Power Supply Design Seminar

Designing an LLC Resonant

Half-Bridge Power Converter
Topic Category:
Design Reviews Functional Circuit Blocks
Reproduced from
2010 Texas Instruments Power Supply Design Seminar
SEM1900, Topic 3
TI Literature Number: SLUP263
2010, 2011 Texas Instruments Incorporated

Power Seminar topics and online powertraining modules are available at:
power.ti.com/seminars

Designing an LLC Resonant

Half-Bridge Power Converter
Hong Huang

While half-bridge power stages have commonly been used for isolated, medium-power applications,
converters with high-voltage inputs are often designed with resonant switching to achieve higher efficiency,
an improvement that comes with added complexity but that nevertheless offers several performance
benefits. This topic provides detailed information on designing a resonant half-bridge converter that uses
two inductors (LL) and a capacitor (C), known as an LLC configuration. This topic also introduces a
unique analysis tool called first harmonic approximation (FHA) for controlling frequency modulation.
FHA is used to define circuit parameters and predict performance, which is then verified through
comprehensive laboratory measurements.

IntroductIon

A. Brief Review of Resonant Converters

There are many resonant-converter topologies,

and they all operate in essentially the same way: A
square pulse of voltage or current generated by the
power switches is applied to a resonant circuit.
Energy circulates in the resonant circuit, and some
or all of it is then tapped off to supply the output.
More detailed descriptions and discussions can be
found in this topics references.
Among resonant converters, two basic types
are the series resonant converter (SRC), shown in
Fig. 1a, and the parallel resonant converter (PRC),
shown in Fig. 1b. Both of these converters regulate
their output voltage by changing the frequency of
the driving voltage such that the impedance of the
resonant circuit changes. The input voltage is split
between this impedance and the load. Since the
SRC works as a voltage divider between the input
and the load, the DC gain of an SRC is always

Higher efficiency, higher power density, and

higher component density have become common
in power-supply designs and their applications.
Resonant power convertersespecially those with
an LLC half-bridge configurationare receiving
renewed interest because of this trend and the
potential of these converters to achieve both higher
switching frequencies and lower switching losses.
However, designing such converters presents many
challenges, among them the fact that the LLC
resonant half-bridge converter performs power
conversion with frequency modulation instead of
pulse-width modulation, requiring a different
design approach.
This topic presents a design procedure for the
LLC resonant half-bridge converter, beginning
with a brief review of basic resonant-converter
operation and a description of the energy-transfer
function as an essential requirement for the design
process. This energy-transfer function, presented
as a voltage ratio or voltage-gain function, is used
along with resonant-circuit parameters to describe
the relationship between input voltage and output
voltage. Next, a method for determining parameter
values is explained. To demonstrate how a design
is created, a step-by-step example is then presented
for a converter with 300 W of output power, a 390VDC input, and a 12-VDC output. The topic
concludes with the results of bench-tested performance measurements.
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Lr

Cr

Lr

RL

a. Series resonant
converter.

Cr

RL

b. Parallel resonant
converter.

Fig. 1. Basic resonant-converter configurations.

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Topic 3

AbstrAct

Topic 3

lower than 1. Under light-load conditions, the

impedance of the load is very large compared to
the impedance of the resonant circuit; so it becomes
difficult to regulate the output, since this requires
the frequency to approach infinity as the load
approaches zero. Even at nominal loads, wide
frequency variation is required to regulate the
output when there is a large input-voltage range.
In the PRC shown in Fig. 1b, the load is
connected in parallel with the resonant circuit,
inevitability requiring large amounts of circulating
current. This makes it difficult to apply parallel
resonant topologies in applications with high
power density or large load variations.

Lr

Cr2

Lr

RL

a. LCC configuration.

Cr

Lm

RL

b. LLC configuration.

Fig. 2. Two types of SPRC.

inductance, Lr, and the transformers magnetizing
inductance, Lm.
The LLC resonant converter has many additional benefits over conventional resonant converters. For example, it can regulate the output
over wide line and load variations with a relatively
small variation of switching frequency, while maintaining excellent efficiency. It can also achieve zerovoltage switching (ZVS) over the entire operating
range. Using the LLC resonant configuration in
an isolated half-bridge topology will be described
next, followed by the procedure for designing
this topology.

B. LCC and LLC Resonant Converters

To solve these limitations, a converter

combining the series and parallel configurations,
called a series-parallel resonant converter (SPRC),
has been proposed. One version of this structure
uses one inductor and two capacitors, or an LCC
configuration, as shown in Fig. 2a. Although this
combination overcomes the drawbacks of a simple
SRC or PRC by embedding more resonant frequencies, it requires two independent physical
capacitors that are both large and expensive
because of the high AC currents. To get similar
characteristics without changing the physical component count, the SPRC can be altered to use two
inductors and one capacitor, forming an LLC resonant converter (Fig. 2b). An advantage of the LLC
over the LCC topology is that the two physical
inductors can often be integrated into one physical
component, including both the series resonant

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Cr1

II. LLc resonAnt

HALf-brIdge converter
This section describes a typical isolated LLC
resonant half-bridge converter; its operation; its
circuit modeling with simplifications; and the
relationship between the input and output voltages,
called the voltage-gain function. This voltage-gain
function forms the basis for the design procedure
described in this topic.

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Square-Wave Generator

Resonant Circuit

Rectifiers for
DC Output

Q1

Vin = +
VDC

Cr
Vsq
Q2

Ir

n:1:1

Lr

Cr

D1

Vo

Lr
I m Ios

Ir

+
Io

+
Vso Lm

Co

Vsq

Vso

Lm

RL

RL

Vsq

Vso

D2

b. Simplified converter circuit.

a. Typical configuration.

A. Configuration

together with the losses from the transformer

and output rectifiers.
3. On the converters secondary side, two diodes
constitute a full-wave rectifier to convert AC
input to DC output and supply the load RL. The
output capacitor smooths the rectified voltage
and current. The rectifier network can be
implemented as a full-wave bridge or centertapped configuration, with a capacitive output
filter. The rectifiers can also be implemented
with MOSFETs forming synchronous
rectification to reduce conduction losses,
especially beneficial in low-voltage and highcurrent applications.

Fig. 3a shows a typical topology of an LLC

resonant half-bridge converter. This circuit is very
similar to that in Fig. 2b. For convenience, Fig. 2b
is copied as Fig. 3b with the series elements
interchanged, so that a side-by-side comparison
with Fig. 3a can be made. The converter
configuration in Fig. 3a has three main parts:
1. Power switches Q1 and Q2, which are usually
MOSFETs, are configured to form a squarewave generator. This generator produces a
unipolar square-wave voltage, Vsq, by driving
switches Q1 and Q2, with alternating 50%
duty cycles for each switch. A small dead time
is needed between the consecutive transitions,
both to prevent the possibility of crossconduction and to allow time for ZVS to be
achieved.
2. The resonant circuit, also called a resonant
network, consists of the resonant capacitance,
Cr, and two inductancesthe series resonant
inductance, Lr, and the transformers magnetizing inductance, Lm. The transformer turns
ratio is n. The resonant network circulates the
electric current and, as a result, the energy is
circulated and delivered to the load through the
transformer. The transformers primary winding receives a bipolar square-wave voltage,
Vso. This voltage is transferred to the secondary
side, with the transformer providing both
electrical isolation and the turns ratio to deliver
the required voltage level to the output. In Fig.
3b, the load RL includes the load RL of Fig. 3a

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B. Operation

This section provides a review of LLC

resonant-converter operation, starting with series
resonance.
Resonant Frequencies in an SRC
Fundamentally, the resonant network of an
SRC presents a minimum impedance to the
sinusoidal current at the resonant frequency,
regardless of the frequency of the square-wave
voltage applied at the input. This is sometimes
called the resonant circuits selective property.
Away from resonance, the circuit presents higher
impedance levels. The amount of current, or
associated energy, to be circulated and delivered
to the load is then mainly dependent upon the
value of the resonant circuits impedance at that
frequency for a given load impedance. As the
frequency of the square-wave generator is varied,
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Topic 3

Fig. 3. LLC resonant half-bridge converter.

the resonant circuits impedance varies to control

that portion of energy delivered to the load.
An SRC has only one resonance, the series
resonant frequency, denoted as
1
.
2 L r C r

f0 =

It is apparent from Fig. 3b that f0 as described

by Equation (1) is always true regardless of the
load, but fp described by Equation (2) is true only
at no load. Later it will be shown that most of the
time an LLC converter is designed to operate in
the vicinity of f0. For this reason and others yet to
be explained, f0 is a critical factor for the converters
operation and design.

(1)

Topic 3

The circuits frequency at peak resonance, fc0,

is always equal to its f0. Because of this, an SRC
requires a wide frequency variation in order to
accommodate input and output variations.

