mandibular injury will prejudice the airway
by allowing the tongue to fall backwards, or
by causing gross swelling of the tissues
around the upper airway.
BATLS Chapter 9
271
haemorrhage from branches of the maxillary

artery may require internal packing.
Breathing
INITIAL ASSESSMENT AND

MANAGEMENT
0910. It is not enough merely to clear the

airway. You must ensure that the casualty is
ventilating adequately. This is covered in
Chapter 4.
0906. The aims of all primary treatment on

the battlefield are:
Circulation
To preserve life.
To prepare the casualty for evacuation.
Remember the four phases of
management:
Primary survey, Resuscitation,
Secondary survey, Definitive care.
(see Chapter 2).
PRIMARY SURVEY AND

RESUSCITATION
In maxillofacial injuries the airway
is at risk and there is an increased
risk of damage to the
Cervical spine and brain.
0911. Unless very severe, facial injuries are

rarely a cause of hypovolaemic shock. If a
casualty exhibits signs of shock out of
proportion to his facial injuries, you must
consider the possibility of covert bleeding
elsewhere.
0912. External bleeding from the head and
neck can be controlled with pressure
dressings - taking care with vital structures
such as the airway and eyes. Bleeding from
the mid-face may require a post nasal pack
applied in the standard manner. As an
emergency measure, two Foley (urinary)
catheters (12 or 14 French gauge) can be
passed through the anterior nares to the back
of the nose, the bulbs inflated and the
catheters then pulled gently forwards anterior nasal packs can then be inserted.
Disability
0907. The majority of maxillofacial injuries
will be found during the secondary survey.
Of prime importance are injuries to the lower
face resulting in bleeding and soft tissue
swelling, or both.These can cause immediate
or delayed airway obstruction (see paragraph
0407). Albeit they may also produce haemorrhagic shock. These problems need to be
detected and dealt with in the primary
survey.
Airway
0908. Identify and remove or bypass, all
causes of obstruction. These may include
blood, vomit, fragments of bone or teeth as
well as post-traumatic swelling of the
adjacent tissues.
0909. Carry out airway management in
accordance with the principles of BATLS. In
some instances, placing the casualty in the
correct position (in this case the threequarter prone position) will allow them to
maintain their own airway. Failing this, the
jaw-thrust or chin-lift manoeuvre may be
required and the airway maintained with an
oral, nasal or endotracheal tube. Take extra
care in placing tubes in casualties with facial
injuries, particularly when there is the
possibility of a fracture involving the base of
the skull. (See Chapter 8). In the early stages,
the importance of correct positioning to
maintain the life of the casualty cannot be
over-emphasized. Too many maxillofacial
casualties die unnecessarily by being left
unattended in the supine position.
No severe maxillofacial casualty
should be left unattended in the
supine position.
0913. Assessment of the pupils is difficult in

orbital injuries because of bleeding or
oedema. Take care to avoid aggravating
ocular damage.
SECONDARY SURVEY
0914. The head, face and neck are fully
examined and assessed as part of the
secondary survey. This examination takes
time and must be carried out in good light.
Comprehensive records are essential.
Thoroughly check for, and record, the
following:
Lacerations.
Bruising, for example mastoid and
periorbital - indicating basal skull fracture the neck and the floor of the mouth.
Cerebrospinal fluid/bleeding from the ears,
nose or mouth.
Tenderness, depression or deformity of
bones.
Malocclusion.
Proptosis, enophthalmus, restriction of eye
movement.
Visual acuity (mid-face injury may lead to
blindness).
Facial muscle weakness, for example
upper, mid- or lower face.
Sensory loss, for example cheek or lower
lip.
Beware of airway compromise
caused by continuing haemorrhage
and soft-tissue swelling.
272
BATLS Chapter 9
Evacuation
0915. When preliminary treatment has been
completed, evacuate the casualty to a
specialist unit for definitive treatment.
Casualties without a definitive airway should
be evacuated in the three-quarter prone
position and must be carefully supervised.
Attendants travelling with maxillofacial cases
must be instructed in the dangers and
management of respiratory obstruction.
The priorities for evacuation of maxillofacial
casualties are:
P1 Airway problems.
P2 Multiple facial injuries without airway
compromise.
P3 Uncomplicated maxillofacial injuries.
Pain Control
0916. For most facial injuries, no immediate
splinting is required, but mobile painful
fractures can be gently supported using two
crepe bandages; one being placed vertically
and the second horizontally (around the
forehead) - and the two anchored together
with safety pins. Analgesia may be given but
care must be taken to avoid respiratory
depression.
Fluid Replacement
0917. Replace fluids orally or intravenously
as indicated (see Chapter 5).
SUMMARY
In maxillofacial injuries, the airway is most
at risk.
Do not let the casualty die for want
of an airway.
Look for associated injuries, such as basal
skull fractures, provide simple splintage for
mandibular fractures and adequate
analgesia. Evacuate most casualties in the
three-quarter prone position and ensure
adequate supervision.
Skills Station 7
Maxillofacial Injuries
AIM
The aim of this skills station if to give you the
opportunity to:
Demonstrate
skills
in
examining
maxillofacial injuries
Perform primary and secondary surveys of
the middle-third and lower-third of the
head.
Discuss priorities of management of
casualties with maxillofacial injuries.
EQUIPMENT
Mr Hurt (head injury manikin).
A skull.
SKILLS PROCEDURES
Primary Survey
Examine for cervical spine injury and
immobilise if necessary.
Check pupillary size and response to light.
Check:
Alert
Voice responsive
Pain
Unresponsive.
Secondary Survey
(to determine the extent of the injuries).
External
Visual. Carry out a visual inspection of all
surfaces of the head and face. Note
asymmetry and alterations in normal
proportions:
Swelling and bruising.
Lacerations.
Bleeding from nose or ears, with or
without cerebrospinal fluid leakage.
Palpation. Carry out a systematic
bilateral bimanual examination of
bony surfaces and margins to detect
breaks in continuity:
Cranium.
Orbital rims.
Nose.
Zygomas and zygomatic arches.
Condyles.
Posterior border of the ramus and the
lower border of the mandible.
Internal
Visual. Note the following:
Broken, missing or displaced teeth.
Alteration in alignment of teeth.
Failure of the teeth to meet correctly
(malocclusion).
Limitation of mandibular movement
and/or asymmetrical opening.
Haematomas.
Palpation. Palpate the teeth, dental
arches and palate to detect abnormal
mobility.
Detailed Examination
Carry out a more detailed examination of
positive findings.
Perform mini-neurological survey
(Glasgow Coma Scale):
Eye-opening response.
Verbal response.
Best limb motor response.
Scalp laceration. Palpate for extent of
possible bone injury and presence of
foreign bodies.
BATLS Chapter 9
273
Eyes.
Check pupillary size and response to
light again.
Check for exophthalmus (proptosis)
or enophthalmus.
Check subconjunctival haematoma or
hyphaema (blood behind cornea).
If conscious, check visual acuity, eye
movement and diplopia.
Ears. Check for haemotympanum
(blood behind the eardrum).
Mandible. Check
for
mandibular movement.
normal
General Assessment
Carry out a general assessment of the
whole casualty for additional injuries.
Continuing Re-assessment
Continually re-assess the casualty for signs
of deterioration.
BATLS
Chapter 10
Spine and Spinal Cord Injuries
AIM
Assess spinal injury.
Apply immobilisation techniques.
Apply the principles of the management of
casualties with spinal injury.
A blunt injury could be due to, for

example, deceleration in a road traffic
accident, injury to crew in a disabled
armoured vehicle, blast, trench cave-in or
a parachuting accident.
A penetrating injury could be due to
gunshot, fragments or stabbing. These
carry a high mortality especially when
caused by high energy-transfer (see
paragraph 0416).
Neurological Status
1006. This will be important in the
PRINCIPLES OF EVALUATION management of the injury at later roles of

AND TREATMENT
medical care. You must always be highly
1002. In the context of this publication,
spinal injuries refer to injuries to the bony
spinal column or to the spinal cord, or to
both. The principles involved in the
evaluation and treatment of spinal injuries
are:
There can be an injury to the bony spine
without injury to the spinal cord, but the
potential for spinal cord injury is always
present.
Undue manipulation or movement can
cause additional spinal cord injury and
worsen the prognosis.
Careful handling of the casualty is essential.
When the mechanism of injury dictates,
always assume a spinal injury and keep the
spine immobilised until you have excluded
injury by examination and X-ray.
1003. With all spinal injuries or suspected
spinal injuries the aim is:
To immobilise and protect the spine and
the spinal cord.
To prevent neurological deterioration due
to hypoxia, underperfusion or movement
of the spinal cord.
To prevent complications of paralysis.
HISTORY
1004. The mechanism of injury, the
casualtys neurological status, other pertinent
physical signs and the potential for further
injury, must be recorded at each role of
medical care. This will allow recognition of
any deterioration or improvement in the
casualtys condition at each stage of the
evacuation chain.
Mechanism Of Injury
1005. Is is a blunt injury or a penetrating
injury?
1
suspicious of a possible cervical spine injury

in an unconscious casualty.
EXAMINATION AND
ASSESSMENT
1007. Ideally, before the start to examine
and assess casualties with suspected spinal
injuries you must immobilize the whole
spine in the neutral position. This is the gold
standard in peacetime and should remain so
whenever possible in wartime, although it
may be necessary to compromise on this
standard because of the tactical or physical
situation on the battlefield. For example, it
may be necessary to extract a casualty
hurriedly from a vehicle that is ablaze or
under attack. It is also difficult to achieve the
ideal when dealing with a casualty singlehanded.
1008. There are three groups to consider:
The conscious casualty without paralysis. You
must assume that a casualty with a blunt
injury above the clavicle has a spinal
injury.
The conscious casualty with paralysis. This
casualty can localize pain, identify sensory
loss and demonstrate motor weakness.
Be aware that paralysis and sensory loss
may mask intra-abdominal or lower limb
injuries.
The unconscious casualty. About 15%1 of
unconscious casualties have some form of
neck injury. Clinical findings that suggest
spinal cord injury include:
Flaccid areflexia of limbs.
A lax anal sphincter.
Diaphragmatic breathing.
Response to pain above the clavicle
but not below.
Flexion - but no extension - at the elbow.
Approximately 25% of spinal injury casualties have some degree of head injury.
59
Hypotension and bradycardia without

hypovolaemia.
Prispism (unopposed parasymathic
drive).
Spinal Assessment
1009. Carefully palpate the spine for
localised tenderness, a palpable gap between
the spinous processes and localised swelling.
At some stage during the examination, you
must perform a careful log-roll to look for
bruising and deformity.
Neurological Assessment
1010. Examine the casualty for motor
strength and weakness, sensory changes and
altered reflexes:
Autonomic nervous system. You will
recognise autonomic dysfunction by loss
of bladder and anal sphincter control and
the presence of priapism. Bradycardia and
hypotension may be present.
Incomplete neurological damage. This may
present in a variety of ways. Whichever
way it presents, there is always evidence of
motor or sensory function below the level
of injury. In such cases, there may be
sparing of sensation in the sacral area and
the anal sphincter tone can be normal.
Neurological recovery is likely in such
cases.
Complete cord lesion. There is no evidence
of neurological function below the level of
injury; the prognosis is poor.
Neurogenic shock
1011. This is the term for hypotension with
high thoracic or cervical cord injuries.
Hypotension results from destruction of the
sympathetic pathways with loss of
vasomotor tone and loss of sympathetic
drive to the heart. There can also be
bradycardia because of the unopposed
parasympathetic (vagal) effect on the heart.
Spinal shock
1012. This is a neurological condition
occurring shortly after a spinal cord injury.
It results in limb flaccidity and areflexia, a
flaccid bladder and loss of drive by the
sympathetic nervous system. The condition
is variable but normally lasts about six
weeks.
Assessment Of Other Systems

