Urban Analysis

code 7W565

Picturesque studies
Sequentional analysis

Copyright Technische Universiteit Eindhoven 2010

This material is intended for personal use by students of the Technische Universiteit
Eindhoven following this course only.
No part of it may be reproduced, distributed or publicized in any form.
Lecturer: Reinder Rutgers

Picturesque
=
Like a painting

Aimed at the picture

Perception
Well being
2

The notion 'Picturesque'

The idea of the picturesque in urban design is the idea of looking at the environment as a
'picture' or a collection of 'pictures'. Analysis is aimed at discovering and categorizing
these 'pictures' and design is aimed at making 'pictures': spatial compositions of
buildings and objects. This means this activity is aimed at the perception of the
environment. The idea being that a pleasant composition can evoke a feeling of well
being and thus contribute to a good environment.

Sequentional analysis
Sequence =
A series of images expressing a thought
or feeling

space-time experience
cinematographic view

Sequentional analysis
In the visual arts, architecture and urban design a sequence is a series of images
expressing a thought or feeling.
space-time experience
In architecture and urban design the idea behind sequences is that the represent a
certain space-time experience. This space-time experience is an unavoidable part of
any architecture and urban design. As the size and scale of design increases it plays
a more important role. On e could say that a very large building complex or city can
only be experienced as a sequence
cinematographic view
Characteristic for the idea of sequences is the cinematographic view. The environment is
interpreted as a dynamic succession of scenes. Together they constitute a story.
In essence sequences are about manipulating experiences and feelings. The most
extreme form of this are theme park rides that manipulate visual impressions but
above all impressions of the human system of equilibrium. This leads to what in
psychological terns is called a 'Kinesthetic experience' (the word is a combination of
'kinetic' and 'esthetic').

Sequentional analysis
Construction of a sequence
Movement towards a goal
Rythmic intervals by interruptions,
elongations and beautification.
Continuity (but the tempo may vary)
Building tension
Final goal: climax where tension is relieved.

Construction of a sequence
The tradition construction of a sequence consitst of a movement towards a goal. This
movement can be interrupted, elongated and beautified by rhythmic intervals, the
tempo may vary but it never completely loses its forward speed. During the movement
tension is built up. This is relieved at the final goal: the climax of the sequence. This
climax may not be postponed too long and the tension that has been built up may not
be thrown away by an anti-climax.

Babylon 680 v.Chr: Procession street

Origin of the sequentional view: Processions / pilgrimages
The sequence in processions and pilgrimages is a metaphor for the spiritual 'Werdegang'
(German for: a path leading towards a transformation of the person). By the way, this
had nothing to do with a picturesque view of the world.

Vezelay: sequence towards a medieval pilgimage site

In the middle ages Vezelay (France) was an important pilgrimage site. The whole lay out
is aimed at evoking a religious feeling by means of a sequence leading to a climax.
The pilgrims church is built on a steep hill protruding into the valley of the river Cure.
Pilgrims can see the aim of their journey from far, the splendid big church (one of the
biggest of its time) in a glorious position dominating the landscape evoking a feeling of
anticipation an tension.
From both access roads they pass a church where they can do their first prayers. Further
building up the tension. Than the pilgrims climb the hill towards the city gate. The gate
forms an interruption in the sequence that clearly marks the arrival in the wholy place.
The pilgrims continue along the main street that slopes op to the cathedral, passing a
small church on their way. Again with the opportunity to build up tension. Because the
street is narrow and winding the front of the cathedral only comes into view at a late
moment, making it all the more impressive. In front of the square the space opens up
to a square. The pilgrim climbs op the stairs an enters the Narthex: a big portal under
the towers of the church. Again this builds up tension. Finally the doors of the church
opens and the big space inside the church is revealed, evoking a feeling of awe. At
the end of the nave is the altar, the climax of the pilgrimage.

Florence
Palazzo Medici
1445
7

Originally: a static view of the environment in architecture and urban design

Static power and the static universe that never changes are emphasized. 'Nature' is
interpreted as 'eternal the cosmic laws'. The known and controllable is opposed
against the uncontrollable, onpredictable and often threatening 'natural world'

Stourhead 1760

Stourhead 1760
In the 18the century a more dynamic view of nature evolves. The better man is able to
control nature the more his attitude towards nature changes. It looks as if the
environment can be controlled. In western Europe the parts that are still 'wild' become
smaller and smaller. Nature is no longer seen as just being hostile nut also as
something romantic. An ideal view of nature evolves: an Arcadian landscape that
reflects the grandness of gods creation. This is reflected in the 'landscape style' that
evolves in England. In this form of landscape architecture landscape is arranged in
scenes based on visual relations. It is not without reason that the English language
uses the word 'scenery' as an equivalent of landscape (Which by the way is a Dutch
word). The idea is that somebody who walks through the artificial landscape will be
presented by a number of arranged scenes. The walk is a metaphor of the 'walk of
life', the scenes are meant to evoke thoughts, they show classical temples, symbolic
statues etc. In the tradition of the 18th and 19th century architecture and landscape
design have the ambition to educate the observers.
Dotted lines: lines of sights of the arranged scenes
Illustrations of Stourhead from 'Archutecture and landscape' by Wouter Reh and Clemens Steenbergen.

Stourhead 1799

Stourhead 1799
Over years the number of scenes and mutual relations between elements in the park was
increased

Stourhead 1820

10

Perspective of the situation in 1820

Showing the architectural elements. In architecture the small purely decorative buildings
in a park often with a 'strange' larchitecture are referred to as 'follies'.

