7.

Vessel Maneuvrability
Approximately 70% of incidents of damage to harbour facilities involve damage to piers and fenders, however most
are due to mistakes in operation of the vessel. Such mistakes in confined harbours with limited area available for
maneuvering are due to the following.
Inability to accurately determine the effects of external forces such as wind and tides.
Mistakes in speed control and turning of the vessel while using engines and tugs.
Most harbours have pier protection, shallow areas, and other vessels in the immediate area, and overrunning the
scheduled stop point while approaching the pier may result in an incident. The ship navigator gradually reduces speed
in accordance with the distance remaining, and is required to adjust speed and turn the vessel while considering its
type, size, loading condition, inertia, maneuvrability, and the effects of external forces.

7-1 Eects of External Forces (wind)

7-1-1 Transverse Movement and Turning Under Wind Pressure While Underway
How is the vessel affected by wind while underway?
Straight ahead if no external forces are acting in windless
conditions.
When the wind is at 45 to starboard, the vessel is pressed
to leeward. The point at which the wind acts (C) is ahead of
the vessels center of gravity (G), and a turning moment (N (V))
acts to turn the vessel in the leeward direction.
When the vessel begins drifting (diagonally) leeward, water resistance is generated on the leeside of the bow. The point (E) at
which this force acts is ahead of the point at which the wind
pressure acts (C), and a turning moment (N (V)) acts to turn the
vessel in the windward direction.
The vessel turns under the turning moment of the wind
or water resistance, whichever is the greater. Since water
resistance is normally much greater than air resistance, the
vessel begins to turn windward.(N (V) > N (V))

N(v)

Water
resistance

N(va )

Direction of
movement of
vessel

Y(va )

E
C

Wind

Y(v)

Y( v)

The rudder acts against the turning moment, i.e. the vessel is
controlled with the moment N (V) generated by the rudder angle ().
Finally, with turning moment of the wind, water resistance, and rudder in equilibrium, the
vessel maintains a course at the angle (leeway) to the right ahead, and proceeds with drifting
leeward.

The point (C) at which the wind acts approaches the vessels center of gravity (G) the closer the relative wind is to the
transverse axis of the vessel. At 90 (abeam) it acts almost entirely on the vessels center of gravity. As a result, the
turning moment N (V) acting in the leeward direction is reduced (turn), and the force Y (V) acting on the vessel
in the leeward direction increases (drift), and the diagonal angle increases, increasing the turning moment N (V) due
to water resistance.
12

N(v)
N(v a )

Y(va )

Y(va )
G

Y(va )

Y(va )

C
G

Furthermore, when the relative wind moves from the

transverse to the rearward direction, the point (C)
at which the wind acts moves from the vessels of
gravity towards the stern, the turning moment N (V
) rounds up the bow, and acts in the same direction
as the water resistance.

Wind speed (Va)/Vessel Speed(Vs)

PCC loaded with 6000 vehicles

Curve of limit of ability to maintain course (rudder angle of 30)

The course can be maintained if the moment derived

from the wind and water resistance can be controlled
with the rudder. If such control is not possible,
an increase in the turning moment due to water
resistance increases, and the course can no
longer be maintained.
The graph above shows the ratio of wind speed (Va)
to speed of the vessel (Vs) on the vertical axis, and
the relative wind angle on the horizontal axis, and
indicates the regions in which the course can and cannot be maintained with a rudder angle of 30. If the
ratio of wind speed to vessel speed exceeds
3.7, a region occurs in which the course cannot
be maintained due to the relative wind angle.

Region in which
cource cannot be
maintained

Region in which
course can be
maintained

Relative wind direction

Rudder angle

Rudder angle required to maintain course

(PCC vessel loaded with 6,000 vehicles)

Area within which

course cannot be
maintained at a rudder

angle of 30

At vessel speeds of 6 8 knots (3.1 4.1m/sec) inside

the harbour, a wind speed of 11 15m/sec results in

a ratio of wind speed to vessel speed of 3.7, and the

course may not be able to be maintained in these

conditions depending on the direction of the relative

wind.