Cardiovascular
1013. Central. Asystole can occur from
stimulation of the unopposed action of the
vagus, for example, by pharnyngeal suction
and nasogastric or endotracheal intubation.
It is prevented by giving atropine 0.5 mg
intravenously. A bradycardia of 60/min is
usual in the high, isolated cord injury.
1014. Peripheral. Paralysis of the
sympathetic system results in hypotension
(see paragraph 1011). The casualty feels
warm and well perfused due to peripheral

vasodilatation. Do not forget that the most
common cause of hypotension is due to
blood loss and hypovolaemia often co-exists
with spinal injury. Always assess and treat
for hypovolaemic shock first.
Respiratory
1015. If the injury is above the fourth
vertebra there is no respiration.With injuries
between the fourth cervical and the twelfth
thoraic vertebrae there will be intercostal
paralysis and, depending on the level, there
may be only diaphragmatic breathing.
1016. Complicating factors are rib fractures,
flail chest, pulmonary contusion, haemopneumothorax and aspiration pneumonitis.
You must vigorously address these problems
by providing ventilatory support, chest
drainage and, if the casualty can feel pain,
analgesia.
Abdomen
1017. Inability to feel pain may mask serious
intra-abdominal injury. The only symptom
pointing to an intra-abdominal problem
may be referred shoulder-tip pain. Ileus is
usual in a paralysed casualty; you should
decompress the stomach with a nasogastric
tube. This will also minimise dangerous
silent regurgitation and aspiration of gastric
contents.
Locomotor
1018. Pelvic injuries may be masked by a
spinal cord injury and, if present, may merit
a higher priority in the management of the
casualty.
1019. Lower limb injuries are easily missed
in the absence of sensation. Remember that
early and correct management of upper
limbs injuries may have a profound effect on
the eventual mobility of a quadriplegic.
Skin
1020. In a high cord lesion, temperature
control function is lost and the casualty may
become hypothermic or hyperthermic.
Bladder
1021. Casualties with spinal cord injury and
urinary retention need continuous catherer
drainage. The recording of urinary output is
a good monitor of response to resuscitation
if there are other injuries requiring
treatment
by
intravenous
fluid
administration.
Treatment
Follow the primary survey: the A B C D
E routine
1022. Treat as follows:
All casualties:
Ensure in-line immobilization of the
whole spine by any means available, a
combination of semi-rigid collar,
sandbags and tape and backboards, is
ideal.
Correct any life-threatening conditions
found in the primary survey.
Continue immobilisation until you are
certain there is no spinal injury.
60
Conscious casualties with paralysis:

Maintain mean arterial pressure at 90
mmHg (a systolic pressure of 120
mmHg), with intravenous infunction if
necessary. If not contraindicated by the
presence of a head injury, a head down
position will aid venous return.
Insert a nasogastric tube under cover of
intravenous atrophine (see paragraph
1013).
Insert a urinary catheter and put this on
continuous drainage.
Remove all hard objects and ensure the
backboard or stretcher is well padded.
Unconscious casualties:
Keep the back and neck straight.
In order to protect the airway it may be
appropriate to evacuate the casualty in
the three-quarter prone position. If this
is done, a supporting pillow or blanket
under the head will reduce the risk of
lateral neck flexion.
Maintain three-point stability at the
pelvis, knee and shoulder.
Keep one hemidiaphragm clear of the
ground.
If anaesthetic support is available,
intubation and ventilation is preferred
and should be established before the
casualty is transferred.
Remember: although good spinal
immobilization is ensured by using
back-boards, they are not a good
carrying device as the casualty is
balanced on seven bony points the
occiput, scapulae, ischial tuberosities
and the calcanei. These bony points are
vulnerable to pressure sores if
evacuation time is protracted.
EVACUATION
1023. Before evacuation ensure that:
The airway is secured, the casualty is
ventilating with or without support and
well oxygenated.
The casualty is adequately immobilized
and secured, is well padded and not in any
danger from hard objects. Do not use
halter traction.
Sufficient drugs, such as atrophine, are
available for the journey.
1024. During evacuation ensure that:
Ventilation and oxgenation remain
adequate.
Immobilisation is maintained.
Intravenous infusion lines, urinary
catherers and nasogastric tubes remain
secure.
In-transit escorts are capable of managing
the casualty.
SUMMARY
Deal with life-threatening conditions but
avoid any movement of the spinal column.
Establish adequate immobilisation and
maintain it until you are certain there is no
spinal injury.
Record history and clinical findings as a

base-line for changes in the neurological
status.
Obtain X-rays when facilities are
available.
Evacuate.
Chapter 11
Limb Injuries
AIM
Identify life-threatening limb injuries
Identify limb-threatening injuries
Outline priorities in the management of
limb injury at different roles of medical
care.
PRINCIPLES OF
MANAGEMENT
Primary Survey And Resuscitation
1102. The main considerations in the
primary survey of limb injury are:
Control of bleeding, usually by direct
pressure or application of a tourniquet.
Recognition of long-bone fractures and
their immediate management - the
application of splintage or traction.
Recognition of covert vascular injury.
1103. The aim is obvious: look for lifethreatening or potentially life-threatening
blood loss and stop it.
Secondary Survey
1104. You must examine the limbs in
detail and evaluate all limb injuries. In
examination you must:
Record the presence of wounds, swelling
or limb deformity.
Assess limb circulation; note perfusion by
checking capillary return. This should not
exceed two seconds; note the colour and
temperature of the skin and presence of
peripheral pulses (absent in 70% of
vascular injuries).
Record any neurological disability
following nerve damage.
Definitive Care
1105. Clean and dress wounds with firm
sterile dressings. Continue to control
haemorrhage. Correct deformities to relieve
pain and to protect the circulation. Splint
and immobilise fractures. Application of a
traction splint has the following effects:
Reduction of haemorrhage (see Fig.
11.1).
Reduction of pain
Prevention of further soft tissue injury
Reduces the incidence of fat embolism.
ASSESSMENT OF LIMB
INJURIES
History
1106.
An
accurate
picture
of
the
61
number of severe limb injuries, or injuries in

other areas contributing to blood loss. It is on
record that up to 10% of battlefield casualties
with limb injuries bleed to death
unnecessarily. Do not let this happen.
Remember, the majority of haemorrhage
from limb injuries is compressible or,
controllable by correct use of a tourniquet.
To a lesser extent, haemorrhage from pelvic
fractures is also compressible.
Limb Threatening Injuries

Fig. 11.1 Traction
circumstances resulting in injuries sustained

in the military environment is very important
and should be recorded briefly on F Med
826 by those giving initial treatment. The
casualty may pass through several roles of
medical care and be seen by several people
before receiving definitive treatment. When
you take over care of a casualty establish the
Mechanism of injury, Injuries found,
Symptoms and signs and Treatment. The
mnemonic is MIST (see footnote page 7-3).
Examination
Look. Examine the limbs for obvious
deformity and the presence of any swelling.
Note the colour and compare it with the
contralateral limb. Note the perfusion of
the limb and describe it in the notes record perfusion return time. Describe the
wounds (with a sketch if appropiate) and
their relationship to any fracture. This will
avoid the need for repeated disturbance of
the dressings. Note any skin loss especially
over fractures.
Feel. Palpate for tenderness or crepitus
which will reveal the presence of a fracture.
Assess in each limb the temperature, the
capillary refill time, sensation and the
peripheral pulses. Is there loss of sensation
to touch? If so, record where, draw a
picture or use the body outline on the F
Med 826.
Move. Check all the limbs for active
movements where possible. With an
unconscious casualty, test each limb
passively for range of movements.
Fracture assessment. Is the fracture open or
closed? Any fracture with a would adjacent
to it must be assumed to be an open
fracture. Note any bone protrusion remember that reduction of potentially
contaminated protruding bone is likely
when splints are applied. Surgical toilet of
the bone may be required later.
Life Threatening Limb Injuries

1107. Life-threatening injuries include:
Complete or incomplete traumatic
amputations.
Multiple long bone fractures.
Major pelvic injuries.
1108. The threat to life is caused by blood
loss; this threat is even greater if there are a
1109. Most limb-threatening injuries are

related to vascular injury, particularly if the
injury is proximal to the knee or elbow.
Fractures or fracture-dislocations around the
knee or elbow are commonly associated with
injury to the popliteal and brachial artery
respectively. Crush injuries may result in
later amputation, because of cell damage. An
unrecognised compartment syndrome will
result in permanent disability. Open fractures
will lead to severe complications if ignored.
Associated Injuries
1110. It is important to realize that the
casualty may have multiple injuries.
Knowledge of the cause of the injury is
important: for example, a fall from a height
can result in vertebral fractures or fractures
of the calcanei as well as long bone fractures.
Some fractures are not easy to detect and are
found only after repeated examination. Do
not forget the possibility of a cervical spine injury
in falls from a height.
Assessment Of Blood Loss

1111. Limb injuries play an important role
when estimating blood loss. With open
wounds the loss may be evident. Equally, the
overall condition of the casualty may be the
clue to covert haemorrhage. A closed fracture
of the femoral shaft may easily result in the
loss of two litres into the surrounding tissues.
The summation of the effect of a number of
such injuries is evident when the signs of
hypovolaemic shock are detected.
Remember the four areas for

occult blood loss
Chest
Abdomen
Pelvis and retroperitoneum
Long-bone fractures
Assessment Of Dislocations
1112. Dislocations and fracture-dislocations
are difficult to distinguish without X-rays.
Dislocations are extremely painful when
attempts are made to move the joint and this
helps early recognition. Such early recognition can allow prompt reduction especially
if there is altered blood supply to the limb,
for example in posterior dislocation of the
knee occluding the popliteal artery.
62
Assessment Of Vascular Injury
Crush Syndrome
1113. A major vascular injury may be

suggested by:
Obvious arterial or venous haemorrhage
from the wound.
An expanding haematoma.
Absent distal pulses (70%).
Delayed capillary return.
Differing skin colour and temperature
compared with the contralateral limb.
Increasing pain at the site of the injury.
Decreasing sensation.
1116. This causes damage to muscle cells

releasing potassium and myoglobin into
the circulation. High levels of potassium in
the blood can cause cardiac arrest.
Myoglobin blocks renal tubules, leading to
renal failure. Before releasing a trapped
injured limb you must give intravenous
crystalloid in large volumes. To avoid renal
failure, intravenous fluids should be given
in sufficient volume to produce a
minimum of 100 ml of urine per hour. An
ECG monitor, if available, may give
warning of hyperkalaemia (broad bizarre
complexes; tented T-wave)1.
Repeated assessment of the

circulation is necessary especially
when the casualty arrives at a new
role of medical care.
Assessment Of Nerve Injury