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Stourhead

11

Photograph Stourhead
The theatrical approach to design is aimed at making static compositions that form
scenes of their own. Walking is just a way of going from one scene to the other. Later
the walk itself becomes the starting point for the experience: a dynamic succession of
scenes.

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Peter Joseph Lenn Design of a garden Dahlwitz 1835

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Design for a garden in Dahlwitz (Brandenburg, Germany) 1835. Peter Joseph Lenn
The conceptual lines of the composition are still visible in the drawing. They form the
framework of the composition. Each line represents the centre axle of a scene. The
totally of the composition is based on the walk through the garden.

12

John Nash
Regents street
1811
13

Regents Street, 1811

The principle of a succession of scenes evolves to the idea of sequences in urban design.
An early example is Regent's Street in London. In this case the sequence was a
solution to the problem that a formal street could not be made because the developer
John Nash was not able to acquire necessary the grounds. The two climaxes on both
sides of the street a royal palace on one side and Regent Park on the other side.

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Cornelis van Eesteren design for the new town Lelystad 1963

14

Van Eesteren: design Lelystad 1963

Although the idea of a sequence is very appealing and keeps resurfacing in urban design
it certainly did not play a leading role since the time of Regent's Street. The formal
way of organizing space remained important. In modernism it again became the only
way of organizing space.
The dynamics of the type of modernistic plans like that of the Dutch new town Lelystad
only consists of transportation from A to B. The way this is experienced plays no role.

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Gaicomo Balla, Flight of a Swallow, 1913

15

Giacomo Balla: Flight of a swallow, 1913

Balla was part of the Futurist movement.
In first part of the 20th century besides modernism there were an under streams in which
the experience of movement and experience in motion played an important role. One
of them was Italian Futurism. They were inspired by new forms of transport like the
car and in new ways of presenting movement, like the famous photographs by
Muybridge or film. In art the new school of Futurism is inspired by movement and the
new way of viewing the environment.

The two approaches: static and dynamic are still topical. Static: The idea that movement
itself is not important but that the stages or stations matter equals the idea that an
urban environment, or city for that matter, is a fragmented network environment in
which people 'zap' between seperate environments that could be approached as
'scenes', such as the orchestrated environment of a shopping mall.
In the dynamic tradition is the idea that sequences take on a different form in the modern
environment. Being on the internet, looking TV or driving a car are part of it.

15

Sitte 1898,
Unwin Town
Planning in
Practice 1909
16

Brugge route and image

Another stream starting at the end of the 19th century is constituted of designers that take
the picturesque as a starting point
The first analysis of an urban sequence avant la lettre can be found in the work of Camillo
Sitte (1889) who presents the Steenstraat in Brugge is an example of a picturesque
approach to the design of streets. The picturesque effect partly is caused by the
sequence the streets presents: changing views and a movement towards church
(climax of the sequence).

16

Castle Combe

17

Castle Combe, England

Illustration from 'Town planning in practice' 1909
The idea of the sequence as a part of urban design is elaborated by Raymond Unwin.
Unwin takes the picturesque English old towns and countryside as an example. This
illustration is emblematic. Castle Combe and in particular this bridge with its cottages
has been the background for many films, perhaps because it was illustrated in
Unwins book.

17

Unwin Town
Planning in
Practice 1909
18

'Town planning in practice' contains direct references to English landscape architecture

and its scenographic approach.

18

Sequence High Street Oxford.

From:Unwin Town Planning in Practice 1909

19

Analysis of the sequence of High Street, Oxford

From 'Town planning in practice'.
Architectural theorists working from the ideas of Gestalt psychology have influenced
thinking in terms of sequences. They emphasized the concept of succesive spaces.

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Gordon Cullen
Westminster regained, 1947

20

Gordon Cullen. Illustration from 'Westminster Regained', 1947

The way of looking at the environment that characterizes 'Town planning in practice' is
taken up by Gordon Cullen in the 1950's.
Cullen starts his career in the 1930's as a modernist architect. He works in the office of
Lubetkin the design of the world famous Pinguin Pool in London Zoo, an icon of the
modern movement.
In the 1940's Cullen shifts his attention to public space. In modernism public space in
most cases is an abstract space and a left over between buildings. Cullen sees the
negative implications of this attitude long before modernist spaces are really
becoming a problem in practice. He is of the opinion that public space should be a
pleasant place to stay in and not just rest space and transportation space dominated
by the car. Public space should be the bearer of an urban design. He does not equal
this with classical urban design but with a picturesque approach. This is not as far
removed from modernism as one might think. Modernistic forms are based on asymmetry and the inter relations of volumes. In fact this is also the basis of
picturesque urban design. The difference is the scale and the detailing and the fact
that the modernist composition is made on the drawing board or in the model while the
picturesque approach is based on the perception at street level.

Cullens first plan is for the area around the house of parliament in London. He proposes
to make it a car-free zone. This is a pioneering idea and the forerunner of the later
pedestrian zones in inner cities. The illustrations show the emphasis on public space
and its use as a place to stay.

20

Cullen
Serial vision
21

Serial vision
Cullen introduces the concept of 'serial vision'. A sequence to experience urban space. In
this first example a building ensemble. Later the emphasis shifts on experiencing a
movement through a district or town.
In the 1950's he develops 'Townscape', his theory about urban design and public space.
The word refers to the idea that the urban environment in research and design can be
approached like a form of landscape. A very modern idea that in general only is taken
up in urban planning in the 1980's and 90's.

