OPTIONAL MODULE - 2

Chemistry

Chemistry and Industry

33
POLYMERS

Notes

In the previous lesson you have studied about petrochemicals, and their importance. You
also studied about the uses of petrochemicals. In this lesson we continue with a detailed
study of another vast area i.e. polymers. Today polymers have influenced our life style to
the extent that it would not be wrong to say that we are in polymer age. Now-a-days
polymers find wide range of uses starting from common household utensils, automobiles,
clothes, furniture, etc., to space-aircraft and biomedical and surgical components.
Polymeric materials are light weight but can possess excellent mechanical properties and
can be easily processed by different methods. In this lesson you would learn more about
polymers, their types and some important-synthetic and natural polymers. In the next
lesson you would learn about the colouring materials like dyes, paints and pigments.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to :

define the terms like monomers, polymer, homopolymer, copolymer and

polymerization;

classify polymers on the basis of their source, molecular forces and method of
preparation;

list the monomers of the polymers like natural and synthetic rubber;

list the monomer of the polymer like polythene, polystyrene, Buna- S, PMMA, PVC,
teflon, polyester, Nylon 66 and Nylon 6;

define biodegradable polymers and

cite examples of some biopolymers.

33.1 What are Polymers

A Polymer is a giant molecule formed by inter molecular linkage between same or different
types of smaller molecules called monomers. If a large number of monomers (A) are
linked together then the polymer is represented as (A n) ( A A A A A) is a
n
polymer of the monomer of (A). For example, polyethene
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Polymers

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2

is a polymer of the monomer ethylene (CH2 = CH2).

n
Polymer is a high molecular mass molecule formed by linking up of two or more small
molecules called monomers.

Chemistry and Industry

( CH2 CH2)

Monomers are the small molecule which are capable of linking amongst themselves to
form big molecules called polymers.
In some polymers more than one type of monomers combine with each other to give the
polymer. For example, a polymer may be obtained from two monomers (A) and (B) viz,
A B A B

or

Notes

(A B )n

33.1.1 Types of Polymers

Depending upon the nature of the repeating structural units (monomers), polymers are
divided into two broad categories viz., homopolymers and copolymers
(a) Homopolymer
A polymer formed from only one kind of monomers is called homopolymer. Polyethene
( CH2 CH2 )n is an example of homopolymer.
(b) Copolymer
A polymer formed from more than one kind of monomer units is called copolymer or
mixed polymer. For example, Buna-S rubber which is formed from 1, 3-butadiene
(CH2 = CH CH = CH2) and styrene (C6 H5 CH = CH2) is an example of copolymer.

33.2 Polymerization
The process by which the monomers get linked up is called polymerization.
Polymerization is represented as :
M+M

M M

D im mer

M M M
Trimer

M*

M (M) n

Polymer

where M stands for the monomer

33.2.1 Types of Polymerization

Depending upon the mode of reaction, polymerisation is classified as :
(a) addition polymerization and
(b) condensation polymerization.
(a) Addition Polymerization : This process involves the addition of monomer units to
themselves to form a growing chain by a chain reaction mechanism. It is for this reason
that the process is also known as chain growth polymerization.
Addition polymerization is achieved by adding a catalyst (known as initiator), which
provides some reactive species like free radicals.
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Chemistry
For example benzoyl peroxide provides free radical benzyl to initiate the chain
polymerization reaction.

H 5 C6 C O O C C6 H 5 2C6 H 5 2CO 2

||
||
(or R)
O
O

Notes

R CH 2 CH 2 R CH 2 C H 2
(Monomer)

Initiation

These free radicals (R ) then attack the unsaturated monomer and form a new free radical
which goes on successively adding monomers and thus grows the chain, this is called
Chain propagation :

R CH2 CH2 + CH2 = CH2

R CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

or M
The final termination of the two growing chains leads to a polymer. This is called chain
termination :

Condensation Polymerization : In this, the monomers combine with the elimination of

a small molecule like H2O, ROH or NH3, etc. The reaction is called (step growth)
condensation polymerization and the product formed is called condensation polymer.
The process involves the elimination of by product molecules, therefore, the molecular
mass of the polymer is not the integral multiple of the monomer units.
For example polyester or Terylene is a condensation polymer of ethylene glycol and
terphthallic acid.

HO CH2 CH2 OH + HOOC

Ethelene glycol

terphthallicacid

H2O
O CH2 CH2 OOC

COOH

O
C
n

Poly (ethylene terphthalate) or (Terylene)

These two processes of making polymers have several characteristics which distinguish
them from each other. These are shown in (Table 33.1).
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Polymers
Table 33.1 : Some differences between addition polymerization and
condensation polymerization
Addition Polymerization

Condensation polymerization
(Polycondensation)

1.

1.

Involves unsaturated
monomere like ethylene, vinyl
chloride, styrene etc.

Involves substances with at

least 2 functional groups like
ethylene glycol (2-OH groups),
adipic acid (2-COOH groups).

2.

Fast addition of monomers.

2.

Step-wise slow addition.

3.

At any instant, only monomer

and polymers are present.

