How The European Union Works

THE EUROPEAN
UNION
EXPLAINED
Your guide
tothe
EUinstitutions
How the
European
Union works
THE EUROPEAN UNION

EXPLAINED
This publication is a part of a series that explains
what the EU does in different policy areas,
why the EU is involved and what the results are.
You can find the publications online:
http://europa.eu/pol/index_en.htm
http://europa.eu/!bY34KD
How the EU works
Europe in 12 lessons
Europe 2020: Europes growth strategy
The founding fathers of the EU
Agriculture
Banking and finance
Borders and security
Budget
Climate action
Competition
Consumers
Culture and audiovisual
Customs
Digital agenda
Economic and monetary union and the euro
Education, training, youth and sport
Employment and social affairs
Energy
Enlargement
Enterprise
Environment
Fight against fraud
Food safety
Foreign affairs and security policy
Humanitarian aid and civil protection
Internal market
International cooperation and development
Justice, fundamental rights and equality
Maritime affairs and fisheries
Migration and asylum
Public health
Regional policy
Research and innovation
Taxation
Trade
Transport
The European Union explained:

How the EU works
European Commission
Directorate-General for Communication
Citizens information
1049 Brussels
BELGIUM
Manuscript updated in November 2014
Cover: Luis Pedrosa
44 pp. 21 29.7 cm
ISBN 978-92-79-39909-1
doi:10.2775/11255
Luxembourg: Publications Office
of the European Union, 2014
European Union, 2014
Reproduction is authorised. For any use or reproduction
of individual photos, permission must be sought directly
from the copyright holders.
THE EUROPEAN
UNION EXPLAINED
How the
European
Union works
Your guide
tothe
EUinstitutions
H O W
T H E
E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
Contents
Introducing the European Union: how it works, who does what ................................. 3
The European Parliament: the voice of the people .......................................................... 9
The European Council: setting the strategy ..................................................................... 12
The Council: the voice of the Member States .................................................................. 14
The European Commission: promoting the common interest ................................... 19
The national parliaments: enforcing subsidiarity .......................................................... 23
The Court of Justice: upholding EU law .............................................................................. 24
The European Central Bank: ensuring price stability ................................................... 26
The European Court of Auditors: helping to improve
EU financial management ........................................................................................................ 29
The European Economic and Social Committee:
the voice of civil society............................................................................................................ 31
The Committee of the Regions: the voice of local government .............................. 33
The European Ombudsman: investigating your complaints ...................................... 34
The European Data Protection Supervisor: protecting your privacy ...................... 35
The European Investment Bank: investing in the future ............................................ 36
The EU agencies ........................................................................................................................... 38
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Introducing the European Union

How it works, who does what
This publication is a guide on how the European Union

(EU) works. How the EU works means how decisions
are taken at EU level and who takes those decisions. At
the heart of this decision-making process are the EU
institutions such as the Parliament, the Council and
the European Commission which you may have
heard of, and there are others. To show how the EU
works, this publication first explains how EU legislation
is made. It then gives further insight into each of the EU
institutions, as well as the agencies and bodies
supporting them.
The European Union in brief

At the core of the EU are the Member States the
28 states that belong to the Union and their citizens.
The unique feature of the EU is that, although these are
all sovereign, independent states, they have pooled
some of their sovereignty in order to gain strength and
the benefits of size. Pooling sovereignty means, in
practice, that the Member States delegate some of their
decision-making powers to the shared institutions they
have created, so that decisions on specific matters of
joint interest can be made democratically at European
level. The EU thus sits between the fully federal system
found in the United States and the loose,
intergovernmental cooperation system seen in the
United Nations.
The EU has achieved much since it was created in 1950.
It has built a single market for goods and services that
spans 28 Member States with over 500 million citizens
free to move and settle where they wish. It created the
single currency the euro which is now a major
world currency and which makes the single market
more efficient. It is also the largest supplier of
development and humanitarian aid programmes in the
world. These are just a few of the achievements so far.
Looking ahead, the EU is working to get Europe out of
the economic crisis. It is at the forefront of the fight
against climate change and its consequences; it helps
neighbouring countries and continues ongoing
negotiations on enlargements; and it is building a
common foreign policy which will do much to extend
European values around the world. The success of these

ambitions depends on the ability to take effective and
timely decisions and to implement them well.
The EU treaties
The European Union is based on the rule of law. This
means that every action taken by the EU is founded on
treaties that have been approved voluntarily and
democratically by all EU countries. The treaties are
negotiated and agreed by all the EU Member States and
then ratified by their parliaments or by referendum.
The treaties lay down the objectives of the European
Union, the rules for EU institutions, how decisions are
made and the relationship between the EU and its
Member States. They have been amended each time
new Member States have joined. From time to time,
they have also been amended to reform the European
Unions institutions and to give it new areas of
responsibility.
ImageGlobe
What this publication is about
On 9 May 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman first

publicly proposed the ideas that led to the European Union.
So9 May is celebrated as the EUs birthday.
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The last amending treaty the Lisbon Treaty

was signed in Lisbon on 13 December 2007, and
came into force on 1 December 2009. Earlier treaties
are now incorporated into the current consolidated
version, which comprises the Treaty on European
Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union.
ImageGlobe
The Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance

(TSCG) in the Economic and Monetary Union is an
intergovernmental treaty which was signed by all EU
Member States except the Czech Republic and the
United Kingdom in 2012 and entered into force on
1January 2013. It is not an EU treaty but an
intergovernmental treaty, and the intention is to bring
it into EU law. It obliges the countries to have firm
rules to guarantee balanced public budgets and it
strengthens the governance of the euro area.
The work of the EU is based on the treaties agreed by
all the member countries the latest main update was
signed in Lisbon in 2007.
A history of the EU treaties

When French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman
proposed integrating western Europes coal and
steel industries in 1950, his ideas were set out in
the Treaty of Paris the following year, and the
precursor to the EU the European Coal and Steel
Community was born. Since then, the EU has
regularly updated and added to the treaties to
ensure effective policy and decision-making.
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The Treaty of Paris, establishing the European

Coal and Steel Community, was signed in Paris
on 18 April 1951 and entered into force in 1952.
It expired in 2002.
The Treaties of Rome, establishing the European
Economic Community (EEC) and the European
Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), were
signed in Rome on 25 March 1957 and came
into force in 1958.
The Single European Act (SEA) was signed in
February 1986 and came into force in 1987. It
amended the EEC Treaty and paved the way for
completing the single market.
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The Treaty on European Union (TEU) the

Maastricht Treaty was signed in Maastricht
on 7 February 1992 and came into force in
1993. It established the European Union, gave
the Parliament more say in decision-making and
added new policy areas of cooperation.
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The Treaty of Amsterdam was signed on 2 October 1997 and came into force in 1999. It
amended previous treaties.
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The Treaty of Nice was signed on 26 February

2001 and entered into force in 2003. It
streamlined the EU institutional system so that
it could continue to work effectively after the
new wave of Member States joined in 2004.
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The Treaty of Lisbon was signed on 13 December 2007 and came into force in 2009. It
simplified working methods and voting rules,
created a President of the European Council and
introduced new structures with a view to making
the EU a stronger actor on the global stage.
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Who takes the decisions?
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A directive is a law that binds the Member States,

or a group of Member States, to achieve a particular
objective. Usually, directives must be transposed into
national law to become effective. Significantly, a
directive specifies the result to be achieved: it is up
to the Member States individually to decide how this
is done.
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A decision can be addressed to Member States,

groups of people, or even individuals. It is binding in
its entirety. Decisions are used, for example, to rule
on proposed mergers between companies.
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Recommendations and opinions have no binding

force.
Decision-making at EU level involves various European

institutions, in particular:
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the European Parliament, which represents the

EUs citizens and is directly elected by them;
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the European Council, which consists of the

Heads of State or Government of the EU Member
States;
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the Council, which represents the governments of the

EU Member States;
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the European Commission, which represents the

interests of the EU as a whole.
The European Council defines the general political

direction and priorities of the EU but it does not exercise
legislative functions. Generally, it is the European
Commission that proposes new laws and it is the
European Parliament and Council that adopt them.
The Member States and the Commission then
implement them.
What types of legislation are there?

There are several types of legal acts which are applied
in different ways.
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A regulation is a law that is applicable and binding

in all Member States directly. It does not need to be
passed into national law by the Member States
although national laws may need to be changed to
avoid conflicting with the regulation.
How is legislation passed?

Every European law is based on a specific treaty article,
referred to as the legal basis of the legislation. This
determines which legislative procedure must be
followed. The treaty sets out the decision-making
process, including Commission proposals, successive
readings by the Council and Parliament, and the
opinions of the advisory bodies. It also lays down when
unanimity is required, and when a qualified majority is
sufficient for the Council to adopt legislation.
The great majority of EU legislation is adopted using
the ordinary legislative procedure. In this procedure,
the Parliament and the Council share legislative power.
The procedure begins with the Commission. When
considering launching a proposal for action, the
Commission often invites views on the topic from
governments, business, civil society organisations and
Heide Benser/Corbis
The freedom for all citizens to

travel, live and work in all the
28EU countries is one of the
main achievements of the
European Union.
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ORDINARY LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE
1. Proposal from the Commission

2. Opinions from national parliaments
3. Opinions from the European Economic and Social Committee and/or the Committee of the Regions
(when this is required)
FIRST READING
4. First reading by the European Parliament: Parliament adopts a position (amendments)
5. Commission can amend its proposal
6. First reading by the Council (*)
7. Council approves Parliaments position.

The act is adopted
8. Council and Parliament disagree on amendments.