Operation At, Below, and Above f0

The operation of an LLC resonant converter
may be characterized by the relationship of the
switching frequency, denoted as fsw, to the series
resonant frequency (f0). Fig. 4 illustrates the
typical waveforms of an LLC resonant converter
with the switching frequency at, below, or above
the series resonant frequency. The graphs show,
from top to bottom, the Q1 gate (Vg_Q1), the Q2
gate (Vg_Q2), the switch-node voltage (Vsq), the
resonant circuits current (Ir), the magnetizing
current (Im), and the secondary-side diode current
(Is). Note that the primary-side current is the sum
of the magnetizing current and the secondary-side
current referred to the primary; but, since the
magnetizing current flows only in the primary
side, it does not contribute to the power transferred
from the primary-side source to the secondaryside load.

fc0 , f0 , and fp in an LLC Circuit

However, the LLC circuit is different. After the
second inductance (Lm) is added, the LLC circuits
frequency at peak resonance (fc0) becomes a function
of load, moving within the range of fp fc0 f0 as
the load changes. f0 is still described by Equation
(1), and the pole frequency is described by
fp =

1
.
2 (L r + L m )Cr

(2)

At no load, fc0 = fp. As the load increases, fc0

moves towards f0. At a load short circuit, fc0 = f0.
Hence, LLC impedance adjustment follows a
family of curves with fp fc0 f0, unlike that in
SRC, where a single curve defines fc0 = f0. This
helps to reduce the frequency range required from
an LLC resonant converter but complicates the
circuit analysis.

Vg_Q1

Vg_Q1

Vg_Q1

Vg_Q2

Vg_Q2

Vg_Q2

Vsq

Vsq

Vsq

0
Ir

Ir

Im
0

Ir

Im

Is

Is
D1

D2

Is
D1

D2

D1

0
t0

t1 t2
time, t

t3 t4

Im

D2

0
t0

a. At f0 .

t1 t2
time, t

b. Below f0 .

t3 t4

t0

t1 t2
time, t

t3 t4

c. Above f0 .

Fig. 4. Operation of LLC resonant converter.

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Operation Above Resonance (Fig. 4c)

In this mode the primary side presents a smaller
circulating current in the resonant circuit. This
reduces conduction loss because the resonant
circuits current is in continuous-current mode,
resulting in less RMS current for the same amount
of load. The rectifier diodes are not softly
commutated and reverse recovery losses exist, but
operation above the resonant frequency can still
achieve primary ZVS. Operation above the resonant frequency may cause significant frequency
increases under light-load conditions.
The foregoing discussion has shown that the
converter can be designed by using either fsw f0
or fsw f0, or by varying fsw on either side around
f0. Further discussion will show that the best
operation exists in the vicinity of the series resonant
frequency, where the benefits of the LLC converter
are maximized. This will be the design goal.

Operation Below Resonance (Fig. 4b)

Here the resonant current has fallen to the
value of the magnetizing current before the end of
the driving pulse width, causing the power transfer
to cease even though the magnetizing current
continues. Operation below the series resonant
frequency can still achieve primary ZVS and
obtain the soft commutation of the rectifier diodes
on the secondary side. The secondary-side diodes
are in discontinuous current mode and require
more circulating current in the resonant circuit to
deliver the same amount of energy to the load.
This additional current results in higher conduction
losses in both the primary and the secondary sides.
However, one characteristic that should be noted
is that the primary ZVS may be lost if the switching
frequency becomes too low. This will result in
high switching losses and several associated issues.
This will be explained further later.

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C. Modeling an LLC Half-Bridge Converter

To design a converter for variable-energy
transfer and output-voltage regulation, a voltagetransfer function is a must. This transfer function,
which in this topic is also called the input-tooutput voltage gain, is the mathematical relationship between the input and output voltages.
This section will show how the gain formula is
developed and what the characteristics of the
gain are. Later the gain formula obtained will be
used to describe the design procedure for the LLC
resonant half-bridge converter.

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Topic 3

Operation at Resonance (Fig. 4a)

In this mode the switching frequency is the
same as the series resonant frequency. When
switch Q1 turns off, the resonant current falls to
the value of the magnetizing current, and there is
no further transfer of power to the secondary side.
By delaying the turn-on time of switch Q2, the
circuit achieves primary-side ZVS and obtains a
soft commutation of the rectifier diodes on the
secondary side. The design conditions for achieving
ZVS will be discussed later. However, it is obvious
that operation at series resonance produces only a
single point of operation. To cover both input and
output variations, the switching frequency will
have to be adjusted away from resonance.

Cr

Cr

Lr
I m Ios

Ir

Ir

+
Vsq

Vso

Lm

RL

Vge

Vsq

Lr

Lm

Re

Im

I oe

+
Voe

Vso

a. Nonlinear nonsinusoidal circuit.

b. Linear sinusoidal circuit.

Topic 3

Fig. 5. Model of LLC resonant half-bridge converter.

Traditional Modeling Methods Do Not Work Well
To develop a transfer function, all variables
should be defined by equations governed by the
LLC converter topology shown in Fig. 5a. These
equations are then solved to get the transfer
function. Conventional methods such as statespace averaging have been successfully used in
modeling pulse-width-modulated switching
converters, but from a practical viewpoint they
have proved unsuccessful with resonant converters,
forcing designers to seek different approaches.

The FHA method can be used to develop the

gain, or the input-to-output voltage-transfer
function. The first steps in this process are as
follows:
Represent the primary-input unipolar squarewave voltage and current with their fundamental
components, ignoring all higher-order
harmonics.
Ignore the effect from the output capacitor and
the transformers secondary-side leakage
inductance.
Refer the obtained secondary-side variables to
the primary side.
Represent the referred secondary voltage, which
is the bipolar square-wave voltage (Vso), and the
referred secondary current with only their
fundamental components, again ignoring all
higher-order harmonics.

Modeling with Approximations

As already mentioned, the LLC converter is
operated in the vicinity of series resonance. This
means that the main composite of circulating
current in the resonant network is at or close to the
series resonant frequency. This provides a hint that
the circulating current consists mainly of a single
frequency and is a pure sinusoidal current.
Although this assumption is not completely
accurate, it is closeespecially when the square
waves switching cycle corresponds to the series
resonant frequency. But what about the errors?
If the square wave is different from the series
resonance, then in reality more frequency
components are included; but an approximation
using the single fundamental harmonic of the
square wave can be made while ignoring all higherorder harmonics and setting possible accuracy
issues aside for the moment. This is the so-called
first harmonic approximation (FHA) method, now
widely used for resonant-converter design. This
method produces acceptable design results as long
as the converter operates at or close to the series
resonance.
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With these steps accomplished, a circuit model

of the LLC resonant half-bridge converter in Fig.
5a can be obtained (Fig. 5b). In Fig. 5b, Vge is the
fundamental component of Vsq , and Voe is the fundamental component of Vso . Thus, the nonlinear
and nonsinusoidal circuit in Fig. 5a is approximately transformed into the linear circuit of Fig.
5b, where the AC resonant circuit is excited by an
effective sinusoidal input source and drives an
equivalent resistive load. In this circuit model,
both input voltage Vge and output voltage Voe are
in sinusoidal form with the same single frequency
i.e., the fundamental component of the squarewave voltage (Vsq), generated by the switching
operation of Q1 and Q2.
This model is called the resonant converters
FHA circuit model. It forms the basis for the
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which can be simplified as

design example presented in this topic. The

voltage-transfer function, or the voltage gain, is
also derived from this model, and the next section
will show how. Before that, however, the electrical
variables and their relationships as used in Fig. 5b
need to be obtained.

The capacitive and inductive reactances of Cr, Lr,

and Lm, respectively, are
X Cr =

Relationship of Electrical Variables

On the input side, the fundamental voltage of
the square-wave voltage (Vsq) is
2
VDC sin(2fsw t),

2
VDC .

Im =

(3)

(4)

2
I r = I 2m + Ioe
.

4
n Vo sin(2fsw t V ), (5)

2 2
n Vo .

Naturally, the relationship between the input

voltage and output voltage can be described by
their ratio or gain:

(6)

M g _DC =

1
Io .
n
2 2

(7)

M g _DC M g _ sw =

(8)

Voe 8 n 2 Vo 8 n 2
= 2
= 2 RL.
Ioe
Io

(9)

M g _DC =

Since the circuit in Fig. 5b is a single-frequency,

sinusoidal AC circuit, the calculations can be
made in the same way as for all sinusoidal circuits.
The angular frequency is
sw = 2fsw ,

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(15)

Vso
Vsq

(16)

The AC voltage ratio, Mg_AC, can be approximated by using the fundamental components, Vge
and Voe, to respectively replace Vsq and Vso in
Equation (16):

Then the AC equivalent load resistance, Re, can be

calculated as
Re =

n Vo
n Vo
=
Vin / 2
VDC / 2

As described earlier, the DC input voltage and

output voltage are converted into switching mode,
and then Equation (15) can be approximated as the
ratio of the bipolar square-wave voltage (Vso) to
the unipolar square-wave voltage (Vsq):

where i is the phase angle between ioe and voe,

and the RMS output current is
Ioe =

(14)

D. Voltage-Gain Function

The fundamental component of current corresponding to Voe and Ioe is

1
ioe (t) = Io sin(2fsw t i ),
2 n

(13)

With the relationships of the electrical variables

established, the next step is to develop the voltagegain function.

where V is the phase angle between Voe and Vge,

and the RMS output voltage is
Voe =

Voe
2 2 n Vo
.
=

L m

L m

The circulating current in the series resonant

circuit is

On the output side, since Vso is approximated as a

square wave, the fundamental voltage is
voe (t) =

(12)

The RMS magnetizing current is

and its RMS value is

Vge =

1
, X Lr = L r , and X Lm = L m .
C r

n Vo
M g _ sw
Vin /2

V
V
= so M g _ AC = oe
Vsq
Vge

(17)

(10)

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Topic 3

vge (t) =

(11)

= sw = 2fsw .