3.

No monomer. Mixtures of
dimers, trimers and tetramers
etc. are present

4.

Initiator is necessary to
catalyse the polymerization.

4.

Catalyst is not necessary.

5.

No small molecules are eliminated.

5.

Small molecules like H2O,

HCl, CO2, CH3OH are often
eliminated.

6.

Polymers made are, for

example, polyethene,
polypropylene, polybutadiene,
polyvinylchloride.

6.

Polymer made are, for

example , terylene, nylon,
Formaldehyde-resins, silicones.

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

Notes

Intext Questions 33.1

1.

Define the terms :

(i) Polymer

(ii) Monomer

..............................................................................................................................................

2.

Write one example of each of :

(i) Addition polymerization

(ii) Condensation polymerization.

..............................................................................................................................................

3.

Differentiate between homopolymers and copolymers.

..............................................................................................................................................

4.

Write monomers of Terylene and Nylon-66.

..............................................................................................................................................

33.3 Classification of Polymers

The polymers can be classified in a number of ways. Some of these are discussed below
for a systematic investigation of their properties and uses.
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(a) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Origin.
On the basis of origin, polymers are classified as :
1. Natural polymers
2. Synthetic polymers
1. Natural Polymers : The polymers obtained from nature (plants and animals) are
called natural polymers. Starch, cellulose, natural rubber, proteins, etc. are some
examples.

Notes

2. Synthetic Polymers : The polymers which are prepared in the laboratories are called
synthetic polymers. These are also called man-made polymers. Polyethene, PVC,
nylon, Teflon, bakelite, terylene, synthetic rubber, etc. are common examples.
(b) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of structure
On the basis of structure of polymers, these can be classified as :
1. Linear polymers
2. Branched chain polymers
3. Cross-linked polymers.
1. Linear polymers : These are polymers in which monomeric units are linked together
to form linear chains. These linear polymers are well packed (Fig. 33.1) and therefore,
have high densities, high tensile (pulling) strength and high melting points. For
example, polyethelene, nylons and polyesters are examples of linear polymers.
2. Branched chain polymers : These are polymers in which the monomers are joined
to form long chain with side chains or branches of different lengths [Fig. 33.2]. These
branched chains polymers are irregularly packed and therefore, they have lower tensile
strength and melting points than linear polymers. For example, low density polyethene,
glycogen, starch, etc.
3. Cross-linked polymers : These are polymers in which long polymer chains are crosslinked together to from a three dimensional network. These polymers are hard, rigid
and brittle because of the network structure. (Fig. 33.3) bakelite, melamine and
formaldehyde resin are some examples of this type.

Fig. 33.1 : Linear Polymers

84

Fig 33.2 : Branched chain polymers

Fig. 33.3 : Cross linked polymers

Polymers
(c) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Method of Polymerisation

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

On the basis of method of polymerisation the polymers are classified as :

1. Addition polymer : A polymer formed by direct addition of repeated monomers
without the elimination of any small molecule is called addition polymer. In this
type, the monomers are unsaturated compounds and are generally derivatives of ethene.
The addition polymers have the same empirical formula as their monomers. Examples
are polyethene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride, etc.
2. Condensation polymer : A polymer formed by the condensation of two or more
than two monomers with the elimination of simple molecules like water, ammonia,
hydrogen chloride, alcohol, etc. is called condensation polymer. In this type, each
monomer generally contains two functional groups. For example, nylon 66 is
obtained by the condensation of two monomers; hexa methylenediamine and adipic
acid with the loss of water molecules.

Notes

nHO
n H2N (CH2 )6 NH2 + nHOOC (CH2) 4 COOH 2

O
(NH (CH2)6 NH C (CH2)4 C O )
n
nylon - 66

In this polymerization reaction NH2 group of hexamethylenediamine reacts with COOH

group of adipic acid forming NH CO linkage with the elimination of H 2O.

H O

O
H O

N H + HO C 2

NC
linkage

Examples of condensation polymers are Nylon 66, terylene, bakelite, alkylresins, etc.
(d) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Molecular Forces
Depending upon the intermolecular forces between monomer molecules, the polymers
have been classified into four types.
1. Elastomers

2. Fibers

3. Thermoplastics

4. Thermosetting

1. Elastomers : In case of elastomers the polymer chains are held together by weak
van der waals forces. Due to weak forces, the polymers can be easily stretched on
applying small stress and they regain their original shape when the stress is removed.
This is due to the presence of few- cross links between the chains, which help the
polymer to retract to its original position after the force is removed, as in vulcanized
rubber.
The most important example of elastomer is natural rubber.
2. Fibres : These are the polymers which have strong intermolecular forces between
the chains. These forces are either hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole interactions.
Because of the strong forces, the chains are closely packed, giving them high tensile
strength and less elasticity. These polymers can be drawn into long, thin and thread
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Chemistry and Industry