In the graph below, rudder angle is shown on the

vertical axis, and the regions in which the course can

Relative wind direction
and cannot be maintained for each ratio of wind speed
to vessel speed. When the ratio of wind speed to vessel speed (Va/Vs) reaches 4, depending on the angle of the relative
wind, a region in which the course cannot be maintained occurs, despite a rudder angle of 30.
13

It is important to maneuver the vessel while considering the rounding up

angle leeway () when navigating in a channel without the assistance of tugs
under wind pressure. In such cases, wind direction and speed, and vessel speed,
must be considered, and an investigation conducted to determine whether or not
maneuvering is possible in the region in which the course can be maintained.
The maximum allowable wind speed for entering and leaving the harbour is
very often set, however hull shape etc. should be considered together with the
criteria established for the harbour in question.

Reference photo : Leeway of 3to starboard to

ensure passage under center of bridge.

Modern radar with advanced technology displays generally incorporates GPS information. If this function is used
skillfully the leeway angle and direction of drift can be understood in numerical terms. This information
is effective in maneuvering the vessel.
An example is shown below.

Incheon
Approach

Heading of 38.2, Course

of Good (COG) of 43.3
(digital display).
Leeway of 5.1 is apparent.

White vector indicates actual direction of forward

movement.

14

Solid blue line indicates vessel heading.

7-1-2 Drifting While Stopped

Extreme care is required with drifting of the vessel due to wind pressure when stopped in front of the pier
with an onshore wind directly abeam, or when the turning.
When drifting with the wind pressure above the water line balanced against the water resistance below the water line,
the drift speed can be calculated with the following equation.

Wind pressure

1
2

Water
resistance

Wind pressure

Water resistance
2

1
2

Air density0.125kgsec2/m4

w Density of seawater104.5kgsec2/m4
a

Wind pressure lateral force coecient

w Drift pressure lateral force coecient

a

Lateral area of vessel above waterlinem

w Lateral area of vessel below waterlinem

a

Relative wind speedm/sec

w Relative current speedm/sec

Drift speed (Vw)is calculated with the above equation as follows.

a
w

With Pure Car Carriers (PCCs), the coefficients Ca and Cw, the lateral area of the vessel above the waterline (Ba), and
the lateral area of the vessel below the waterline (Bw), are approximately as follows. Substituting these values in the
equation above allows for a simplified calculation of drift speed.

1.3
approximate, diers with vessel

3.0

A PCC with 4,500 vehicles on board, speed has decreased, wind abeam, drift speed gradually increasing, reaching a
steady state in 2 3 minutes.
For example, reducing speed to 2 knots (1.0m/sec) to approach the pier, with a wind of 10m/sec abeam. The ratio of
wind speed to vessel speed in this situation is approximately 10, and drift speed horizontally will be approximately
0.65m/sec 120 seconds later. This is shown in the graph below.

15

Drift speed 120 seconds after subject to eects of wind pressure

Wind speed / Vessel speed

(PCC loaded with 4500 vehicles, h/d = 1.3)

ECDIS image

Relative Wind Direction

The photo image shows the actual drift track of a PCC on an electronic chart. It may be interesting to record tracks if
the opportunity to drift under strong winds presents itself.

7-2 Turning the Vessel

7-2-1 Turning With One Tug and Free of Eects of External Forces
When turning with one tug pushing at the stern (or bow), the center of the turn is the pivot point (P), rather than the
center of gravity (G). Turning the vessel on the spot in a circle of radius 1/2L (L being the vessel length)
is therefore not possible.
The radius of area required for turning can be found with the following equation.

Turning radius GP +
GP =

1
2

L
Tu

/ GC

rni

ng

rad

ius

Turning radius of moment of inertia

around vertical axis through center
of gravity (G) 0.35L
PPivot point, center of rotation when
turning vessel
GCenter of gravity
CPoint at which tug acts on vessel

16

(R)

GP
G

GC
C

1/2L

As is apparent from the above equation, the position of P (turning center: pivot point) is not related to the pushing (or
pulling) force applied by the tug, but to the point on the vessel at which the tug pushes, and this position is on the side
opposite the center of gravity. In other words, as the point at which the tug acts on the vessel approaches the center of
gravity, GC becomes smaller. GP therefore increases, as does the turning radius.