1114. Some injuries are often associated
with neurological damage, for example a
dislocated hip and sciatic nerve injury, or a
dislocated elbow and median nerve injury.
Confirmation can be obtained by the
presence of alteration of sensation or motor
power, or both. If you detect an
inappropriate nerve injury, you must
consider the possibility of a cerebral or
spinal injury.
Compartment Syndrome
1115. Untreated, this will lead to rapid
loss of a limb or permanent disability.
Prompt recognition and emergency surgery
are needed. Causes include crush injuries or
prolonged limb compression, open or closed
fractures, the restoration of circulation to an
ischaemic limb and tight plasters or
dressings. Compartment syndrome occurs
when the interstitial pressure in a fascial
compartment exceeds the capillary pressure
as a result of haemorrhage or oedema within
the involved compartment. Initially, venous
flow stops and as the pressure increases the
arterial supply also stops. Ischaemia of
nerves and muscles occurs with rapid and
irreversible damage. The distal pulses may be
present throughout. The compartments most
commonly affected are the anterior tibial
compartment and the flexor compartment
of the forearm. The main presenting
sympton is severe pain in an injured limb
that is adequately immobilised. The pain is
aggravated by passive stretching of the
muscles in the involved compartment.
Active movements are absent. The
compartments are swollen, tense, tender
and the distal sensation may be altered.
The presence of a distal pulse does
note exclude a compartment
syndrome.
MANAGEMENT OF LIMB
INJURIES
Fractures
1117. With an open fracture, control
haemorrhage by direct pressure, firm
compression, bandaging and elevation of
the limb. This will cope with most
bleeding. Pressure points, which are
difficult to compress, are rarely used.
Remove gross contamination, such as
earth and bits of clothing and clean the
wound with copious irrigation before
applying a dry sterile
compression
dressing. Splint severe soft tissue wounds
to relieve pain and to control
haemorrhage. Describe the wound in the
notes to avoid repeated disturbance of the
dressing before definitive treatment.
Repeated wound inspection increases the
risk of infection. The fracture should then
be treated as for any other fracture.
Protruding bone should be carefully
reduced back into the wound, usually by
the application of traction.
Emergency Amputations
1118. A mangled limb with no prospect of
reconstruction should be removed. Such a
limb will usually be attached only by a few
remnants of skin or other soft tissues. To
leave it, especially in the presence of other
injuries, may endanger the casualtys life.
In removing the limb, preserve as much
healthy skin, fascia and muscle as possible.
You can amputate through the fracture
site. Transfix the major blood vessels and
ligate them with strong suture material.
Divide nerves and allow them to retract.
Leave flaps open, firmly bandage the
stump and apply a plaster splint. The use
of a tourniquet may be considered to
reduce blood loss during the procedure.
Skin from the amputated part may
subsequently be used for grafting. If the
part is not too mangled and the casualty
evacuation is not delayed, send it with the
casualty to the surgeon.
1. Treat Hyperkalaemia initially with 20 soluble insulin plus 50 ml of 50% dextrose given intravenously.
63
Dislocations
1119. Reduce all dislocations at the earliest
opportunity. They are often relatively easy to
reduce soon after injury. Remember that they
are painful injuries. Reduction under
Entonox, when available, avoids the need for
continued monitoring after sedation.
Ketamine in analgesic doses provides
excellent analgesia for five to ten minutes and
will not depress respiration like morphine.
Immobilise the joint after reduction but
check the distal circulation before you do so.
Vascular Injuries
1120. If you suspect a major vessel injury you
must control haemorrhage from the wound,
dress the wound and splint the limb. Early
evaculation for further investigation and
definitive treatment is necessary if the limb is
to be saved.
Compartment Syndrome
1121. If you suspect this condition and the
limb is in plaster or has circumferential
dressings, split them completely down to the
skin and open them widely. If symptoms do
not improve within 15 minutes, any dressings
overlying open wounds should be removed
and the underlying muscle examined. Its
colour should like like raw, red meat; if it
does not, suspect compartment syndrome.
Such a limb requires urgent fasciotomy.
impossible. A tourniquet may also be

necessary when completing a traumatic
amputation. A tourniquet must be applied
effectively above the level of haemorrhage to
stop arterial flow; it should be released as
soon as possible. But, remember you have
applied the tourniquet to save the casualtys life.
Ischaemic damage to a limb is rare if a
tourniquet is left for up to one hour. If it is
feasible to control haemorrhage by direct
compression, release the tourniquet. If
haemorrhage is not controlled, or not
controllable, by compression, re-apply the
tourniquet. If transfer of the casualty is
delayed, repeat this process every hour and
discard the use of the tourniquet as soon as
haemorrhage is controlled by compression.
1125. Incorrectly applied, the tourniquet will
increase venous pressure and aggravate,
rather than control, haemorrhage. Keep at
the forefront of your mind the fact that,
inappropriate or incorrect use of a
tourniquet, may result in unnecessary limb
loss. A tourniquet, used correctly and for the
right reasons, will save a life.
SUMMARY
Manage life-threatening injuries first.
Dress wounds, align fractures and
immobilise.
Record details.
Determine priority and evacuate.
Skills Station 8
Limb Splintage
Do not hesitate to remove plaster

casts and circumferential dressings.
Immobilisation
1122. Adequate splintage will relieve pain
and help to control haemorrhage. The
circulation and soft tissues will also be
protected.
Splinting Limbs
1123. Support the hand with a wool and
crpe bandage. Immobilise injuries of the
forearm or upper arm with padded splints or
plaster, together with a broad arm sling.
Keep the elbow at a right angle. If only one
leg is injured, splint it to the good limb,
together with padded external splints and
bandages. A traction splint should be used
for fractures of the femur, but not if there is
an ankle fracture on the same side. Obvious
deformity and rotation of long bones should
be corrected before splinting - this relieves
pain, protects the circulation and makes
splinting easier.
The Tourniquet
1124. The Samway anchor tourniquet is
available at all roles of medical care but
should only be used when other measures fail
or compression is difficult. For example, it
will be more appropriate to immediately
apply a tourniquet to a trapped limb when
access for adequate compression is
AIM
opportunity to practice and demonstrate the
proper techniques for immobilising limbs.
On completion of this station you will be able
to:
Demonstrate the steps in the control of
haemorrhage and the initial management
of wounds.
Demonstrate the application of splints to
upper and lower limbs.
Demonstrate the application of a traction
splint to a lower limb.
Discuss the advantages and dangers in the
use of a tourniquet.
EQUIPMENT
Padded wood and Kramer wire splints.
Broad arm bandages.
Traction splint.
Plaster of Paris, wool and gauze.
Plaster cutters.
Stretcher.
Basin and cleaning materials.
Samway anchor tourniquet.
J R Army Med Corps 2003; 149: 133-137
BATLS
Chapter 12
Burns
proportions are different; the head represents

18% of the body surface area and the lower
limbs only 14% each.
AIM
Estimating The Depth Of Burn

Identify the methods used to assess the size
and severity of burns.
Outline the measures used to stabilize,
treat and evacuate casualties with burn
injuries.
1206. Burns can be either:

Partial-thickness - confined to the
epidermis.
Full-thickness - complete destruction of
the epidermis.
1207. Partial-thickness can vary from
superficial, with some erythema and pain (as
in sunburn), to deep partial-thickness. The
latter involves destruction of the whole
epidermis at various points but the depth of
burn spares sweat glands and hair follicles.
Pain is a feature of all these and sensitivity to
needle prick is retained.
1208. With full-thickness burns there is total
loss of the whole epidermis together with a
variable degree of tissue beneath.
Destruction of superficial nerve endings
render the burnt area insensitive to pain.The
affected area (the eschar) may look dirtywhite, brown or black and sometimes has an
almost transparent, leather like appearance,
through which coagulated blood in the blood
vessels can be seen.
INTRODUCTION
1202. The incidence of burn injury in battle
casualties has increased steadily throughout
the last century. An analysis of recent
conflicts suggests that, in the modern
armoured battle, 10-30% of all battle
casualties will have sustained burns1. Of
these, approximately half will also have other
physical injuries.
1203. Burns can be caused by the high
temperature combustion from modern
explosives as well as by secondary ignition of
fuel and lubricants. In addition, specific types
of weapons are designed to inflict burn
injury, for example flame-throwers and
napalm munitions.
ASSESSMENT
1204. Successful management of burns
depends on the ability to assess the severity
of the injury accurately and early. The
severity depends on:
The area of the body burnt - Body Surface
Area (BSA) burnt.
The depth of the burn.
The presence or absence of respiratory
tract thermal injury.
Assessing The Body

Surface Area
1205. The BSA can be assessed by the Rule
Of Nines:
Head and neck = 9%
Each upper limb = 9%
Front of trunk = 18%
Back of trunk = 18%
Each lower limb = 18%
Perineum = 1%
Remember that the area of the casualtys
palm is approximately 1% of the body
surface area. In children below 30kg weight
(about 12 years old and under) the
1
This figure can be considerably higher on ships.
Full-thickness versus partialthickness burns.

A simple test is to pull a hair with forceps
if it comes out easily the burn is fullthickness.
RECOGNIZING
RESPIRATORY INJURY
1209. Many cases are complicated by
concomitant injury of the respiratory tract
caused by inhalation of the products of
combustion. These can cause one or more of
the following:
Considerable swelling of the upper respiratory
tract leading to airway obstruction.The upper
respiratory tract is a very good heat
exchanger. Heat damage to the lower
respiratory tract is seldom seen except
when super-heated steam is inhaled; this
can occur, for example, when boilers and
pipes in ships engine rooms fracture.
Chemical damage to upper and lower
respiratory tracts. Many products of
combustion form gases that are highly
irritant, particularly to the lower
134
respiratory tract; this can lead progressive

respiratory failure.
General toxicity. Some products of
combustion, which may or may not be
locally irritant to the lungs, can be
absorbed into the circulation and prove
highly toxic. For example, many plastics
and modern materials give off cyanide gas
which is one of the most common causes of
death in fires.
1210. The most common poison in a fire is
carbon monoxide. In addition, fire rapidly
consumes oxygen in the atmosphere
surrounding a victim so that the whole
problem is compounded by anoxia. On the
battlefield, various nitrate products from
explosions are likewise extremely toxic.
Inhalation injury is one of the major causes
of mortality in burns. Initially, after exposure,
a casualty may not demonstrate any adverse
effects and a high index of suspicion should
be used when assessing a casualty with
burns.
1211. On the battlefield, two or more of the
following features should be considered
sufficient to diagnose inhalation injury:
A fire in an enclosed space such as a
bunker or armoured vehicle.
Carbonaceous sputum.
Impaired level of consciousness or mental
confusion.
Burns on the face, lips, nose and mouth look for singeing of the hairs in the nares
and oedema of the uvula.
Signs of respiratory distress such as
increased respiratory rate or shortness of
breath.
Stridor or any abnormal signs in the lung
fields such as rhonchi or crepitations.
Hoarseness or loss of voice.
MANAGEMENT
1212. Immediate first aid is:
Extinguish the flames on the casualty or
clothing by wrapping the casualty in a
blanket or laying the affected part on the
ground.
Small burns may be cooled by applying
clean cold water. But remember that liberal
application of cold water following extensive
burns will produce a hypothermic casualty.
Cover all burns except the face with clingfilm.
Provide pain relief, ideally, IV morphine
(some casualties with severe burns suffer
little initial pain).
Elevate burnt limbs. Burnt hands can be
placed in polythene bags to facilitate finger
movement.
Protect from the elements but do not overwarm.
Airway
1213. With casualties who have, or are likely
to develop inhalation injury, you must
suspect airway compromise and give it a high