Council adopts position at first reading
SECOND READING
9. Second reading by the Parliament: Parliament approves the Councils position at first
reading the act is adopted in early second reading or proposes amendments
10. Commission opinion on Parliaments amendments
11. Second reading by the Council (*)
12. Council approves all Parliaments amendments to

the Councils position at first reading.
The act is adopted
13. Council and Parliament disagree on amendments

to the Councils position at first reading
CONCILIATION
14. Conciliation Committee is convened
15. Conciliation Committee agrees on a joint text
16. Parliament and Council agree with the proposal

from the Conciliation Committee, and
the act is adopted
17. Parliament and/or Council disagree with the

proposal from the Conciliation Committee, and
the act is not adopted
(*) Council adopts its position by a qualified majority (the treaties provide for unanimity in a few exceptional areas). However, if the Council intends to deviate from the
Commissions proposal/opinion it adopts its position by unanimity.
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individuals. The opinions collected feed into a

Commission proposal that is presented to the Council
and the Parliament. The proposal may have been made
at the invitation of the Council, the European Council,
the Parliament or European citizens, or it may have
been made on the Commissions own initiative.
The Council and the Parliament each read and discuss
the proposal. If no agreement is reached at the second
reading, the proposal is put before a conciliation
committee comprising equal numbers of Council and
Parliament representatives. Commission representatives
also attend the committee meetings and contribute to
the discussions. Once the committee has reached an
agreement, the agreed text is then sent to the Parliament
and the Council for a third reading, so that it can finally
be adopted as law. In most cases, the Parliament votes
on proposals by simple majority and the Council by
qualified majority voting, whereby at least half of the
total number of EU Member States, representing about
two thirds of the population, must vote in favour. In
some cases, unanimous voting is required in the Council.
Special procedures
Special legislative procedures are available depending
on the subject of the proposal. In the consultation
procedure, the Council is required to consult the
Parliament on a proposal from the Commission, but is
not required to accept the Parliaments advice. This
procedure is only applicable in a few areas, such as
internal market exemptions and competition law. In the
consent procedure, the Parliament may accept or
reject a proposal, but may not propose amendments.
This procedure can be used when the proposal concerns
the approval of an international treaty that has been
negotiated. In addition, there are limited cases where
the Council and the Commission, or the Commission
alone, can pass legislation.
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the Committee of the Regions, which ensures that

the voice of local and regional government is heard.
In addition, other institutions and bodies may be

consulted when a proposal falls within their area of
interest or expertise. For example, the European Central
Bank would expect to be consulted on proposals
concerning economic or financial matters.
National oversight
National parliaments receive draft legislative acts at
the same time as the European Parliament and the
Council. They can give their opinion to ensure that
decisions are taken at the most appropriate level. EU
actions are subject to the principle of subsidiarity
which means that, except in the areas where it has
Citizens participation
By means of a European citizens initiative, 1million
EU citizens from at least one quarter of the EU
Member States may invite the Commission to bring
forward a legislative proposal on a particular issue.
The Commission will carefully examine all initiatives
that fall within the framework of its powers and that
have been supported by 1million citizens. An
audition of the initiatives is done in the Parliament.
Such initiatives may therefore influence the work of
the EU institutions, as well as the public debate.
Who is consulted, who can object?
Bernd Vogel/Corbis
In addition to the CommissionCouncilParliament

triangle, there are a number of advisory bodies that
must be consulted when proposed legislation involves
their area of interest. Even if their advice is not taken,
this contributes to the democratic oversight of EU
legislation by ensuring that it is subject to the widest
scrutiny.
These bodies are:
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the European Economic and Social Committee,

which represents civil society groups such as
employers, trades unions and social interest groups;
Citizens can now propose new laws, by means of the European

Citizens Initiative.
exclusive powers, the Union only acts where action will

be more effective at EU level than at national level.
National parliaments therefore monitor the correct
application of this principle in EU decision-making.
What decisions are taken

The treaties list the policy areas in which the EU can
take decisions. In some policy areas, the EU has
exclusive competence, which means that decisions
are taken at EU level by the Member States meeting in
the Council and the European Parliament. These policy
areas cover trade, customs, competition rules, monetary
policy for the euro area, and the conservation of fish.
In other policy areas, the decision-making competences
are shared between the Union and the Member States.
This means that if legislation is passed at EU level, then
these laws have priority. However, if no legislation is
adopted at EU level, then the individual Member States
may legislate at national level. Shared competence
applies in many policy areas, such as the internal
market, agriculture, the environment, consumer
protection and transport.
In all other policy areas the decisions remain with the
Member States. Thus, if a policy area is not cited in a
treaty, the Commission cannot propose a law in that
area. However, in some fields, such as the space sector,
education, culture and tourism, the Union can support
Member States efforts. And in others, such as overseas
aid and scientific research, the EU can carry out parallel
activities, such as humanitarian aid programmes.
Economic coordination
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Fiscal policy which concerns decisions about taxation,

spending and borrowing is the responsibility of the
28 Member State governments. So are the policies
about labour and welfare. However, as fiscal decisions
taken by one euro area Member State can have an
impact throughout the euro area, these decisions must
conform to rules set at EU level. Therefore, the
coordination of sound public finances and structural
policies is necessary for the EMU to function effectively
and to ensure stability and growth. In particular, the
economic crisis that began in 2008 highlighted the need
to strengthen economic governance in the EU and in the
euro area, by means of inter alia closer policy
coordination, monitoring and supervision.
The Council monitors Member States public finances
and economic policies and can make recommendations
to individual EU Member States based on proposals
from the Commission. It may recommend adjustment
measures and sanction euro area states that do not
take corrective measures to reduce excessive deficit
and debt levels.
The governance of the euro area and major economic
policy reforms are also discussed in the euro summits,
where Heads of State or Government of euro area
members meet.
The EU and foreign relations

Relations with countries outside of the EU are under the
responsibility of the High Representative of the Union
for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is appointed
by the European Council, but also holds the post of
European Commission Vice-President. At the level of
Heads of State or Government, the Union is represented
by the President of the European Council.
All EU Member States are part of the economic and

monetary union (EMU), meaning that they coordinate
their economic policymaking and treat economic
decisions as a matter of common concern. Within the
EMU, no institution alone is responsible for overall
economic policy. These responsibilities are divided
between the Member States and the EU institutions.
The European External Action Service (EEAS) serves as a

foreign ministry and diplomatic service for the Union
under the authority of the High Representative. It is
composed of expert staff transferred from the Council,
the Member States and the European Commission.
Monetary policy which deals with price stability and

interest rates is managed independently by the
European Central Bank (ECB) in the euro area, i.e. in
those Member States which use the euro as their
currency. With Lithuania joining in January 2015, the
euro area has 19 countries.
The Council develops and takes decisions in the field of

the EUs foreign and security policy on the basis of
guidelines set by the European Council. The
Commission, on the other hand, is responsible for trade
and funding for non-EU countries, such as humanitarian
or development aid. The Commission also represents
the Union in all areas of EU competence outside foreign
and security policy.
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The European Parliament

The voice of the people
Role:
Directly elected legislative arm of the EU
Members: 751 Members of the European Parliament

Location: Strasbourg, Brussels and Luxembourg
XX http://www.europarl.eu
Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are

directly elected by EU citizens to represent their
interests. Elections are held every 5 years and all
EU citizens over 18 years old (16 in Austria) some
380million are entitled to vote. The Parliament
has 751 MEPs from all 28 Member States.
The official seat of the European Parliament is in
Strasbourg (France), although the institution has
three places of work: Strasbourg, Brussels (Belgium)
and Luxembourg. The main meetings of the whole
Parliament, known as plenary sessions, take place
in Strasbourg 12 times per year. Additional plenary
sessions are held in Brussels. Committee meetings
are also held in Brussels.
Composition of the European

Parliament
The seats in the European Parliament are allocated
among the Member States on the basis of their share
of the EU population.
NUMBER OF MEPS PER MEMBER STATE IN 2014
Member State
Austria
18
Belgium
21
Bulgaria
17
Croatia
11
Cyprus
Czech Republic
21
Denmark
13
Estonia
Finland
13
France
74
Germany
96
Greece
21
Hungary
21
Ireland
11
Italy
73
Latvia
Lithuania
Most MEPs are associated with a national political party

in their home country. In the European Parliament the
national parties group into EU-wide political groupings
and most MEPs belong to one of these.
Number of MEPs
8
11
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
26
Poland
51
Portugal
21
Romania
32
Slovakia
13
Slovenia
Spain
54
Sweden
20
United Kingdom
73
TOTAL
751
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NUMBER OF MEPS IN EACH POLITICAL GROUP (OCTOBER 2014)
Alliance of Liberals and

Democrats for Europe ALDE
68
European Peoples Party

(Christian Democrats) EPP
220
Greens/European Free
Alliance Greens/EFA
50
European Conservatives
and Reformists ECR
70
Progressive Alliance of
Socialists and Democrats
S&D
191
European United Left

Nordic Green Left
EUL/NGL
52
TOTAL
751
What the European Parliament does
Europe of Freedom and

Direct Democracy
EFDD
48
Non-attached MEPs NI
52
international agreements in fields covered by the

ordinary legislative procedure.
The Parliament has three main roles:

1. It shares with the Council the power to legislate to
pass laws. The fact that it is a directly elected body
helps guarantee the democratic legitimacy of
European law.
2. It exercises democratic supervision over all EU
institutions, and in particular the Commission. It has
the power to approve or reject the nomination of the
President of the Commission and Commissioners,
and the right to censure the Commission as a whole.
3. It shares authority with the Council over the EU
budget and can therefore influence EU spending. At
the end of the budget procedure, it adopts or rejects
the budget in its entirety.
These three roles are described in greater detail below.
1. THE POWER TO LEGISLATE
The most common procedure for adopting EU legislation
is called the ordinary legislative procedure also
known as the co-decision procedure. This places the
European Parliament and the Council on an equal
footing, and the laws passed using this procedure are
joint acts of the Council and the Parliament. It applies
to the majority of EU legislation, covering a wide range
of fields such as consumer rights, environmental
protection and transport. Under the ordinary legislative
procedure the Commission makes a proposal which
must be adopted both by the Parliament and the
Council. The Parliaments assent is required for all
The Parliament must be consulted on a range of other

proposals, and its approval is required for important
political or institutional decisions, such as social security
and protection acts, tax-related provisions in the area of
energy and harmonisation of turnover taxes and
indirect taxation. The Parliament also provides the
impetus for new legislation by examining the
Commissions annual work programme, considering
what new laws would be appropriate and asking the
Commission to put forward proposals.
2. THE POWER OF SUPERVISION
The Parliament exercises democratic supervision over
the other European institutions. It does so in several
ways. Firstly, when a new Commission is to be
appointed, the Parliament holds auditions of all the
prospective new members and the President of the
Commission (nominated by the Member States). They
cannot be appointed without the Parliaments approval.
Furthermore, the Commission is politically answerable
to the Parliament, which can pass a motion of censure
calling for its mass resignation. More generally, the
Parliament exercises control by regularly examining
reports sent to it by the Commission and asking written
and oral questions.
The Commissioners attend plenary sessions of the
Parliament and meetings of the parliamentary
committees. Similarly, the Parliament holds a regular
dialogue with the President of the European Central
Bank on monetary policy.
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EU
Martin Schulz was re-elected President

of the European Parliament in 2014.
The Parliament also monitors the work of the Council:

MEPs regularly ask the Council written and oral
questions, and the Council Presidency attends the
plenary sessions and takes part in important debates.
For some policy areas, which include common foreign
and security policy, the Council alone is responsible for
decision-making. But the Parliament nonetheless works
closely with the Council in these areas.
The Parliament can also exercise democratic control by
examining petitions from citizens and setting up special
committees of inquiry.
How the Parliament works

The Parliament elects its own President for a 2-year
term. The President represents the Parliament to the
other EU institutions as well as to the outside world,
and is assisted by 14 Vice-Presidents. The President of
the European Parliament, together with the President of
the Council, signs all legislative acts once they are
adopted.
The Parliaments work is divided into two main stages:
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Preparing for the plenary session: this is done by the