Understand the turning radius at each

point at which the tug acts.
7-2-2 Turning With Two Tugs or Bow Thrusters and One Stern Tug, and With Eects
of External Forces (wind)
Hull shape (Container vessel) using simulator

Tugs fore and aft, or bow thrusters and a stern tug,

must be used when turning on the spot (turning
within a circle of diameter 1L). When turning
under the effects of external forces (wind), the
relative wind varies while turning, so that turning
occurs on the spot while controlling drift, resulting
in considerable difficulties in maneuvering.
A simulation was run of turning a container vessel
of 246m in length subject to winds of 10m/sec at
45 to starboard at the beginning of the turn, using
two tugs. The tugs were used solely for turning,
and no adjustment was made for drift.

Loa(m)

246.27

Lpp(m)

230.00

Bredth(m)

32.24

Depth(m)

21.20

Draft(m)

11.50

Disp.(KT)

53,875

Trim(m)

0.00

G position

-5.5
Front(

850

Side

6,090

Wind Project.

Turning Basin dia./Ship's Length

4.0
3.5

TUG 60ton(F30, A30)

3.0
2.5
G

2.0
1.5
1.0

10

15

Wind Velocitym/sec

17

A 180 turn requires a circle of diameter 2L around the center of gravity at the beginning of the turn.
Japanese harbour design criteria guidelines specify a 2L circle for turning with tugs. While dependent on hull shape
and vessel type, a wind speed of 10m/sec is the limit, even if a 2L circle is available for turning this vessel. A larger
area is required for turning at wind speeds in excess of 10m/sec.

7-3 Speed Control

Incidents of failing to control a ships speed while entering harbour,
with the vessel consequently colliding with the pier causing major
damage to the pier, shore cranes, and the vessel itself, never cease.
Ships differ from motor vehicles in that they are not fitted with a
braking mechanism to reduce speed. Control of speed must therefore
rely on controlling the speed of the main engine, reversing the main
engine, or the assistance of a tug.
In order to ensure that the vessel stops precisely at the scheduled
point, the ship navigator is required to consider its type, size, loading
condition, inertia, and manoeuvrability, and the effects of external
forces etc. when adjusting speed.
These factors are obviously not formally calculated while the vessel is
approaching the pier, and lack of communication between the pilot and
captain is a cause of incidents, as is insufficient advice from the captain.
Both the captain and pilot are required to have a quantitative, rather than
an intuitive exchange of information, based on experience, understanding of the stopping distance and the time required to stop.

7-3-1 Assessing the Dangers of Overrun (safety margin)

A safety margin on the approach allows an evaluation of the distance the vessel will travel while braking with engine
reversed or with a tug on the stern, and the
distance toward the scheduled stop point at

which the vessel will stop. This is expressed

Safety Margin

with the following equation.

A questionaire given to pilots showed that
a safety margin (R) of 0.3 0.6 when dead
slow astern is initiated allows operation to
ensure that control of the vessel is not lost.

ADistance remaining between stopping point of vessel

and target stop point
DDistance between braking start point and target stop point

* Losing control of the vessel:

When the reversed engine is set to slow
ahead or more for a long period, the propeller wash and water ow do not act on the
hull uniformly, and it becomes difficult to
maintain the heading.

S
Start Braking
18

Stop Point

Stop Target

7-3-2 Basics of Stopping Distance, Vessel Weight, and Acceleration

Hull shape and resistance must be considered when determining details such as stopping distance and the time
required to stop, however approximate values can be derived with the following equation based on the principle of
conservation of energy.