priority. If necessary, you must secure the
airway either by endotracheal intubation or
cricothyroidotomy. Control of the airway is
best established before major symptoms of
obstruction become apparent and, under
field conditions, a surgical airway may be
preferable to an endotracheal tube.
Local Management Of
Burn Wounds
1214. Burning often sterilizes the skin at the
time of injury. At the same time, burnt skin
instantly loses its ability to resist invasion by
bacteria; you must cover the burns with
appropriate dressings as soon as possible.
Cover the burns with cling-film. Ensure that
the film is laid in strips and stuck to each
other along the limb - rather than wrapped
around the limb like a bandage as this may
cause constriction.
1215. Put the casualtys hands and feet in
polythene bags secured at the wrist or ankle
and encourage movement of the fingers and
toes inside the bags. If available, you may put
a small quantity of antiseptic such as
flamazine cream on the hands and feet.Treat
burns of the face and head by exposure; warn
the casualty that gross swelling of the eyelids
may occur - reassure him that this is
temporary and that he is not losing his sight.
Escharotomy
1216. The dead tissue caused by fullthickness burning (the eschar), if
circumferential in any part of the body, will
constrict as it is formed. This may have dire
consequences. For example, in a limb it will
obstruct the bloody supply, around the chest
it may restrict respiratory excursion and
around the neck it may produce respiratory
obstruction. Division of the eschar
(escharotomy) may be a life- or limb-saving
procedure that should be performed as soon
as a circumferential full-thickness burn is
diagnosed.
1217. The procedure is to incise the eschar
down to the deep tissues with any form of
sharp blade. Since the burn is full-thickness,
no form of anaesthesia is required. Make a
cut starting at the centre of the eschar and
passing longitudinally up and down the limb
until sensitive tissue is reached. For
circumferential, full-thickness burns on the
trunk, it may be necessary to incise both
vertically and horizontally. Gauge the depth
by finding the level at which the eschar splits
open. Haemorrhage may be significant and
may require a pressure dressing. Do not allow
this dressing, in turn, to cause constriction.
Fluid Replacement
1218. Due to excessive capillary
permeability, there is a loss of protein-rich
fluid from the burn surface, as well as
significant interstitial oedema in the area. In
135
full-thickness burns there is direct

destruction of blood within burnt vessels.
Replacement of fluid loss as early as
possible is one of the most important
aspects of treatment to prevent the
development of hypovolaemic shock. In
burns up to 15% BSA in adults (10% in
children), rehydration can be achieved by
the oral route using Moyers electrolyte
solution. This is made up by adding one
sachet of the solution to a casualtys
standard-issue water bottle full of water1.
This solution is not particularly palatable adding orange juice or something similar
improves the taste.
1219. Burns over 15% BSA in adults
require intravenous fluid. There are many
different formulae used to determine the
approximate amount of fluid needed; most
depend on knowing the casualtys body
weight. In forward areas this is impractical
and the British Army formula is based on
the body surface area burnt. The total
amount of fluid needed is 120ml of colloid
per 1% of BSA burnt, administered over 48
hours. Half of this should be administered
in the first eight hours from the time of
burning. (In another words, if six hours has
elapsed before intravenous resuscitation has
started, the first half of the calculated fluid
volume should be given in two hours). A
quarter of the calculated volume is given in
the next 16 hours and the final quarter
given during the second 24 hours. In
addition, 100ml of fluid per hour is required
for normal metabolic purposes. If the
casualty can swallow, it should be given
orally, if not, as IV crystalloid.
1220. This formula is only a rough guide
and it should be monitored by means of:
Pulse rate.
Peripheral perfusion.
Minimum urinary output of at least 50ml
per hour (catheter required).
A falling haematocrit, measured hourly.
Surgical Treatment
1221. This will depend on facilities
available, the nature of the burn and the
number of casualties to be treated. Certain
full-thickness burns require urgent surgery,
particularly those involving the eyelids,
dorsal surfaces of hands and flexion aspects
of joints.
1222. Triage Priorities
Priority 1: Burns between 15 and 30%
BSA,
casualties
with
respiratory
compromise and electrical burns.
Priority 2: Burns of less than 15% BSA
involving face, eyelids, hands, perineum
and across joints.
Priority 3: All remaining burns cases.
1223. In civilian life, the dividing line
between adults requiring life-saving
emergency treatment and those who do not
1
is considered to be burns of 20% BSA or

more. In the military setting, 15% is
selected because of the likelihood of
multiple casualties, delays in the evacuation
chain and the high incidence of other
concomitant physical injuries.
1224. Priority 1 cases will normally be
evacuated as soon as possible to a field
hospital with a specialist burns team.
Casualties with burns of more than 30%
BSA should normally be held as P1 hold at
a Role 3 facility until they have survived the
48 hour shock phrase.
SPECIAL BURNS
Phosphorus Burns
1225. Phosphorus combusts spontaneously on contact with air and consequently
contamination of clothing, skin or flesh with
particles of phosphorus produces deep
burns. Such burns, extremely rare in civilian
life, are common on the battlefield. This is
because many munitions designed to
produce smoke screens rely on the
widespread scattering of phosphorus
pellets.
Immediate treatment is as follows:
Douse the flames and keep covered with
water or some other solution such as
saline.
If possible, remove with forceps any large
fragments of visible phosphorus that are
not adherent.
Apply moist dressings and keep them wet.
Continue with standard burn therapy.
Avoid contaminating yourself with
particles of phosphorus.
1226. At Role 3, phosphorus burns may be
treated as follows, usually under general
anaesthetic:
Irrigate the wound with 1% copper
sulphate solution. This combines with the
phosphorus to neutralise it, and turns the
fragments
black
allowing
easy
identification for removal.
You must then flush the copper sulphate
from the wound with saline.
Copper sulphate is highly toxic if
absorbed and must never be left on a
wound as a dressing
Electrical Burns
1227. Electric currents passing through the
body generate heat deep in the tissues and
many produce serious burns. Much of the
heat damage is to deep tissues and visible
burns on the skin may be small. These
burns are always far more extensive than
initially apparent. The burns may cause
massive breakdown of muscle tissue giving
rise to:
Renal failure (due to myoglobinuria).
Metabolic acidosis.
The standard Service issue sachet contained 4.5g each of sodium chloride and sodium bicarbonate.
136
1228. The general effects of electrocution

may also produce cardiac or respiratory
arrest, or cardiac arrhythmias. Intravenous
fluids should be given in sufficient volume
to produce a minimum of 100ml of urine
per hour to try to prevent renal failure and
to combat metabolic acidosis. In order to
monitor this the casualty should be
catheterized. Such casualties should be
evacuated to a special burns unit as Priority
1.
SUMMARY
Remember the A B C D E routine with
special emphasis on A in known or
suspected burns of the airway - thermal or
chemical.
Calculate BSA burnt, give intravenous
fluid according the the British Army
formula to burns of more than 15% BSA
and monitor effectiveness. Adjust the
volume of intravenous fluid to maintain
effective resuscitation.
Cover with cling-film, use polythene bags
on hands and feet.
Do not hesitate to do escharotomies for
circumferential full-thickness burns.
Evacuate as appropriate to a specialist
burns unit.
Chapter 13
Ophthalmic Injuries
AIM
Take an ophthalmic history.
Examine the globe and orbit.
Identify conditions requiring expert
ophthalmic surgery.
Give treatment prior to evacuation.
Treat conditions that do not require
evacuation.
1302. About 10% of battle casualties have
an eye injury. Of these, 15% are bilateral.
Hysterical bilateral blindness is an
important symptom of battleshock.
ASSESSMENT
History
1303. Ascertain as far as possible the details
and circumstances of the injury:
Activity of the casualty, such as
hammering metal or a laser strike.
Is the injury due to blunt or penetrating
trauma?
If a chemical injury, record whether acid,
alkali or NBC agent (note swelling of lids
or clouding of the cornea).
Drops. Is the casualty on eye medication
or has he been given miotics/mydriatics?
Eyewear. Was the casualty wearing
goggles, spectacles, anti-laser protection
or contact lenses?
Foreign Body. Do you suspect a foreign

body in the eye? If so, is there a sample?
Examination
1304. Check the casualty for the following:
Visual acuity. Can he read normal text or
headlines? Can he count fingers? Can he
detect hand movements? Has he any
perception of light?
Perception of light can still be tested
with the eyes closed - by shining a
torch through the eyelid.
Conjunctiva and cornea. Look for corneal

abrasions, ideally using fluorescein and a
blue lights. Look for superficial foreign
bodies, blood inside the eye, perforations
of the iris, clouding of the cornea and
corneal perforations.
Soft eye. This will indicate a posterior
perforation of the globe.
Do not press on a soft eye.
TREATMENT
1305. Treat the casualty as follows:
Wash out chemicals and foreign bodies
with saline or Hartmanns Solution
immediately and continue for 15 minutes
holding the lids open.
Use chloramphenicol ointment liberally
on the lids and in the conjunctival sac.
It is better to use chloramphenicol
drops every hour if a perforation
is seen.
Apply one drop of 1% atropine.
Apply pad and bandage firmly (unless the
globe is soft in which case do not apply
pressure to the eye but protect it with a
plastic shield).
With a large penetrating foreign body, pad
both eyes to prevent further injury due to
concomitant eye movements.
Remember tetanus toxoid and systemic
antibiotics.
PRIORITIES AND EVACUTION

1306. All casualties with loss of visual acuity
will need to be seen by an ophthalmic
surgeon, preferably within 24 hours. An
intraocular foreign body, if metallic, will
cause blindness within ten days unless
removed. Perforations of the globe are
usually blinding to that eye; they require to
be seen urgently by an ophthalmic surgeon.
Remember perforations of one eye may
blind the other eye by sympathetic
ophthalmia unless treated within a few days.
All eye injuries, except simple abrasions, are
137
P2 and require early evacuation to a

specialist eye unit. A high priority should be
given to intraocular foreign bodies from
anti-laser goggles; such fragments cause an
intense retinitis. Ideally most casualties
should be evacuated by air.
SUMMARY
All but the most simple of eye injuries will
require expert ophthalmological opinion.
This is particularly so with all actual or
suspected penetrating injuries.
Rest the part, that is atropine to the
affected eye and pad both eyes (if
circumstances allow).
Rest the whole, that is evacuate P2 as a
stretcher case.
J R Army Med Corps 2003; 149: 297-302
BATLS
Battlefield Advanced Training Life Support
Chapter 14
Analgesia
AIM
you will:
Understand how pain is caused.
Understand how drugs that treat pain
work.
Have a system for managing the
casualty in pain.
Be able to use a simple scheme for
using morphine on the battlefield.
INTRODUCTION
1402. Pain affects people in different ways.
Some people seem able to tolerate pain while
others cannot. This may be influenced by a
persons emotional state (including their
expectation of the consequences of injury),
by alcohol and by other drugs. A persons
culture and their societys expectations of
behaviour also influence the way they show
their response to pain.
Pathophysiology
1403. Trauma causes tissue damage.
Damaged tissue releases chemicals and these
stimulate the nerves that sense pain (different
types of nerves respond to different stimuli;
some respond to pain, other to light touch
and temperature). Stimuli pass along nerves
to the spinal cord. The spinal cord acts like a
junction box deciding which signals continue
on upwards to the brain and which do not. In
the brain, signals from pain nerves are felt as
pain. The process from the point of injury to
the brain is called the pain pathway.
1404. Nerves can also be damaged directly
by trauma. A nerve close to a fracture site
may be stretched and damaged by bone
movement, causing pain.
1405. Damage to the spinal cord may
prevent pain stimuli being transmitted to the
brain.The casualty will be unable to feel pain
below the level of the spinal damage. Injuries
below this level may not be noticed by the
casualty (or by the person examining the
casualty, a point that can lead to further
damage to the injured part).
1406. The casualty distressed by pain
produces extra stress chemicals (catecholamines) such as adrenaline. Catecholamines
cause tachycardia, peripheral vasoconstriction, poor tissue perfusion and a rise in
intracranial pressure.The cumulative effect is