MEPs in the 20 parliamentary committees that
specialise in particular areas of EU activity, for
example the ECON Committee for Economic and
Monetary Affairs or the INTA Committee for
International Trade. The issues for debate are also
discussed by the political groups.
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The plenary session itself: plenary sessions, attended

by all MEPs, are normally held in Strasbourg (1 week
per month) and sometimes additional sessions are
held in Brussels. At plenary sessions, the Parliament
examines proposed legislation and votes on
amendments before coming to a decision on the text
as a whole. Other items on the agenda may include
Council or Commission communications or questions
about what is going on in the EU or in the wider
world.
Finally, the Parliament provides input to every EU

summit (the European Council meetings). At the opening
of each summit, the President of the Parliament is
invited to express the Parliaments views and concerns
about topical issues and the items on the European
Councils agenda.
3. THE POWER OF THE PURSE
The EUs annual budget is decided jointly by the
Parliament and the Council of the European Union. The
Parliament debates it in two successive readings, and it
does not come into force until it has been signed by the
President of the Parliament.
Its Committee on Budgetary Control monitors how the
budget is spent, and each year the Parliament decides
whether to approve the Commissions handling of the
budget for the previous financial year. This approval
process is technically known as granting a discharge.
As a rule the Parliament can only take decisions when

at least one-third of the MEPs are present for a vote. It
normally takes decisions by a majority of votes cast. In
special cases, a decision requires that a majority of all
the members vote in favour, for example when the
Parliament elects the Commission President or votes in
the second reading of an ordinary legislative procedure.
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The European Council

Setting the strategy
Role:
Defines political direction and priorities
Members: Heads of State or Government from each Member State, the President of the
European Council and the President of the European Commission
Location: Brussels
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The European Council brings together the EUs top

political leaders, i.e. Prime Ministers and Presidents
along with its President and the President of the
Commission. They meet at least four times a year to
give the EU as a whole general political direction and
priorities. The High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy also takes part in the
work of the European Council.
What the European Council does

As a summit meeting of the Heads of State or
Government of all the EU Member States, the European
Council represents the highest level of political
cooperation between the Member States. At their
meetings, the leaders decide by consensus on the
overall direction and priorities of the Union, and provide
the necessary impetus for its development.
The European Council does not adopt legislation. At the
end of each meeting it issues conclusions, which
reflect the main messages resulting from the
discussions and take stock of the decisions taken, also
as regards their follow-up. The conclusions identify
major issues to be dealt with by the Council, i.e. the
meetings of ministers. They may also invite the
European Commission to come forward with proposals
addressing a particular challenge or opportunity facing
the Union.
European Council meetings as a rule take place at least
twice every 6 months. Additional (extraordinary or
informal) meetings may be called to address urgent
issues in need of decisions at the highest level, for
example in economic affairs or foreign policy.
President of the European Council

The work of the European Council is coordinated by its
President, who is responsible for convening and chairing
European Council meetings and driving forward its work.
The European Council President also represents the
Union to the outside world. Together with the High
Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy, he or she represents Union interests in
foreign affairs and security matters.
The President is elected by the European Council for a
once-renewable term of 2 years. The Presidency of
the European Council is a full-time job; the President
may not simultaneously hold a national office.
How the European Council takes its

decisions
The European Council takes most of its decisions by
consensus. In a number of cases, however, qualified
majority applies, such as the election of its President,
and the appointment of the Commission and of the
High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy.
When the European Council decides by vote, only the
Heads of State or Government may cast a vote.
Secretariat
The European Council is assisted by the General
Secretariat of the Council.
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Euro summit
The meetings are an opportunity to discuss the

governance of the euro area, as well as major economic
policy reforms. The euro summit was formally
established by the Treaty on Stability, Coordination and
Governance (TSCG) in the Economic and Monetary
Union. The President of the euro summit is appointed by
the Heads of State or Government of euro area
members. The appointment takes place at the same
time as that of the President of the European Council,
and has the same duration. The two positions can be
held by the same person.
In some cases, the leaders of the states which have
ratified the TSCG but do not use the euro as their
currency also take part in euro summit discussions.
When these countries are not eligible to participate, the
EU
Outside of the European Council, the Heads of State or

Government of those states whose currency is the euro
also meet at least twice a year, together with the
President of the European Commission. The President of
the European Central Bank is also invited to these euro
summit meetings. The President of the European
Parliament may also be invited.
Donald Tusk chairs the EU summits as President of the

European Council as of 1 December 2014.
President of the euro summit keeps them and the other

EU Member States closely informed of the preparation
and outcome of the summits.
A confusion of Councils: which is which?

It is easy to become confused about which
European body is which especially when very
different bodies have very similar names, such as
the following three Councils.
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The European Council
This means the Heads of State or Government (i.e.

Presidents and/or Prime Ministers) of all the EU
Member States, together with its President and the
President of the European Commission. It is the
highest-level policymaking body in the European
Union, which is why its meetings are often called
summits.
XX
The Council
Also known as the Council of Ministers, this

institution consists of government ministers from all
the EU Member States. The Council meets regularly
to take detailed decisions and to pass European laws.
XX
The Council of Europe
This is not an EU institution at all. It is an

intergovernmental organisation which aims to
protect human rights, democracy and the rule
of law. It was set up in 1949 and one of its
early achievements was to draw up the European
Convention on Human Rights. To enable citizens
to exercise their rights under that Convention it set
up the European Court of Human Rights. The
Council of Europe now has 47 Member States,
including all EU Member States, and its
headquarters are in Strasbourg, France.
14
H O W
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E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
The Council
The voice of the Member States
Role:
Deciding on policies and adopting legislation
Members: One minister from each Member State

Location: Brussels and Luxembourg
XX http://www.consilium.europa.eu
In the Council, ministers of EU Member States meet to

discuss EU matters, take decisions and pass laws. The
ministers who attend these meetings have the authority
to commit their government to the actions agreed in the
Council meetings.
What the Council does

The Council is an essential EU decision-maker. Its work
is carried out in Council meetings that are attended by
one minister from each of the EUs national
governments. The purpose of these gatherings is to:
discuss, agree, amend and, finally, adopt legislation;
coordinate the Member States policies; or define the
EUs foreign policy.
imago/Xinhua/Reporters
The EU countries have agreed on a Europe 2020 strategy on

how to get out of the economic crisis with smart, sustainable
and inclusive growth. Council ministers take many decisions in
order to implement this strategy.
Which ministers attend which Council meeting depends

on the subjects on the agenda this is known as the
configuration of the Council. If, for example, the Council
is to discuss environmental issues, the meeting will be
attended by the environment minister from each EU
Member State and is known as the Environment Council.
The same is true for the Economic and Financial Affairs
Council and the Competitiveness Council, and so on.
There are 10 different Council

configurations:
Chaired by the High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy:
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Foreign Affairs
Chaired by the Member State holding the Presidency

of the Council:
XX
General Affairs
XX
Economic and Financial Affairs
XX
Justice and Home Affairs
XX
Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer

Affairs
XX
Competitiveness (Internal Market, Industry,

Research and Space)
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Transport, Telecommunications and Energy
XX
Agriculture and Fisheries
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Environment
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Education, Youth, Culture and Sport
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COUNCIL PRESIDENCIES
Year
JanuaryJune
JulyDecember
2014
Greece
Italy
2015
Latvia
Luxembourg
2016
Netherlands
Slovakia
2017
Malta
United Kingdom
2018
Estonia
Bulgaria
2019
Austria
Romania
2020
Finland
The Presidency of the Council rotates between the

Member States every 6 months. It is not the same as
the President of the European Council. The responsibility
of the government holding the Presidency is to organise
and chair the different Council meetings. By way of
exception, the Foreign Affairs Council is chaired by the
High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy, who carries out foreign policy on behalf
of the Council.
In the interest of continuity of Council business, the
6-monthly Presidencies work together closely in groups
of three. These three-Presidency teams (trios) draw up
a joint programme of Council work over an 18-month
period.
Each minister in the Council is empowered to commit
his or her government. Moreover, each minister in the
Council is answerable to the elected national
authorities. This ensures the democratic legitimacy of
the Councils decisions.
The Council has five key responsibilities:
1. to pass European laws in most fields, it legislates
jointly with the European Parliament;
2. to coordinate the Member States policies, for
example, in the economic field;
3. to develop the EUs common foreign and security
policy, based on guidelines set by the European Council;
4. to conclude international agreements between the
EU and one or more states or international
organisations;
5. to adopt the EUs budget, jointly with the European
Parliament.
The Councils work is described in greater detail below.
1. LEGISLATION
Much EU legislation is adopted jointly by the Council
and the Parliament. As a general rule, the Council only
acts on a proposal from the Commission, and the
Commission normally has responsibility for ensuring
that EU legislation, once adopted, is correctly applied.
2. COORDINATING THE POLICIES OF MEMBER
STATES (AN EXAMPLE: ECONOMIC POLICY)
All EU Member States participate in economic and
monetary union (EMU) even though not all belong to the
euro area. Under EMU, EU economic policy is based on
close coordination of national economic policies. This
coordination is carried out by the economics and
finance ministers who collectively form the Economic
and Financial Affairs (Ecofin) Council.
3. COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY
(CFSP)
The definition and implementation of the EUs foreign
and security policy is the exclusive competence of the
European Council and the Council acting unanimously. It
is put into effect by the High Representative of the Union
for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy together with the
Member States, meeting in the Foreign Affairs Council.
4. CONCLUDING INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
Each year, the Council concludes (i.e. officially signs) a
number of agreements between the European Union
and non-EU countries, as well as with international
organisations. These agreements may cover broad
areas such as trade, cooperation and development, or
they may deal with specific subjects such as textiles,
fisheries, science and technology, transport, etc. Such
agreements are subject to the assent of the European
Parliament in areas where it has co-decision powers.
5. APPROVING THE EU BUDGET
The EUs annual budget is decided jointly by the Council
and the European Parliament. If the two institutions do
not agree then conciliation procedures are followed until
a budget is approved.
How the Council works

All Council discussions and votes on legislative acts
take place in public. Such meetings can be watched live
via the Councils website.
Overall consistency in the work of the different Council
configurations is ensured by the General Affairs Council,
which monitors the effective follow-up of European
Council meetings. It is supported by the Permanent
Representatives Committee (Coreper from the
French: Comit des Reprsentants Permanents).
16
Coreper is composed of the Member States

governments Permanent Representatives to the
European Union. In Brussels, each EU Member State has
a team (Permanent Representation) that represents it
and defends its national interests at EU level. The Head
of each Representation is, in effect, his or her countrys
ambassador to the EU. These ambassadors meet
weekly within the Coreper. They are assisted by a
number of working groups made up of officials from
the national administrations.
How does the Council vote?

