MH0414754ENC - PDF Web PDF

Gender equality and economic independence:
part-time work and self-employment
POLICY CONTEXT
The 1995 Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA) set out the first
international agenda for womens empowerment. In 1995, the
European Council recognised the European Unions (EU) commitment to the BPfA and expressed the intention to annually review
its implementation across all Member States. As one of its 12
critical areas, the BPfA has formally recognised the importance of
womens economic independence.
Both gender equality and economic growth are at the heart of
EU policymaking. The EUs commitment to gender equality in the
labour market is reflected in Council Directive 97/81/EC on increasing quality and eliminating discrimination in part-time work and
Council Directive 2010/41/EC on the quality of self-employment
for women and men, addressing issues such as maternity leave for
self-employed mothers.
Area F Women in the Economy has been reviewed five times
since 1995. The Greek Presidency of the Council of the EU (first
half of 2014) also chose this area, focusing on strategic objective
F1 for the annual review, which emphasises the need to promote womens economic rights and independence, including access to employment, appropriate working conditions
and control over economic resources. Using secondary data,
the report reviews the position of women and men in the labour
market and proposes three new indicators in addition to the other
17, which all provide a more detailed and informed measure of
gender equality in relation to part-time work and self-employment.
FINDINGS
Despite the successful entry of women into the labour market,
employment patterns still follow a masculine norm. While women
have increased their participation in the labour market, their
engagement in unpaid work has remained stable.
Full-time equivalent (FTE) participation offers a more accurate measure of labour market participation
80
Equal access to the labour market and to economic resources

can increase womens economic independence. Furthermore,
the lower participation of women in the labour market seriously
endangers reaching the national targets of Europe 2020.
Indicator 18: Full-time equivalent employment rate

for women and men by age groups
60
Percentage
FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT
70 3 %
50
When accounting for hours worked, womens participation decreases

from 59 % to 50 % and mens from 70 % to 67 %, emphasising the different patterns of participation of women and men in the labour market.
67 %
59 %
9%
50 %
Employment rate (men)

FTE employment rate (men)
Employment rate (women)
FTE employment rate (women)
40
30
32 %
Part-time employment (women)
20
10
In contrast to the commonly used employment rate, this indicator

provides information on womens and mens participation in parttime work as a percentage of total employment.
70 %
8%
Part-time employment (men)

2012
Employment rate and FTE in the EU-28, 2012

Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS.
PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT
A. Share of women part-time workers out of total part-time

workers by age groups
B. Main reason for part-time employment for women and
men (1564)
C. Usual weekly working hours in part-time jobs for women
and men (15+)
D. Low pay share in part-time employment for women and
men (1564)
E. Sectoral and occupational differences between full-time
and part-time employment for women and men (1564)
F. Transition between part-time and full-time work for women
and men (15+)
In 2012, women made up about half of the economically active

population in the EU-28 (46 %), but simultaneously accounted
for 76 % of all part-time workers.
Different levels of engagement of women and men in parttime work reflect the level of gender inequality in society
Part-time work if accessible, equally shared and not discriminated against can facilitate labour force participation and
provide opportunities to improve worklife balance for both
women and men.
Part-time work can have significant negative effects on
womens economic independence
As social provisions and earnings are generally lower for parttime workers, their risk of poverty is twice as high as that of fulltime workers in the EU-28. Since women are most likely to work
fewer hours, with high occupational and sectoral segregation,
their risk of poverty is highest in overall terms and in comparison to men. The percentage of part-time workers below the low
pay threshold is higher for women than for men in all Member
States. Over the course of life, this causes a considerable gender
pension gap, estimated at 39 % in 2009 in the EU-27.
As women are more likely to move into part-time work and
remain there, they are at a higher risk of being trapped in low
paid work, with lower career prospects. In 2011, men were more
likely to move out of part-time and into full-time work (27 %),
as opposed to women (12 %). Conversely, women were more
likely to move from full-time to part-time employment (7 %), as
compared to men (2 %).
Gender inequalities in part-time work do not only have consequences for womens economic independence, but can also
reinforce norms, attitudes and stereotypes relating to traditional