Notes

like fibres and therefore can be woven into fabrics. The common examples are nylon66, dacron, silk, etc.
3. Thermoplastics : These are linear polymers with very few cross linkages or no cross
linkages at all. The polymeric chains are held by weak VANDER WAAL forces and
slide over one another. Due to lack of cross linkages these polymers soften on heating
and harden or become rigid on cooling. Thus they can be moulded to any shape.
Polythene, PVC, polystyrene are addition type thermoplastics and Terylene, nylon
are condensation type thermoplastics.
Plasticizers : Certain plastics do not soften much on heating. These can be easily
softened by the addition of some organic compounds which are called plasticizers.
For example, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is very stiff and hard but is made soft by
adding di-n-butylphthalate (a plasticizer). Some other common plasticizers are dialkyl
phthalates and cresyl phthalate.
4. Thermosetting polymers : Usually thermosetting polymer can be heated only once
when it permanently sets into a solid which can not be remelted and remoulded.
Thermosetting polymers are produced from relatively low molecular mass semi fluid
polymers (called polymers) which on heating develop extensive cross-linking by
themselves or by adding some cross-linking agents and become infusible and insoluble
hard mass. The cross links hold the molecules in place so that heating does not allow
them to move freely. Therefore, a thermosetting plastic is cross linked and is
permanently rigid. The common example are bakelite, melamine, formaldehyde resin,
etc.
Some important differences in the properties of thermosetting and thermoplastic
polymers are summerized in Table 32.2.
Table 33.2 : Distinction between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting polymers
Themoplastic

Thermosetting polymers

1.

Linear Polymers.

1.

Cross-linked polymers.

2.

Weak van der Waals

intermolecular forces and
thus soften/melt on heating.

2.

Chemical cross-linking make

them infusible materials.
Do not melt on heating.

3.

Molten polymer can be

moulded in desired shape.
It can be remoulded by
heating again.

3.

Cross-linking is usually
developed at the time of
moulding where they
harden irreversibly.

4.

Examples are polystyrene,

PVC, SBR, Teflon, PMMA
terylene.

4.

Examples are Glyptals,

epoxy polymers,
formaldehyde resins.

Intext Questions 33.2

1.

Define natural and synthetic polymers with examples?

............................................................................................................................................

2.
86

What are cross linked polymers? Give one example of this type.
............................................................................................................................................

Polymers
3.

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

How do thermoplastic differ from thermosetting polymers?

...............................................................................................................................

4.

Arrange the following polymers in the increasing order of their intermolecular forces.
Also classify them as addition and condensation polymers.
Nylon 66, Buna-S, Polyethene.
...............................................................................................................................

Notes

33.4 Some Commercially Important Polymers

33.4.1 Polydiens
These polymers are obtained when an unsaturated hydrocarbon with two double bonds
or when a diene (2 double bond compound) is polymerized with a substituted alkene
(you have studied in lesson 32 that these alkenes and diens are petrochemicals). The
polymers belonging to this class are rubbers or elastomer. They can be natural or artificial.
Consequently we have natural rubber and synthetic rubber.
(1) Natural Rubber : It is a polymer of unsaturated hydocarbon, 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene
also called isoprene. It is obtained from the latex of rubber trees found in tropical and
semi-tropical countries such as India (southern part), Indonesia, Malayasia, Ceylon, South
America, etc. The latex contains about 25-40% of rubber hydrocarbons dispersed in water
alongwith stabilizer proteins and some fattyacids. It is a natural polymer and possess
remarkable elasticity. It undergoes long range reversible extension under relatively small
applied force. This elasticity makes it valuable for a variety of uses.

n CH2 = C CH = CH2 Polymerisation

CH2 C = CH CH2

CH3
Isoprene
2-methyl1, 3butadiene

CH3
Polyisoprene
(natural rubber)

In natural rubber 10,000 to 20,000 isoprene units are linked together.

Drawbacks of raw rubber.
Raw natural rubber has a number of drawbacks. For example :
1. Rubber is brittle at low temperature and becomes very soft at high temperatures.
Thus it can be used only in the limited temperature range of 10-600C
2. It is too soft to be used for heavy duty operation. Its tensile strength is only
200 Kg/cm2.
3. On stretching, it undergoes permanent deformation.
4. Not resistant to mineral oils, organic solvents and even action of water. It has large
water absorption capacity.
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Chemistry
5. On exposure to air, it undergoes peroxidation. As a result, its durability is considerably
decreased.
The desired valuable properties of plasticity, elasticity, toughness, hardness, softness,
abrasion, resistance, impermeability, etc. are achieved by the process of Vulcanization.
Vulcanization of Rubber :

Notes

The wide applications of rubber are due to its property called elasticity and that is why
rubber is said to be an elastoplastic or elastomer. Accidentally, in 1893, Charles Goodyears
discovered that addition of sulphur to hot rubber cause changes that improve its physical
properties in a spectacular manner. This process is called vulcanization. It is carried out
by heating crude rubber in presence of sulphur or dipping it in a solution of S 2Cl2 in CS2.
Vulcanisation depends upon :
(i)

The amount of sulphur used : by increasing the amount of sulphur rubber can be
hardened

(ii) Temperature
(iii) Duration of heating.
Crude rubber is intimately mixed with about 3% ground sulphur, an accelerator and
activator and then heated to about 1500C (for tyres it is 1530C). Vulcanisation is a
progressive reaction and is allowed to a definite stage. The detailed mode of vulcanization
process may be difficult to visualize, but probable structure of vulcanized rubber is depicted
below (Fig. 33.4).