21

Townscape drawing as analysis

22

Ingredients of townscape
INGREDIENT 1 The act of drawing as a way of analysing.
Analyzing the way space works and the way it is detailed by using drawing technique.
From: Durley study, 1956

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Townscape Observing meticulously

23

INGREDIENT 2 Observing meticulously

Details can be just as important as the 'general picture'. Details often show the way space
is used and the particular local traditions in building. This vision is opposed to the
modernist approach that emphasizes the generic and place independent aspects.

23

24

Observing meticulously leads Cullen to an ever more accurate style of drawing and
analyzing.
From a studie of Orleans (France), 1974
Cullen strives for a style of drawing that has a deeper meaning. Meticulous observation is
not by definition equal to a lot of drawings. One drawing from a well chosen position
with well chosen expression sometimes can say more about an environment that lots
of abstract information.
Cullens caption for this drawing:
Entry to the city. The road divides, revealing two aspects of the overall unity. On the right
is a quiet and urban residential quartier retaining its upper level privilege and
asserting its sense of place by the curve so that we assume a centre point in its
vicinity, i.e*: it is not a straight road with a vanishing point five miles away. To the left,
the road loops down to a distant urban confrontation between God and Mammon. City
centre and suburb, business and culture we know intellectually that these exist in
every town, but it is only when they are shown to exist that the town begins to vibrate.
*(i.e. = id est (latin) that is to say)

24

Townscape The Functional Tradition

25

INGREDIENT 3 A different view of functionality: The Functional tradition

Illustration from the analysis of Lyme Regis 1950.
According to Cullen knowledge is stored in existing structures. In this respect he talks
about the 'functional tradition'. He deliberately uses the word 'functional' in a different
way than so called 'functionalists' that only refer to a very limited view on function.
According to Cullen 'functional' means: tailored to the needs of users, not only
practical needs but also symbolic and other needs. Tailored not only means:
designed, but also: the way people interact with their environment, the way they have
appropriated it. In the 'functional tradition' inhabitants often used minimal means to
achieve maximum effect in function, character and form.

25

outrage
1955
26

Observing meticulous makes Cullen aware of the effects of the way public space is
dealt with.
Outrage, 1955
Comparing public space with the aid of drawings showing 'before' and 'after' or 'present
situation' and 'how it could be' is a way of making people more aware of the effects of
neglecting public space or only taking one aspect into account (most of the time
traffic).

26

Townscape Serial vision

David
Gosling
1960
27

INGREDIENT 4 Serial vision.

From the 'Berlin turnpike, New Haven' study by David Gosling a pupil of Cullen, 1960
The impact of the car fuels the interest in sequences. On motorways the experience of
space is almost totally serial.

27

Gordon Cullen
Townscape
Ingredients

Drawing as a tool
Meticulous analysis,
Functional tradition
Serial vision

Other prepositions
Art of relationship
Unicity
Pliability
28

Townscape
Cullen formulates his theory of Townscape in a book with the same name, published in
1961.
Besides the four basic ingredients, covered in the previous slides, he formulates three
other prepositions.
Art of relationship. The combination of buildings, space and objects (trees, street
futniture, etc.) is more than a collection of their individual properties. There is an 'art of
relationship': the way they interact.
Unicity 'Average solutions' can never provide goor solutions for specific problems.
Pliability A city absorbs a multitude of patterns (individual behavior patterns, conflicts,
etc). Despite this it is successful. The ability to absorb many patterns and still be
successful is called 'pliability'. For Cullen this means that big gestures are not the best
way to deal with urban design, it should be more like 'manipulation of tolerances'.
This is related to the 'art of relationship', being very carefull with all aspects of public
space. A modern word for 'pliability' could be 'layered'.

28

Gordon Cullen
Townscape
Basic categories of analysis and design
Movement
Serial Vision
Position (place)
Outside Transition - Inside
Content (=materialization)
Details, expression of the
place
29

Basic categories of analysis and design in Townscape

1. Movement. The urban landscape is revealed by a series of abrupt transitions. Thes
must be identified to be able to manipulate the environment..
2. Position. This has to do with the static aspects of the environment, especially the
spatially of places. These can also be analyzed in term as being in a place, outside a
place and entering of leaving it.
3. Content. Cullen uses the word 'content' largely as the equivalent of the more usual
word 'materiality'. This is to emphasize that materiality matters. Architectural and
urban design is not just about 'space' in abstracto, it is also important how the
environment is materialized. This is related to the 'Genius loci', the 'spirit of the place',
the way people interact with space. Looking at the 'content' also provides clues about
how permanence and change interact in an environment. Translated into design
Cullen is of the opinion that the design should provide the common framework of an
environment. This should not neither be rigid nor anarchistic, it should produce
'playfullness'.

29

Gordon Cullen
Townscape
main characteristics
- Aimed at visual experience (perception)
- Human scale
- approriateness
- affection
- specific properties of a place
- time
30

Main characteristics of Townscape

Townscape is aimed at the visual experiencing of the environment (perception). Cullen
supposes this is determining for the way the environment influences us: the way we
act, value it, know it.
Above all Townscape is about the human scale, the way residents appropriate their
environment and the affective values of the environment. This means that the specific
charcteristics of a place are important, just as its development over time.
According to Cullen Townscape is the science to discover the hidden visual knowledge in
an environment and to distinguish between order and chaos. We discover order in the
accidental en concentrate on that.(It could also be called 'hidden order').
He emphasizes that his intention is not nostalgia or 'cosy design', but a humane
environment.