Further, to combine two inductances into one, an

inductance ratio can be defined as

To simplify notation, Mg will be used here in

place of Mg _AC. From Fig. 5b, the relationship
between Voe and Vge can be expressed with the
electrical parameters Lr, Lm, Cr, and Re. Then the
input-to-output voltage-gain or voltage-transfer
function becomes
Mg =

Ln =

Qe =

(18)
( jL m ) || R e

Topic 3

( jL m ) || R e + jL r +

1
j C r

Mg =

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L n f n2
[(L n + 1) f n2 1] + j[(f n2 1) f n Qe L n ]

. (23)

1 V
1 V
Vo = M g in = M g (f n , L n ,Qe ) DC , (24)
n 2
n
2
where Vin = VDC.

(19)

Behavior of the Voltage-Gain Function

The voltage-gain function expressed by Equation
(23) and the circuit model in Fig. 5b form the basis
for the design method described in this topic;
therefore it is necessary to understand how Mg
behaves as a function of the three factors fn, Ln,
and Qe. In the gain function, frequency fn is the
control variable. Ln and Qe are dummy variables,
since they are fixed after their physical parameters
are determined. Mg is adjusted by fn after a design
is complete. As such, a good way to explain how
the gain function behaves is to plot Mg with
respect to fn at given conditions from a family of
values for Ln and Qe.

Normalized Format of Voltage-Gain Function

The voltage-gain function described by
Equation (18) is expressed in a format with
absolute values. It is difficult to give a general
description of design issues with such a format. It
would be better to express it in a normalized
format. To do this, the series resonant frequency
(f0) can be selected as the base for normalization.
Then the normalized frequency is expressed as
fsw
.
f0

(22)

The relationship between input and output voltages

can also be obtained from Equation (23):

In other words, output voltage can be determined

after Mg, n, and Vin are known.

fn =

L r /Cr
.
Re

Notice that fn, Ln, and Qe are no-unit variables.

With the help of these definitions, the voltagegain function can then be normalized and
expressed as

where j = 1.
Equation (18) depicts a connection from the
input voltage (Vin) to the output voltage (Vo)
established in relation to Mg with LLC-circuit
parameters. Although this expression is only
approximately correct, in practice it is close
enough to the vicinity of series resonance.
Accepting the approximation as accurate allows
Equation (19) to be written:
1 V
Vo = M g in .
n 2

(21)

The quality factor of the series resonant circuit is

defined as

jX Lm || R e
Voe
=
Vge ( jX Lm || R e ) + j(X Lr X Cr )

Lm
.
Lr

(20)

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2
Q e = 0.1
Q e = 0.2
Q e = 0.5
Q e = 0.8
Qe = 1
Qe = 2
Qe = 5
Qe = 8
Q e = 10
2 = 0

1.6

1.2
1

1.6
1.4
Q e = 0.5

1
0.8

0.8
Q e = 0.1

0.6

Q e = 0.1

0.6
0.4

0.4
0.2
0
0.1

1.2

0.2

Q e = 0.5

1 Q e = 10
Normalized Frequency, fn

Q e = 0.5

0
0.1

10

1 Q e = 10
Normalized Frequency, fn

b. Ln = 5.

a. Ln = 1.
2

2
Q e = 0.1
Q e = 0.2
Q e = 0.5
Q e = 0.8
Qe = 1
Qe = 2
Qe = 5
Qe = 8
Q e = 10
2 = 0

Q e = 0.1
1.6

Gain, Mg

1.4
1.2
Q e = 0.5

Q e = 0.1
Q e = 0.2
Q e = 0.5
Q e = 0.8
Qe = 1
Qe = 2
Qe = 5
Qe = 8
Q e = 10
2 = 0

1.8
Q e = 0.1
1.6
1.4

Gain, Mg

1.8

1
0.8

1.2
1
Q e = 0.5

0.8
Q e = 0.1

Q e = 0.1
0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4
Q e = 0.5

Q e = 0.5

0.2
0
0.1

10

Topic 3

Gain, Mg

1.4

Q e = 0.1
Q e = 0.2
Q e = 0.5
Q e = 0.8
Qe = 1
Qe = 2
Qe = 5
Qe = 8
Q e = 10
2 = 0

1.8

Gain, Mg

1.8

0.2

1 Q e = 10
Normalized Frequency, fn

0
0.1

10

c. Ln = 10.

1 Q e = 10
Normalized Frequency, fn

10

d. Ln = 20.

Fig. 6. Plots of voltage-gain function (Mg) with different values of Ln.

Figs. 6a to 6d illustrate several possible
relationships. Each plot is defined by a fixed value
for Ln (Ln = 1, 5, 10, or 20) and shows a family of
curves with nine values, from 0.1 to 10, for the
variable Qe. From these plots, several observations
can be made.
The value of Mg is not less than zero. This is
obvious since Mg is from the modulus operator,
which depicts a complex expression containing
both real and imaginary numbers. These numbers

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represent both magnitude and phase angle, but

only the magnitude is useful in this case.
Within a given Ln and Qe, Mg presents a
convex curve shape in the vicinity of the circuits
resonant frequency. This is a typical curve that
shows the shape of the gain from a resonant
converter. The normalized frequency corresponding to the resonant peak (fn_c0, or fsw = fc0) is
moving with respect to a change in load and thus
to a change in Qe for a given Ln.

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Topic 3

effect of Lm and shift fc0 towards f0. As a simple

illustration, it is helpful to examine two extremes:
1. If RL is open, then Qe = 0, and fc0 = fp as
described by Equation (2). fc0 sits to the far left
of f0, and the corresponding gain peak is very
high and can be infinite in theory.
2. If RL is shorted, then Qe = and Lm is completely bypassed or shorted, making the effect
of Lm on the gain disappear. The corresponding
peak gain value from the Lm effect then
becomes zero, and fc0 moves all the way to the
right, overlapping f0.
Therefore, if RL changes from infinite to zero,
the resonant peak gain changes from infinite to
unity, and the corresponding frequency at peak
resonance (fc0) moves from fp to the series
resonant frequency (f0).

Changing Ln and Qe will reshape the Mg curve

and make it different with respect to fn. As Qe is a
function of load described by Equations (9) and
(22), Mg presents a family of curves relating
frequency modulation to variations in load.
Regardless of which combination of Ln and Qe
is used, all curves converge and go through the
point of (fn, Mg) = (1, 1). This point is at fn = 1, or
fsw = f0 from Equation (20). By definition of series
resonance, XLr XCr = 0 at f0. In other words, the
voltage drop across Lr and Cr is zero, so that the
input voltage is applied directly to the output load,
resulting in a unity voltage gain of Mg = 1.
Notice that the operating point (fn, Mg) = (1, 1)
is independent of the load; i.e., as long as the gain
(Mg) can be kept as unity, the switching frequency
will be at the series resonant frequency (f0) no
matter what the load current is. In other words, in
a design whose operating point is at (fn, Mg) =
(1, 1) or its vicinity, the frequency variation is
narrowed down to minimal. At (fn, Mg) = (1, 1),
the impedance of the series resonant circuit is
zero, assuming there are no parasitic power losses.
The entire input voltage is then applied to the
output load no matter how much the load current
varies. However, away from (fn, Mg) = (1, 1), the
impedance of the series resonant circuit becomes
nonzero, the voltage gain changes with different
load impedances, and the corresponding operation
becomes load-dependent.
For a fixed Ln, increasing Qe shrinks the curve,
resulting in a narrower frequency-control band,
which is expected since Qe is the quality factor of
the series resonant circuit. In addition, as the
whole curve shifts lower, the corresponding peak
value of Mg becomes smaller, and the fn
corresponding to that value moves towards the
right and closer to fn = 1. This frequency shift with
increasing Qe is due to an increased load. It is
apparent from reviewing Equations (9) and (22)
that an increase in Qe may come from a reduction
in RL, as both Lm and Lr are fixed. For the same
series resonant frequency, Cr is fixed as well. RL is
in parallel with Lm, so reducing RL will reduce the

Texas Instruments

For a fixed Qe, a decrease in Ln shrinks the

curve; the whole curve is squeezed, and fc0 moves
towards f0. This results in a better frequencycontrol band with a higher peak gain. There are
two reasons for this. First, as Ln decreases due to
the decrease in Lm, fp gets closer to f0, which
squeezes the curves from fp to f0. Second, a
decreased Ln increases Lr, resulting in a higher Qe.
A higher Qe shrinks the curve as just described.
At first glance, it appears that any combination
of Ln and Qe would work for a converter design
and that the design could be made with fn operating
on either side of fn = 1. However, as explained in
the following section, there are many more
considerations.

III. desIgn consIderAtIons

As discussed earlier, fn is the control variable
in frequency modulation. Therefore the output
voltage can be regulated by Mg through controlling
fn , as indicated by Fig. 6 and Equation (24), which
can be rearranged as
1 V
Vo = M g (f n , L n , Qe ) in .
n 2

3-10
10

(25)

SLUP263

Although this discussion has so far determined

that the design should operate in the vicinity of the
series resonance, or near fn = 1, it is recommended
that the optimum design be restricted to the area
described by a1 through a4 in Fig. 7, for reasons to
be explained.

2
1.8
Qe = 0
1.6
Mg_max
1.4

Gain, Mg

A. What Does In the Vicinity Mean?

a0
1
Mg_min
a1

Curve 1
a4

Cu

0.6

(Qe = 0)

rv

e
2

0.4

(Q

Cu

rve

=m

ax)

0.2

Curv

e4

fn_min

10

fn_max

Normalized Frequency, fn

a. In the vicinity of series resonance (near fn = 1).