Heat

Sulphur

Natural rubber
Vulcanized rubber
Fig. 33.4 : Process of vulcanization of rubber
Table 33.3 Comparison of some properties of natural rubber and vulcanized rubber :
Natural Rubber

88

Vulcanised rubber

1.

Natural rubber is soft and

sticky.

1.

Vulcanized rubber is hard and

non-sticky.

2.

It has low tensile strength.

2.

It has high tensile strength.

3.

It has low elasticity.

3.

It has high elasticity.

4.

It can be used over a narrow

range of temperature (from 100
to 600C).

4.

It can be used over a wide

range of temperature (- 400 to
1000C).

5.

It has low wear and tear

resistance.

5.

It has high wear and tear

resistance.

6.

It is soluble in solvents like

ether, carbon tetrachloride,
petrol, etc.

6.

It is insoluble in most of the

common solvents.

Polymers

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

(2) Synthetic Rubbers :

Synthetic high polymers possessing similar physical properties as that of natural rubber
are called synthetic rubber. Usually synthetic rubber is an improvement over natural
rubber, specially with respect to its resistance to oils, gas, solvents, etc. Attempts to find
a synthetic substitute for natural rubber began very early. Faraday, in 1826 concluded
that natural rubber was a hydrocarbon (C5H8 or C10 H16). Greville William (1860), obtained
isoprene, a liquid from rubber. He considered rubber as a polymer of isoprene. Fritz
Hofmann (1909), synthesized rubber first of all by the polymerization of 2, 3-dimethyl
butadiene. Synthetic rubber has been produced by the polymerization of a large number
of conjugated dienes resembling to isoprene. The Buna Rubber (polymers of butadiene)
was prepared by Germans by the action of sodium on butadiene and that is why such
synthetic rubber is known as Buna rubber (Bu from butadiene and na from the
symbol of sodium Na). Similarly Americans made S.B.R (styrene butadiene rubber) usually
known as G.R.S. Since then the synthetic rubber industry has survived alongwith the
natural rubber production.

Notes

Some synthetic rubbers are made by polymerization of only one monomer, for example
Neoprene is made by polymerization of chloroprene, while synthetic rubbers like BunaS, Buna N and Butyl rubber etc. are copolymers as these have more then one monomer.
Neoprene : This synthetic rubber resembles natural rubber in its properties. It is obtained
by polymerization of chloroprene.
n CH 2 = C CH = CH2
Cl

CH 2 C CH CH 2
|

n
Cl
neoprene

Chloroprene

Chloroprene is obtained by the reaction of HCl with vinylacetylene

CH2 = CH C

CH + HCl

CH2 = CH C = CH2

Vinyl acetylene

Cl
Chloroprene

Neoprene is superior to natural rubber in its stability to aerial oxidation and its resistance
to oils, gasoline and other solvents
Neoprene is used for
(i) making belts, hoses, shoe heals, stoppers, etc. and
(ii) manufacture of containers for storing petrol, oil and other solvents.
Buna S:
It is obtained by polymerization of butadiene and styrene in presence of sodium metal.
Na
Heat

n CH2 = CH CH = CH2 + n CH = CH2

butadiene

C6H5
Styrene

( CH2 CH = CH CH2 CH CH2) n

Buna S

C6 H5

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Chemistry
In Buna S, Bu stands for butadiene, Na for sodium and S stands for styrene. It is also
called S.B.R. (Styrene Butadiene Rubber). It has slightly less tensile strength than natural
rubber.
Buna-S is used for
(i) making automobile tyres.
(ii) rubber soles, belts and hoses etc.

Notes

Buna N : It is obtained by copolymerization of two parts of butadiene and one part of

acrylonitrile in presence of sodium metal.
Buna N is hard and extremely resistant to the swelling action by oils (petrol), solvents
and is resistant to heat, etc.
Uses :
(i) It is used for the manufacture of storage tanks for solvents and
(ii) For making oil seals.
Butyl Rubber : This is obtained as a result of co-polymerization of butadiene and
isobutylene. It is generally carried out in the presence of small quantity of isoprene. The
function of isoprene is not exactly known.
nCH 2 CH CH CH 2

(CH 3 ) 2 C CH 2
iso-butylene

butadiene

( CH 2 CH CH CH 2 C CH 2 ) n
|
(CH 3 ) 2
butyl rubber

Butyl rubbers are inert towards acids and alkalies, but have poor resistance towards
petroleum products.
Uses :
(i) It is used for making inner tubes of tyres and
(ii) For making conveyor belts, tank linings and insulation of high voltage wires and
cables etc.

Intext Question 33.3

1.

Write the IUPAC names and structures of monomers of the following polymers :
(i) Natural rubber

(ii) Neoprene

................................................................................................................................
2.

What is the function of sulphur in the vulcanization of rubber?