1
2

1
2

1
2

Final speed V m/sec

S: Distance moved (m)

W Apparent displacement (displacement + additional mass*) (tonnes)

Vo Initial speed (m/sec)
V Final speed (m/sec)
F Forces acting (tug thrust and reverse engine thrust) (tonnes)

Initial speed Vo m/sec

t Elapsed time (seconds)

Begin to pull directly
astern with
force of F tonnes

S Forward movement (m)

Acceleration applied to vesselm/sec2

* Additional mass
When accelerating and decelerating the vessel, the vessel itself moves, while at the same time, the water in the
vicinity also moves as a result of this movement. Power is therefore not only required to move the vessel, but to
move a part of the water in the vicinity. This is, in eect, the same as moving a vessel of increased mass. This
increased mass is referred to as additional mass .

7-3-3 Speed Reduction Plan for Vessel Approaching Pier in Direction of Arrival (example)
When approaching parallel to the pier in the direction of arrival it is necessary to determine in advance when to
stop the engine, and to understand guidelines for evaluating whether or not speed through the primary
waypoints is excessive while approaching the berth.
For example, while moving forward at dead slow ahead as shown in the following image, when stopping the engine
with simultaneous braking applied by a stern tug, and with a distance to the stop position of 4L and 1L, it is necessary
to determine beforehand the speed at which it is possible to stop at the scheduled point. While incorporating a safety
margin in the distance to the berth noted above, it is also needed to reduce speed by increasing the braking effect of
the tug or by reversing the engine if the approach to the berth is at a greater speed.

Start of
Breaking

V1L m/sec Stop P t

V4L m/sec

Stop Target

V m/sec
1L
4L
A

S
D

19

In practice, rather than maneuvering the vessel to stop at the stop point, braking is applied while controlling speed so
that the vessel stops at the target at the front of the berth without losing control.

7-3-4 Reference Values for Reducing Speed

The spreadsheet below presents the equation in 7-3-2 in a format ready for data entry. Enter the necessary data to
calculate approximate values for stopping distance and stopping time, and safety margin. It is important to recognise
reference values for the stopping distance of the vessel using simple spreadsheets. Early braking by tug or reversing
the engine is necessary if the safety margin is 0.3 or less.

Displacement

Input

37,500 ton

Speed Reduction
Reference table

Aut.Cal.

Add. Displacement

40,125 ton

Length Over All

Loa

200

Remaining Distance

4L
1L

800
200

Tug Line Angle

Braking Power

15.0 ton

Horizontal Braking Power

14.1 ton

= Fx cos

Longitudal Wind Pressure for Braking Power RL

15.5 ton

Eective Braking Force

Fb

29.6 ton

Speed at start of Braking

(Speed by Dead Slow Ahead)

6 kts
3.09 m/sec

Dist. Between Start of Braking and Target

Stopping Distance

Required time to Stop

Result

1.07

20 deg.

V00m/sec

Speed at 4L

V4L

Speed at 1L

V1L

Remaining Dist at Stop Point

Safety Factor

Start of
Breaking

1
2

A
D

2,000
659
0.36
427
7.1
6.6
3.4
3.3
1.7
1,341
6.7

Start Braking

m
N.Miles
sec
min.
kts
m/sec
kts
m/sec
m
L

Wind Speed Calculation

Wind Speed

V4L m/sec

12.4 m/sec

Relative Wind Angle

45

Long. Wind Force: RL

0.67 0.3 0.6

V1L m/sec

Stop Target

Stop Point

Stop Target

1L
4L
A
D

20

GEN/PCC/CTNR : 1
Pax : 2, Tank/Bulk3

Relative Wind Direction

Length from
Bow to
Wind Press
Center

V m/sec

15.5 ton

Ship's Kind

Stop P t

Degree(0 180)
(Every 10 degree)

Ra
Resultant Wind
Press.

Wind Speed
Vam/sec

Wind Press.
Force Angle

In addition to this spreadsheet, it is also effective to consider the manoeuvrability of the vessel in preparing speed
reduction guidelines in graphic format. The guidelines should be posted on the bridge, with copies kept in storage.
The guidelines can be provided to the pilot as reference material for information exchange upon boarding to assist in
communication.