30

Gordon Cullen
Townscape
methods

- Observation
dynamic and static

- Analytic drawing
Sequences
Abstractions of spatial relations
Relevant images / emblematic situations
Relevant details

31

31

Analysis Tenterden (1967)

32

Example, Cullens analysis of Tenterden, 1967

Tenterden, location
As regards the position of the town in its environment Cullen looks at:

Landscape setting

Shape

Entances

He emphasizes that the division in these aspects is artificial, in reality the several aspects
form a coherent whole. However it is important to look at several aspects separately
to get a clearer picture about how the impression of a town is formed.

32

Landscape setting

33

Landcape Setting
Cullen takes this literally: The city viewed from its surroundings, its profile and skyline.
This akin to the way Paul Zucker interprets the image of a city in Entwicklung des
Stadtbildes', 1929 (development of the image of the city).

33

Shape

34

Shape
The visual structure of the town as a whole. The differences in height of the landscape,
the main elements of the town, the contours along the lenght of the main streets,
cross sections, the most important elements such as squares and parks.

34

Entrances

35

Entances 1
The sequences that are experienced when entering the town. In this example the
entrance is accompanied by a line of country houses and there are several points
where the image changes. These constitute stages in the sequence.

35

Entrances

36

Entrances 2
Cullen uses a combination of photographs and drawings. If the transitions are very
important drawings are used to make a more precise analysis of the character of the
transition.

36

Vistas, transitions, character, rhytm, relations

37

Analysis of urban spaces

To look at the fundamental aspects of spatiality Cullen uses abstractions of urban space.
He is looking for transitions, vistas, the general character, the rhythm of space and
interrelations between buildings and space . He then tries to relate these to the way
space is fitted out in reality.

37

Construction of urban space

38

Construction of urban space

In modern terms this could be called a deconstrucion of a situation.
Cullen interprets a corner in an urban space as a series of transformations from two main
building volumes and one main space. He uses this to make the viewer (including
himself) aware of the fact that the detailing is important and not only the building
volumes (as is the prepostion of many modern plans).
1. Diagram of the corner. A situation that all too often can be found in modernistic
designs.
2. The space is enlivened by making an opening.
3. The impersonal blocks are given scale by adding a small building.
4. Now the inner corner is brought to live by the design of the inner block that relates to
the design of the small building that was added. The form of the block brings
movement to the space.
5. Dark trees provide depth to the space and bring contrast.
6. Facades enliven the space and refine the feeling of scale.

38

Groups

39

Groups
Ensembles of spaces and buildings.
Special attention for recesses because they are important for the way space is percieved.
According to Cullen places and groups are two seperate systems that sometimes
coincide, sometimes not.

39

Character and tempo

40

Character and tempo

A detailed study of the 'micro relief' of urban space. Variations in height and in building
line. Tempo has to do with style, scale and silhouette of the buildings along side a
road.

40

Rhythm and sequences

41

Rhythm and sequences

The character and tempo of the buildings of a street wall lead to rhythm and sequences
that are important for the experience of the urban space.

41

Movement: Serial vision

42

Movement: Serial vision

How is space percieved in motion. In this example Cullen shows how the view of the
church changes as the central space of the town is transversed.

42

Movement: relation road - context

43

Movement: relation between road and context.

In moving along a street the relation between the road (space of movement) and its
context is experienced. The way this relation is constituted influences the character of
the space and should therefore be studied.

43

At close range
Materials
Conventions
Ground surface
Devisions
Trees / green
Lettering
Curiosities

44

Detailed studies
At close range
Detailed study of micro texture, proportions, profiles and furnishing of public space.
It covers

Materials

Conventions

The ground surface

Fences and other elements to devide space

Trees and other green elements

Lettering

Curiosities

These all tell the story of the place and its inhabitants.

44

Time

45

Time
Cullen pays special attention to the changing character of the environment. An urban
environment is dynamic. Not only buildings change but also the zoning and furnishing
of space. These can affect the spatial impression significantly.
Two examples from Tenterden. Above: original situation. Below the same situation in
1967.

45

Design Marycluther

46

Design
Cullen uses his approach in several new urban plans.

Design for the new town Marycluther.

Serial vision plays an important role in this design. All routes are designed to evoque the
feeling of sequences. In the plan also other principles of Townscape can be found,
such as the difference between places and movement.

46

Design Marycluther

47

Serial Vision Marycluther

Example of one of the many sequences elaborated by series of drawings that convey a
'filmic' impression of the design.

47

48

Design for Greenwich Peninsula (1988) (present day name: Docklands & Canary
Wharf).
A 'Venetian' atmosphere bases on the presence of existing docks/ Although Cullen
emphasizes the fact that designs should be place specific, this one is on the brink of
being a generic idea applied to a specific situation. In its idea it is the fore runner of
later neo-urban projects like the ones of Rob Krier (for example Brandevoort,
Helmond, The Netherlands). However the architecture in Cullens plan is not nostalgic.
Perhaps in present day eyes it look that way, but in 1988 this was current architecture.

48

Greenwich

49

Streetview from the Greenwich plan.

In their non-accuracy these type of drawings are better than modern day computer
drawings that suggest an accuracy that is not present in the ideas and in the design.
One of the biggest problems of computer drawings with CAD or 3-D systems is that
they do not allow for uncertainties or 'vague' solutions. This is only an advantage in
advanced stages of a design when things really have to be exact. In other stages it is
an invitation to 'inaccurate accuracy', that can easily become a fall pit in the design
process.