1.6
Qe = 0
n x Vo_max
Mg_max =
Vin_min /2

1.4
a3

a2

1.2
Q e = max
a0
1

n x Vo_min
Mg_min =
Vin_max /2

0.8

a1
a4

0.6

Qe = 0
1
Q e = max
fn_min
Normalized Frequency, fn

fn_max

b. Operation boundary set by a1 through a4.

Fig. 7. Recommended design area.
voltage variation over a specified range, at a given
output load current.
Load regulation is defined as the maximum
output-voltage variation caused by a change in
load over a stated range, usually from no load to
maximum.
These two types of regulation are actually achieved
through the voltage-gain adjustmentand in an
LLC converter, the gain adjustment is made
through frequency modulation. The recommended
area of operation described in Fig. 7 shows a

For a typical design of a power-supply

converter, as is well-known, three basic requirements are almost always considered firstline
regulation, load regulation, and efficiency.
Line regulation is defined as the maximum
output-voltage variation caused by an input3-11
11

SLUP263

Topic 3

0
0.1

B. Basic Design Requirements

Texas Instruments

1.2

0.8

Gain, Mg

Obviously, in the vicinity is a loose designation; but, as stated before in the discussion of the
FHA concept, if a pure sinusoidal current flowing
through the resonant circuit is assumed, and if the
circuit is made to operate at the exact location of
f0, then the design result is accurate. This can also
be verified easily by a bench test or a computer
simulation, but so far there is no verification in
theory. A potential insight into such verification
can be made through Equation (19). Assigning a
value of 1 to Mg in Equation (19) as an indication
of operation at fn = 1 will remove the approximations made to Equation (17). A precise relationship
is then achieved between the DC input and DC
output as described by Equation (15).
A design that operates only at f0 certainly
cannot be made, but when it includes operating
frequencies away from f0, it starts to show errors
when compared with bench-test measurements. So
the common understanding in an FHA design
approach is that it can help to create an initial
design, with all design variables retaining their
clear physical concepts and meanings, which is
important in order for designers to understand the
behavior of the LLC converter. However, it should
be expected that some bench testing to optimize
and finalize the design may be necessary. This
could be an iterative process, but computer-based
circuit simulation will save iteration cycles. As a
matter of fact, computer simulation plays an
important role in LLC-converter design after an
initial design is made with the FHA approach.

a2

a3

relatively steep slope for the gain, which can

narrow the range of the frequency modulation. As
such, a design has to make the gain adequately
adjustable in a range that meets the required
regulating specifications.

Topic 3

Efficiency is one big benefit of using an LLC

converter. The converters switching losses can be
reduced significantly by ensuring that primaryside ZVS is maintained over the whole operating
range. As will be explained, ZVS cannot be
achieved everywhere in the gain-plot area, but
keeping the design within the recommended region
will ensure ZVS.
Line Regulation
Achieving line regulation for the design of a
power-supply converter can be based on Equation
(25) and the recommended design areas in Fig. 7.
A minimum and maximum output voltage, Vo_min
and Vo_max, respectively, will be assumed. To
simplify the discussion, it will also be assumed
that all parasitic voltage dropsfor example, from
PCB traces, the MOSFETs Rds_on, the diodes
forward voltage, etc.are already converted or
lumped into a part of the output-voltage range. It
will also be assumed that the design requires a
maximum switching-frequency range; i.e., that it
is limited within fn_min fn fn_max. In reality, the
frequency limits may need adjustment in order to
adapt the line- and load-regulation requirements,
or vice versa.
With these conditions and assumptions, to
achieve line regulation (and load regulation as
discussed later), Mg should be designed to meet
the conditions described by Equation (26), which
says that all possible Mg values must contain the
value of both Mg _min and Mg _max within the fn
limits. For Io = 0,
{M g M g > M g _ } {M g _ min , M g _ max },

(26a)

and for Io > 0,

{M g M g 0} {M g _ min , M g _ max },

(26b)

where
M g _ min =

Texas Instruments

n Vo _ min
,
Vin _ max /2

(27)

3-12
12

M g _ max =

n Vo _ max
,
Vin _ min /2

(28)

and
Mg _ =

Ln
.
Ln + 1

(29)

Mg_ is a special value of Mg that presents the

gain value at no load when fn is approaching
infinity. In other words, at no load, the gain curve
(Mg) is approaching an asymptotic horizontal line
with its value described by Equation (29), which
can be easily obtained from Equation (23) when
the value of fn approaches infinity.
Mg_min and Mg_max each form a horizontal
line in Fig. 7. For the no-load condition (Io = 0),
the quality factor (Qe) equals zero, shown in Fig.
7a as Curve 1. Since the gain curves are determined by Ln and Qe, and Qe = 0, Ln is the sole
design factor at this stage. As such, a value for Ln
needs to be selected that will provide a gain curve
that meets the conditions of Equation (26). In
other words, the value of Ln needs to make Curve
1 cross over the two horizontal lines defined by
Equations (27) and (28) inside the frequency
limits. This is depicted in Fig. 7 by design points
a1 and a2.
Similarly, if the load condition is not zero (Io >
0), then an appropriate curve can be selected by
making Qe correspond to the required maximum
load and following the same process.
Load Regulation
Normal Load Operation
As illustrated in Fig. 7, the gain presents a
family of curves. For a fixed Ln, each value for Qe
generates a different gain curve. A bigger Qe
makes the gain curve shift lower with a lower
peak. As such, when load current increases, the
gain curve moves away from its no-load shape
(Curve 1) to a lower representation. In Fig. 7,
Curve 2 corresponds to the maximum load current
(Qe = max) while still meeting the conditions of
Equation (26) with the same Ln. This yields design
points a3 and a4 in the recommended design area.
If the load is increased further, Curve 2 will be
reshaped towards Curve 3. Horizontal line Mg_max
will not be able to cross over with the gain curve,

SLUP263

that a zero gain transfers a zero percentage of

input voltage to the load short circuit. In this way,
the converter can be protected from a load shortcircuit fault.
However, it is worth noting that the effectiveness of such a protection method depends on
how quickly the short-circuit signal can be sent to
the controller to activate the frequency increase. In
the recommended design area, the gain will
inevitably be forced to the left side of the resonant
peak for some time until it eventually reaches
Curve 4. This could cause several severe issues,
including the possibility of a polarity reversal of
the feedback control. Considering this, an independent overcurrent shutdown may be a preferable
solution. However, if a frequency increase is still
preferred, two other possible solutions are recommended. Either (1) add a separate high-speed
control loop to rapidly initiate the frequency shift,
or (2) shift the recommended design area to where
the minimum switching frequency (fn_min) is never
less than the series resonant frequency (f0)i.e.,
to where fn_min 1.

Overload Current
In the example, the recommended design area
in Fig. 7 includes an overload because Qe_max was
defined to include a value for it. As stated earlier,
any further increase in load causes Curve 2 to
move towards Curve 3 or beyond, which places
the design outside of the design area and towards
the condition of a short circuit.
Load Short Circuit
Since a load short circuit causes a potentially
excessive amount of current in the converter
circuit, it is necessary to examine the gain plot of a
load short circuit to know what happens and how
to deal with it. The corresponding gain plot is
shown by Curve 4 in Fig. 7a. fc0 will become f0
when Lm is bypassed by a load short circuit, and
this defines Curve 4 as the gain shape with a
shorted output.
Curve 4 provides insight into possible solutions
for protecting the LLC converter. One possibility
is to increase the switching frequency to reduce
the gain. Based on Figs. 6 and 7, if the switching
frequency is increased to more than two times the
series resonant frequency (f0), the gain will be
reduced to below 10%. If the frequency can be
pulled up to ten times f0, the gain becomes
practically zero. From Equation (25) it can be seen

Texas Instruments

Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS)

A major benefit of the LLC converter topology
is its potential for significantly reduced switching
losses, primarily achieved through primary-side
ZVS; however, as stated earlier, it is ZVS considerations that drive the recommended design area
to be only on the right side of the resonant gain
curves in Fig. 7. This section discusses how ZVS
is achieved and why it affects the design area.
Achieving ZVS
To achieve ZVS, a MOSFET is turned on only
after its source voltage, Vds, has been reduced to
zero by external means. One way of ensuring this

3-13
13

SLUP263

Topic 3

so the conditions of Equation (26) cannot be met.

Output-voltage regulation is then lost. When this
happens, a design modification will be needed,
such as adjusting Ln or the switching-frequency
limits to reshape the gain curve.
Since Qe is associated with the load current, it
is appropriate to extend this discussion to include
the possibility of overload and short-circuit
conditions.

where the input impedance, Zin (shown in Fig. 9a),

can be inductive, making the circuits Ir lag behind
its Vge.
Zin can be expressed in its polar form:
Zin = Zin e jz,

(30a)

where z is the phase angle between Ir and Vge.

From Equation (30a), it is apparent that Zin varies
in relation to z (/2 z /2):
When z > 0, the impedance is inductive.
When z < 0, the impedance is capacitive.
When z = 0, the impedance is resistive.
The z angle is a function of frequency, or
switching frequency in this case. As such, a
frequency boundary formed by the locus of the
resonant peaks corresponds to z = 0 and is the
dividing line between the capacitive and inductive
regions (see Fig. 9b). Therefore, ZVS can be
Vr

+
Cr

Lr

Ir

+
Vg
Vin

Lm

Ir
+
Vds_Q2

Q2

n:1:1

Lr

Ids_Q1

Vsq

Vg

Vge

+
Vds_Q1

Q1

Ids_Q2

Lm

Re

Im

I oe

+
Voe

Z in

Im

a. Input impedance.