Decisions in the Council are taken by vote. In most
cases a decision requires a qualified majority. In some
cases the treaties require a different procedure, for
example a unanimous vote in the field of taxation. In
order for a proposal to be decided by qualified majority,
it must obtain a double majority of both Member States
and population. The votes in favour must be at least:
XX
XX
55% of the Member States, i.e. 16 of the

28 countries;
Member States that represent 65% of the EUs
population. This means roughly 329 million out of
the population of some 506 million.
In addition, to block a decision from being taken there

must be at least four countries voting against,
representing more than 35% of the population.
These rules mean that all decisions taken by the Council
have broad support across Europe, but also that small
minorities cannot block decisions from being taken.
Before November 2014, a different system was used,
whereby each country had a certain number of votes.
H O W
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E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
POPULATION USED FOR VOTES IN THE COUNCIL (2014)
Member State
Population
( 1000)
Percentage of
the total
population of
the Union
Germany
80523.7
15.93
France
65633.2
12.98
United Kingdom
63730.1
12.61
Italy
59685.2
11.81
Spain
46704.3
9.24
Poland
38533.3
7.62
Romania
20057.5
3.97
Netherlands
16779.6
3.32
Belgium
11161.6
2.21
Greece
11062.5
2.19
Czech Republic
10516.1
2.08
Portugal
10487.3
2.07
Hungary
9908.8
1.96
Sweden
9555.9
1.89
Austria
8451.9
1.67
Bulgaria
7284.6
1.44
Denmark
5602.6
1.11
Finland
5426.7
1.07
Slovakia
5410.8
1.07
Ireland
4591.1
0.91
Croatia
4262.1
0.84
Lithuania
2971.9
0.59
Slovenia
2058.8
0.41
Latvia
2023.8
0.40
Estonia
1324.8
0.26
Cyprus
865.9
0.17
Luxembourg
537.0
0.11
Malta
421.4
0.08
Total
505572.5
100
Threshold for
qualified majority
328622.1
65 %
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General Secretariat of the Council

The General Secretariat of the Council assists both the
European Council and its President, and the Council and
its rotating Presidencies. It is headed by a SecretaryGeneral appointed by the Council.
The Eurogroup
All Member States participate in Economic and
Monetary Union (EMU), meaning they coordinate their
economic policymaking and treat economic decisions as
a matter of common concern to all. However, not all
Member States have joined the euro area and adopted
the single currency the euro. Some have chosen not
to join at present, while others are still preparing their
economies to meet the criteria for euro area
membership. Euro area Member States need to
cooperate closely, and are also subject to the single
monetary policy run by the European Central Bank.
Therefore, the euro area Member States require a forum
to discuss and decide on policies for the euro area. This
cannot be the Economic and Financial Affairs Council
(Ecofin) as this comprises all Member States.
The solution is the Eurogroup, which consists of the
ministers of economy and finance of the euro area
members.
Associated Press/Reporters
The Eurogroup acts to promote economic growth and

financial stability in the euro area by coordinating
economic policies. As only Ecofin can formally take
decisions on economic matters, the Eurogroup meets
informally on the day before Ecofin meetings, roughly
once a month. The next day, the agreements reached in
the informal Eurogroup gathering are formally decided
upon in the Ecofin meeting by the Eurogroup members.
What is enhanced cooperation?

If some Member States want to cooperate more
closely in policy areas that are not the exclusive
competence of the EU but they are unable to get
the agreement of all the other Member States, then
the enhanced cooperation mechanism allows them
to work together. It permits at least nine Member
States to use the EU institutions to achieve closer
cooperation. However, there are conditions: this
cooperation must further the objectives of the Union
and it must be open to all other Member States if
they wish to join.
The procedure is being used by a number of countries
for divorce law, enabling them to find a common
solution for couples from different EU countries
wishing to divorce within the EU. It is also in place for
a unitary patenting system that involves most but
not all EU Member States.
Only Ecofin ministers representing euro area members

vote on Eurogroup matters. The European Commission
and the President of the European Central Bank also
attend Eurogroup meetings.
The members of the Eurogroup elect a President for a
term of 2 years. The General Secretariat of the
Council provides administrative support for Eurogroup
meetings.
The common foreign and security

policy
The European Union is progressively developing a
common foreign and security policy (CFSP) which is
subject to different procedures when compared to other
policy areas. The CFSP is defined and implemented by
the European Council and the Council working together.
The Unions wider international objectives are to
advance democracy, the rule of law, human rights and
freedom, and respect for human dignity and the
principles of equality and solidarity. To achieve these
objectives the EU develops relations and partnerships
with other countries and organisations around the world.
Responsibilities for the CFSP are as follows:
XX
New EU rules on economic and financial governance help to

clean up and strengthen the banking sector.
The European Council, chaired by the President,

defines the common foreign and security policy
taking into account the strategic interests of the
Union, including matters with defence implications.
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H O W
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E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
Matteis/LookatSciences/Reporters
The EU countries law enforcers must

work together to fight international
crime.
XX
The Council, in particular the Foreign Affairs Council,

then takes the decisions needed to define and
implement the CFSP following the European Council
guidelines. The High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy chairs the meeting
of the Foreign Affairs Council.
XX
The High Representative, together with the Member

States, then puts the CFSP into effect, ensuring its
implementation is consistent and effective. To do
this, he or she can call on national and Union
resources.
The European External Action Service (EEAS)

serves as a foreign ministry and diplomatic service for
the Union. The High Representative is head of the
service, which is composed of expert staff transferred
from the Council, the Member States and the European
Commission. The EU has delegations in the majority of
countries around the world and they are part of the
EEAS. They work closely on CFSP matters alongside
national embassies of EU Member States.
Matters of importance to the CFSP can be raised with
the Council by any Member State or the High
Representative acting alone or with the Commission.
Given the often urgent nature of some CFSP issues,
there are mechanisms in place to ensure decisions can
be taken quickly. Generally speaking, decisions in this
area are taken unanimously.
As well as driving forward the CFSP, the High
Representative also represents the Unions foreign and
security policy worldwide, conducting political dialogue
with non-EU countries and partners and expressing the

EUs position in international organisations and
meetings. At the level of Heads of State or Government,
the Union is represented by the President of the
European Council.
One aspect of the CFSP is security and defence
questions, where the EU is developing a common
security and defence policy (CSDP). This policy is
designed to enable EU Member States to undertake
crisis management operations. These are humanitarian
and peace-making or peacekeeping missions, which can
either be of a military or civilian nature. The Member
States voluntarily make some of their forces available
to the EU for such operations. This is always
coordinated with NATO, whose command structures are
sometimes used for practical tasks in EU missions. A
number of permanent EU bodies coordinate this work.
XX
The Political and Security Committee (PSC)

monitors the international situation and examines
the EUs options for response during a crisis situation
abroad.
XX
The European Union Military Committee (EUMC)

consists of the chiefs of defence from all EU
countries and directs EU military activities and
provides advice on military matters.
XX
The European Union Military Staff (EUMS) is

composed of military experts who work at a
permanent military headquarters in Brussels and
assist the EUMC.
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The European Commission

Promoting the common interest
Role:
Executive arm of the EU that proposes laws, polices agreements and promotes the
Union
Members: A college of Commissioners, one from each Member State

Location: Brussels
XX http://ec.europa.eu
The Commission is the politically independent

institution that represents and upholds the interests of
the EU as a whole. In many areas it is the driving force
within the EUs institutional system: it proposes
legislation, policies and programmes of action and is
responsible for implementing the decisions of the
European Parliament and the Council. It also represents
the Union to the outside world with the exception of the
common foreign and security policy.
The term Commission is used in two senses. Firstly, it

refers to the Members of the Commission i.e. the
team of men and women appointed by the Member
States and the Parliament to run the institution and
take its decisions. Secondly, the term Commission
refers to the institution itself and to its staff.
Informally, the Members of the Commission are
known as Commissioners. They have all held political
positions and many have been government ministers,
but as members of the Commission they are
committed to acting in the interests of the Union as
a whole and not taking instructions from national
governments.
The Commission remains politically answerable to
the Parliament, which has the power to dismiss it
by adopting a motion of censure. The Commission
attends all the sessions of the Parliament, where it
must clarify and justify its policies. It also replies
regularly to written and oral questions posed by
Members of Parliament.
EU
What is the Commission?

Jean-Claude Juncker heads the EU executive body as
President of the European Commission.
The day-to-day work of the Commission is done by its

administrative officials, experts, translators, interpreters
and secretarial staff. Commission officials like the
staff of other EU bodies are recruited via the
European Personnel Selection Office (EPSO)
(http://europa.eu/epso). They are citizens from every
EU Member State, selected by means of open
competitive examinations. There are approximately
33000 people working for the Commission. That may
sound a lot, but in fact it is fewer than the number
of staff employed by most medium-sized city councils
in Europe.
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H O W
Appointing the Commission

A new Commission is appointed every 5 years,
within 6 months of the elections to the European
Parliament. The procedure is as follows.
XX
The Member State governments propose a

new Commission President, who must be
elected by the European Parliament.
XX
The proposed Commission President, in

discussion with the Member State
governments, chooses the other members of
the Commission.
XX
The new Parliament then interviews all

proposed members and gives its opinion on
the entire College. If approved, the new
Commission can officially start its work.
The Commission has several Vice-Presidents, one of

whom is also the High Representative of the Union
for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and thus has a
foot in both the Council and the Commission camps.
What the Commission does
T H E
E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
1. PROPOSING NEW LEGISLATION

Under the EU Treaty, the Commission has the right of
initiative. In other words, the Commission alone is
responsible for drawing up proposals for new European
legislation, which it presents to the Parliament and the
Council. These proposals must aim to defend the
interests of the Union and its citizens, not those of
specific countries or industries.
Before making any proposals, the Commission must
be aware of new situations and problems developing
in Europe and must consider whether EU legislation is
the best way to deal with them. That is why the
Commission is in constant touch with a wide range of
interest groups and with two advisory bodies the
European Economic and Social Committee (made up
of employers and trade union representatives) and
the Committee of the Regions (made up of
representatives of local and regional authorities). It
also seeks the opinions of national parliaments,
governments and the public at large.
The Commission will propose action at EU level only if
it considers that a problem cannot be solved more
efficiently by national, regional or local action. This
principle of dealing with things at the lowest possible
level is called the subsidiarity principle.
The European Commission has four main roles:

1. to propose legislation to the Parliament and
the Council;
2. to manage and implement EU policies and
the budget;
If, however, the Commission concludes that EU

legislation is needed, then it drafts a proposal that it
believes will deal with the problem effectively and
satisfy the widest possible range of interests. In order
to get the technical details correct, the Commission
consults the experts who make up its various
committees and expert groups.
3. to enforce European law (jointly with the Court

of Justice);
Langrock/Zenit/Laif/Reporters
4. to represent the Union around the world.
Innovation and research is one of the ways to achieve new

jobs and growth in Europe.
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Building the European research area
2. IMPLEMENTING EU POLICIES AND THE