49

Appleyard
Lynch
Myer

The view
from the road
1964

50

The view from the road

Donald Appleyard, Kevin Lynch, John Myer
The first comprehensive study of the visual aspects of the highway. The undertone is that
the highway is a positive experience that combines movement, space and image in an
esthetical experience.

50

Special characteristics of the highway experience

The visual is dominant

Kinesthetic experience
Spatial feeling of large scale
architecture
Temporal stream comparable with
music or film
Sequence not from beginning tot end
Experience can be reversed
The driver is a captive spectator
51

Special characteristics of the highrway experience

The visual aspect is dominant. A driver is inside a car and can only see the outside
world. Feeling it only takes place via the steering wheel and the gas pedal (comment:
and in modern cars even that is not the case any more).

Riding the high way is a kinesthetic experience, comparable with a theme park ride,
although less intense. The driver feels bumps and bands, horizontal and vertical
accelerations.

The spatial feeling of a highway is that of large scale architecture, it is like moving
through a gigantic architectural space.

The continuity and the temporal stream are comparable to music and film. Things
happen sequentional and not parallel as in a normal space.

The designer of the motorway cannot be sure that his work of art will be viewed in
total by its users. People enter the highway at certain points and leave it at other
points. The sequence must therefore be such that it also works when it is interrupted.

A motorway has two directions, so the sequentional experience can be reversed. In

other words: the design of a sequence has to be such that it can be experienced in
two directions.

Drivers and passengers are captive spectators of the highway. When driving on the
motorway they have no choice but to experience it as it is.

51

highway experience
Level 1: perception
Level 2: cognition

Aspects of attention
52

There are two levels of 'highway experience: perception and

cognition.
The direct experience and the way it is represented in the mind.
First level: Perception
Aspects of attention (how does vision on a highway work)

The vision of a car driver is strongly directive.

Research shows that two thirds of the objects seen by car drivers are straight ahead.

The higher the speed the narrower the field of vision.

Objects along side the road cover a large part of the field of vision.

Interruptions in the form of viaducts, barriers and transitions, guide the view. These
are also means for the designer.

52

highway experience
Level 1: perception

Feeling of movement
53

The feeling of movement

The design of a highway should be linked to the feeling of movement in a logical way. For
example: if the road bulges it should pass over something. If there is a recess in the
road there should be a motive, for example because it has to pass under something.
The same principle applies to lateral movement.

Illustration on the right: how is the feeling of movement evoked visually.

Objects that are close appear to turn around objects that are in the distance.
Things seems to appear from one point.
The texture of the sides of the road provides clues for movement.

53

highway experience
Level 1: perception

Movement of the field

Alignment
54

Movement of the field: the apparent movement of the surroundings

The apparent movement of objects in the environment are clues to interpret your own
movement. When the car is considered to be stable location from the point of view of
the driver, objects appear to do a choreography in the space outside. This can be a
pleasure to watch.
Alignment
In general a sinuous alignment of the route with spacious curves is appreciated by
drivers. A strong bend can evoke a powerful effect. The alignment can be related to
the landscape, communicating properties of the landscape to the driver.

54

highway experience
Level 1: perception

Spatial experience

Extension of the body

55

Spatial experience
The basic experience of space is one of enclosement and dimensions. The experience of
space can be altered by the speed of movement through it. Limitations of the space
(walls, tunnels, etc.) are always observed.
Extension of the body
One of the strongest visual sensations is the relation of scale between an observer and
its surroundings. The car provides a link between the limited human scale and the
large scale of the city. The car evokes the feeling that that large scale can be
controlled.

55

highway experience
Level 2: cognition

Succesion of landmarks
Orientation
Meaning
56

Second level of the highway experience: cognition

The succession of landmarks
Movement along a road exists of a succession of prominent and less prominent
landmarks. These are goals the driver moves towards and passes until the destination
is reaches, which could also be marked by a landmark.
Landmarks can be distant points or points that slowly change as one moves towards
them, or points close to the road that divide the road into visual segments. If a long
distance goal is not always visible it should reappear regularly in the field of vision to
sustain the feeling of progression.
Orientation
Besides the defectiveness and the feeling of progression evolved by landmarks, drivers
and passengers use the general surroundings for orientation. This is partly a practical,
partly an esthetic activity. An environment that is easy to navigate provides more
emotional reassurance and arouses less stress. (Comment: this is even true in the
age of navigation systems. On a smaller scale it had been shown that people rely
more on the visual information a given traffic situation provides than on artificial
signs.)
Meaning
Drivers try to discover meaning in the things they see, they try to relate visual objects to
the collection of ideas and examples in their brains. Seeing an activity or something
that has meaning is an important source of pleasure when driving along a road. The
researchers add that it is less and less possible to see other people when driving on
highways (it is 1964).

56

highway experience
Level 2: cognition

Rhythm and continuity

Sequentional form /
transitions57

Rhythm and continuity

To little variety leads to boredom and less concentration while driving. Perhaps there is
an optimal band width for the interval between strong impressions. Long intervals
cause boredom, very short ones lead to stress and confusion. If the idea of the effect
of rhythm is correct this means that a highway should have a regular base frequency.
This could be varied, but the variation should be coherent and within certain limits.
Sequentional form / transitions
On a highway there is no traditional sequence with a beginning and an end. The
sequentional form is more like of a series of sub-goals with an underlaying
development. The sub-goals divide the road into sub-compartments in between them
there are transitions. These transitions can have a number of forms, ranging from
completely abrupt to very gradual. In 'The view from the road' six types of transitions
are identified.