gender roles that are detrimental to gender equality overall.
Gender norms are linked to different patterns of labour
force participation for women and men over the life course
Commonly a distinction is made between voluntary and involuntary part-time employment, whereby involuntary refers to those
who would prefer to work full time, but are unable to find a fulltime position.
This measure is problematic from a gender perspective, as it
relies on individuals self-reporting the main reason for their
engagement in part-time work; with could not find a full-time
job and care of other family' reasons being cited most often.
This is problematic for two reasons. Firstly, gender roles can have
an important impact on how women and men construct and
understand their reasons for part-time work. Secondly, structural
constraints associated with expectations of care are not accounted for and the ability of individuals to really choose may be overestimated.
Distinguishing between involuntary and care-based reasons for
part-time employment therefore emphasises the association of
women with care work, based on gender norms and attitudes.
In the EU-28, almost half of women part-time workers
(44 %) give personal and family responsibilities as the main
reason for their reduced hours, compared to one in ten men
(11 %). The percentage of women working part time due to care
responsibilities increases to 55 % for the age group 25 to 49.
This pattern is reversed for those saying they are unable to find a
full-time position, with 38 % of men, compared to 24 % of women
Womens greater responsibilities for care can represent an
important source of involuntary part-time work
Women
Men
100
80
Percentage
Indicator 19: Part-time employment as percentage of

total employment for women and men by age groups
60
40
38 %
44 %
24 %
11 %
20
0
Could not find a
full-time job
Main reason for part-time work in the EU-28, 2012
Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS.
Care or other
family reasons
SELF-EMPLOYMENT
A. Share of self-employed women and men with and without

employees (1564)
B. Median income in euros from self-employment for women
and men (15+)
C. F it of working hours with family or social commitments for
self-employed women and men (15+)
Women are over-represented in bogus self-employment

Women
Men
100
Percentage
Indicator 20: Self-employment as percentage of

total employment for women and men by age
groups
80
60
52 %
37 %
40
10 % 7 %
20
0
Cannot freely hire

Cannot make
new employees important decisions
for their business
In contrast to womens over-representation in part-time work,

they are under-represented in the area of self-employment. In
2012, 10 % of all women and 18 % of all men workers were selfemployed.
Percentage of women and men at risk of bogus self-employment in the EU-28, 2010
Source: Eurostat, LFS.
Men are over-represented in self-employment in the EU-28
women and to greater risk of poverty over the course of life
Women
Men
ment. In 2011, the gender gap in gross annual median earn-
Percentage
80
ings was 15 percentage points higher for self-employed workers

(45 %), compared to workers in paid employment (30 %). Addition-
60
ally, self-employed workers poverty risk was three times higher as
40
Consistently, gender gaps in earnings from self-employment

are wider than those observed for workers in paid employ-
100
20
Self-employment can lead to lower earnings and income for
18 %
10 %
compared to that of paid employees in the EU-28 in 2012. Paid

family workers, who are often women working in the agricultural
sector, or the bogus self-employed, are particularly at risk.
2012
Self-employment as percentage of total employment in the EU-28, 2012

Source: EU-LFS.
Lower earnings among self-employed women can be attributed

to many factors, such as low-growth propensity and thus smaller
Low conceptual clarity
businesses; segregation into less profitable sectors; higher levels
The report proposes a distinction between self-employment

with employees (the category most likely to overlap with entrepreneurship), and without (own account workers). In the EU-28
men are more likely to be in self-employment with employees. In
2012, 24 % of self-employed women and 31 % of self-employed
men were employers.
or different starting points in terms of social and human capital.
Similarly, the issue of bogus self-employment is raised in the

report. Bogus self-employment is generally characterised by
dependency on only one client, the presence of regular payments and the lack of capacity to freely hire new workers and/or
make important decisions related to the business.
Women are more likely to be in own account self-employment or
bogus self-employment. For instance, about half of self-employed
women do not feel they can freely hire employees (52 %) or make decisions about their business (10 %); as compared to men, with 37 % and
7 %, respectively.
of bogus self-employment; unequal share of time and care work