................................................................................................................................

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Polymers
3.

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

What is Buna S? How is it synthesized?

................................................................................................................................

4.

Compare the properties (at least three) of natural rubber and vulcanized rubber?
................................................................................................................................

After the detailed discussion of rubbers, we shall now discuss some other commercially
important polymers.

Notes

34.4.2 Polyolefins
Polyolefins is a major class of synthetic polymers made by the polymerization of an
olefin (alkene) or its suitable derivative. Most of these are obtained from petro chemical
industry. Polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, Teflon, etc. belong to the class of polyolefins.
Some important members of this class are discussed here with.
(1) Polyethylene or polyethene is formed by polymerization of ethylene (CH2 = CH2). It
is manufactured in large quantities and is the most common polymer which you find
almost every where.
Polyethene is of two types Low Density Polyethene (LDPE) and High Density Polyethene
(HDPE) depending upon the nature of has branching in polymer chain and is not compact
in polymer molecules. Low density polyethene has branching in polymer chains and is
not compact in packing. While high density polyethere has linear chain of molecules
which are packed in a more compact fashion (Fig. 33.1 and Fig. 33.2).
n CH2 = CH2
ethylene

(CH2 CH2)

Polyethylene

Polyethylene is used for making pipes, insulators, packing films, carry-bags, etc.
(2) Polypropylene : The monomer units are propylene molecules. It is generally
manufactured by passing propylene through n-hexane (inert solvent) containing ZieglerNatta catalyst ( a mixture of triethyl aluminium and titanium chloride)
CH3

CH 3
Al (C H )
TiCl2

n CH = CH2 2 5 3
Propylene

(CH 2 CH2)

Polypropylene

Polypropylene is harder, stronger and lighter than polyethene Polypropylene is used for
packing of textile material and food, lining of bags, gramophone records, ropes, carpet
fibres, etc.
(3) Teflon or Polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) : The monomer unit is terafluoroethylene
molecule. Teflon is prepared by heating tetra fluoroethylene under pressure in the presence
of ammonium peroxosulphate. [(NH4)2S2O8].
n CF2 CF2
Tetrafluoroethylene

(NH ) S O
Heat, pressure

4 2 2 8

( CF2 CF2 )n
Teflon

Teflon is a very tough material and is resistant towards heat, action of acids or bases. It is
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Chemistry
bad conductor of electricity. Teflon is used for coating utensils to make them non-sticking,
making seals and gaskets which can with stand high pressures, insulation for high frequency
electrical installations.
(4) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) : The monomer units are vinyl chloride molecules. PVC is
prepared by heating vinyl chloride in an inert solvent in the presence of dibenzoyl peroxide.
n CH = CH2 Dibenzoyl

Peroxide

Notes

(CH2 CH)n

Cl

Cl
PVC

Vinyl chloride

PVC is a hard horny material. However, it can be made to acquire any degree of pliability
by the addition of a plasticizer. It is resistant to chemicals as well as heat. It is used for
making rain coats, hand bags, toys, hosepipes, gramophone records, electrical insulation
and floor covering.
(5) Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) : Its monomer unit is methyl methacrylate.
CH3

CH3

CH2 C

Polymerise

n CH2 = C COO CH3

COOCH3

Methyl methacrylate

Polymethyl metha acrylate

(PMMA)

PMMA is a hard and transparent polymer and quite resistant to the effect of heat, light
and ageing. It has high optical clarity. It is used in the manufacture of lenses, transparent
domes and skylights, dentures, aircraft windows and protective coatings. Its commercial
names are Lucite, Plexiglass, Acrylite and Perspex.

34.4.3 Polyester
Some synthetic polymers have ester group ( C O ) in them. These are condensation

O
polymers. The important members of this class are polyester and glyptal resins.
Terelene : It is a polymer obtained by the condensation reaction between ethylene glycol
and terephthalic acid.
O
O
n HO CH2 CH2 OH + n HO C

C OH

Ethylene glycol
Terephthalicacid

425 - 475 K

2nH2O
O

O CH2 CH2 O C

O
C
n

Polyester or terelene

92

Polymers
Terelene is resistant to the action of most of the common chemicals and biological
substances and also to abrasion. It has a low moisture absorbing power. As such it is
widely used in making wash and wear fabrics. The polyester textile fibres made from the
polymer are marketed under the trade name terelene or dacron. It is also blended with
cotton and wool in clothing. It is also used in seat belts and sails. The polymer is also
used in the preparation of films, magnetic recording tapes and for packing food. Dacron
(and Teflon) tubes are good substitutes for human blood vessels in heart by pass operation.
Glyptal or Alkyl resin : Glyptal is a general name of all polymers obtained by
condensation of di-basic acids, and polyhydroxy alcohols. The simplest glyptal is (poly
ethelene glycol phthalate) which is obtained by a condensation reaction between ethylene
glycol and ortho-phthalic acid.