to exaggerate the detrimental features of
clinical shock.
1407. Hypoxia and hypercarbia also worsen
the pain threshold.
Initial assessment and management
1408. Reassure the casualty. Explain what is
happening now and what is going to happen.
Ask yourself, is the casualty distressed due to
hypoxia, shock, pain or all of these.
1409. Management of Airway, Breathing
and Circulation comes first. Correcting
hypoxia, hypercarbia and hypovolaemia helps
to relieve the pathophysiology of
uncontrolled pain.
1410. Simple measures to treat pain should
be tried first:
Splinting fractures. (See paragraphy
1123).
Cooling burns. (See paragraph 1212).
1411. Use of pain relieving drugs will depend
on:
What drugs are available.
What other equipment (such as
syringes and needles) is available.
Contraindications to a drugs use such
as allergy or pregnancy.
The clinical condition of the casualty.
How many casualties there are.
What monitoring and nursing care can
be given to them.
The skill, experience and training of the
person administering the drug.
The legal entitlement of the medical or
nursing personnel to use a particular
drug.
Whether the casualty is about to receive
general anaesthesia and surgery.
Drug action
1412. A drug usually causes its effect by
working at a site of action. Once a drug has
been absorbed into the blood stream, it
travels all over the body. At certain places in
the body it meets a site of action; this could
be a specialised area on the surface of a cell
(a receptor). The interaction between the
drug and the receptor causes chemical
changes inside the cell which, in turn,
produce an effect. Pain control is one such
effect.
1413. Because the drug travels all over the
body it interacts with receptors all over the
body. Different receptors product different
effects, some wanted and some unwanted.
For example, the wanted effect of morphine
298
BATLS Chapter 14
is pain control. Unwanted effects include

respiratory depression, constipation and
constriction in the pupil of the eye.
1414. Different drugs work at different sites
along the pain pathway. Morphine influences
pain transmission to the spinal cord and
perception in the brain. Local anaesthetic
drugs temporarily stop transmission of pain
impulses in nerves. Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs act on the pain
chemicals released at the site of the injury.
1415. Pain control may involve a
combination of simple measures and
different drugs.
Routes of administration
1416. A drug swallowed as a tablet has to be
broken up into very small pieces in the gut
before being absorbed across the wall of the
gut and into the blood stream. This will
depend on the blood supply to the gut and
also on gut motility, which moves food and
gut contents along within the gut. Motility is
important as food or drugs may have to
reach particular places within the gut before
being absorbed.The whole process motility
and absorption is delayed by injury and
shock.
1417. A drug injected into a muscle
(intramuscular) or under the skin
(subcutaneous) needs to travel from the
muscle or skin by blood flow and then on the
site of action.
1418. In shock, where blood supply to skin
and muscle is reduced, it takes much longer
for the drug to be absorbed and reach the
site of action. A return of blood supply to
skin and muscle during resuscitation can
wash the drug out rapidly into the blood and
produce a relative overdose.This needs to be
anticipated and watched for during
resuscitation.
1419. A drug given directly into a vein
(intravenous) is rapidly carried to the site of
action and causes its effects. Intravenous
drugs are best given in a series of small
doses, assessing the casualtys response
between each dose.
1420. Drugs can also be inhaled, for
example, Entonox (50% oxygen and 50%
nitrous oxide). This goes into the lungs,
crosses into the blood and is taken to sites all
over the body. The proportion that crosses
into the brain gives an analgesic effect.
1421. Local anaesthetic drugs (for example,
lignocaine) may be used to temporarily block
pain impulses in nerves and the spinal cord.
The local anaesthetic is injected close to the
appropriate nerve. This requires a good
knowledge of anatomy.
The ideal analgesic
1422. The ideal analgesic should have:
A predictable action.
No side effects.
A long duration of action.
A readily available antidote.
And be:
Easily administered.
Easily stored and transported.
1423. None of our currently available drugs
meet all these criteria. Choice of drug will be
influenced by the factors listed in paragraph
1411. The following is a practical guide to
using analgesic drugs in the battle casualty.
MINOR INJURY
Musculo-skeletal pain, for example,
sprains, fractures and minor fragment
injury
1424. Consider paracetamol and Non
Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs).
Use doses and routes as given in CTRs. A
range of NSAIDs are available but differ in
terms of recommended dosage, dosage
interval, licensed route of administration and
severity of side effects. Some have been
associated with an increase in pre operative
bleeding during surgery and with post
operative wound haemorrhage.
The surgical team need to know

the casualty has received NSAIDS.
1425. NSAIDs can cause acute renal failure,
particularly in casualties with diminished
renal perfusion.
This means that they should not be

used in cases of major injury associated
with haemorrhage and shock.
1426. NSAIDs can also exacerbate asthma,
cause gastric irritation and should not be
used in aspirin sensitive casualties.
1427. Other drug options include: codeine
phosphate and combinations of paracetamol
with codeine, dihydrocodeine or dextropropoxyphene (See CTRs).
MODERATE TO SEVERE
INJURY
1428. If the above are insufficient or not
available, use morphine. Morphine is a
powerful analgesic. Morphine is the
standard battlefield analgesic used by the
British Army. It is supplied to soldiers as a
Medimech Auto Injector containing 10 mg
of morphine sulphate. This allows self
administration or buddy administration of
the morphine by intramuscular injection.
The limitations of intramuscular drug
administration have been outlined in
paragraphy 1417 and 1418 but on the
battlefield this may be the only practical
option.
1429. Side effects of morphine include:
Drowsiness.
Nausea and vomiting
Respiratory depression.
299
1430.Table 14-1 gives practical guidelines to

using morphine as a battlefield analgesic.
1431. A good clinical predictor of effective
morphine requirement is age.The average 24
hour morphine requirement for casualties
over 20 years of age is 100 mg minus the age
in years. The approximate needs of a 20 year
old soldier would be 100 mg minus 20 = 80
mg of morphine in 24 hours.
1432. In field hospitals with surgical teams
and when other specialist teams, for example
IRTs are present, morphine will be available
for intravenous administration to casualties.
In the resuscitated adult give an initial slow
intravenous injection of 5 mg of morphine
followed by boluses of 1 to 2 mg according to
pain control achieved, heart rate and blood
pressure.
Cardio-respiratory deterioration after

analgesia requires careful
reassessment of the casualty to ensure
that an unrecognised or inadequately
resuscitated injury is not the cause.
Table 14-1. Basic approach

to battlefield analgesia.
1433. Antiemetics will frequently be

necessary when morphine has been used,
particularly when the casualty is being
transported, as the incidence of vomiting
during casualty evacuation is significant.
The phenothiazines and metoclopramide
are effective in treating nausea and vomiting
caused by drugs but ineffective in motion
sickness. Motion sickness is treated with
drugs such as hyoscine or the antihi-
stamines (for example, cyclizine).

1434. In field hospitals, pain control may be
achieved by a combination of NSAIDs or
paracetamol, morphine and local anaesthetic
blocks.
Opioid reversal
1435. Naloxone antagonises the effects of
morphine. Available as a 100 micrograms/ml
concentration intravenous injection, initial
doses are 100-200 micrograms, with increments of 100 micrograms every two minutes.
Its action is specific but short lived and the
reappearance of respiratory depression after
1 hour is a possibility. The duration of action
of naloxone can be prolonged by giving
additional doses intramuscularly. Side effects
include
nausea,
tachycardia
and
hypotension. Analgesia will also usually be
reversed.
SEVERE INJURY
Rescue of a trapped casualty and
emergency surgical procedures
1436. Ketamine is a powerful analgesic and
anaesthetic drug that can be used in the
above circumstances. It can be given both
intravenously and intramuscularly.
Ketamine should only be used by

personnel with appropriate training.
As with any drug capable of
producing sedation and general
anaesthesia, administration should be
confined to personnel capable of and
equipped for, advanced airway
management.
1437. Airway reflexes are better maintained
with ketamine than with other sedative drugs
but airway competence and protection is not
guaranteed:
Salivation increases after ketamine and
suction may be required.
Respiratory depression does not usually
happen but may if morphine or other
sedative drugs have been given.
Blood pressure is usually maintained
although worsening hypotension may
occur in shocked casualties.
1438. Ketamine can cause increases in
intracranial pressure (ICP) in spontaneously
breathing casualties with intracranial
pathology but, in ventilated casualties where
blood carbon dioxide levels can be
controlled, this is less of a problem.
1439. Ketamine given intravenously (1-2
mg/kg of body weight over 60 seconds)
normally produces some 10 minutes of
anaesthesia. An intramuscular dose of 10
mg/kg of body weight should, after five to ten
minutes, produce 12 - 25 minutes of surgical
anaesthesia.
1440. Recovery from Ketamine anaesthesia
is associated with hallucinations. These can
300
BATLS Chapter 14
be prevented or decreased with small doses

of short acting intravenous benzodiazepines.
Use of benzodiazepines increases the risk of
airway compromise.
OTHER METHODS
Inhalation analgesia: Entonox
1441. Entonox is available in military
hospitals and on some military ambulances.
The mixture is provided from on demand,
valved cylinders and administered via a mask
mouth piece. Its use as a patient controlled,
demand system, means that the casualty is
unlikely to overdose himself. If they become
drowsy they allow the mask or mouth piece
to drop, stop inhaling the mixture, exhale the
gas they have received and their level of
unconsciousness recovers. Size D cylinders
allow 20 - 30 minutes continuous use, the
efficiency of which is improved by locating
the demand valve at the patients mouth
piece.
Analgesia will peak some two to five

minutes after starting inhalation and
this fact needs to be respected when
entonox is used to assist procedures
such as casualty extraction.
1442. During storage, care must be taken to
ensure that the temperature of the gas is not
allowed to fall below minus 7C. At this
point, separation of the gases can permit
delivery of a hypoxic mixture. Manufacturers recommendations are that such a
cylinder should be rewarmed at 10C for
two hours then completely inverted three
times (to mix the gases) or rapidly rewarmed
by immersion in water at 37C for five
minutes then inverted three times. A
practical solution to prevent this is to use a
cylinder kept warm in a vehicle cabin (with
the engine kept running periodically so as
not to allow the cabin to cool overnight in a
cold environment).
1443. Contraindications. Entonox should
not be used:
In decompression illness.
In the presence of a pneumothorax
unless there is a functioning chest drain
in situ.
1444.The reason is that nitrous oxide is able
to diffuse out of the blood stream into gas
filled cavities (and bubbles) faster than
nitrogen can be removed, causing increases
in pressure and volume within these cavities
and bubbles. Use in head injuries is
discussed in paragraph 1454.
Local anaesthesia.
1445. Local anaesthetic blocks can provide
safe and effective analgesia in acute trauma.
There are a number of limitations in field
conditions:
Personnel with the appropriate

anatomical knowledge and training
may be not be available.
Preparation of both casualty and
materials is usually less than ideal in
respect of access, positioning, fluid
resuscitation and sterility.
There may be insufficient time to
perform and wait for the technique to
work.
Inadvertent toxic problems will be
difficult to manage on scene.
Safety
1446. Safety is maximised by ensuring that
an intravenous cannula has been sited in the
casualty (to allow fluid resuscitation and
treatment of allergic and toxic reactions to
the local anaesthetics), that accidental
intravascular injection of local anaesthetic
does not occur and the recommended
maximum safe doses (MSD) relevant to
nerve block and infiltration techniques, are
not exceeded).
1447. Lignocaine is a rapid acting local
anaesthetic available in 0.5 1, or 2%
concentrations with or without adrenaline.
The MSD is 4 mg/kg of body weight without
adrenaline and 6mg/kg of body weight with.
1% solutions are suitable for most infiltration
and nerve block techniques. Use of solutions
containing adrenaline are best avoided in the
field, complications from systemic absorption
of the adrenaline or incorrect injection to
areas of vascular compromise, are then
avoided.
1448. Specific blocks
Femoral nerve block. Inject 10 to 15 ml
of 1% lignocaine just below the inguinal
ligament at a site 1.5 cm deep and 1.5
cm lateral to the femoral artery.
Aspirate the syringe to check the artery
has not been punctured. The block will
onset in 5 to 15 minutes and last about
an hour. It provides good analgesia for
femoral shaft fractures allowing them to
be reduced and splinted.
Haematoma block for reduction of closed
wrist fractures. This is useful when
dealing with a large number of
casualties. Attention to sterile technique
is important to avoid introducing
infection in the haematoma. Adrenaline
containing solutions should be avoided.
Inject 15 ml of 1% lignocaine into the
fracture haematoma. The block will
onset in about 5 minutes and last about
one hour.
Intercostal nerve blocks are used in
hospitals to treat the pain from
fractured ribs. They are also useful
when placing chest drains in alert
casualties. The practical danger when
performing intercostal blocks is the risk
of pneumothorax and short, small
gauge needles must be employed.
301
Palpate the rib to be blocked in the