The extent to which differences in self-employment between
women and men reflect wider gender inequalities should nevertheless not be under-estimated.
Relatedly, self-employed women are more likely to have a tertiary educational attainment (37 %), as compared to men (28 %).
Thus, womens participation in self-employment seems to be
influenced by traditional gender norms and stereotypes relating
to their educational choices and a lack of access to professional
networks and training.
Moreover, the lack of social provisions for self-employed workers is
especially problematic for women; most notably in relation to maternity protection. Even if maternity benefits are provided they cannot
always be claimed, due to the necessity of business continuity.
There is no one type of self-employment. While some forms

constitute an alternative to part-time work especially for
women others can be associated with long working hours.
In the EU-28, self-employed women worked considerably fewer
hours per week (37) than self-employed men (46) in 2012. This
suggests that it is women who disproportionately resort to selfemployment as an alternative to part-time employment in order
to achieve worklife balance.
Indeed, 78 % of self-employed women and 82 % of self-employed
men find that they can take a couple of hours off to deal with
personal or family matters without difficulty; compared to 63 %

and 67 % for women and men employees, respectively.
Women workers often cite worklife balance issues as an important motivational factor for entering self-employment, as it allows
for more flexibility and higher autonomy. However, differences
in perceived worklife balance between employment and selfemployment are small. In 2012, 80 % of self-employed women
felt that their working hours fit with their family or social commitments, compared to 83 % of all women workers in the EU-28. Consequently, despite the potential flexibility, self-employed women
are less likely to perceive their working hours to match their family
obligations as compared to employed women.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Support worklife balance for both women and men
Provide accessible, affordable and high-quality services for care of dependents (children, elderly, etc.)
Introduce non-transferable paternity leave and incentives for men
Promote organisational cultures that embrace worklife balance needs, by providing incentives for flexible working arrangements and promotion of part-time work to be shared equally between women
and men
Support and improve conditions for women in self-employment and entrepreneurship
Define and analyse self-employment appropriately
Develop specific measures supporting working conditions and access to social protection
Strengthen womens presence in entrepreneurship through new role models
Account for the impact of norms, attitudes and stereotypes of womens aspirations and intentions when
developing training and funding programmes
Provide childcare services to self-employed workers
Invest in data gathering and research
Improve the quality and quantity of sex-disaggregated data
Support the implementation of surveys and studies to further explore the cultural factors influencing
women and men in the labour market
Support the application of gender impact assessment of policy reforms to prevent disincentives
European Institute for Gender Equality

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) is the EU knowledge centre on gender equality. EIGE supports policymakers and all relevant institutions in their efforts to make equality between women and men a reality for all Europeans by providing them with specific expertise and comparable and reliable data on gender equality in Europe.
More information: http://eige.europa.eu
facebook.com/eige.europa.eu
twitter.com/eurogender
youtube.com/eurogender
doi:10.2839/8779
MH-04-14-754-EN-C
Self-employment can provide an opportunity to work on a

more flexible basis and enhance opportunities for worklife
balance without reducing working hours

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Gender equality and economic independence:

part-time work and self-employment

Equal access to the labour market and to economic resources

Indicator 18: Full-time equivalent employment rate

When accounting for hours worked, womens participation decreases

Employment rate (men)

Part-time employment (women)

In contrast to the commonly used employment rate, this indicator

Part-time employment (men)

Employment rate and FTE in the EU-28, 2012

A. Share of women part-time workers out of total part-time

In 2012, women made up about half of the economically active

reinforce norms, attitudes and stereotypes relating to traditional

Indicator 19: Part-time employment as percentage of

A. Share of self-employed women and men with and without

Women are over-represented in bogus self-employment

Indicator 20: Self-employment as percentage of

Cannot freely hire

In contrast to womens over-representation in part-time work,

Men are over-represented in self-employment in the EU-28

women and to greater risk of poverty over the course of life

ment. In 2011, the gender gap in gross annual median earn-

ings was 15 percentage points higher for self-employed workers

ally, self-employed workers poverty risk was three times higher as

Consistently, gender gaps in earnings from self-employment

Self-employment can lead to lower earnings and income for

compared to that of paid employees in the EU-28 in 2012. Paid

Self-employment as percentage of total employment in the EU-28, 2012

Lower earnings among self-employed women can be attributed

Low conceptual clarity

businesses; segregation into less profitable sectors; higher levels

The report proposes a distinction between self-employment

or different starting points in terms of social and human capital.

Similarly, the issue of bogus self-employment is raised in the

of bogus self-employment; unequal share of time and care work

There is no one type of self-employment. While some forms

personal or family matters without difficulty; compared to 63 %

European Institute for Gender Equality

Self-employment can provide an opportunity to work on a

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A. Share of women part-time workers out of total part-time

A. Share of self-employed women and men with and without