Cr

a. LLC resonant circuit.

2
Qe = 0
Q e = 0.2
Q e = 0.8
Qe = 1
Qe = 2
Q e = 10

Qe = 0

1.8
1.6

Vg_Q1
1.4

Capacitive
Region

Q1 Turns Off
Vg_Q2

Gain, Mg

Topic 3

is to force a reversal of the current flowing through

the MOSFETs body diode while a gate-drive
turn-on signal is applied (see Fig. 8).
As shown in Fig. 8, when Q1 turns off at t1,
the Q2 gates turn-on drive signal is not applied
until t2, such that there exists a dead time, tdead,
from t1 to t2. During tdead, the current in the resonant circuit (Ir) is diverted from Q1 to Q2, first
discharging Q2s drain-to-source capacitance, Cds,
to make its voltage zero, and then forward biasing
Q2s body diode. At t2, conduction through the Q2
body diode maintains zero Vds_Q2 (ignoring the Q2
body diodes forward-voltage drop) until the Q2
gates turn-on drive signal is applied. So the critical
condition is when Q1 turns off. A nonzero current
(Ir) should still continue in its same direction as
when Q1 was on, normally accomplished by external circuit inductance. And, of course, the same
conditions are necessary for a Q1 ZVS turn-on.
Since there is inductive impedance, the circuits
current lags behind its applied voltage. To achieve
ZVS, the designer must determine the conditions

Q2 Turns On

Vsq

Vds_Q2 = 0

Inductive
Region

1.2
1

Qe = 0
0.8

0
0.6

Ir
Im

Q2: Cds Discharge,

Body Diode
Turns On

0.4
Q e = 10

0
0.2

tdead
t0

0
0.1

t1 t2
time, t

t3 t4

10

b. Gain regions.

b. ZVS timing waveform.

Fig. 9. LLC resonant circuit.

Fig. 8. ZVS operation.

Texas Instruments

Frequency
Boundary
Normalized Frequency, fn
1

3-14
14

SLUP263

Vg_Q1
Q1

Vg
Vin

Vg_Q2
Cds

Vsq
Q2

Vg

n:1:1

Lr
Ir
Cds

Im

Vin

Vds_Q2 = 0

I m_max

0
Q2: Cds Discharge,
Body Diode
Turns On

Ir

Cr

a. LLC resonant circuit showing

parasitic capacitance.

Q2 Turns On

Vsq

Ceq

Lm

Q1 Turns Off

Im

Ceq
0

Cr
(Short)

b. Equivalent circuit.

tdead
t0

t1 t2
time, t

t3 t4

Fig. 10. Obtaining sufficient inductive energy for ZVS.

achieved only when the converters input phase
angle is greater than zero:
z = ( Zin e jz ) > 0

(30b)

All resonant peaks corresponding to fc0 are in

the capacitive region, although the boundary line
is very close to the peaks. To distinguish resonant
peaks from the gain values on the resonant boundary, the gain values on the frequency boundary are
defined as attainable peak-gain values, denoted as
Mg _ap. Practically, though, Mg _ap is usually very
close to Mg _peak, where
M g _ peak = M g

f = f c0

(31)

and fc0 is the frequency when the maximum value

of Mg is achieved from Equation (18) or (23)
during a frequency sweep from zero to infinity
with a given Lm, Lr, Cr, and Re.
From Fig. 7, it is clear that the recommended
operating area, a1 through a4, is in the inductive
region; so the design example should achieve
ZVS. Although this is true, it is worth pointing out
that the recommendation is only a condition
necessary to ensure ZVS. There must also be
sufficient inductive energy for the converter to
operate with ZVS.

Texas Instruments

3-15
15

Ensuring Sufficient Inductive Energy

To realize sufficient inductive energy for ZVS,
it is necessary to understand how ZVS is achieved
in the inductive region. Fig. 10 can be used to
describe the ZVS mechanism. During the deadtime interval between t1 and t2 (tdead), the resonant
circuits current (Ir) equals the magnetizing current
(Im). Im is by nature sinusoidal. In tdead, Im is
circulating through the capacitances (Cds) of Q1
and Q2 before Q2s body diode begins to conduct.
In tdead, the magnetic-field energy associated with
Im converts into the electric-field energy of the
two capacitances; i.e., it charges up the Cds of Q1
and discharges the Cds of Q2 before Q2s body
diode can turn on. Cr is much larger than Cds 2,
so any energy-conversion effect from Cr can be
ignored. An equivalent circuit in tdead can then be
derived as shown in Fig. 10b. Ceq is used since
parasitic capacitances exist in addition to Cds 2.
Hence, in order for the body diode of Q2 to be
turned on within tdead, the conditions in Equations
(32a) and (32b) must be met:
1
1
(L m + L r ) I 2m _ peak (2Ceq ) Vin2
2
2

(32a)

t dead 16 Ceq fsw L m

(32b)

SLUP263

Topic 3

c. ZVS timing waveform.

Topic 3

C. Selecting Design Parameters fsw, n, Ln,

and Qe

With a better understanding of the gain behavior,

it is now possible to move ahead and create the
design. Thus far, all discussion has been based on
knowing the values of fsw, n, Ln, and Qe and their
potential effect on circuit operation; but, at the
beginning of a design, nothing is known about
these variables, so where does the designer start?

Selecting the Switching Frequency (fsw)

Acceptable switching frequency is usually
defined for particular applications. For example,
most off-line AC/DC applications require a
switching frequency below 150 kHz for normal
operation, and usually between 100 and 150 kHz
as a rule of thumb. This is usually because conduction EMI testing starts at 150 kHz. Maintaining the switching frequency below the EMI tests
lower boundary helps the application to pass the
test. Therefore, circuit components corresponding
to such a frequency range are usually welldeveloped, more available, and less expensive.
If a different frequency range is required for
unique applications, there are several factors that
Texas Instruments

3-16
16

1.5

Gain, Mg

Why the Capacitive Region Is Not Used

As already discussed, ZVS cannot be achieved
in the capacitive region; and, without it, switching
losses become high and the efficiency benefit of
using an LLC converter is lost. Several additional
issues arise if operation is allowed in the capacitive
region:
This region yields hard switching on the primary
side, since ZVS is lost.
Because of hard switching and a capacitive
current, the primary-side MOSFETs body diodes
present reverse-recovery losses, and these diodes
are usually of a type with slow reverse recovery.
The slow reverse recovery may allow severe
shoot-through of the two primary MOSFETs,
resulting in high current and causing the
MOSFETs to fail.
Even if the MOSFETs can be selected to tolerate
shoot-through current caused by power dissipation from the reverse recovery, high current spikes
are still present, leading to high EMI noise.
The frequency relationship is reversed, which
changes the feedback control to positive.

1
With C w

0.5

Without C w

fCw
0
0.1

1
Normalized Frequency, fn

10

Fig. 11. Effect of transformer windings parasitic

capacitance (Cw ) on gain function at high
frequency.
may need consideration. As is well-known, the
lower the switching frequency is, the bulkier the
converter, and the less important switching losses
and ZVS efficiency become. Conduction losses
become dominant, making the LLC converter less
attractive. A higher switching frequency makes the
benefits of the LLC converter more pronounced,
particularly in comparison with hard-switched
converters. If the switching frequency is very
high, additional factors may have to be considered,
such as component availability and the associated
additional cost; additional board-layout concerns;
and additional switching losses despite MOSFET
ZVS, such as magnetic-core losses. Also, the
parasitic capacitance, Cw , of the transformer
windings may begin to change the nature of the
resonant gain curves, as shown in Fig. 11.
Selecting the Transformer Turns Ratio (n)
As shown in Fig. 7, the gain magnitude in the
recommended design area can be greater or smaller
than unity. This provides flexibility in selecting
the transformer turns ratio. Initially the gain can
be set at unity (Mg = 1) for the output voltage at its
middle value between Vo_min and Vo_max. This
middle value can be called the output voltages
nominal value, Vo_nom , although the middle value
may not necessarily always be the nominal value.
Similarly, the input voltages nominal value can be
called Vin_nom . Then the transformer turns ratio
SLUP263

may be initially designed based on Equation (25):

Selecting Ln and Qe
Recall that in order to achieve line and load
regulation across the operation range, the design
must meet the conditions of Equation (26), which
defines two horizontal lines crossing over two
gain curves within frequency limits. Designing
circuit parameters to select Ln and Qe values that
satisfy Equation (26) will be discussed next.
How Are the Proper Ln and Qe Selected?
First, recall the discussion on Fig. 7. The most
critical point for normal operation is the point a3.
This point corresponds to Qe_max, determined by
the maximum load current. This point should be
designed to avoid operation that would enter the
capacitive region. Since a required maximum gain
(Mg _max) can be determined from Equation (28),
Mg _max can be plotted to the gain curves to obtain
point a3 by finding the cross point between the
Mg _max line and the gain curves. Because the gain
curves are dependent on Ln and Qe, several gain
curves may need to be drawn to find a proper point
a3. This is certainly one way to make the initial
selection of Ln and Qe, but it is a difficult way and
most likely will require some wild guess.
A more desirable approach is to create a
common tool to represent the gain curves that can
be shared and reused by different designs. Since
the attainable peak gain (Mg _ap) corresponding to
Qe_max is the highest gain of concern for a design,
gain-curve plots can be created beforehand to show
Mg _ap with different values of Ln and Qe . Then Ln
and Qe can be selected to achieve Mg _ap > Mg_max
based on a common toolthe Mg _ap curves. How
this method is used will be described after a
discussion of how the Mg _ap curves are obtained.
How Are the Mg _ap Curves Obtained?
The created Mg_ap curves are shown in Fig. 12a.
The horizontal axis is Qe and the vertical axis is
Mg _ap with respect to a family of fixed values for
Ln. Fig. 12b is used to illustrate how Fig. 12a is
formed.