posterior axillary line. If the rib
cannot be palpated do not
attempt the block. Insert the needle
through the skin until it hits bone close
to the lower margin of the rib.When the
needle contacts bone, slowly move it
downwards until it just slips under the
lower margin of the rib. Aspirate the
syringe and check that there is no air or
blood obtained. Inject 5 ml or 1%
lignocaine. Good analgesia will usually
require additional blocks at 1 or 2 levels
above and below the fractures.
CLINICAL PROBLEMS
1449. Analgesia for head injured battle
casualties. The initial management of head
injuries should be carried out as described in
Chapter 8, treating problems with Airway,
Breathing and Circulation. Untreated pain
may cause a rise in intracranial pressure
which in turn, can worsen a developing brain
injury. Excess use of morphine will cause
respiratory depression (with hypoxia and
hypercapnia) and pupillary assessment
during neurological examination may
become more difficult.
1450. Pain management in the head injured
military casualty is a balance between
treating the pain but not masking signs and
symptoms
of
an
injury
needing
neurosurgical attention. In other words:
judicious use of analgesics, especially
morphine.
1451. The casualty in coma (see paragraphs
0828-0831) after resuscitation is assumed
not to be feeling pain.
1452. Headache in the casualty with minor
and moderate head injury is treated with
either paracetamol, NSAIDs or codeine
phosphate. Severe headache associated with
vomiting or neurological symptoms and
signs may indicate an intracranial
haematoma. The management of the
casualty with an intracranial haematoma is
described in Chapter 8.
1453. Pain due to other injuries.This is treated
with a combination of nerve blocks,
paracetamol and NSAIDs. Morphine is used
as outlined in Table 14.1. Ideally, morphine
if needed, is given as incremental intravanous
doses but, if this is not possible, use IM as
shown in the table. Level of consciousness
and cardiorespiratory state need careful
monitoring after using morphine.
1454. Entonox and head injury. In a casualty
with a fractured skull, the nitrous oxide in
entonox could increase the size of
intracranial air collections. Practically,
casualties with significant head injury are
unlikely to be able to self administer
entonox. In the casualty with mild
concussion and pain from other injuries,
entonox should be safe, particularly as the
entonox is likely to be given over a short
period of time.
Analgesia for battle casualties with chest

injury
1455. Fractured ribs and other chest injuries
are very painful. The act of breathing moves
the broken ribs and makes the pain worse.
The casualty is reluctant to take effective
breathes resulting in retained secretions in the
underlying lung, atelectasis, decreasing
oxygenation and decreased carbon dioxide
removal. Infection and respiratory failure may
follow.
1456. The initial management of chest
injuries should be carried out as described in
Chapter 6, treating problems with Airway,
Breathing and Circulation. These casualties
need supplemental oxygen.
1457. After resuscitation, the pain of chest
injury is treated with a combination of
intercostal blocks, paracetamol or NSAIDs
and incremental intravenous opiates. The
hospital
management
will
include
physiotheraphy and may also involve
specialised analgesic techniques such as
epidural or intrapleural blocks.
1458. The casualty presenting in respiratory
failure needs initial ventilatory support as
described in Chapter 4 and will need
subsequent management in an intensive care
unit.
1459. Entonox and chest injury. In a casualty
with a pneumothorax the nitrous oxide in
entonox could increase the size of the air
collection and may even cause it to tension. A
chest drain needs to be placed before entonox
is used.
Mass casualties
1460. The provision of effective analgesia for
mass casualties needs to be simple in its scope
and application, supporting the principle of
providing the greatest good for the greatest
number. Following triage and resuscitation,
intramuscular administration of analgesics is
likely to be the most practical solution,
particularly if personnel lack cannulation
skills, resources are limited or casualties
present in large numbers with minor injuries.
The monitoring of such casualties may need
to rely on minimally trained personnel using
simple clinical parameters.
United Kingdom prescribing restrictions
1461. The Medicines Act (1968) and its
secondary legislation provides a regulatory
scheme of licences, registrations and
exemptions which control all aspects of the
production and distribution of all medicinal
products.
1462. It classifies drugs as:
General Sales List (GSL) medicines,
suitable for unsupervised sale in shops
or supermarkets.
Pharmacy (P) only medicines, which
can only be sold or supplied in a
pharmacy under the direct supervision
of a pharmacist.
302
BATLS Chapter 14
Prescription Only Medicines (POM),

which can only be sold or supplied in
accordance with a prescription issued
by a fully registered medical practitioner.
1463. The Misuse of Drugs Act (1971)
provides the basis of control for certain
drugs. Drugs are placed into Class A, B or
C based on the harmfulness attributable to
a drug when it is misused. The penalties for
unlawful possession of the more harmful
drugs are more severe than for those
considered less harmful.
1464. The Misuse of Drugs Act (1985)
divides drugs into five schedules which
define the classes of person authorised to
supply and possess controlled drugs while
acting in their professional capacities. Also
covered are regulations for prescribing and
record keeping.
1465.The Safe Custody Regulations (1973)
define the type of cabinet or safe that should
be used to store controlled drugs securely.
These regulations refer to Schedule 2 and 3
drugs although many Schedule 3 drugs are
exempted.
1466. Medical officers, nurses and medical

personnel involved in aeromedical transport
must be aware of potential legal difficulties
imposed by crossing international borders.
Most countries prohibit the import and
export of medicines (including noncontrolled drugs). For non-domestic flights,
prior approval and certification from the
Department of Health and the Home Office
is advised.
SUMMARY
Resuscitation using the BATLS method
comes first.
Effective analgesia is an essential part of
casualty management.
Methods used depend on your training,
the number of casualties, the resources
available and the injuries to be managed.
Start simple, for example, splint limbs
and cool burns.
Effective analgesia may need a
combination of techniques and drugs.
If unsure, get help.
BATLS
Battlefield Advanced Trauma Life Support (BATLS)
adults in the assessment and management

of trauma.
SUPPLEMENT NO 1
PAEDIATRIC TRAUMA
Aim
Introduction
1. On successfully completing this topic you

will understand:
The important differences in the anatomy
and physiology of a child that affect
trauma management.
The similarities between children and
2. In terms of assessment and management

following injury, children cannot simply be
regarded as small adults.There are important
anatomical, physiological, and psychological
differences that must be considered in the
A B C D E routine during the primary
survey and resuscitation phases.
Anatomical differences
Airway
Differences
Associated problems
A large tongue in babies and small
Airway obstruction from the tongue.
children.
A relatively high anterior larynx.
Difficulty in visualising the vocal cords.
A large floppy leaf-shaped epiglottis.
Need to modify tracheal intubation
Poor support for the upper trachea
Contraindication to surgical
technique.
other than the cricoid ring.
cricothyroidotomy under 12 years old.

Breathing
A tendency to underestimate severity of internal
injuries in the absence of chest wall injury,
particularly following blunt injury.
An elastic chest wall.
Circulation
Peripheral venous access can be particularly difficult
in tiny children, or in any child if there is peripheral
shut down. The intraosseous needle technique is a
rapid, safe and effective alternative, or peripheral
venous cut-down may be used.
Difficult intravenous access.
Disability
Difference
Associated problems
The Glasgow Coma Scale score cannot be used. The
Paediatric Coma Scale score must be used instead.
(See paragraph 15 of this Supplement).
Under 4 years old, inability to speak fluently.
Physiological differences
Airway
Difference
Small children are obligate nasal breathers.
Associated problems
Nasal obstruction is poorly tolerated.
Breathing
The respiratory rate and tidal volume vary with age.
An adult ventilation bag can be used, but with only

enough tidal volume to make the chest rise. An adult
face mask can also be used, but often gives a better
seal if rotated through 180.
BATLS Supplement 1 & 2
33
Circulation
The pulse rate and systolic blood pressure vary with
age. As a rule, the normal systolic blood pressure for
a child is systolic BP=80+(age x 2)mmHg. The
normal ranges of childhood pulse rate, blood pressure
and respiratory rates are shown opposite:
Age (yrs)
<1
2-5
5-12
>12
Pulse
110-160
95-140
80-120
60-100
Systolic BP
70-90
80-100
90-110
100-120
Respiration
30-40
20-30
15-20
12-15
The circulating blood volume in a child is

relatively large than in an adult 80-90 ml/kg.
A child can lose up to 40% of circulating blood

volume before the blood pressure falls. Do not be
caught out by an injured child who is normotensive.
Psychological differences
Difference
Soldiers injured in battle can be remarkably
ambivalent towards their injuries. This has something
to do with their inherent camaraderie and concern
for each other, and perhaps because injury heralds
a temporary respite from the continual exposure to
the stress of war.
Primary Survey and

Resuscitation
3. The primary survey and resuscitation
follows the same systematic approach as in
adults, the A B C D E routine.
Airway
4. The airway in children is opened by the
chin-lift or jaw-thrust manoeuvre. A blind
finger sweep should not be attempted, as the
delicate tissues of the oropharynx can be
damaged and the foreign body further impacted in the upper airway. To clear the airway use an oropharyngeal (Guedel) airway,
but this must be correctly sized; if it is too large
the glottis will be stimulated causing retching
(with a rise in intraranial pressure), vomiting
and aspiration. In children, the airway is
inserted the right-way-up, not upside-down
and rotated by 180, as in adults. A nasopharyngeal airway can be improvised by
cutting a tracheal tube to the appropriate
length (from the nostril to the angle of the
jaw). The correct size of nasopharyngeal airway
is one that just fits inside the nostril without
causing blanching of the nasal skin. Care must
be taken not to cause bleeding from the nose.
5. Tracheal intubation remains the gold standard for securing a childs airway. The correct
tube size is calculated by the formula: (age in
years 4) + 4 = internal diameter in millimetres. The correct internal diameter for the tracheal tube is the one that will just accept the
childs little finger. The tube length is important; the tracheal tube should be passed just
below the vocal cords but no further. The
short trachea makes endobronchial intubation likely. The position of the tracheal tube
should be carefully checked by auscultating in
both axillae. An uncuffed tracheal tube must
be used in all children under the age of
puberty.
Associated problems
An innocent child injured in conflict is unlikely to

have this perception and will be in pain, frightened
by his injuries and anxious about separation from a
parent.
6. Surgical cricothyroidotomy is contraindicated in children under 12 years old. A

needle cricothyroidotomy, using an 18 gauge
cannula, may be performed on a child under
12 years old for immediate resuscitation prior
to tracheostomy (see page 4-25).
Breathing
7. All children who have been seriously injured
require oxygen. A high flow rate and nonrebreathing reservoir mask should be used
when available. Gastric distension is common
with high flow oxygen, this distension may
promote gastric regurgitation and aspiration
and splint the diaphragm. A nasogastric or
orogastric tube should be considered early in
resuscitation. Chest trauma has the same
spectrum of injuries and is managed in exactly
the same way as for adults, using appropriately
sized equipment.
Circulation
8. Fluid resuscitation is in milliletres per
kilogram. This dosage begs the question How
do you work out the weight of a child? There are
four simple methods when scales are not
available:
Ask the parent.
Use the formula (age in years + 4) x 2 =
weight in kilograms (accurate up to ten