Guidelines for reducing speed while maneuvering for approach

Speed (knots)

10
8
6
4
2
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Distance to pier (m)

For container vessels, PCCs, LNG carriers.

The above diagram shows an example of a speed reduction guideline for adjusting speed during the approach based on
the distance remaining and speed, in consideration of the safety margin.
In this region, the safety margin is zero when full astern engine thrust is used for braking. Remaining speed
plotted further to the left enters the danger zone with overrun beyond the scheduled stopping point.
In this region, the vessel stops before the scheduled stopping point if slow full astern engine thrust is used
for braking. Control of the vessel may be lost if reverse thrust is used (quasi danger zone).
In this region, the safety margin is zero with dead slow astern engine thrust used for braking (caution
zone).
In this region, the safety margin is 0.3 0.6 with dead slow astern engine thrust used for braking. It
is possible to control the vessel within this range (control possible zone).
Control of the vessel is possible in this region, however the effects of external forces (wind) will be
considerable if speed is reduced excessively (caution required in this zone if external forces are present).

Verify displacement of vessel, power at engine astern, and power of

tug, verify the distance and time required to stop during maneuvering
for approach, and maneuver the vessel with a safety margin.

21

7-4 Control of Berthing Velocity When Approaching the Pier

Incidents of failure to control berthing velocity when approaching the pier (use of a tug or bow thrusters to move the
vessel sideways to the berth) despite maneuvering the vessel as scheduled in terms of speeds, and consequent damage
to the pier, fenders, and the hull of the vessel are common.
Conventionally, the vessel approaches at an angle on a face line of the pier, the bow line is taken, and the stern is
pushed to the pier. This method is still used with vessels of up to 20,000GT, however larger vessels generally approach and position parallel to the pier at a distance of 1.5 2 times the beam, and are then pushed sideways onto the
pier by a tug (parallel approach).
Advantages and disadvantages of the parallel approach compared to the conventional method are as follows.

Advantages
While this depends on the layout of the pier,
a mistake in reducing speed does not result
in damage to the pier. When the pier is of
considerable length, a mistake in speed control
simply results in overrunning the scheduled stop
position, and does not result in damage to the pier.
With the conventional method, container ships
etc. with large bow flares sometimes damage
cranes etc. overhanging the pier. This risk is

Up to 20,000GT (conventional method)

20,000GT (parallel approach)

much reduced with the parallel approach.

The attitude of the vessel is more easily
controlled with the parallel approach, facilitating
response to rapid changes in external forces.

Disadvantages
An extra 10 20 minutes is required to reach
the pier.
Large vessels exceeding 20,000GT
(parallel approach)

7-4-1 Berthing Velocity Control

Piers and mooring facilities are based on the largest vessel type to be
accommodated, and are normally designed for a speed of 15cm/sec when
approaching the pier. Vessels generally approach at a maximum speed of
10cm/second, with large vessels and VLCCs approaching at 5cm/sec. These
speeds allow absorption of the energy of the vessel when contacting the pier
fenders, and prevent damage to the hull and the pier.

22

The energy of the vessel when contacting the pier can be calculated with the following equation, and is proportional to
the square of the speed of contact.

1
2

W'
g

V2 C

Contact energyton-m

W' W (displacement tonnes tranverse additional mass coecient (1-0 2.0)

g

Acceleration due to gravitym/sec2

Berthing Velocitym/sec

Energy diminuition coecient due to turning etc.

Using an additional mass coefficient of 1.8, and C of 0.5

in the above equation, a container vessel with a displacement of 50,000 tonnes approaching the pier at a speed of
10cm/sec has a contact energy of approximately 23 tonnem. This is equivalent to a 1 tonne motor vehicle colliding
with a wall at 80km/h.

Contact energy

300
VLCC
200
100

Container
PCC

t-m
0

2
6
8 10 12 14
4
Berthing Velocity ( V cm/sec)

7-4-2 Safety Margin in Relation to Speed when Contacting the Pier

As with the speed reduction plan, the safety margin for speed when contacting the pier must also be investigated.
When a vessel with berthing velocity of Vcm/sec receives a constant braking force by a tug from a point Dm from the
pier, and stops Am from the pier, the safety margin is calculated as follows.