Texas Instruments

3-17
17

2.6
Ln = 3.0
2.4
Ln = 3.5 by
Interpolation
Mg_ap = 1.56
Qe = 0.45

2.2
2.0
1.8

Ln = 1.5
1.6
Ln = 5
Mg_ap = 1.2
Qe = 0.5

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.15

0.35

0.55
0.75
0.95
Quality Factor, Q e

1.15

Topic 3

Mg = 1

Ln = 1.5
Ln = 2.0
Ln = 3.0
Ln = 4.0
Ln = 5.0
Ln = 6.0
Ln = 8.0
Ln = 9.0

2.8

a. Peak-gain curves.

1.8

1.6
Ln = 5
Mg_ap = 1.2
Qe = 0.5

1.4

1.2

1.0
0.15

0.35
0.55
Quality Factor, Q e

0.75

1.4
1.2

Qe = 0.5
Ln = 5
Mg_max = 1.2

1
Gain, Mg

(33)

Attainable Peak Gain, Mg_ap

Vin / 2 Vin _ nom / 2

=
Vo
Vo_ nom

Attainable Peak Gain, Mg_ap

n = Mg

3.0

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.1

1
Normalized Frequency, fn

b. Obtaining peak-gain curves.

Fig. 12. Using peak-gain curves in a design.

SLUP263

Topic 3

From a plot of gain curves, for example from

Fig. 6b, which is partially copied to the lower half
of Fig. 12b, one attainable peak-gain value, Mg_ap
= 1.2, can be located at the curve with (Ln, Qe) =
(5, 0.5). This point can be plotted to Fig. 12a at
(Mg _ap, Qe) = (1.2, 0.5). (Note that Ln = 5 at this
point.) Because all curves in Fig. 6b have a fixed
Ln = 5, that figure can be used to repeat the process
with different Qe values. Then a peak-gain curve
can be formed as a function of Qe with a fixed Ln
= 5, shown in Fig. 12a. The process can be repeated
for different Ln values of interest, producing the
results in Fig. 12a.
How Are Mg _ap Curves Used in a Design?
With Mg _max already determined for a particular design from Equation (28), Mg _max can be
plotted as a horizontal line on Fig. 12a. Any Mg_ap
values above this line are greater than Mg_max , so
the designed converter should operate in the
inductive region. For example, for Mg_max = 1.2, any
values of Mg _ap can be selected that are greater
than 1.2, as shown in Fig. 12a. Then the selected
value meets the maximum-gain requirement.
From the selected Mg _ap value, Ln and Qe values
can then be selected. For example, selecting a
value from the curve of Ln = 5 provides the Ln
value right away. Since a gain value greater than
Mg _max needs to be selected, Qe would have to be
less than 0.5, based on Fig. 12a. Similarly, a
smaller Ln provides more gain and Ln can be
selected by interpolating as shown in Fig. 12a. For
example, if a value of 0.45 is selected for Qe, the
corresponding Mg _ap value with Ln = 3.5 would be
1.56 > Mg _max = 1.2, which satisfies the design
requirements.
What Ln and Qe Values Are Best if They Are All
Greater than Mg _max?
Different applications may require the selection
of unique values for Ln and Qe to achieve an

Texas Instruments

3-18
18

optimal design. However, LLC converters have

some things in common that can be used to guide
the selection:
A smaller Ln can make the peak gain higher for a
fixed Qe, keeping the designs operation out of
the capacitive region. Since Ln is a ratio of the
magnetizing inductance (Lm) to the series resonant inductance (Lr), a smaller Ln usually results
from a smaller Lm, and vice versa. Equation (13)
indicates that a smaller Lm will introduce higher
magnetizing current. This can help ZVS but will
increase conduction losses.
A smaller Qe makes the peak gain higher while
associated gain curves have a larger frequency
variation for a given gain adjustment. A large Qe
results in a very low peak gain, which may not
meet the design requirements.
With these considerations in mind and from
design practice, a good start is to select a value
for Ln around 5 and for Qe around 0.5 so that the
corresponding gain curves will be neither too
flat nor too steep.
Reiteration is usually needed after an initial
selection.

D. Peak-Gain Curves from a Bench Test

The attainable peak-gain curves shown in Fig.

12a were made from the gain function described
by Equation (23), but Equation (23) was developed
with approximations. These approximations allow
errors in the peak-gain curves, causing accuracy
concerns. To test the accuracy, a comparison was
made between the gain function of Equation (23)
and a bench test with a 135-kHz series resonant
frequency. The peak-gain values were found to
differ from those shown in Fig. 12a and from the
gain curves shown in Fig. 6.

SLUP263

obvious that this can be done by selecting proper

values for Ln and Qe. After Ln and Qe are
obtained, the resonant circuits parameters (Cr,
Lr, and Lm) can be calculated based on Equations
(22), (1), and (21), respectively:
Cr =

(34)
fsw = f 0

2.0
(65, 1.90)

Bench Test
Measurements
(80, 1.58)
Plot Based on
Equation 18

(60, 1.57)
1.4
(55, 1.27)

Topic 3

(100, 1.21)
(135, 0.99)
(170, 0.87)

(40, 0.70)

(200, 0.78)
(240, 0.72)

0.6
(400, 0.56)

(30, 0.51)

f0 = 135 kHz
0.0
10

The design procedure that has been described

can be summarized as follows:
First, terminal voltages Vo_min and Vin_max, used
in Equation (27), and Vo_max and Vin_min, used in
Equation (28), must be taken from the converter
specifications.
Second, the transformer turns ratio (n) can be
obtained from Equation (33). Then the two horizontal lines represented by Mg _min and Mg_max
can be calculated. From the converters load
specifications, the load current with its
corresponding resistance (RL ) can be obtained at
any specified load condition. Then the AC
equivalent load resistance (Re ) in the FHA circuit
model can be determined from Equation (9).
Third, two proper gain curves must be found that
will cross over the two horizontal lines
represented by Mg _min and Mg _max within
selected or specified frequency limits. It is

3-19
19

100
Frequency, fsw (kHz)

1000

a. Comparison of FHA-based gain function and

bench test.
3
2.8
Attainable Peak Gain, Mg_ap

E. Resonant-Network Design Flow

Texas Instruments

1
2fsw R e Qe

Gain, Mg

The comparison results are plotted in Fig. 13a.

The solid line shows the result based on Equation
(23), and the discrete points (t) show the results
from the bench test. This comparison supports the
argument that the FHA-based gain function of
Equation (23), while diverging for frequencies
away from resonance, is accurate enough and
acceptable in the vicinity of series resonance.
One other interesting observation is that the
peak gain and attainable peak gain from the test
are much larger than those obtained from the
FHA-based gain function. Certainly this is good
for a design, as it yields more design margin
before operation enters the capacitive region. From
this viewpoint, computer-based circuit simulation
should be conducted to supplement an FHA design
if more accuracy is desired prior to hardware
implementation.
In practice, to reduce the potential effect of
inaccuracy, peak-gain curves may be regenerated
by experiment and/or by computer-based circuit
simulation to replace the curves from Equation
(23). Fig. 13b shows the peak-gain curves resulting
from the experiment. Compared to Fig. 12a, Fig.
13b presents higher gain values. For example, for
Ln = 5 and Qe = 0.5, the attainable peak gain from
Fig. 13b is Mg_ap = 1.65, versus 1.2 from Fig. 12a.

2.6
Ln = 1.5

2.4
2.2
Mg_ap = 1.65
Qe = 0.5

Ln = 2.0

1.8
1.6
Ln = 3.0
1.4
Ln = 5.0
1.2
Ln = 9.0
1
0.15
0.25

0.35
0.55
0.75
0.95
1.15
0.45
0.65
0.85
1.05
1.25
Quality Factor, Q e

b. Peak-gain curves from test.

Fig. 13. Peak-gain curves from experiment.

SLUP263

Lr =

1
(2fsw ) 2 Cr

Iv. desIgn exAmpLe

(35)

This section will demonstrate step-by-step

how to use the described method to design an LLC
resonant half-bridge converter. The design is
oriented to applications with low output voltage,
such as the ATX12 power supplies used in
computers and servers, where energy conservation
is important.

fsw = f 0

(36)

Lm = Ln Lr

The design method can also be summarized

with the flowchart shown in Fig. 14.