BUDGET
As the European Unions executive body, the
Commission is responsible for managing and
implementing the EU budget and the policies and
programmes adopted by the Parliament and the
Council. Most of the actual work and spending is
done by national and local authorities but the
Commission is responsible for supervising it.
The Commission handles the budget under the
watchful eye of the European Court of Auditors. Both
institutions aim to ensure good financial management. Only if it is satisfied with the Court of Auditors
annual report does the European Parliament grant
the Commission discharge for implementing the
budget.
3. ENFORCING EUROPEAN LAW

The Commission acts as guardian of the treaties.
This means that, together with the Court of Justice, it
is responsible for making sure EU law is properly
applied in all the Member States. If it finds that any
EU Member State is not applying a Union law, and
therefore not meeting its legal obligations, the
Commission takes steps to put the situation right.
First, it launches a legal process called the
infringement procedure. This involves sending the
government an official letter explaining why the
Commission considers this Member State is
infringing EU law, and setting it a deadline for
sending the Commission a detailed reply. If this
procedure fails to correct matters, the Commission
then refers the issue to the Court of Justice, which
has the power to impose penalties. The Courts
judgments are binding on the Member States and the
EU institutions.
EU
Through its Directorate-General for Research and

Innovation, the Commission develops EU policies in the
field of research and technological development and
contributes to the international competitiveness of
European industry. The EU research programme
Horizon 2020 injects tens of billions of euro into
multidisciplinary cooperative scientific research across
the EU.
Federica Mogherini is the EU's foreign policy chief and

coordinates the EUs actions towards the rest of the world.
4. REPRESENTING THE EU ON THE

INTERNATIONAL STAGE
The High Representative of the Union for Foreign
Affairs and Security Policy is a Vice-President of
the Commission and has responsibility for external
affairs. In matters concerning foreign affairs and
security, the High Representative works with the
Council. However, in other areas of external action the
Commission plays the leading role in particular in
the areas of trade policy and humanitarian aid. In
these areas, the European Commission acts as an
important spokesperson for the European Union on the
international stage. It enables the 28 Member States
to speak with one voice in international forums such
as the World Trade Organisation.
Reaching out to those in need

The Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection
department of the European Commission (ECHO)
was established in 1992. Humanitarian action now
occupies a key position in the European Unions
external activities indeed, the EU is the worlds
main player in this field.
Some 125 million people are helped each year through
EU humanitarian aid funding. This aid is delivered via
200 partners such as aid charities and UN agencies.
Assistance is based on the humanitarian principles of
non-discrimination and impartiality.
22
How the Commission works

It is up to the Commission President to decide which
Commissioner will be responsible for which policy area,
and to reshuffle these responsibilities (if necessary)
during the Commissions term of office. The President is
also entitled to demand a Commissioners resignation.
The team of 28 Commissioners (also known as the
College) meets once a week, usually on Wednesdays in
Brussels. Each item on the agenda is presented by the
Commissioner responsible for that policy area, and the
College takes a collective decision on it.
The Commissions staff is organised into departments,
known as directorates-general (DGs) and services (such
as the Legal Service). Each DG is responsible for a
particular policy area for example, DG Trade and DG
Competition and is headed by a director-general who
is answerable to one of the Commissioners.
Eurostat: collecting Europes data

Eurostat is the statistical office of the European
Union and part of the Commission. Its task is to
provide the EU with statistics at European level that
enable comparisons to be made between countries
and regions. This is a key task. Democratic societies
do not function properly without a solid basis of
reliable and objective statistics.
Eurostat statistics can answer many questions: Is
unemployment up or down? Are there more CO2
emissions compared to 10 years ago? How many
women go out to work? How is your countrys
economy performing compared to that of other EU
Member States?
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
H O W
T H E
E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
It is the DGs that actually devise and draft the

Commissions legislative proposals, but these proposals
only become official when adopted by the College at
its weekly meeting. The procedure is roughly as follows.
Suppose, for example, that the Commission sees a need
for EU legislation to prevent pollution of Europes rivers.
The Directorate-General for the Environment will draw
up a proposal, based on extensive consultations with all
interested parties, such as European industry and
farmers, with environment ministries in the Member
States and with environmental organisations. Many
proposals are also open to public consultation, enabling
individuals to provide views in a personal capacity, or on
behalf of an organisation.
The proposed legislation will then be discussed with all
relevant Commission departments and amended if
necessary. It will then be checked by the Legal Service.
Once the proposal is complete, the Secretary-General
will put it on the agenda for a forthcoming Commission
meeting. At this meeting, the Environment
Commissioner will explain to his or her colleagues why
this legislation is being proposed, and they will then
discuss it. If there is agreement, the College will adopt
the proposal and the document will be sent to the
Council and the European Parliament for their
consideration.
However, if there is disagreement among the
Commissioners, the President may ask them to vote on
it. If the majority are in favour, the proposal will be
adopted. Thereafter it will have the support of all the
Commission members.
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The national parliaments

Enforcing subsidiarity
Role:
To participate alongside the European institutions in the work of the Union
Members: Members of national parliaments

Location: All EU Member States
The EU institutions are encouraging the national
parliaments to become more involved in the activities
of the European Union. Since 2006, the Commission has
been transmitting to national parliaments all new
legislative proposals, and has replied to their opinions.
With the Lisbon Treaty from 2009, the rights and duties
of national parliaments within the EU are clearly set.
National parliaments can express their views on draft
legislative acts as well as on other matters which may
be of particular interest to them.
EU actions are subject to the principle of subsidiarity.
This means that the Union only acts where action will
be more effective at EU level than at national level.
Where the treaties have given exclusive powers to the
EU, this is considered to be the case, but otherwise it is
a judgement that is made for each new law. Correct
application of this principle in EU decision-making is
monitored by national parliaments.
To enable parliaments to carry out subsidiarity checks,
the Commission sends draft legislation to national
parliaments at the same time as it forwards it to the
Union legislator (i.e. the European Parliament and the
Council).
Any national parliament may then give a reasoned

opinion if it considers that the proposal in question
does not comply with the principle of subsidiarity.
Depending on the number of reasoned opinions issued
by national parliaments, the Commission may have to
re-examine its proposal and decide whether to
maintain, adjust or withdraw it. This is referred to as the
yellow and orange card procedure. In the case of the
ordinary legislative procedure, if a majority of national
parliaments give a reasoned opinion, and provided that
the Commission decides to maintain its proposal, it will
have to explain its reasons, and it will be for the
European Parliament and the Council to decide whether
or not to continue the legislative procedure.
National parliaments are also directly involved with the
implementation of EU legislation. EU directives are
addressed to the Member States. They must make them
part of national law, which is mostly decided by national
parliaments. The directives lay down certain end results
that must be achieved in every Member State by a
specified date. National authorities have to adapt their
laws to meet these goals, but are free to decide how to
do so. Directives are used to bring different national
laws into line with each other, and are particularly
common in matters affecting the operation of the single
market (e.g. product safety standards).
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The Court of Justice

Upholding EU law
Role:
To give legal judgments on cases brought before it
Court of Justice:
One Judge from each EU country; nine Advocates General
General Court:
One Judge from each EU country
Civil Service Tribunal: Seven Judges

Location:
Luxembourg
XX http://curia.europa.eu
The Court of Justice of the European Union (the Court)
ensures that EU legislation is interpreted and applied in
the same way in each Member State in other words,
that it is always identical for all parties and in all
circumstances. To this end, the Court checks the legality
of the actions of the EU institutions, ensures the
Member States comply with their obligations and
interprets EU law at the request of national courts.
The Court has the power to settle legal disputes
between Member States, EU institutions, businesses and
individuals. To cope with the many thousands of cases
it receives, it is divided into two main bodies: the Court
of Justice, which deals with requests for preliminary
rulings from national courts, certain actions for
annulment and appeals, and the General Court, which
rules on all actions for annulment brought by private
individuals and companies and some such actions
brought by Member States.
A specialised tribunal, the Civil Service Tribunal, also

adjudicates in disputes between the EU and its civil
servants.
What the Court does

The Court gives rulings on cases brought before it. The
four most common types of case are listed below.
1. THE PRELIMINARY RULING
The courts in each EU Member State are responsible for
ensuring that EU law is properly applied in that country.
If a national court is in any doubt about the
interpretation or validity of an EU law it may, and
sometimes must, ask the Court of Justice for advice.
This advice is given in the form of a binding preliminary
ruling. This ruling is an important channel for citizens,
through their national courts, to establish how far EU
laws affect them.
ImageGlobe
Air hostesses have benefited several

times from rulings on equal pay and equal
rights from the Court of Justice of the
European Union.
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2. INFRINGEMENT PROCEEDINGS
The Commission, or (in some rare cases) a Member
State, can initiate these proceedings if it has reason to
believe that a certain Member State is failing to fulfil
its obligations under EU law. The Court investigates the
allegations and gives its judgment. If found to be at
fault, the accused Member State must set things right
without delay to avoid the fines the Court can apply.
3. PROCEEDINGS FOR ANNULMENT
If any of the Member States, the Council, the
Commission or (under certain conditions) the
Parliament, believes that a particular EU law is illegal
they may ask the Court to annul it. These proceedings
for annulment can also be used by private individuals
who want the Court to annul a particular law because it
directly and adversely affects them as individuals.
4. PROCEEDINGS FOR FAILURE TO ACT
The treaty requires the European Parliament, the
Council and the Commission to make certain decisions
under certain circumstances. If they fail to do so, the
Member States, other EU institutions and (under certain
conditions) individuals or companies can lodge a
complaint with the Court so as to have this violation
officially recorded.
How the Court works