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

Notes

n HO CH2 CH2 OH + n HO C

C OH

Ethyleneglycol

O Phthalic acid

2nH O

O H2C CH2 O C

n
(Poly ethylene glycol
phthalate)

Glyptal resins are three dimensional cross-linked polymers. Poly (ethylene glycol phthalate) dissolves in suitable solvents and the solution on evaporation leaves a tough and
non-flexible film. Thus, it is used in adherent paints and lacquers.

34.4.4 Polyamide
Polyamides are the polymers having amide group ( C NH ) in them. The important

O
polyamide is Nylon-66 which is a synthetic polymer. In nature also the polymer have
amide linkages in their molecules.
Nylon 66 : It is a polymer of adipic acid (tetra methelene dicarboxylic acid) and
hexamethelene diamine

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Chemistry and Industry

n H2 N (CH2 )6 NH2 + n HOOC (CH2 )4 COOH 525K
Hexamethelene
diamine

Tetramethelene
dicarboxylic acid

~ N ( CH2 )6 N C ( CH2 ) 4 C ~
(Nylon 66)

Notes

+ 2n H2O
n

Nylon 66 (read as nylon six-six) can be cast into a sheet or fibres by spinning devices.
Nylon fibres have high tensile strength. They are tough and resistant to abrasion. They are
also somewhat elastic in nature.
Nylon finds use in making bristles and brushes, carpets and fabrics in textile industry,
elastic hosiery in the form of crinkled nylon.

Intext Questions 33.4

1.

What does PMMA represent?

................................................................................................................................

2.

Write the names of monomers of terylene?

................................................................................................................................
How is nylon - 66 synthesised?
................................................................................................................................
Write equations for the synthesis of the following polymers :

3.
4.

(i) glyptal

(ii) Teflon

................................................................................................................................
In this section we shall discuss about Biopolymers. (Natural Polymers)

33.5 Biopolymers
Many polymers which are present in plants and animals such as polysaccharides (starch,
cellulose), proteins and nucleic acids etc. which control various life processes in plants
and animals are called biopolymers.
(i) Starch : It is polymer of glucose. It is a chief food reserve of plants.
(ii) Cellulose : It is also a polymer of glucose. It is a chief structural material of the plants.
Both starch and cellulose are made by plants from glucose produced during photosynthesis.
(iii) Proteins : These are polymers of amino acids. They have generally 20 to 1000
amino acids joined together in a highly organized arrangement. These are building blocks
of animals and constitute an essential part of our food.
(iv) Nucleic acids : These are polymers of various nucleotides. For example, RNA and
DNA are common nucleotides. These biopolymers are very essential for our life.
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Polymers

33.6 Environmental Problems and Biodegradable Polymers

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

In this section we shall discuss those polymers which will not cause any environmental
pollution.
With the increasing use of polymers, the problem of disposal of waste of these products
is posing alarming curse. Since most of the synthetic polymers are in the form of plastics,
it is frequently used in abundance in the form of packing material and throw away bags.
Since ordinary polymers do not degrade naturally by light, oxygen, water or microorganisms, there is a serious problem of their disposal. The environmental problems
caused by careless use of non-biodegradable polymers can be reduced by proper disposal
of these materials and reusing them and remoulding them for other uses. Another way is
to collect them and depolymerise them back to monomers. Though it has a limited
application.

Notes

Another option is to produce biodegradable polymers which can be broken into small
segments by enzyme-catalysed reactions. The required enzymes are produced by microorganisms. It is a known fact that the carbon-carbon bonds of chain growth polymers are
inert to enzyme catalysed reactions, and hence they are non-biodegradable. To make
such polymers biodegradable we have to insert certain bonds in the chains so that these
can be easily broken by the enzymes. When such polymers are buried as waste, micro
organisms present in the soil can degrade the polymer, so that they do not cause any
serious affects on the environment.
One of the best method of making a polymer biodegradable is by inserting hydrolysable
ester group into the polymer.

33.6.1 Some Biodegradable Polymers

A large number of bio degradable polymers are now available and more are being added
to the list. However, these are expensive, therefore, these find use in special situations
where cost factor can be ignored. In future, as their cost reduces these will find greater
use in daily life and will replace non-bio-degradable polymers.
Some important biodegradable polymers are PHBV, PGA, PLA and PCL.
(PHBV) Poly-Hydroxybutyrate co - Hydroxyvalerte
PHBV is a copolymer of 3 hydroxy butanoic acid, and (3 hydroxypentanoic acid), in
which, the monomer units are connected by ester linkages.

OH

OH
CH3 CH CH2 COOH +
3- Hydroxybutanoic acid

CH3 CH2 CH CH2 COOH

+

3-hydroxypentanoic acid

O CH CH2 CO
R PHBV
R = CH3 or

CH2 CH3

The properties of PHBV vary according to the ratio of both the acids. 3 Hydroxybutanoic
acid provides stiffness and 3 hydroxypentanoic acid imparts flexibility to the copolymer.
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OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

Chemistry
(i) PHBV is used in orthopaedic devices and
(ii) In controlled drug release. The drug put in PHBV capsule is released after this polymer
is degraded by enzymatic action. It can also be degraded by bacterial action.
PGA Polyglycolic acid is obtained by the chain polymerization of dimer of glycolic acid,
HO CH2COOH.
O
Heat

Notes

n HO CH2 COOH

O CH2 C O
n

Glycolic acid

Polyglycolic acid (PGA)

PLA Polyactic acid is obtained by polymerization of the dimer of lactic acid (HOCH(CH3)
COOH) or by micro biological synthesis of lactic acid followed by the polycondensation
and removal of water by evaporation.
H

O
HO CH C OH
Condensation

CH3

O C C O
CH3

Lactic acid

Polylactic acid (PLA)

PCL Poly ( caprolactone) is obtained by chain polymerization of the lactone of 6

hydroxy hexanoic acid.