57

Analysing method
Two parts:
1. Relation between movement and form
of the road
2. Orientation
To be recorded with a system of symbols
Photographs and film are not suited
to communicate about a sequence

58

Analysing method
The disadvantages of photographs and film (or so called 'realistic' representations in
general).
Recording highway sequences with a camera has the advantage that it is recognizable
and detailed. The disadvantage is that this way of recording does not highlight the
essence of sequences and that it is difficult, if not impossible, to communicate about
the sequences. A third disadvantage is that it is almost impossible to bridge the gap
between a series of recorded images and design. In a design process there hs to be
a conceptual level, without it design is impossible.
Therefore a technique has to be developed to communicate about the sequences.
because the technique is about the essence of the design it has to be twodimensional. Appleyard an associates introduce an elaborate and fairly complicated
notation system. This is based on their theory about the highway experience.
The notation system distinguishes between the two main aspects of the theory:
1. The experience of movement via the changing spatial form and the way it is visible
(lighting is also taken into account).
2. Orientation

58

1. Relation movement form of the road

Apparent motion of the surroundings

Apparent self-motion

59

Relation between movement and the form of the road

Notation system
Symbols for:
Apparent self-motion

Speed

Direction

Changes: stopping- driving away, accelerating-decellerating, up-down, right-left

Apparent motion of the visual field (surroundings)

Moving alongside, over, under

Rotation

Translation

Widening or narrowing of the sides of the road or of the texture

General stability or instability

Apparent speed or the lack of it

59

1. Relation movement form of the road

1. Relatie beweging vorm van de weg

Spatial characteristics

Proportion and scale

60

Spatial characteristics / Proportion and scale

Bounderies
Properties of the space
For both aspects: symbols that indicate the how strong the effects are.

60

1. Relation movement form of the road

Light

Overlapping and changing spaces

61

Light

Type and quality of the light

General light intensity

Overlapping and changing spaces

Overlap between spaces (spaces that can be observed simultaneously)

The way parts of a sequence connect (from gradually to abrupt)

61

2. Orientation

elements

parts of the route

62

Orientation: symbols
In principle Lynches system of notation with five fundamental categories is used, but it is
augmented with five specific symbols that indicate elements of a route that have to do
with orientations. This is understandable as Lynches original system only knows the
category 'route', which would be to coarse for an analysis that is concerned with
roads.

62

2. Orientation
2. Orintatie

landmarks

63

Landmarks
Also an addition to the original notation system are indications of the way landmarks
relate to the road and are perceived in motion.

63

Sequence diagrams

movement -space

orientation

64

Sequence diagrams
The two aspects: the experience of movement via the changing spatial form and
Orientation are depicted in diagrams using the notation symbols.
In the diagrams the road is depicted as a straight line. This is methodical correct as the
idea is that the space moves apparently round the vehicle, the vehicle being a virtual
centre in space moving forward. So for instance a bend in the road is perceived as
something happening outside from within the car.
In the 'apparent movement-space' diagrams the movement symbols form a continuous
line showing the experience of the ride. Beside it are the symbols for the spatial
properties of the sections.
The orientation diagram is also a linear depiction of the movement along the road. The
analysis of the landmarks is depicted in seperate lines parallel to the main diagram.
In the example we see two sections of the same highway. The positions on the road are
indicated by lines showing the distance in miles from a certain point zero.

64

Sequence diagrams

rhytm and attention

elements that stand out

65

Sequence diagrams 2
Rhythm and attention. At what points of the road is the attention focussed straight ahead
(centre column) and at what points on the sides (columns on the sides).
Elements that stand out are typified by small drawings

65

Sequention diagrams

Position in the structure of the context

66

Sequence diagrams 3
Position of the road in the structure of the context.
This is also the starting point for a redesign of the highway with visual quality as a starting
point.

66

Town
Center

Town
Entrance

Design

Basic diagram
orientation and space
67

Design
An example of how a redesign could start. Using the drawings of the analysis an
improved diagram is drawn that corrects problematic elements.
In the example: a sequence from the entrance of a town to its centre in a diagram that
combines orientation and space. This could be a basic diagram to make suggestions
for changes.

67

Design

Space-motion & view

in two directions
68

Relation between space, motion and view

A way to relate back suggestions from the design diagram to the real situation is to
project it on the topography. In this example it is done for both directions of traveling
along the Boston ring road.
It is imaginable that this method could also be used to analyze the views one has
travelling on the road.

68

Design

Linear representation of a
ring road
69

A round sequence (ring road) depicted linear

The analysis and design of a ring road is presented as a linear sequence, making it
easier to work on. The bottom of the diagram connects with the top.

69

Design

Elaboration
Problems

70

70

Design

Night diagram
71

Night diagram
Appleyard and consorts are the first to point at the importance of artificial lighting for the
way a road is experienced and not just for the technical aspects (visibility, safety).
They make a plea for a specail light design. This should be tuned to the general
principle of the design of a road and should also involve prominent landmarks along
the road. This is the first time a special integrated light design is ever mentioned
(1964). Only very recent in the beginning of the 21st century this has become a real
item in the urban environment. Alas modern light designs often lack the connection
with the overall urban concept or -design.
The drawing in 'The view from the road' already has the 'night look' so familiar with
modern light designs (be it more sophisticated nowadays).