The Court of Justice is composed of 28 Judges, one
from each Member State, so that all the EU national
legal systems are represented. The Court is assisted by
nine Advocates General who present reasoned opinions
on the cases brought before the Court. They must do so
publicly and impartially. The Judges and Advocates
General are either former members of the highest
national courts or highly competent lawyers who can be
relied on to show impartiality. They are appointed by
joint agreement of the Member State governments.
Each is appointed for a term of 6 years. The Judges of
the Court select a President who serves for 3 years. The
Court of Justice can sit as a full Court, a Grand
Chamber of 13 Judges or Chambers of five or three
Judges, depending on the complexity and importance of
the case. Nearly 60% of cases are heard by Chambers
of five Judges and around 25% by Chambers of three
Judges.
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The General Court is also composed of 28 Judges,

appointed by the Member States for 6-year terms. The
Judges of the General Court also elect a President
among themselves for a 3-year term. This Court sits in
Chambers of three or five Judges (sometimes a single
Judge) to hold hearings. Around 80% of General Court
cases are heard by three Judges. A Grand Chamber of
13 Judges, or a full Chamber of 28, may meet if the
complexity or importance of the case justifies this.
All cases are submitted to the Registry at the Court and
a specific Judge and Advocate General are assigned.
After submission, there are two steps: first, a written
stage and then an oral stage. In the first stage, all the
parties involved submit written statements and the
Judge assigned to the case draws up a report
summarising these statements and the legal
background to the case. This report is discussed at the
Courts General Meeting which decides the judicial
formation that will hear the case and whether oral
arguments are necessary. Then comes the second stage
the public hearing where the lawyers put their
case before the Judges and the Advocate General, who
can question them. After the oral hearing, the Advocate
General assigned to the case draws up his or her
opinion. In the light of this opinion, the Judge draws up
a draft ruling which is submitted to the other Judges for
examination. The Judges then deliberate and deliver
their judgment. Judgments of the Court are decided by
a majority and pronounced at a public hearing. In most
instances the text is available in all official languages
of the EU on the same day. Dissenting opinions are not
expressed.
Not all cases follow this standard procedure. When the
urgency of a case so dictates, simplified and expedited
procedures exist which allow the Court to rule within
approximately 3 months.
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The European Central Bank

Ensuring price stability
Role:
To manage the euro and euro area monetary policy
Members: Euro area national central banks

Location: Frankfurt am Main, Germany
XX http://www.ecb.int
ImageGlobe
Mario Draghi has been

President of the European
Central Bank since 2011.
The purpose of the European Central Bank (ECB) is to

maintain monetary stability in the euro area by
ensuring low and stable consumer price inflation. Stable
prices and low price inflation are considered vital for
sustained economic growth as they encourage
enterprises to invest and create more jobs thus
raising living standards for Europeans. The ECB is an
independent institution and takes its decisions without
seeking or taking instructions from governments or
other EU institutions.
What the ECB does

The ECB was set up in 1998, when the euro was
introduced, to manage monetary policy in the euro area.
The primary objective of the ECB is to maintain price
stability. This is defined as a consumer price inflation
rate of less than, but close to, 2% per annum. The ECB
also acts to support employment and sustainable
economic growth in the Union.
How does the ECB manage price

stability?
The ECB sets the interest rates for lending to
commercial banks, which influences the price and the
amount of money in the economy and thus the
inflation rate. For example, when money is in plentiful
supply, the consumer price inflation rate may rise,
making goods and services more expensive. In
response, the ECB can raise the cost of borrowing by
increasing the interest rate on its loans to commercial
banks which reduces the supply of money and
leads to downward pressure on prices. Likewise, when
there is a need to stimulate economic activity, the ECB
can reduce the interest rate it charges, to encourage
borrowing and investment.
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To carry out its lending operations, the ECB holds and

manages the official foreign reserves of the euro area
members. Other tasks include conducting foreign
exchange operations, promoting efficient payment
systems in support of the single market, approving the
production of euro banknotes by the euro area
members and collating relevant statistical data from
the national central banks. The President of the ECB
represents it at relevant high-level EU and international
meetings.
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The General Council of the European System of

Central Banks comprises the governors of the
28 national central banks, together with the ECB
President and Vice-President.
XX
The Executive Board of the ECB consists of the

President, the Vice-President and four other
members all appointed by the European Council,
acting by a qualified majority, for 8-year terms of
office. The Executive Board is responsible for
implementing monetary policy, the banks day-to-day
operations and preparing Governing Council meetings
as well as exercising certain powers delegated to it
by the Governing Council.
XX
The Governing Council of the ECB comprises the six

members of the ECB Executive Board and the
Governors of the national central banks of the
19 euro area members: together they form the
Eurosystem. The Governing Council is the main
decision-taking body of the ECB and meets twice a
month. As a rule, at its first meeting each month, the
Governing Council assesses economic and monetary
developments and takes its monthly monetary policy
decisions. At its second meeting, the Council mainly
discusses issues related to other tasks and
responsibilities of the ECB.
How the ECB works

The European Central Bank is an institution of economic
and monetary union (EMU) to which all EU Member
States belong. Joining the euro area and adopting the
single currency the euro is the final phase of
EMU. Not all EU Member States belong to the euro area:
some are still preparing their economies to join, and
others have opt-outs. The ECB stands at the core of the
European System of Central Banks, which brings
together the ECB and the national central banks of all
EU Member States. The organisation of the ECB reflects
this situation in its three main groupings.
Aores (PT)
EU Member States using the euro as of 2015

AT:
BE:
CY:
DE:
EE:
EL:
ES:
Austria
Belgium
Cyprus
Germany
Estonia
Greece
Spain
FI:
FR:
IE:
IT:
LT:
LV:
LU:
Finland
France
Ireland
Italy
Lithuania
Latvia
Luxembourg
MT:
NL:
PT:
SI:
SK:
Madeira (PT)
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Denmark
Croatia
Hungary
PL:
RO:
SE:
UK:
FI
Guyane
(FR)
EE
SE
LV
DK
IE
LT
UK
EU Member States not using the euro

BG:
CZ:
DK:
HR:
HU:
Canarias (ES)
Malta
Netherlands
Portugal
Slovenia
Slovakia
NL
Poland
Romania
Sweden
United
Kingdom
PL
DE
BE
LU
CZ
SK
FR
AT
IT
HU
SI HR
RO
PT
BG
ES
EL
MT
CY
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Economic governance: Who does what?

Economic and monetary union (EMU) is a core
element of European integration and all EU Member
States are part of it. Fiscal policy (tax and spending)
remains in the hands of individual national
governments, as do policies about labour and
welfare. However, the coordination of sound public
finances and structural policies is vital for EMU to
function effectively. The responsibilities are shared
between the Member States and EU institutions as
follows.
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The European Council sets the main policy

orientations.
XX
The Council coordinates EU economic

policymaking and takes decisions which can bind
individual EU Member States.
XX
The EU Member States set their national

budgets within agreed limits for deficit and debt,
and determine their own structural policies
involving labour, pensions, welfare and markets.
XX
The euro area Member States coordinate

policies of common interest for the euro area at
the level of Heads of State or Government in the
euro summit and at the level of finance
ministers in the Eurogroup.
XX
The European Central Bank sets monetary

policy for the euro area, with price stability as
the prime objective.
XX
The European Commission monitors what the

EU Member States are doing and issues policy
recommendations.
XX
The European Parliament shares the job of

formulating legislation with the Council and
exercises democratic oversight of the economic
governance process.
XX
The European Stability Mechanism is the

financial body owned by the euro area countries
to provide assistance to euro countries
experiencing, or threatened by, severe financial
difficulties. In the years 201113, this so-called
fire-wall helped five euro countries to overcome
the worldwide economic crisis.
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Supervision of banks
In response to the economic crisis, the ECB now also
oversees that banks operate in a safe and reliable way.
The weakness of some large banks and the differences
in rules and controls among countries were major
factors leading to the crisis. New EU banking rules set
stricter conditions for banks, in particular the amount of
reserves they must have. Under the Single Supervisory
Mechanism the ECB directly supervises the largest
credit institutions, while the national supervisory
authorities monitor the smaller ones, under a common
system. The mechanism covers all euro area countries.
Other EU countries can choose to participate.
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The European Court of Auditors

Helping to improve EU financial management
Role:
To check that EU funds are collected and used correctly, and help improve EU financial
management
Members: One from each EU Member State

Location: Luxembourg
XX http://eca.europa.eu
The European Court of Auditors (ECA) is the independent

external audit institution of the European Union. It
checks that the Unions income has been received
correctly, that its expenditure has been incurred in a
legal and regular manner, and that financial
management has been sound. It performs its tasks
independently from the other EU institutions and
governments. In doing so, it contributes to improving
the management of European Union funds in the
interests of its citizens.
What the European Court of Auditors

does
The European Court of Auditors main role is to check
that the EU budget is correctly implemented in other
words, that EU income and expenditure is legal and
regular, and financial management is sound. This work
helps to ensure that the EU is managed efficiently and
effectively. To carry out its tasks, the ECA undertakes
detailed audits of EU income or expenditure at all levels
of the administration of EU funds. It carries out on-the-
spot checks at the organisations managing the funds, or

the beneficiaries receiving them, both in the EU Member
States and in other countries. Its findings are published
in annual and specific reports, which draw the attention
of the Commission and the Member States to errors
and weaknesses found, and make recommendations for
improvement.
Another key function is for the European Court of
Auditors to help the budgetary authority (the European
Parliament and the Council) by providing them with an
annual report on the implementation of the EU budget
for the previous financial year. The ECAs findings and
conclusions in this report play an important role in the
Parliaments discharge decision on the Commissions
handling of the budget.
The European Court of Auditors also gives its opinion on
new or revised EU regulations with financial impact at
the request by the other EU institutions. The ECA can
also issue position papers on other issues on its own
initiative.
ImageGlobe
Ear tags on cows help EU auditors keep

track of where EU money has been spent.
30
How the European Court of Auditors
works
The European Court of Auditors operates as a collegiate
body of 28 Members, one from each EU Member State.
The Members are appointed by the Council, after
consultation with the European Parliament, for a
renewable term of 6 years. They are chosen for their
competence and independence, and work full-time for
the ECA. They elect one of their number as President for
a term of 3 years.
To be effective, the Court of Auditors like any other
supreme audit institution must remain independent
of the institutions and bodies it audits. The ECA is free
to: select its audit topics, the specific scope and
approach to be followed; decide how and when to
present the results of its selected audits; and choose
the publicity to be given to its reports and opinions.
These are important elements of independence.
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The European Court of Auditors is divided into

chambers, which prepare the reports and opinions for
adoption by the ECA. The chambers are supported by
qualified staff originating from all Member States. The
auditors frequently audit in the other EU institutions,
the Member States and other beneficiary countries. The
ECA also cooperates closely with supreme audit
institutions in the Member States. Indeed, although the
ECAs work largely concerns the EU budget for which
the Commission retains overall responsibility in
practice, management of over 80% of expenditure is
shared with national authorities.
The European Court of Auditors has no judicial powers
but through its work brings irregularities, weaknesses
and cases of suspected fraud to the attention of the EU
bodies responsible for taking action, including the
European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF). Since its creation in
1977, the ECA has made a significant impact on the
financial management of the EU budget through its
objective reports and opinions. In doing so, it has
fulfilled its role of independent guardian of the financial
interests of the citizens of the Union.
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The European Economic and

Social Committee
The voice of civil society
Role:
To represent organised civil society
Members: 353 from all EU Member States