Converter Specifications

Vin
2Vo

3.0
Ln = 1.5
Ln = 2.0
Ln = 3.0
Ln = 4.0
Ln = 5.0
Ln = 6.0
Ln = 8.0
Ln = 9.0

Attainable Peak Gain, Mg_ap

2.6
Ln = 3.0
2.4
Ln = 3.5 by
Interpolation
Mg_ap = 1.56
Qe = 0.45

2.2
2.0

M g_min

n Vo_min
Vin_max / 2

M g_max

n Vo_max
Vin_min / 2

1.8
Ln = 1.5
1.6
Ln = 5
Mg_ap = 1.2
Qe = 0.5

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.15

0.35

0.55
0.75
0.95
Quality Factor, Qe

1.15

Magnetizing Inductance

L m Ln Lr
Resonant Inductor

Choose L n and Q e

Lr

2
(2fsw) Cr

Change L n and Q e

Resonant Capacitor

Check Mg and fn
Against Graph
No

Cr
Ln = 3.5

1.9
Qe = 0
1.7
fn_min = 0.65
1.5

Mg_max = 1.3

Q e = 0.47

Gain, Mg

Topic 3

2.8

1.3
Mg_min = 0.99
1.1

Are Values
Within
Limits?
Mg_max
Mg_min
fn_max
fn_min

1
2 fsw R eQe

Yes
Calculate R e
2
2
V2
Re 8 2n R L 8 2n o
Pout

0.9
Q e = 0.52
0.7
fn_max = 1.02
0.5
0

0.5
1
Normalized Frequency, fn

1.5

Fig. 14. Flowchart of resonant-network design.

Texas Instruments

3-20
20

SLUP263

The converters electrical specifications are as

follows:
Input voltage: 375 to 405 VDC
Rated output power: 300 W
Output voltage: 12 VDC
Rated output current: 25 A
Output-voltage line regulation (Io = 1.0 A): 1%
Output-voltage load regulation (Vin = 390 V):
1%
Output-voltage peak-to-peak ripple (Vin = 390 V
and Io = 25 A): 120 mV
Efficiency (Vin = 390 V and Io = 25 A): 90%
Switching frequency (normal operation): 70 to
150 kHz

efficiency-boosting features and high-level protection features that provide a cost-effective solution.
The step-by-step design demonstration will focus
mainly on the power stage. For those interested in
how to use and program the UCC25600, please
refer to its data sheet (Reference [1]).

B. Design Steps
1. Determine Transformer Turns Ratio (n)
The transformer turns ratio is determined by
Equation (33):

Mg = 1

From the specifications, the nominal values

for input voltage and output voltage are 390 V and
12 V, respectively, so the turns ratio can be
calculated as

A. Block Diagram of Proposed

Converter Circuit

A block diagram of the proposed circuit is

shown in Fig. 15. For clarity, some auxiliary functions are not included. For the LLC resonant-mode
controller, the UCC25600 can be a good choice.
This eight-pin device has built-in, state-of-the-art,

DT1

Vin / 2 Vin _ nom / 2

=
Vo
Vo_ nom

n=

Vin _ nom /2 (390 V)/2

=
= 16.25 16.
Vo _ nom
12 V

Q1

Lr

T1
n:1:1

Cin

Vo

Ir

Io
Lm
Q2

Co

+
RL

Cr
ID1

D1

ID2

D2

U1
8

3
GD1

OC

Vs

UCC25600
5

R o1

RT1
2

GD 2

RT

U2
7

1
VCC

DT
RT2

Cf
6

Rf1

4
GND

SS
R DT

CB

R o2

C SS

U3

Fig. 15. Proposed circuit for the design example.

Texas Instruments

3-21
21

SLUP263

Topic 3

n = Mg

2. Determine Mg _min and Mg _max

Mg _min and Mg _max can be determined by using
Equations (27) and (28), respectively:
M g _ min =
=

M g _ max

n (Vo _ min + VF )
Vin _ max /2

Re =

8 n2
2

Vo 8 162 12 V

= 99.7 .
Io
25 A
2

At 110% overload,

16 [12 V (1 1%) + 0.7 V]

= 0.99
(405 V)/2

Re =

n (Vo _ max + VF + Vloss )

=
Vin _ min /2
=

Topic 3

4. Determine the Equivalent Load Resistance

(Re ) in Fig. 5b
Re is determined from Equation (9). At full load,

16 [12 V (1 + 1%) + 0.7 V + 1.05 V]

375/2

= 1.18
In these calculations, 1% is used to adjust
output voltage from the line and load regulation.
VF = 0.7 V is assumed for the secondary-side
diodes forward-voltage drop. Vloss = 1.05 V is
assumed for the voltage drop due to power losses.
If the efficiency is assumed to be 92% (> 90% as
required by the specifications), then 8% of the
total power would be power losses. If all losses are
referred to the output voltage, then 8% loss at 25 A
would drop the output voltage to
300 W
8%
92%
= 1.05 V.
25 A

8 n2
2

5. Design Resonant Circuits Parameters

The resonant circuits parameters are determined
from Equations (34), (35), and (36). A switching
frequency of 130 kHz may be selected initially for
the series resonant frequency, and then the resonant
circuits parameters can be calculated at full load:
Cr =
=

3. Select Ln and Qe
From Fig. 12a, if the values Ln = 3.5 and Qe = 0.45
are selected, the corresponding Mg _ap = 1.56,
which is greater than Mg _max = 1.30. A curve for
Ln = 3.5 is not shown in Fig. 12a, but it can be
obtained by interpolating the curves of Ln = 3 and
Ln = 4.

1
2 Qe f 0 R e
1
2 0.45 130 103 Hz 99.7

= 27.3 nF 12 nF 2 + 3.3 nF
Lr =
=

This is added to Mg _max to maintain voltage-load

regulation.
To keep operation within the inductive region
with an overload-current capability of 110%,
Mg_max is increased from 1.18 to 1.18 110% = 1.30.

Vo 8 162
12 V

= 90.6 .
2
Io
25 A 110%

1
(2 f 0 ) 2 Cr
1
(2130 10 Hz) 2 27.3 109 F
3

= 54.9 H 60 H
L m = L n L r = 3.5 60 = 210 H
6. Verify the Resonant-Circuit Design
The design parameters are as follows:
Series resonant frequency:
f0 =
=

1
2 L r Cr
1
2 60 106 H 27.3 109 F

= 124.4 kHz

Texas Instruments

3-22
22

SLUP263

 Inductance ratio:
L
210 H
= 3.5
Ln = m =
Lr
60 H

Qe = 0
1.7
fn_min = 0.65

Quality factor at full load:

1.5

Mg_max = 1.3

Q e = 0.47
Gain, Mg

Qe =

Ln = 3.5

1.9

L r /Cr
Re

1.3
Mg_min = 0.99
1.1

99.7

= 0.47

0.9
Q e = 0.52

Quality factor at 110% overload:

Qe =
=

0.7
fn_max = 1.02

L r /Cr

0.5
0

Re
(60 106 H) / (27.3 10

90.6

F)

= 0.52

7. Determine the Primary-Side Currents

The primary-side RMS load current (Ioe) with a
110% overload is determined from Equation (8):

2 2

Io
25 A 110%
= 1.11
= 1.91 A
n
16

The RMS magnetizing current (Im) at fsw_min =

80.7 kHz is determined from Equation (13):
I m = 0.901
= 0.901

1.5

Fig. 16. Verification of resonant-circuit design.

Plot the gain curves corresponding to the

design parameters (Fig. 16). The plot shows that
the initial design meets the requirements of both
Equation (26) and the following frequency
specifications:
The frequency at series resonance is f0 = 124.4
kHz.
The frequency at (Mg _min, fsw_max) is fn_max f0
= 1.02 124.4 kHz = 126.9 kHz.
The frequency at (Mg _max, fsw_min) with an overload (Qe = 0.52) is fn_min f0 = 0.65 124.4 kHz
= 80.7 kHz.

Ioe =

0.5
1
Normalized Frequency, fn

nVo
L m

The resonant circuits current (Ir) is determined

from Equation (14):
2
I r = I 2m + Ioe
= (1.63 A) 2 + (1.91 A) 2 = 2.51 A

This is also the transformers primary winding

current at fsw_min.
8. Determine the Secondary-Side Currents
The total secondary-side RMS load current is the
current referred from the primary-side current (Ioe)
to the secondary side:
Ioe _ s = n Ioe = 16 1.91 A = 30.6 A
Since the transformers secondary side has a
center-tapped configuration, this current is equally
split into two transformer windings on the
secondary side. The current of each winding is
then calculated as
Isw =

2 Ioe _ s
2 30.6 A
=
= 21.6 A.
2
2

The corresponding half-wave average current is

Isav =

16 12 V

2 Ioe _ s
2 30.6 A
=
= 13.8 A.

2 80.7 103 Hz 210 106 H

= 1.63 A

Texas Instruments

3-23
23

SLUP263

Topic 3

(60 106 H) / (27.3 109 F)

the Transformer
The transformer can be built or purchased from a
catalog. The specifications for this example are:
Turns ratio (n): 16
Primary terminal voltage: 450 VAC
Primary windings rated current, Iwp: 2.6 A
Secondary terminal voltage: 36 VAC
Secondary windings rated current, Iws: 21.6 A
(center-tapped configuration)
Frequency at no load: 127 kHz
Frequency at full load: 80 kHz
Insulation between primary and secondary sides:
IEC60950 reinforced insulation

Topic 3

10. Select

the Resonant Inductor

The inductor can be built or purchased from a
catalog, with these specifications:
Series resonant inductance, Lr: 60 H
Rated current, ILr: 2.6 A
Terminal AC voltage:
VLr = L r I r = 2 80.7 103 60 106 2.6
= 75.7 V 100 V

12 nF,
300 V,
100 kHz

500

6.2 nF

100

50
12 nF
33 nF

10
10 k

11. Select the Resonant Capacitor

The resonant capacitor (Cr) must have a low
dissipation factor (DF) due to its high-frequency,
high-magnitude current. Capacitors such as electrolytic and multilayer X7R ceramic types usually
have high DF and therefore are not preferred. NP0
capacitors can be used due to their low DF, but
their capacitance range presents limitations.
Capacitors often used for LLC converters are
made with metalized polypropylene film. These
capacitors present very low DF and are capable of
handling high-frequency current.
Before a capacitor is selected, its voltage rating
has to be derated with regard to the switching
frequency in use. Fig. 17 shows an example where
a 12-nF capacitor rated at 600 VRMS can be used
only up to 300 VRMS with a 100-kHz switching
frequency.
The selected capacitor (Cr) must meet these
additional specifications:
Rated current, ICr: 2.6 A
AC voltage, calculated from the circuit in Fig. 9a:

3-24
24

100 k
1M
Frequency, f (Hz)

10 M

Fig. 17. Voltage derating from frequency.