71

Visualisation

72

Visualisation
Eventually the design can be visualized in the form af an image sequence. In case new
design elements are still in an abstract stage, the drawings can reflect this abstratcion.
General conclusion about the method.
It is a pioneering analysis. The background idea of the method is good: providing an in
between level to communicate about a temporal experience. The same
methodological problem can be found in music and film. However the notation
method that is suggested is very complicated and not easy to understand. The idea
behind it is that experts would be able to use the method, just like composers and
musicians are able to interpret musical scripts. But this presupposes that all those
involved are fluent in the drawing language that is presented in 'The view from the
road'. In practice this never caught on for understandable reasons: many professions
are involved in designing road systems, each profession. As with many methods for
urban analysis it is up to the individual researcher to take up the good ideas and
overcome the drawbacks of this method.

72

Holland avenue
Francien Houben
2003

73

Holland avenue, 2003

Francien Houben
Study commissioned by Rijkswaterstaat (The Dutch ministry for water works and roads).
The ideas in this study have clearly been derived from 'The view from the road', although
the book is not mentioned and not listed in the literature overview.

Publicized as 'Holland Avenue, Research Road Atlas' 2002 in 'Holland Avenue, Design Road Atlas' 2003

73

Amsterdam

Den Haag

Utrecht

Rotterdam

74

'Highway ring' Randstad*

(Road numbers: A2, A12, A20, A13, A4)

Left: topographic correct,

Right: schematized to an exact circle

The idea is that this road ring to a certain extends defines the image of this part of the
country and that it is thus of importance to analyze the visual impact and if necessary
make re-designs
The strips depict aspects of the road along its length.
Upper strips: road plus direct surroundings

Number of traffic lanes

Slip roads to the inside of the ring

Viaducts passing over the road

Underpasses

Petrol stations, roadside restaurants, etc.

Advertizing

Lower strips: alongside the road.

Walls

Businesses

Grass and fields

Sound walls

Greenhouses

Houses

These categories are elaborated a little bit different in other drawings

.
* Randstad is a generally used metaphore for the circle of towns formed by Amsterdam, Haarlem, Den Haag,
Rotterdam, Utrecht and the towns in between them.

74

75

Depth of field and Service Stations

Two examples of separate drawings for aspects.

75

76

Left: various aspects, Right: Landmarks

Left in the small rings::
Access to the inside of the ring, Underpasses that can be observed from the road,
Program, Scenography , Viaducts crossing the road, Maximum speeds, Number of
lanes
Right: Landmarks along side the road

76

77

Typological drawing of the zoning of the road

Houben distinguishes between: field, verge and road
These are the zones that could be the subject of designs.
Four drawings below: visualization of sequences and new design solutions.

77

TransformRing Eindhoven
Michel Nelissen
2007

78

Transformring Eindhoven
Research by Michel Nelissen 2007
Inducement:

The Eindhoven ring road has a fragmented image. This is a problem because:

Research has shown the ring is an important element in the image people have of the
city

The local government had plans to refurnish parts of the road

Sub-goal:

Testing the methodical idea of 'Holland avenue'

78

Historical development

79

Two examples of historic plans

History of the ring.
In this respect the approach differs from the two previous ones. These did not take
symbolic value into account. History is part of that.

79

Historical development

80

Development of the ring 1921 - 2004

80

Abstraction

81

Making an abstraction of the ring

As a basis for analyis
In order to do this all distances in the real world have to be correctly transfered to the
circle. Only in this way can all elements be given their correct relative positions in the
schema.

81

Physical aspects of the ring

82

Analysing aspects by means of the abstract schema

The abstraction makes it possible to combine several aspects in one schema. This
illustration and the ones following show some of the analyses. IN the real research more
schemas where investigated.
Illustrations:
Number of traffic lanes

Hight of the road surface above ground level

Viaducts and underpasses

Intensity of the traffic and crossings

82

Physical aspects of the sides of the road

83

Physical aspects of the sides of the road

Function

Age of the buildings

Height of the buildings

Crossings and heights of buildings

83

Spatial aspects

84

Spatial aspects (geographic, 3-D)

Green

Building height and profile

Width of the profile between buildinsg

Width between the rows of trees

84

Traffic technical aspects / environmental aspects

85

Traffic technical aspects / environmental aspects

Crossings at street level

Crossings and traffic lights

Traffic burden

Traffic burden, crossings and polution

85

Safety / furnishing

86

Safety / furnishing

Feeling of unsafelt

Unsafety and height of the road surface

Lanterns

Advertizing

86

Orientation / mental map

87

Orientation / mental image

Landmarks

Mental map, things that stand out

The pride of Eindhoven

87

Photo analysis

88

Photoanalysis: Image-sequence in two directions

88

Areas

89

Areas that can be distinguished

Based on the analysis ten areas can be distinguished that internally have common
characteristics. These for a kind of 'necklace with beads'. Using a metaphore
anticipates a design.

89

Characteristic elements

90

Characteristic elements of the ring

The areas indicated with dotted lines are described seperately in the research.

90

Conceptual
ideas

91

Three conceptual ideas

The ring as a:
'necklace with beads' , based on the areas.
'rollercoaster', based on the relief in combination with the areas.
'a city wall or an arena', based on the fact that ring encloses the city centre and is a
barrier.

91

Concept

92

Concepual design
Based on all three initial concepts. The idea is to have a meaningfull interpretation of the
ring that is based on its real, but often weak, properties and is aimed at reinforcing the
available potential.

92

Elaboration of the
profile

93

Examples of the eleboration of the road profile

The element that can most easily be adapted is the public space of the road. The design
consists of a main theme that reappears along the ring and specific eleborations for
the parts of the concept. The solution are presented in cross section, length sections,
schemas and 3-D visualizations.