Location: Brussels
XX http://www.eesc.europa.eu
The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC)

is an advisory body of the European Union. It is a
unique forum for consultation, dialogue and
consensus between representatives from all the
different sectors of organised civil society, including
employers, trade unions and groups such as
professional and community associations, youth
organisations, womens groups, consumers,
environmental campaigners and many more. The
members of the EESC are not bound by any
mandatory instructions and work in the Unions
general interest. The EESC thus acts as a bridge
between the EU institutions and EU citizens,
promoting a more participatory, more inclusive and
therefore more democratic society in the European
Union.
What the EESC does

The EESC has three key tasks:
XX
to advise the European Parliament, the Council and

the European Commission;
XX
to make sure the views of civil society

organisations are heard in Brussels and to increase
their awareness of the impact of EU legislation on
the lives of EU citizens;
XX
to support and strengthen organised civil society

both inside and outside the EU.
The Committee shall be consulted by the European

Parliament, by the Council or by the Commission in
many fields foreseen by the treaties. In addition to
the range of compulsory consultation, the Committee
may issue opinions on its own initiative in cases in
which it considers that such action is important to
defend the interests of civil society. It also produces

exploratory opinions, requested by EU lawmakers
when they want an overview of civil societys views,
and publishes information reports on topical issues.
The EESC delivers around 170 opinions on a yearly
basis, of which roughly 15% are issued on its own
initiative.
How the EESC works

The EESC is made up of 353 members from 28 EU
Member States. The members come from all social
and professional backgrounds and have a vast range
of knowledge and experience. They are appointed by
the Council for a term of 5 years on a proposal by
Member States but they work independently for the
EESC in the interests of all EU citizens. Members are
not based full-time in Brussels: most continue to do
their own jobs in their home countries, which means
they can stay in touch with people back home.
The members of the Committee are organised
internally into three groups: employers, workers and
various interests. The aim is to build consensus
between these groups so that EESC opinions truly
reflect the economic and social interests of EU
citizens. The EESC elects its President and two
Vice-Presidents for a term of 2 years. EESC
members meet nine times a year in plenary sessions
in Brussels where opinions are approved by simple
majority voting. Preparation for these plenary
sessions is done by six thematic sections headed by
Committee members and supported by the
Committees Brussels-based Secretariat-General. The
thematic sections and committees are:
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the section for economic and monetary union and

economic and social cohesion (ECO);
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Associated Press/Reporters
The planning of energy supplies

is of concern to all Europeans
as well as to civil society
organisations in the European
Economic and Social
Committee.
XX
the section for the single market, production and

consumption (INT);
Relations with economic and social

councils
XX
the section for agriculture, rural development and the

environment (NAT);
XX
the section for external relations (REX);
The EESC maintains regular links with regional and

national economic and social councils throughout the
European Union. These links mainly involve exchanges
of information and joint discussions every year on
specific issues.
XX
the section for employment, social affairs and

citizenship (SOC);
XX
the section for transport, energy, infrastructure and

the information society (TEN);
XX
the Consultative Commission on Industrial Change

(CCMI).
The EESC tracks the progress of long-term EU

strategies through the so-called observatories and a
steering committee that monitor their implementation
and impact at grass-roots level. They deal with
sustainable development, the labour market, the single
market and the Europe 2020 growth strategy
respectively.
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The Committee of the Regions

The voice of local government
Role:
To represent Europes cities and regions
Members: 353 from all EU Member States

Location: Brussels
XX http://www.cor.europa.eu
The Committee of the Regions (CoR) is an advisory body

composed of representatives of Europes regional and
local authorities. It gives the regions of Europe a say in
EU policymaking and checks that regional and local
identities, competences and needs are respected. The
Council and the Commission must consult the CoR on
matters that concern local and regional government,
such as regional policy, the environment, education and
transport.
What the Committee of the Regions does

As around three quarters of EU legislation is
implemented at local or regional levels, it makes sense
for local and regional representatives to have a say in
the development of new EU laws. By involving the
elected local representatives, who are perhaps closest
to Europes citizens and their concerns, the CoR is a
force for a more democratic and accountable EU.
The Commission and the European Parliament are
obliged to consult the CoR on legislative proposals in
policy areas that directly affect local and regional
authorities for example, civil protection, climate
change and energy. Once the CoR receives a legislative
proposal, the members discuss it in plenary session,
adopt it by a majority vote and issue an opinion.
Importantly, the Commission and the Parliament are not
obliged to follow the advice of the CoR, but they are
obliged to consult it. If the appropriate mandatory
consultation in the legislative process has been ignored,
the CoR has the right to bring actions before the Court
of Justice. The CoR can also, on its own initiative, offer
opinions on topical issues.
How the CoR works

The Committee members are elected municipal or
regional politicians, representing the entire range of
local and regional government activities in the EU. They
may be regional presidents, regional parliamentarians,
town councillors or mayors of large cities. They all have
to hold a political office in their home country. EU
governments nominate them, but they work with
complete political independence. The Council appoints
them for 5 years, and they may be reappointed. The
CoR appoints a President from among its members, for
a term of 2 half years.
CoR members live and work in their home regions. They
meet in Brussels five times a year in plenary sessions,
during which policy is defined and opinions are adopted.
Six specialist commissions, made up of CoR members
and covering different policy areas, prepare the plenary
sessions:
XX
Commission for Territorial Cohesion Policy (COTER);
XX
Commission for Economic and Social Policy (ECOS);
XX
Commission for Sustainable Development (DEVE);
XX
Commission for Education, Youth, Culture and

Research (EDUC);
XX
Commission for Environment, Climate Change and

Energy (ENVE);
XX
Commission for Citizenship, Governance, Institutional

and External Affairs (CIVEX);
XX
Commission for Natural Resources (NAT).
CoR members are also grouped into national

delegations, one for each Member State. Interregional
groups also exist to promote cross-border cooperation.
In addition, there are four political groupings.
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The European Ombudsman

Investigating your complaints
Role:
To investigate maladministration
Location: Strasbourg
XX http://www.ombudsman.europa.eu
What the Ombudsman does

The Ombudsman is elected by the European Parliament
for a renewable term of 5 years. By receiving and
investigating complaints, the Ombudsman helps to
uncover maladministration in the European institutions
and other EU bodies in other words, cases where an
EU institution fails to do something it should have done,
or does it in the wrong way, or does something that
ought not to be done. Examples of maladministration
include:
XX
unfairness;
XX
discrimination;
XX
abuse of power;
XX
lack or refusal of information;
XX
unnecessary delay;
XX
incorrect procedures.
Any citizen or resident of an EU Member State can

make a complaint to the Ombudsman, as can any
association or business. The Ombudsman only deals
with EU institutions and bodies, not with complaints
against national, regional or local government
authorities or institutions. He operates completely
independently and impartially and does not request or
accept instructions from any government or
organisation.
Often, the Ombudsman may simply need to inform the

institution concerned about a complaint in order for it to
resolve the problem. If the case is not resolved
satisfactorily during the course of his inquiries, the
Ombudsman will try, if possible, to find an amicable
solution which puts right the case of maladministration
and satisfies the complainant. If this fails, the
Ombudsman can make recommendations to solve the
case. If the institution concerned does not accept his
recommendations, he can make a special report to the
European Parliament.
The Ombudsmans website has a practical guide on how
to lodge a complaint.
EU
The European Ombudsman investigates complaints

about cases of poor or failed administration
(maladministration) by the EU institutions. The
Ombudsman receives and investigates complaints from
EU citizens, residents, businesses and institutions.
In her role as Ombudsman, Emily O'Reilly examines

complaints of poor and failed administration in the EU system.
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The European Data Protection Supervisor

Protecting your privacy
Role:
To protect citizens personal data processed by the EU institutions and bodies
Location: Brussels
XX http://www.edps.europa.eu
In the course of their work, the European institutions
may store and process personal information on EU
citizens and residents in electronic, written or visual
format. The European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS)
is charged with protecting this personal data and
peoples privacy, and with promoting good practice in
this field among the EU institutions and bodies.
What the European Data Protection

Supervisor does
Strict European regulations govern EU institutions use
of citizens personal data such as names, addresses,
health data or employment history and protection of
this information is a fundamental right. Each EU
institution has a data protection officer who ensures
that certain obligations are respected for example,
that data can only be processed for specific and
legitimate reasons. Furthermore, the person whose data
is being processed has certain enforceable rights, such
as the right to correct the data. The job of the EDPS is
to supervise the data protection activities and systems
of the EU institutions and to ensure they comply with
best practice. The EDPS also deals with complaints and
conducts inquiries. Other tasks include:
XX
monitoring the EU administrations processing of

personal data;
XX
advising on policies and legislation that affect

privacy;
XX
cooperating with similar authorities in the Member

States to ensure consistent data protection.
How the EDPS works

For everyday operations, the EDPS comprises two
entities. Supervision and Enforcement evaluates data
protection compliance by the EU institutions and bodies.
Policy and Consultation advises the EU legislator on
data protection issues in a range of policy areas and in
proposals for new legislation. The EDPS also monitors
new technologies that may have an impact on data
protection.
Anyone who considers that his or her rights have been
infringed when an EU institution or body has processed
data relating to him or her can complain to the
European Data Protection Supervisor. The complaint
must be lodged using a complaint submission form
available on the EDPS website.
36
H O W
T H E
E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
The European Investment Bank

Investing in the future
Role:
To make long-term finance available for investments in EU-related projects
Shareholders:
The EU Member States
Board of Directors: One from each Member State plus the European Commission
Location:
Luxembourg
XX http://www.eib.org
The European Investment Bank (EIB) is the Bank of the

European Union. It is owned by the Member States and
its mission is to lend money for investments that
support the Unions objectives for example, in the
fields of energy and transport networks, environmental
sustainability and innovation. The EIBs focus is on
increasing Europes jobs and growth potential,
supporting climate action and supporting the EUs
policies beyond its borders.
The EIB is AAA rated. The EIB usually lends up to 50%

of the project costs. Acting as a catalyst, it leverages
co-funding from other sources. For loans above
25million, the EIB lends directly to public and private
sector bodies, such as governments and enterprises. For
smaller loans, the EIB makes credit lines available to
commercial banks and other financial institutions that
on-lend the EIB funds to small and medium-sized
enterprises or smaller projects undertaken by public
sector borrowers.
What the EIB does
Within the EU, the priorities for the EIBs lending

activities are:
The EIB is the largest multilateral borrower and lender,

providing finance and expertise for sound and
sustainable investment projects, mostly in the EU.
Frances Viaduc de Millau and TGV lines, flood
protection in Venice, wind farms in the United Kingdom,
Scandinavias Oresund bridge, the Athens metro and the
clean-up of the Baltic Sea are but a few of the
thousands of projects financed by the EIB over the
years.
The EIB does not use money from the EU budget.
Instead, it finances itself by issuing bonds on world
financial markets. In 2013, the EIB lent 79billion for
400 large projects in over 60 countries 69billion in
the EU Member States and 10billion outside the EU
with a focus on the pre-accession countries, Europes
southern and eastern neighbours, Africa, the Caribbean
and the Pacific, and Latin America and Asia.
XX
innovation and skills,
XX
access to finance for smaller businesses,
XX
climate action,
XX
trans-European networks for transport, energy and IT.
G U I D E
T O
T H E
E U
37
ImageGlobe
Y O U R
The construction of new railway lines is among the type of projects that may benefit from loans from the
EuropeanInvestmentBank.
How the EIB works