years old).
Use a resuscitation guide such as a modified
Oakely Paediatric Resuscitation chart.
Use a Broselow tape (this correlates the
length of a child with a list of appropriate
drug doses and tube sizes).
9. The following fluid resuscitation protocol is
recommended for a child:
20 ml/kg crystalloid, as a bolus, reassess;
then if no response
34
20 ml/kg colloid, as a bolus, reassess; then if
no response
10ml/kg blood
Consider surgery, especially if the vital signs
pulse rate and blood pressure do not
improve after fluid therapy. All fluid should be
warmed. Children have a larger surface areato-volume ratio than adults and will cool more
quickly when exposed. Hypothermia is a real
threat and will be made worse by the use of
cold resuscitation fluids.
10. Peripheral venous access can be attempted
first but, if this is unsuccessful, move rapidly
on to the intraosseous route. This is a rapid,
safe and effective alternative for children under
seven years old. A 16 gauge cannula is
preferable, or a special intraosseous needle.
The primary site is 1 to 2 cm below and
medial to the tibial tuberosity. Any drug can be
given
by
this
route;
remember that fluids must be syringed in, not
just left to drip in. The needle can be
stabilised by packing dental swabs between the
skin and the flange and by supporting the limb
in a splint. The intraosseous route is
regarded as a resuscitation procedure and
should be replaced by peripheral or central
venous access for ongoing intravenous fluid.
Osteomyelitis is rare (less than 0.5%).
Disability
11. The disability assessment in the primary
survey is the same as in adults. Ask yourself
is the child;
Alert?
Voice responding to?
Pain responding to?
Unresponsive?
Assess the:
Pupils for size and inequality.
Posture for signs of severe brain injury
(decorticate or decerebrate) which may

present intermittently following painful
stimuli.
Exposure
12. Exposure is necessary to make a complete
examination (secondary survey), but
remember that hypothermia is a real risk;
consider exposing the child in stages.The head
is an important site of heat loss.
13. It is worth including an additional step in
the primary survey for children this is blood
glucose estimation. A stick test from a heel or
finger prick is adequate. Children have small
glycogen stores that are rapidly metabolised
following the stress of an injury. A reduced
level of response or consciousness may simply
be due to hypoglycaemia, which is readily
reversible with 2 ml/kg 10% dextrose,
intravenously.
Secondary Survey and Definitive

Treatment
14. A head-to-toe examination is essential to
identify all injuries. These injuries are then
sorted into priorities for definitive treatment.
The examination, injuries and priorities are as
in adults with some important differences
described below.
Head injury
15. Head injury is the most common cause of
death from blunt trauma in children surviving
to reach hospital. Scalp lacerations can bleed
profusely and, unlike the general rule for
adults, haemorrhage may be sufficient to
produce hypotension. The Glasgow Coma
Scale cannot be applied to children under four
years old; the Paediatric Coma Scale, which
has a modified verbal response component,
must be used in this age group:
5 points = Smiling.
4 points = Crying but consolable.
3 points = Crying and intermittently
consolable (moaning).
2 points = Crying and inconsolable
(irritable).
1 point = No response.
Abdominal injury
16. Isolated visceral abdominal injuries are
sometimes managed conservatively in children. This is only possible when an accurate
diagnosis can be made (for example with ultrasound or CT scanning) and the surgeon is
experienced. There needs to be an adequate
monitoring and round-the-clock surgical
support. Diagnostic peritoneal lavage is not
appropriate if the intention is to manage these
injuries conservatively, as the presence of
blood alone will not be an indication for
surgery.
Spinal injury
17. Spinal injuries are uncommon in children
and spinal immobilisation in an anxious child
is often difficult. Adequate spinal immobilisation is still important until the injury has been
excluded clinically and, where necessary,
radiologically. If the child is very agitated it is
better just to apply a semi-rigid collar and not
tie the head down with tape and sand bags, as
the rest of the body will continue to thrash
about causing rotational stresses to the cervical
spine. Pseudosubluxation of C2 on C3 is
noted in 9% of X-rays of children under eight
years old, with up to 40% of these showing
tendencies towards this X-ray finding. If in
doubt, the spine should be immobilised until
the cervical spine X-ray has been assessed by a
suitably qualified doctor.
Pain relief
18. Pain relief should be considered early once
the primary survey has been carried out and
resuscitation has been performed. The
35
following can be used:

Reassurance. This costs nothing. A parent in
the room can be as useful as any analgesic
drug.
Splintage. Fractured limbs should be
splinted.
Entonox. A 50:50 mixture of oxygen and
nitrous oxide that is inhaled. This is useful for
short painful procedures if the child will cooperate.
Morphine. The dose in children is 0.1 to 0.2
mg/kg titrated slowly intravenously according
to response. Intramuscular morphine should
be avoided in the presence of shock.
Ketamine.This is a useful analgesic for short,
painful procedures, such as emergency
manipulation of fractures or dislocations to
restore a distal pulse.The analgesic dose is 0.5
to 1 mg/kg intravenously and up to 5 ml/kg
intramuscularly. The onset of effect is five to
ten minutes after intravenous administration
and longer after intramuscular administration,
so wait for an effect before you perform any
painful procedure.
Ketamine is contraindicated in head
injuries. In larger doses it is an anaesthetic
and should only be used by experienced
doctors with appropriate facilities available.
Summary
The principles of trauma management in
children and adults are the same although

there are important anatomical, physiological and psychological differences between children and adults.
SUPPLEMENT NO 2
HELICOPTER EVACUATION
Introduction
1. After initial BATLS resuscitation, casualties requiring surgery have to be moved
out from the RAP to a forward surgical team
or a field hospital. After intial surgery has
been performed at these facilities, casualties
may need to be moved again for further
surgery. These transfers may involve military
helicopters. Aeromed trained personnel of
the RAF normally evacuate casualties, but
operational situations may preclude the use
of these escorts and untrained personnel may
have to be utilised in the best interest of the
casualty.
2. It is strongly advised that if untrained personnel are utilised for the transportation of
casualties by helicopter, the organising medical officer contacts the Aeromedical Evacuation Co-ordinating Officer (AECO) or the
Aeromedical Evacuation Liaison Officer
(AELO) for advice. In normal circumstances
a field hospital will have an AELO, who will
be responsible for co-ordinating casualty pre-
paration and evacuation.

3. Aim to become confident and proficient
about working around and with helicopters
before you have to prepare a casualty for
flight, escort a casualty in flight or work with
aircraft in an emergency.
Golden rules to be observed

when working with helicopters
Approaching the helicopter
Do not approach within 30 metres (100
feet) of a helicopter, or leave the aircraft without a clear signal from the aircrew to do so. A
thumbs up by day, one flash of light (by torch)
by night.
Always approach the aircraft from the
correct direction. In general, this is the 2-3
oclock position, except for the Chinook,
which is approached from the 4-5 oclock or
7-8 oclock position.
Particular care is to be taken when working
on sloping or uneven ground. Remember, on
an uphill slope the rotor blades will be nearer
the ground.
Casualties may have to be loaded while the
rotor blades are still turning. Because of the
downwash created by the rotor blades, all
headgear is to be removed and loose articles
secured, before approaching the aircraft.
General safety
No smoking inside or within 15 metres (50
feet) of the aircraft.

Personal belongings must be kept to a
minimum.
All personal weapons should be unloaded
and the magazine removed before approaching the aircraft.
Do not enter the inside of the cabin unless
instructed to do so.
Do not touch anything while inside the
cabin unless instructed to do so.
Be particularly careful of those areas
painted with black and yellow stripes.These
are emergency controls.
All helicopters are extremely noisy aircraft.
This noise is to be considered a hazard and
hearing protection is to be worn when in
their vicinity (including casualties).
Do not move about the aircraft during
flight, especially the Puma and Wessex
without first informing the crew.
Casualty considerations
The aircrew must be informed of any
flying restrictions imposed by the casualtys
clinical condition prior to the flight.
Casualties on stretchers are to be brought
to the aircraft feet first, except for the Chinook, when casualties are to be brought to the
aircraft head first.
Emergency procedures
4. Obey all orders given by the aircrew. In an
emergency situation the instructions of the
36
aircrew must always be carried out immediately.

5. In the event of an emergency, the aircrew
will brief you. Ensure that you are strapped
in correctly (your casualties should be strapped in at all times). Brace yourself in readiness for impact and above all keep calm. On
landing, wait until the rotors have stopped,
unfasten casualties and make good yours
and the casualtys escape.
6. In a ditching situation (emergency landing
on water) remain calm, fit your life jacket (do
not inflate until you have completely exited
the aircraft). Brief conscious casualties on
how and when to release their harness. Identify the nearest exit. Following impact with
the water, the helicopter may begin to
tumble. Hold your breath and wait for the
aircraft to come to rest, then vacate through
the exit and rise to the surface. If the airframe
remains afloat, follow the instructions of the
aircrew.
Military Helicopters
7. Military helicopters have two methods of
carrying casualties in the Air Ambulance
role:
Rapid reaction (hot extraction).
Multi-stretcher fit (aeromedical
transportation).
8. As the aeromedical evacuation squadron
will always undertake the aeromedical transportation, this section will concentrate on the
rapid reaction method of transportation,
where in unusual circumstances it may
become necessary for untrained personnel to
escort casualties.
The Puma
9. The Puma is a single main rotor, twin
engine helicopter. Its main role is to provide
tactical support but is often used in a casevac
role. This extremely versatile aircraft, when
conditions dictate, can accommodate usually
two stretchers (but can take three) or six walking casualties (or a combination between
the two maximums) in the rapid reaction role
(see Fig Suppl 2.1).
Danger points
10. Main rotor. The main rotor is 15.8 metres
(49.5 feet) in diameter and drops to a low
point of 3.65 metres (12 feet) approximately
on level ground.
11.Tail rotor. The tail rotor is 3.05 metres (10
feet) in diameter and reaches a low point of
2.05 metres (6.75 feet) on level ground.
12. Fragile windows and doors. The main cabin
doors, the cockpit access door and the copilots jettisonable panel are all made of lightalloy and transparent materials. Use care
when operating the cabin door and stay well
clear of these areas when in flight.
Loading sequence
13. The ready position is 30 metres (100 feet)
out from the helicopter at the 2 oclock
position.
14. Emplaning. Approach the helicopter only
when signalled to do so by the aircrew. The
approach is from the ready position to the
starboard cabin door. Casualties are loaded
feet first and are secured with their heads
forward (except when contraindicated by the
casualtys injuries, particularly those with
head injuries who, whenever possible, should
not fly in a head-down position).
15.The stretchers are loaded in the following
sequence.
Port rear.
Starboard rear.
Port centre.
16. Unloading is the reverse of loading.
The Chinook
17. The chinook is a tandem rotor, medium
lift helicopter designed to operate in all weather conditions. It is designed for trooping,
tactical support, internal/external freight carrying, parachuting, rescue and aeromedical
roles. In tactical conditions, up to ten stretchers cases can be secured directly to the
helicopter floor, the extra space required to
achieve this is obtained by detaching the
seating from floor points and folding them
back (see Fig Suppl 2.2).
Danger points
18. Twin rotors. The twin rotors are 18.3
metres (60 feet) in diameter and the forward
rotor can drop to a low point of 1.34 metres
(4.5 feet) on level ground.
Fig Suppl 2.1 Puma helicopter.
19. Engine and auxillary power unit (APU)

exhaust. The exhaust gases from the engines
and APU are blown to the rear of the aircraft.
These gases are extremely hot and care must
be taken when emplaning.
20. Engine noise. The Chinook is an
extremely noisy aircraft and it is essential that
hearing protection be worn in and around
37
Fig Suppl 2.2 Chinook helicopter.
this aircraft. Failure to do so is likely to cause

permanent hearing damage.
Loading sequence
out from the helicopter between the 4/5
oclock and 7/8 oclock positions.
22. Emplaning. The approach to the aircraft is
from the ready position to the edge of the
ramp (when loading and unloading casualties, only the ramp is to be used). Casualties
are to be carried headfirst onto the aircraft
and positioned with their heads forward, this
includes those with head injuries. A member
of the aircrew will control the loading and
securing of the casualties.
Fig Suppl 2.3 Sea King helicopter.
The Sea King

23. The Sea King is a single main rotored,
twin engined, all weather tactical support
helicopter. This aircraft is extremely versatile
but is primarily used for troop transport,
carriage of underslung loads and search and
rescue. In the rapid reaction role, up to six
stretchers can be secured to the floor. This
layout is heavily dependent on the aircrafts
configuration and the theatre of operation. In
a combat zone, it will be more likely to carry
four stretchers (see Fig Suppl 2.3).
Danger points
24. Main rotor. The main rotor is 21.34
metres (70 feet) in diameter and drops low as
the blades slow to a halt. Do not enter the
disc area during engine shut down.
38
25. Engine intakes and exhausts. The engine

intakes are situated above the cockpit and the
exhaust gases are blown to the side and may
radiate up to 8 metres from the main rotor
assembly.
cockpit side windows.