Safety Margin

DDistance from braking start

point to pier
ADistance remaining from vessel
stop point to pier

The vessel stops immediately after commencing braking if R = 1. The vessel stops at the scheduled stop point if R = 0.
A questionnaire given to pilots showed that the safety margin used for safe approach to the pier keeping the vessels
attitude when towed at Slow by a tug is 0.3 0.6.

23

As with the speed reduction plan, it is important to employ a graph.

Bertihing Velocity (cm/second)

10

15

20

25

30

Berthing Velocity (cm/second)

CTNR

PCC

Berthing Velocity (cm/second)

Distance to berth (M)

10

20

30

40

50

60

Distance to berth (M)

VLCC

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100 110

Distance to berth (M)

In this region, the safety margin is zero when two tugs brake the vessel at full speed.
In this region, the safety margin is zero when a tug brakes the vessel at half speed.
In this region, the safety margin is zero when a tug brakes the vessel at slow speed.
In this region, the safety margin is 0.3 0.6 when a tug brakes the vessel at dead slow.
Adjustment of speed approaching the pier in this region is recommended.
In this region, control is possible, however the vessel is readily susceptible to external forces.

24

8. Preventing Damage to Harbour Facilities

As decribed above, maneuvering of a vessel under its own power inside the harbour during entry and exit presents
difficulties. External forces such as wind have a particularly large effect when holding and changing course, holding
speed, and when controlling the attitude of the vessel.
When approaching and leaving the pier, it is necessary to understand the effects of external forces, and to use
assistance such as tugs, main engines, and bow thrusters to control the attitude and speed of the vessel appropriately while maneuvering.
It is important not to leave all the operation of the vessel to the pilot. Rather, the captain and pilot should discuss the
procedure for operation, and ensure that all bridge crew understand the way to put the necessary bridge resource management into practice thoroughly, and are thus able to reduce the number of incidents of damage to harbour facilities.
In discussions with the pilot at entry and exit from harbour, it is necessary for the captain to plan the procedure
for entry and exit in advance.

8-1 Bridge Resource Management During Harbour Entry and Exit S/B
The following points are required to consider thorough bridge resource management at harbour entry and exit.

Consult with the navigator on the day prior to harbour entry for a brieng on harbour entry and
exit procedures.

When the pilot boards the vessel, present the pilot card (see Attachment (2)), and explain draft,
displacement and other points of special note.

Obtain information from the pilot on where the tug is to be taken up, whether the pier is to be
approached on the ships port or starboard side, and the number of mooring lines etc. to be
used. If there is time available, verify the requirements for maneuvering of the vessel (e.g. turning
point).

Ensure that the ocer on the bridge reports engine speed (when engines are operated), and that
the helmsman reports rudder status as appropriate. When the engine is stopped in the nal stages
of approaching the pier, the ocer may begin tidying up the bridge and he / she may neglect to
report the berthing velocity of the vessel. It is important that the required information (e.g. ahead/
astern speed, berthing velocity) is reported appropriately until an instruction is received from the
captain that it is no longer necessary.

Ocers stationed at the bow and stern report repeatedly on movement of the tugs.

In non-English-speaking regions in particular, the pilot and captain of the tug frequently converse
in the local language, and information on movement of the tug may not reach the captain of the
vessel. It is important that ocers stationed at the bow and stern report concisely whether the
tugs are pushing or pulling the vessel, and in which direction etc.

Mooring lines are set in consultation with the pilot. Even after the lines are tied on the bitts, they
are generally left un-tensioned (with no slack). It is important to follow the instructions of the ship
navigator when winding in mooring lines to control the attitude of the vessel.

It is always necessary to verify any doubts. This applies not only the captain, but also to the crew.
The captain is responsible for creating an atmosphere in which this behavior is encouraged.

25