Polymerisation

O (CH2)5 C O

PCL Poly (E-caprolactone)

Most of the biodegradable polymers find use in stiching wounds and cuts.
1. In medical goods such as surgical sutures.
2. In agriculture materials such as films, seed coatings.
3. In food wrappers, personal hygiene products, etc.

Intext question 33.5

1.
2.
3.
4.

What is PHBV?
................................................................................................................................
Give two examples of biopolymers?
................................................................................................................................
Define biodegradable polymers? Give three examples?
................................................................................................................................
Which polymer is used for post-operative stitches?
................................................................................................................................

In the following Table 33.4 we shall now give a brief account of the various commercially
important polymers alongwith their structures and uses.
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Polymers

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Table 33.4
S.
Name of
No. Polymer

Structure

Uses

1.

Polythene

(CH2 CH2)n

As Insulator,
anticorrosive, packing
material, household
and laboratory wares.

2.

Polystyrene

As Insulator, wrapping
material, manufacture of
toys and household articles.

( CH CH2 ) n
C 6 H5

3.

Polyvinylchloride
(PVC)

Polytetrafluoro

(CF2 CF2)

As lubricant, insulator

ethylene
(PTFE) or Teflon
5.

Polymethyl metha
acrylate (PMMA)
or Flexi glass

Notes

In manufacture or
raincoats, hand bags,
vinyl flooring and
leather clothes.

( CH2 CH )n
Cl

4.

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2

and making cooking

wares.

CH3

As substitute of glass
and making
decorative materials.

( CH2 C )n
COOCH3

6.

CN

Polyacrylonitrile
(Orlon)

( CH2 CH )
7.

In making synthetic fibres

and synthetic wool.

Styrene butadiene
( CH2 CH = CH CH2 CH CH2 ) In making automobile
n tyres and footwear.
rubber (SBR or
BuNa-S)
CH
6

8.

Nitrile rubber
(Buna-N)

( CH2 CH = CH CH2 CH CH2 )

CN

9.

Neoprene

( CH2 C = CH CH2 ) n
Cl

10.

( CH 2 CH ) n

Poly ethyl
acrylate

COOC2H 5
11.

Terylene
(Dacron)

In making oil seals

n manufacture of hoses
and tank linings.
As insulator, making
conveyor belts
and printing rollers.
In making films,
hose pipes and
furnishing fabrics.
For making fibres, safety

( OOC

COO CH2 CH2 O) n belts, tyre cords, tents, etc.

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OPTIONAL MODULE - 2

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Chemistry and Industry

12.

13.

Glyptal

( OCH2CH2OOC

COO )

Nylon 6

( NH (CH2)5 C )n

Notes

14.

Nylon 66

15.

Bakelite

(NH (CH2)6 NHCO (CH2)4 CO)

n

OH

OH

CH2

CH2

16.

Urea
formaldehyde
resin

17.

Melamine
formaldehyde
resin

(NH CO NH CH2) n

HN
N

Poly- -hydroxy
butyrate-co hydroxy
valerate (PHBV)

For making gears,

protective coating
and electrical
fittings.

Formaking plastic
crockery, un
breakable cups
and plates.

NH CH2
N
n

(a)

O CH CH2 C O
O
R
R = CH3, C2H5

In making brushes
synthetic fibres,
parachutes, ropes
and carpets.

For making unbreakable

cups and laminated
sheets.

NH2
18.

As binding
material in
preparation of
mixed plastics and
paints.
In making fibres,
plastics, tyre cords and
ropes.

As packging,
orthopaedle
devices and in
controlled drug
release.

What You Have Learnt

98

Polymers, the high molecular mass macrosized molecules consisting of repeating

units of monomers of synthetic or natural origin.

Synthetic polymers are classified with respect to their composition, mode of poly
merization and nature of molecular forces.

Polymerization is classified into two categories (i) addition polymerization (ii)

condensation polymerization.

Addition polymers are formed by addition of large number of monomers without

the elimination of any smaller molecules.

CN

Polymers

Condensation polymers are formed by elimination of smaller molecules such as

H2O, NH3 etc.

Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene, and is vulcanized by heating with

sulphur, which forms cross link between different chains.

Vulcanized rubber has much improved physical properties.

Synthetic rubbers are usually obtained by copolymerization of an alkene and 1,3butadiene derivatives.

Synthetic polymers due to their inertness to degradation have created environmental

problems.