The EIB is an autonomous institution that makes its
own borrowing and lending decisions on the merits of
each project and the opportunities offered by the
financial markets. The Bank cooperates with the other
EU institutions, especially the European Commission,
the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers.
The EIBs decisions are taken by the following bodies.
XX
The Board of Governors consists of ministers

(normally the finance ministers) from all the Member
States. It defines the Banks general lending policy.
XX
The Board of Directors, chaired by the President of

the Bank, comprises 29 members, 28 appointed by
the Member States and one by the European
Commission. It approves lending and borrowing
operations.
XX
The Management Committee is the Banks full-time

executive body. It handles the EIBs day-to-day
business.
The European Investment Fund

The EIB is the majority shareholder in the European
Investment Fund (EIF), which finances investment in
SMEs, which comprise 99% of EU companies and
employ over 100 million Europeans. SMEs often find
it difficult to get the funding they need to invest and
grow. This is especially true for start-ups and small
companies with innovative products or services
exactly those entrepreneurial SMEs that the EU
wants to encourage. The EIF meets these needs
through venture capital and risk finance instruments
amounting to several billion euro annually
partly offered in partnership with the European
Commission, commercial banks and other lenders.
http://www.eif.org
38
H O W
T H E
E U R O P E A N
U N I O N
W O R K S
The EU agencies
There are a number of specialised European Union
agencies which offer information or advice to the EU
institutions, the Member States and citizens. Each of
these agencies has a specific technical, scientific or
managerial task. EU agencies can be grouped into
several categories.
Decentralised agencies
Agencies are bodies governed by European public law,
but they are distinct from the EU institutions
(Parliament, Council, Commission, etc.) and have their
own legal personality. They have offices in different
cities all over Europe, which is why they are often
referred to as decentralised. They may deal with tasks
of a legal and scientific nature. Examples are the Plant
Variety Office, in Angers in France, which establishes
rights to new plant varieties, or the European Monitoring
Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, in Lisbon in
Portugal, which analyses and disseminates information
on drugs and drug addiction.
Three supervisory bodies help to enforce rules for
financial institutions and thereby preserve the stability
of Europes financial system. They are the European
Banking Authority, the European Insurance and
Occupational Pensions Authority and the European
Securities and Markets Regulator.
Other agencies help the EU Member States to cooperate

in the fight against organised international crime. An
example is Europol, based in The Hague in the
Netherlands, which provides a platform for law
enforcement officers from the EU countries to work
together. They help each other to identify and track the
most dangerous criminal and terrorist networks in
Europe.
Three agencies carry out very specific tasks within the
framework of the European Unions common foreign
and security policy. The European Union Satellite Centre,
in Torrejn de Ardoz in Spain, is such an agency; it uses
information from earth-observation satellites in support
of EU decision-making in foreign and security matters.
Euratom agencies and bodies

These bodies works within the framework of the
European Atomic Energy Community Treaty (Euratom)
to coordinate research in the EU Member States on the
peaceful use of nuclear energy and to ensure that the
supply of atomic energy is both sufficient and secure.
Executive agencies
Executive agencies ensure practical management of EU
programmes, for example treatment of applications for
grants from the EU budget. They are set up for a fixed
ImageGlobe
The safety of our food needs

to be controlled all over Europe
coordinating this work is a
typical task for an EU agency.
Y O U R
G U I D E
T O
T H E
E U
39
period of time and they have to be located in the same

place as the European Commission: Brussels or
Luxembourg. One example is the European Research
Council, which funds basic research by groups of EU
scientists.
Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators (ACER)
Body of European Regulators for Electronic
Communications (BEREC)
Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO)
Consumers, Health and Food Executive Agency
(Chafea)
European GNSS Agency (GSA)

European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE)
European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT)
European Insurance and Occupational Pensions
Authority (EIOPA)
European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA)
European Medicines Agency (EMA)
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction (EMCDDA)
European Police College (CEPOL)
Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency

(EACEA)
European Police Office (Europol)
Euratom Supply Agency (ESA)
European Railway Agency (ERA)
Eurojust
European Research Council Executive Agency (ERCEA)
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work

(EU-OSHA)
European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA)
European Agency for the Management of Operational

Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member
States of the European Union (Frontex)
European Agency for the Operational Management of
Large-scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security
and Justice (eu-LISA)
European Training Foundation (ETF)

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)
European Union Agency for Network and Information
Security (ENISA)
European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS)
European Asylum Support Office (EASO)
European Union Satellite Centre (EUSC)
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
Executive Agency for Small and Medium-sized

enterprises (EASME)
European Banking Authority (EBA)
Innovation and Networks Executive Agency (INEA)
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control

(ECDC)
Fusion for Energy Joint Undertaking
European Centre for the Development of Vocational

Training (Cedefop)
Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade

Marks and Designs) (OHIM)
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA)
Research Executive Agency (REA)
European Defence Agency (EDA)
Single Resolution Board (SRB)
European Environment Agency (EEA)
Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union

(CdT)
European Fisheries Control Agency (EFCA)

European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and
Working Conditions (Eurofound)
All EU agencies can be found via:
XX http://europa.eu/agencies/index_en.htm
Getting in touch with the EU

ONLINE
Information in all the official languages of the European Union is available
on the Europa website: www.europa.eu
IN PERSON
All over Europe there are hundreds of local EU information centres.
You can find the address of the centre nearest you at: www.europedirect.europa.eu
ON THE PHONE OR BY MAIL

Europe Direct is a service which answers your questions about the European Union.
You can contact this service by freephone: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (certain mobile telephone
operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or may charge for these calls), or by payphone
from outside the EU: +32 22999696, or by e-mail via www.europedirect.europa.eu
READ ABOUT EUROPE
Publications about the EU are only a click away on the EU Bookshop website: www.bookshop.europa.eu
You can also obtain information and booklets in English about the European Union from:
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
REPRESENTATIONS
Representation in Ireland
European Union House
18 Dawson Street
Dublin 2
IRELAND
Tel. +353 16341111
Internet: http://www.ec.europa.eu/ireland
E-mail: eu-ie-info-request@ec.europa.eu
European Commission Representation in the
United Kingdom
Europe House
32 Smith Square
London SW1P 3EU
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2079731992
Internet: http://www.ec.europa.eu/uk
European Commission Office in Northern
Ireland
7476 Dublin Road
Belfast BT2 7HP
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2890240708
European Commission Office in Scotland
9 Alva Street
Edinburgh EH2 4PH
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 1312252058
Delegation in the United States

2175 K Street, NW
Washington DC 20037
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Tel. +1 2028629500
Internet: http://www.eurunion.org
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
INFORMATION OFFICES
Information Office in Ireland
43 Molesworth Street
Dublin 2
IRELAND
Tel. +353 16057900
Internet: http://www.europarl.ie
E-mail: epdublin@europarl.europa.eu
Information Office in the United Kingdom
Europe House
32 Smith Square
London SW1P 3EU
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2072274300
Internet: http://www.europarl.org.uk
E-mail: eplondon@europarl.europa.eu
Information Office in Scotland
The Tun, 4 Jacksons Entry
Holyrood Road
Edinburgh EH8 8PJ
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 1315577866
Internet: http://www.europarl.org.uk
E-mail: epedinburgh@europarl.europa.eu
European Commission Office in Wales

2 Caspian Point, Caspian Way
Cardiff CF10 4QQ
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2920895020
There are European Commission and Parliament
representations and offices in all the countries of
the European Union. The European Union also has
delegations in other parts of the world.
The European Union
Lefkosa
Member States of the European Union (2014)

Candidate countries and potential candidates
NA-04-14-810-EN-C
The European Union (EU) is unique. It is not a federal state like the United States
of America because its Member States remain independent sovereign nations.
Nor is it a purely intergovernmental organisation like the United Nations because
the Member States do pool some of their sovereignty and thus gain much
greater collective strength and influence than they could have acting individually.
They pool their sovereignty by taking joint decisions through shared institutions
such as the European Parliament, which is elected by the EU citizens, and the
European Council and the Council, which both represent national governments.
They decide on the basis of proposals from the European Commission, which
represent the interests of the EU as a whole. But what does each of these
institutions do? How do they work together? Who is responsible for what?
This booklet sets out the answers. It also gives a brief overview of the agencies
and other bodies that are involved in the European Unions work. The aim is to
provide you with a helpful guide to EU decision-making.
ISBN 978-92-79-39909-1
doi:10.2775/11255

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THE EUROPEAN

THE EUROPEAN UNION

The European Union explained:

Introducing the European Union

This publication is a guide on how the European Union

The European Union in brief

European values around the world. The success of these

What this publication is about

On 9 May 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman first

The last amending treaty the Lisbon Treaty

The Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance

A history of the EU treaties

The Treaty of Paris, establishing the European

The Treaty on European Union (TEU) the

The Treaty of Nice was signed on 26 February

Who takes the decisions?

A directive is a law that binds the Member States,

A decision can be addressed to Member States,

Recommendations and opinions have no binding

Decision-making at EU level involves various European

the European Parliament, which represents the

the European Council, which consists of the

the Council, which represents the governments of the

the European Commission, which represents the

The European Council defines the general political

What types of legislation are there?

A regulation is a law that is applicable and binding

How is legislation passed?

The freedom for all citizens to

ORDINARY LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE

1. Proposal from the Commission

7. Council approves Parliaments position.

8. Council and Parliament disagree on amendments.

12. Council approves all Parliaments amendments to

13. Council and Parliament disagree on amendments

16. Parliament and Council agree with the proposal

17. Parliament and/or Council disagree with the

individuals. The opinions collected feed into a

the Committee of the Regions, which ensures that

In addition, other institutions and bodies may be

Who is consulted, who can object?

In addition to the CommissionCouncilParliament

the European Economic and Social Committee,

Citizens can now propose new laws, by means of the European

exclusive powers, the Union only acts where action will

What decisions are taken

Fiscal policy which concerns decisions about taxation,

The EU and foreign relations

All EU Member States are part of the economic and

The European External Action Service (EEAS) serves as a

Monetary policy which deals with price stability and

The Council develops and takes decisions in the field of

The European Parliament

Directly elected legislative arm of the EU

Members: 751 Members of the European Parliament

Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are

Composition of the European

NUMBER OF MEPS PER MEMBER STATE IN 2014

Most MEPs are associated with a national political party