33. Tail rotor. The tail rotor is 2.89 metres
(9.5 feet) in diameter and has a maximum
ground clearance of 2 metres (6.75 feet) on
level ground.
26. Tail rotor. The tail rotor is 3.96 metres (13

feet) in diameter and reaches a low point of
2.74 metres (9 feet) on level ground.
Loading sequence
out from the aircraft at the 2 oclock position.
27. Other danger areas include the Floatation

Bag Canister covers (can travel up to 60
metres (200 feet) when operated), the high
frequency aerial and General Purpose Machine Gun (GPMG) where fitted. There is also
an Ice Accretion Indicator at eye level on the
forward port side.
35. Emplaning. The approach is from the

ready position to the starboard cabin door.
Stretcher cases are loaded in the following
sequence.
Port centre.
Starboard rear.
Loading sequence
out from the aircraft at the 2 oclock position.
29. Emplaning. The approach is from the
ready position to the main starboard side
door.The casualties are loaded headfirst into
the cabin and positioned with their head
forward, the exception again being those with
head injuries.
The Wessex
30. The Wessex is a single rotored, twin
engined, extremely versatile utility helicopter. In the rapid reaction role this aircraft can
accommodate two stretcher casualties secured directly to the floor and up to three
walking casualties. This configuration allows
for a minimal amount of time spent on the
ground (see Fig Suppl 2.4).
Danger points
31. Main rotor. The main rotor is 17.06
metres (56 feet) in diameter and drops to a
low point of 2.59 metres (8.5 feet) on level
ground.
32. Engine intakes and exhausts. The main
engine intake is located in the nose of the
aircraft. There are two exhaust pipes on either side of the aircraft situated just below the
Fig Suppl 2.4 Wessex helicopter.
36. Casualties are loaded into the cabin feet

first and secured with their heads forward,
except head injuries.
Universal hazards
37. Personnel on the ground should avoid
looking at the IR Jammers fitted to the fuselage, eye damage may be sustained if viewed
at a distance closer than 4.5 metres (15 feet).
There may be chaff and flare dispensers
fitted to the aircraft and close proximity to
these must be avoided. HF aerial antennae
must also be avoided.
Clinical criteria
General
38. In a hot extraction situation, particularly
when there is extreme danger to the aircraft
(a soft-skinned vehicle!) and personnel, a
scoop and scoot approach may be necessary.This will move you, the casualty and the
aircraft to a safer environment but will almost
certainly mean little by way of clinical intervention, other than clearing and maintaining
an airway, can be carried out.
39.Whenever feasible, the casualty should be
as stable as possible before casevac, with a
secure airway and other life-saving procedures, such as chest drain insertion carried
out before emplaning. Remember, once
airborne it is extremely difficult verging on
39
the impossible, to carry out these procedures. Even palpating a pulse at the cartoid
may be rendered impossible due to aircraft
vibration. If portable electronic monitoring
aids are available, use them!
40. Although most of the following clinical
criteria apply more to evacuation by fixedwing aircraft in the aeromed role, they should
still be borne in mind when helicopter
evacuation is employed.
41. The medical employment of Air Transport in the Forward Area is governed by
NATO
Standardisation
Agreement
(STANAG) No 2087. This agreement
defines who, how, when and where casualties
can be evacuated from the battlefield.
42. The remainder of this supplement gives
some broad guidance to medical personnel
for the transportation of the more common
battlefield injuries/conditions. There are no
absolute medical contraindications to air
movement, but some precautions are
required with certain clinical conditons.
Surgery
43. Significant gastrointestinal dilation may
occur due to gas expansion at altitude; any
casualty who has undergone a laparotomy
should not normally be emplaned within ten
days of the operation.This interval should be
extended to 21 days in the case of a thoracotomy. In an emergency, these casualties
can be flown providing a sea level cabin
altitude is maintained.
Head trauma/neurosurgery
44. Raised Intracranial Pressure (ICP). Any
casualty who presents with clinical signs of
raised ICP will require a medical escort with
easy access to resuscitation equipment.There
is no requirement for any altitude restriction,
as the altitudes at which military helicopters
fly do not lead to any significant rise in ICP.
45. Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH).
Ideally, casualties should only be evacuated
when their condition is stable and accompanied by a medical officer. No altitude restrictions apply but evacuation should be direct to a pre-arranged neurosurgical centre.
46. Intracranial haematoma/Intracerebral
haemorrhage. The haemorrhage/haematoma
should be evacuated prior to the casualty
being transferred, but if this is not possible
they should be accompanied by medically
trained personnel with appropriate
resuscitation equipment and flown in a headup position.
47. Fractured skull. A casualty who has sustained a fractured skull, particularly open
fractures complicated by intracranial air,
should be evacuated at sea level.
Chest trauma
48. Pneumothorax/Tension pneumothorax. Any
casualty who has sustained a pneumothorax/
tension pneumothorax or has air in the
pleura cannot be evacuated by helicopter
unless a chest drain is in situ, attached to
either a Heimlich valve or closed chest drain
bag.
Orthopaedics
49. Fractures. Limbs may swell under fracture
immobilisation casts, it is important to follow
the appropriate guidelines:
Plaster of Paris (POP). A recently applied
POP (less than 72 hours) must be bi-valved
prior to evacuation. Older POP casts may be
left, but the casualty must be escorted, with
plaster shears available, to bi-valve the cast if
required.
Synthetic casts. Synthetic casts are virtually
impossible to cut in-flight. More caution
must be exercised before emplaning a casualty with such a cast. Synthetic casts must
be bi-valved if the cast has been applied for
less than 10 days.
Maxillofacial trauma
50. All casualties with maxillofacial trauma
must have a secured airway prior to evacuation. Casualties who have had external fixation of the jaw must be accompanied by an
escort who has the means of releasing the
fixation (wire cutters) immediately available.
(Motion sickness may cause the casualty to
vomit in-flight).
Ophthalmic trauma
51. A casualty who has a penetrating eye injury or suspected penetrating eye injury is to
have two sterile pads applied to the injured
eye and systemic antibiotic therapy commenced prior to evacuation. The casualty may
travel sitting and no altitude restrictions are
required: ideally, space permitting, they
should travel as a stretcher case.
52. Any ophthalmic case which has been
operated on and in which the surgeon has
injected air can be evacuated as a sitting case
but cabin altitude must be restricted to 600
metres (2000 feet).
Summary
Preparation of casualties for flight
The vast majority of casualties will only
require a common sense approach to their
preparation for evacuation, by asking simple
questions, most problems can be identified
and resolved prior to the evacuation.
Ask?
Are aeromed teams available to undertake
this task? (Contact them).
If aeromed teams are unavailable but can
offer advice, talk to them.
Where is the onward destination and are
they expecting the casualty. (Check).
Is the destination suitable for the casualty
40
and the aircraft type? (Check).

What level of training is required to transfer the casualty? (Cbt Med Tech/RGN/ MO).
Are the appropriate aeromed stretchers
and harnesses available? (If not get them).
Are all the casualtys documentation and
X-rays available for transportation with the
casualty? (Check).
Does the casualty require a secure airway,
intravenous access or fluid resuscitation prior
to or during flight? (Ideally, the casualty must
be as stable as possible prior to flight).
Are all IV lines taped and secure. (Check
them).
Is there sufficient oxygen supply on board
for the casualtys(ies) needs to complete the
journey and cope with delays? This especially
applies if the ventilator is air or oxygen
driven.
Has the electrical medical equipment
required for transportation been cleared for
use on the aircraft? (Talk to the aircrew).This
equipment may be necessary for in-flight
monitoring. Even simple tasks such as

counting a pulse rate using the carotid artery,
may be impossible in a vibrating airframe.
How is the casualty going to be positioned
on board the aircraft and does the escort
have access? (Find out).
If the flight is tactical and at night, the aircrew may be using night vision goggles, can
any light be used in the cabin? (On chinooks
the crew may be able to provide a blacked
out area; in other aircraft torches with green
filters will have to be used and monitoring
undertaken by touch. Check the situation
with the crew and be prepared to adapt).
It is very difficult to care for a casualty in
the air, particularly on a helicopter. It is
extremely important to prepare the casualty
properly prior to the flight. A few extra minutes on the ground preparing the casualty
may ultimately save their life. However, the
tactical situation or the condition of the
casualty may dictate the scoop and scoot
approach, rather than stay and play.

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J R Army Med Corps 2000; 146: 110-114

History of Advanced Trauma

programme was established. The original

History of Battlefield Advanced

The Modern Era

BATLS Chapters 1&2

producing high energy-transfer wounds.

Fragments and bullets

0113. Early rifle bullets depended on their

Injuries caused by fragments

BATLS Chapters 1&2

surgical centre, otherwise the expert

Scope of the BATLS/BARTS

Killed in action (KIA)

Died of wounds (DoW)

to the brain, spinal cord, heart and major

The role of BATLS and BARTS

BATLS Chapters 1&2

provide trauma life support in the prehospital phase of casualty management.

0201. On successfully completing this

practical skill) that you have learnt in

BATLS Chapters 1&2

level of consciousness and pupil state.You

0210. Consider the insertion of urinary

J R Army Med Corps 2000; 146: 215-227

logistic capabilities (JSP 110). In these

BATLS Chapters 3 & 4

NATO allies, the International Committee

Triage for Treatment

Table 3.1 The triage sieve

0312 A simple, safe, rapid and

the airway, breathing and circulation (see

Triage for Evacuation

You must Triage all casualties before treatment; assess

DONT PAUSE TO TREAT or

Systolic blood pressure

Under 10 or over 30/min

Over 120/min CRT>2 secs

Under 120/min CRT<2 secs

Now TREAT the injured

Glasgow Coma Scale

0316. Priorities are assigned as follows:

BATLS Chapters 3 & 4

transported to the RAP. He cannot walk, his

Application at Role One and

Application at Role Three

BATLS Chapters 3 & 4

he can withstand further delay. The

Anatomy and Physiology of the

consists of the larynx, trachea and lungs. An

Airway and Breathing

BATLS Chapters 3 & 4

Direct trauma to the larynx and

When pedestrians have been hit by a

Fig 4.1 Jaw-thrust

Fig 4.2 Chin-lift

0418. Jaw-thrust. Grasp the angles of the

BATLS Chapters 3 & 4

of obstructed upper airways. The jaw-thrust

continue with the jaw-thrust or chin-lift or