Since biopolymers degrade enzymatically, synthetic biodegradable polymers having

functional groups such as ester, amide etc. have potential use as sutures, implants,
drug release materials, are developed as alternatives. For example, PHBV, PLA,
etc. constitute such materials.

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2
Chemistry and Industry

Notes

Terminal Exercise
1.

Explain the difference between chain growth and step growth polymerization.

2.

Define the terms thermosetting and thermo-plastics. Give one example of each.

3.

What is a copolymer. Give one example.

4.

Differentiate between addition polymer and condensation polymer with the help of
one example each.

5.

What are elastomers? Give the chemical equation for the preparation of Buna-S.

6.

Write the information asked for the following polymers :

(i) Neoprene

Materials required for preparation.

(ii) PVC

monomer unit.

(iii) Synthetic rubber :

monomer units

7.

What is vulcanization of rubber? What are the advantages of vulcanized rubber?

8.

Give examples of two plasticizers.

9.

How are polymers classified into different categories on the basis of intemolecular
forces? Give one example of a polymer of each of these categories.

10. What are biodegradable polymers? Give three examples.

11. Write the names and structures of monomers of the following polymers :
a. Polystyrene
b. Teflon
c. PMMA
d. PVC
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OPTIONAL MODULE - 2

Chemistry

Chemistry and Industry

e. PHBV
f. Polypropylene.
12. How will you prepare the following? Give chemical reaction only :
a. PVC
b. Nylon-66
c. PMMA

Notes

Answers to Intext Questions

33.1
1.

(i) Polymer is a giant chain like molecule obtained by inter-molecular combinations

of similar or different types of smaller molecules.
(ii) Monomers are the low molecular mass simple molecules capable of forming
inter-molecular linkage to give gaint molecules called polymers.

2.

(i) Polyethene (ii) Terelene

3.

(i) Hompolymers are polymers made of single monomer units, for example,
polythene, polystyrene, or polybuta diene.
(ii) A copolymer is one which is formed by the copolymerisation of two monomers.
For example, Buna (or SBR, styrene - butadiene rubber)

4.

(i) Ethelene glycol and terephthallic acid

(ii) Hexamethelene diamine and adipic acid.

33.2
1.

(i) Natural polymers are found in nature, (in animals and plants) e.g. proteins and
nucleic acids.
(ii) Synthetic polymers are man-made. e.g. Nylon, polyesters and rubbers.

2.

The polymers in which the linear polymer chains are cross linked to form a threedimensional network structure are called cross-linked polymers. The common
example of this type of polymer is bakelite.

3.

Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting plastics in terms of mode of linkage and

intermolecular forces. Thermoplastic polymer can be moulded in desired shape but
thermosetting polymers set to shape on heating and can not be moulded.

4.

Polyethene < Buna-S< Nylon-66

Nylon 66 : Condensation polymer
Buna-S : Addition polymer
Polyethene : Addition polymer

100

Polymers

Chemistry and Industry

33.3
1.

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2

(i) Monomer of natural rubber is

CH 3
|
CH 2 C CH CH 2
Isoprene

Notes
2-methyl buta-1,3-diene

(ii) Monomer of Neoprene is

CH2 = CH 2 C CH CH 2
|
Cl
Chloroprene
2-Chlorobuta 1,3-diene

2.

Sulphur makes the rubber more elastic, more ductile, less plastic and non-sticky.

3.

Buna-S is obtained by co-polymerization of butadiene and styrene in presence of

sodium metal. Bu stands for butadiene, na for sodium and S stands for styrene, It is
also called S.B.R.

4.

1. Natural rubber is soft and sticky, but vulcanised rubber is hard and non-sticky.
2. Natural rubber has less tensile strength while vulcanised rubber has high tensile
strength.
3. Natural rubber is soluble in solvents like ether, carbon tebrachloride, petrol etc.
whereas vulcanised rubber is insoluble in all common solvents.

33.4
1.

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)

2.

Ethelene glycol and terphthalic acid.

3.

Nylon 6, 6 is synthesised by the polymerisation of two monomer units adipic acid

and hexamethelene diamine.
n H2N ( CH 2 )6 NH2 + n HOOC ( CH 2 ) 4 COOH
525K

N ( CH2 ) 6 NH CO ( CH2 )4 CO
Nylon 66

4.

+ 2n H2O

(i) Glyptal

101

OPTIONAL MODULE - 2

Chemistry

Chemistry and Industry

O
n HO CH2 CH2 OH + n HO C

O
C OH 2n H 2 O

Notes
O

O H2 C CH2 O C

Poly (ethylene glycol

phthalate)
n

(NH 4 )2 S2 O8
(ii) Teflon n CF2 = CF2 , pressure

( CF2 CF2 )n

33.5

102

1.

PHBV is a copolymer of 3 Hydroxy butanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid.

It is used in making capsules. It is biodegradable in nature.

2.

Nucleic Acids, proteins.

3.

Polymers, which are degraded by microorganisions are called biodegradable

polymers. For examples, PHBV, Polyglycolic acid, Polylactic acid, etc.

4.

Polyglycolic acid (PGA) and poly Lactic Acid (PLA).