VCr = X Cr I r =
=

Frequency range: 80 to 127 kHz

Texas Instruments

1000

AC Voltage, Vin_max (VRMS )

9. Select

Ir
Cr
2.6 A

2 80.7 10 Hz 27.3 109 F

3

= 187.9 V

RMS voltage:
2

VCr _ RMS

Vin _ max
2
=
+ VCr
2

405 V
2
=
+ (187.9 V) = 276.3 V
2
Corresponding peak voltage:
VCr _ peak =
=

Vin _ max
2
405 V
2

+ 2 VCr

+ 2 187.9 V = 467.4 V

12. Select the Primary-Side MOSFETs

Specify the MOSFET parameters required for the
converter. Each MOSFET sees the input voltage
as its maximum applied voltage:
VQ1_ peak = VQ2 _ peak = Vin = 405 V 500 V

SLUP263

IQ1_ RMS = IQ2 _ RMS = I r = 2.51 A

MOSFET switching losses are minimized by
ZVS; therefore, the MOSFETs conduction losses
may become the main concern for the design. This
suggests that MOSFETs with a low Rds_on should
be used, but with the recognition that there is
usually a trade-off between Rds_on and Cds.
13. Design for ZVS
The converters input phase angle must be greater
than zero, as described by Equation (30b). Based
on Step 6, this requirement has been met.
The conditions under which the converter has
sufficient inductive energy and sufficient switching
dead time for ZVS are described by Equations
(32a) and (32b), respectively. To check these
conditions, it can be assumed that Ceq is mainly
from the MOSFETs Cds. For typical 500-V
MOSFETs, Cds is around 200 pF. If it is assumed
that Ceq = 200 pF and that the worst-case minimum
magnetizing current (Im_min) is
I m _ min = 0.901

= 0.901

n Vo
2 fsw L m

fsw =
127 kHz

16 12 V
2127 103 210 106

= 1.03 A,
then, to verify Equation (32a),

= 286.5 10

t dead 16 200 1012 F 127 103 Hz

210 106 H = 85.0 109 s.
A tdead of 100 ns will meet the requirement.
14. Select the Rectifier Diodes
The diodes voltage rating is determined as
VDB =
=

Vin _ max /2
2
n
(405 V)/2
2 = 25 V 30 V.
16

The diodes current rating is determined as

Isav =

2 Ioe _ s
2 30.6 A
=
= 13.8 A.

15. Select the Type of Output Filter and Specify

the Capacitors
In an LLC converter, the output filter may consist
of capacitors alone instead of the LC filter seen in
most pulse-width-modulated converters, although
a small second-stage LC filter can be an option. If
the filter has only capacitors, they should be chosen
to allow conduction of the rectifier current through
all AC components.
The rectifiers full-wave output current is
expressed as

2 2

I Co =
Io Io2 =
2 2

joules,

and

Io .

2
1 Io
8

= 0.482 Io = 0.482 25 A = 12.1 A.

1
(2Ceq ) Vin2 = 200 1012 F (405 V) 2
2
= 32.8 106 joules.
Texas Instruments

To meet the requirements of Equation (32b), the

dead time should be designed as

Then, for the load current (Io), the capacitors RMS

current rating at about 100 kHz is calculated as

1
(210 106 H + 60 106 H) ( 2 1.03 A) 2
2
6

1
1
(L m + L r ) I 2m _ peak (2Ceq ) Vin2
2
2

I rect = Isw =

1
(L + L r ) I 2m _ peak
2 m
=

These calculations verify that Equation (32a) is

true:

Usually a single capacitor will not allow such a high

RMS current, so several capacitors connected in
3-25
25

SLUP263

Topic 3

Each MOSFET conducts half of the resonant networks current in steady state after the resonant
capacitors voltage has been established. However,
during the initial start-up and transient, the current
in each MOSFET can be as high as the resonant
current (Ir) with a 110% overload:

Topic 3

parallel are often used and may offer a lower profile. Aluminum solid capacitors with conductivepolymer technology have a high current rating and
a low equivalent series resistance (ESR), making
them a good choice.
The ripple voltage is a function of the amount
of AC current that flows in and out of the capacitors
with each switching cycle, multiplied by the
capacitors ESR. Since all electric current, including the loads DC current, can be assumed to flow
in and out of the filter capacitors, this is a very
good estimate of the ripple voltage. To meet the
specification for a 120-mV ripple voltage, the maximum ESR should be
ESR max =

Vo _ pk-pk
Vo _ pk-pk
=
I rect _ peak

4 Io 2

vI. concLusIon

0.12 V
= 3.05 m.

25 A
2

Any capacitance value can be used as long as

combined capacitors meet the following specifications:
Voltage rating: 16 V
Ripple-current rating: 12.1 A at 100 kHz
ESR: < 3 m
16. Verify the Design with a Bench Test
To verify the designs performance, a physical
converter needs to be built and bench tested.
Generally, one or more design iterations may be
needed to meet all specifications and to optimize
the design. The final design used the following
parameters:
Transformer turns ratio: n = 17:1:1
Resonant networks parameters: Lm = 280 H,
Lr = 60 H, and Cr = 24 nF
Detailed design files and test results can be
found in Reference [2]. Physical EVM boards are
also available from TI. Several critical test waveforms are shown in Fig. 18 for immediate reference.

V. Computer Simulation and FHA

For designing an LLC resonant half-bridge

converter, it is strongly recommended that a
computer-based circuit-simulation method be used

Texas Instruments

along with the FHA method. Using the two

methods together is effective and provides a good
balance. The FHA method is very effective for
initiating a design because it provides a functional
connection between a frequency-modulated
switching-mode converter and established sinusoidal AC circuit design and analysis, giving
designers insight into the converters operation.
Computer-based circuit simulation, on the other
hand, compensates the FHA method with accurate
design values. The combined design approach can
significantly reduce the number of design iterations, shortening the time from starting a design to
realizing its final product.

3-26
26

This topic has presented comprehensive

considerations for designing an isolated LLC
resonant half-bridge converter. It has been shown
that the FHA method is especially effective for
initiating a new design of this type. A step-by-step
design example has also been presented to
demonstrate how to use this method.

vII. AcknowLedgments
The author would like to express sincere gratitude to Richard Garvey, Bob Mammano, Bing Lu,
and Bob Neidorff for their valuable discussions
during the preparation of this topic.

vIII. references
[1] 8-Pin High-Performance Resonant Mode
Controller, UCC25600 Data Sheet, TI
Literature No. SLUS846
[2] Using the UCC25600EVM, Users Guide,
TI Literature No. SLUU361
[3] Bob Mammano, Resonant Mode Converter
Topologies, Unitrode Design Seminar, 1985,
TI Literature No. SLUP085
[4] Bing Lu et al., Optimal design methodology
for LLC resonant converter, Applied Power
Electronics Conference and Exposition
(APEC) 2006, pp. 533538.
[5] S. De Simone, et al., Design-oriented steadystate analysis of LLC resonant converters
based on first-harmonic approximation,
SLUP263

International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion

(SPEEDAM) 2006, pp. S41-16 to S41-23.
[6] Hangseok Choi, Analysis and design of LLC
resonant converter with integrated transformer, Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC) 2007, pp. 1630
1635.

[7] Thomas Duerbaum, First harmonic approximation including design constraints, Twentieth
International Telecommunications Energy
Conference (INTELEC) 1998, pp. 321328.
[8] R.L. Steigerwald, A comparison of half
bridge resonant converter topologies, IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 3,
No. 2, pp. 174182, April 1988.

Output Ripple Voltage

(50 mV/div)

Input Voltage,
Vin

85

Topic 3

Efficiency (%)

95

90 mV

405 V
390 V
375 V
75

65
1

10
15
Load Current (A)

20

25

Time (5 s/div)

b. Output ripple voltage (full load).

a. Efficiency.

VCr

Vgs_Q2 (20 V/div)

1

(200 V/div)
1
3

Ir
(1.2 A/div)

(200 V/div)
VL
r

VLm
(200 V/div)

VCr
(100 V/div)

Vds_Q2
(500 V/div)
2

Vds_Q2 (500 V/div)

2

Time (5 s/div)

Time (1 s/div)

c. Voltage waveforms in resonant

network (full load).
Fig. 18. Critical test waveforms of the design.
Texas Instruments

d. Resonant networks current and

voltage (full load).

3-27
27

SLUP263

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logic.ti.com

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microcontroller.ti.com

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