93

E;laboration of the nodes

94

Example of the elaboration of a node

The elaboration of nodes brings to light technical difficulties an possible solutions as well
as the possibilities to make spatial solutions that fit into the general concept, thus
ensuring the relation between the perception and the cognition of space. This is an
example of analysis by design. If it is not possible to translate the concept into a real
environment that can be experiences, the concept should be changed.

94

95

Example of a sequence
Checking the design by investigating how space is percieved in sequence by car, bicycle
and on foot.

95

Evaluation of the method

Provides a different view

Cartograms are comparable
Usable for complicated structures

Abstraction cumbersome and time consuming

Distorted image

Conclusion
Usable, abstraction not very sensible
96

Evaluation of the method

On the positive side
It provides a different view on the road and the context. Seeing things from a different
perspective is always enriching for a research or a design.
It provides cartograms that can be compared at will. The results can be easily interpreted.
It provides a possibility to analyze complicated large scale structures.
Translating a ring to a straight figure (as in the case of 'A view from the road'), prevents
the inside of the schema being more cramped and the outside more spatious. This in
turn could lead to a distorted impression of the relative importance of the inside and
the outside.
On the negative side
The translation of real distances to abstract distances is cumbersome and time
consuming. Remember this translation must be made for everey aspect that is
investigated and not only for the basic diagram
The image is distorted. In the Eindhoven case the distortion is not very big, but in the
example of Holland Boulevard it is substantial. Research has shown that people find it
difficult up to impossible to relate an abstract schema to real topography and real
experience (research concerning abstract maps of underground railways).
Conclusion
Perhaps the translation to an abstract schema is not useful, the method might just as well
be used in a figure that is geographical correct, although cross sections will always
have to be exaggerated.

96

Various examples

97

97

Analyse Urbaine
Philippe Panerai, Jean-Charles Depaule, 1980

The Italian Townscape

Ivor de Wolfe, 1963

98

Panerai, Depaule
In their book 'Analyse Urbaine' (Urban Analysis, 1980), Castex and Panerai present a
method te analyze sequences. This is based on the book 'The Italian Towncape'
(1963) by Ivor de Wolfe plus the ideas of Lynch and Appleyard and their own ideas.
A sequence is approached as a collection of scenes that are thematic and coded
compostions of the urban landscape.

98

properties

delineation

transitions

Aspects of a spatial seqeunce

General properties of the space

Properties of the delineations
Properties of the transitions and continuations

99

99

properties

delineation

Symmetry

Lateral defined space

transitions

Asymmetry

Central difined space

100

General properties of the space

1 symmetry / asymmetry
2 Space that is defined latarally i.e.: by its walls / space that is defined centrally i.e.: by
its fitting out

100

properties

delineation

Opening up

Convexity

transitions

Closing

Concavity

101

continued
3 opening up of space / closing in of space
4 convexity / concavity

101

properties

delineation

transitions

Articulation of the profile along its length

Profiles of the sides of buildings

Undulating walls

schermen

bochten

Relatie gevelwanden
Two walls respecting each other

Two walls competing

102

Properties of the delineation of space

5 Articulation along the length of the street (length profile):
Vertical or horizontal articulation (undulating landscape and undulating street walls
(blocking vision and creating a sense of enclosement)
6 relation between the two walls of the street: respecting each other, competing

102

properties

delineation

transitions

Narrowing

Side wings

Emphasizing the transition

Informal transition

103

Properties of the transitions and the way space continues

7 Narrowing of the street and the effect of theatrical side wings
8 Emphasizing a transition or a casual transition

103

properties

delineation

transitions

Deflection: sharp bend

Gradual bend

Lateral demarcation

Central demarcation

104

continued
9 Sharp bend, deflecting the direction of the sequence. Gradual bend
10 Lateral demarcation or central demarcation of the transition

104

properties

delineation

Framing

transitions

(3 examples)

105

continued
11 Framing of the transition. 3 examples

105

Panerai,
Depaule
Schematizing
the sequence
106

Schematizing the sequence

Castex and Paneray take both the perception and the cognition of space into account and
make there own variation of the notation methods proposed by Lynch and Appleyard.
Their method is simpler and therefore easier to use and understand. However one
could imagine a more direct link between the 11 types of sequentional spatial
elements and the diagram that expresses the experience of space.
The example shows Regents street in London.

106

Some possibilities to construct sequences

(based on Panerai and Depaule)

107

Some possibilities to construct sequences

(based on Panerai and Depaule)
The analyzing method could be used to construct sequences. Either to improve existing
situations or to make completely new designs.

Regrouping a collection of visual sub-areas that are linked to the same object. This
object is most likely a monument or landmark that pay a major role in the sequence.

Visual sub-areas can also be ordered on the basis of there affinity. The transitions are
the situated at the spots where one passes from one family of areas to another. The
transition is more recognizable if there is a small landmark.

The transition to another sequence can also occur in a number of successive steps,
for example via an overlapping zone or via a common visual sub-area that plays the
role of a connector.

An increasing frequency of sub-areas and elements contributes in building tension

and emphasizing the goal of the sequence, 'climax' of threshold where one passes
into another visual world.

Final remark: sequences often only work in one direction. By analyzing a route in two
directions the elements can be found that play a role in two directions. This makes it
easier to understand the subtle working of certain areas.

107

Park analysis
Steenbergen en Reh
2003

108

Park analysis
In their book 'Architecture and landscape' (2003) Clemens Steenbergen and Wouter Reh
analyse a number of sequences that have been used in baroque gardens and urban
design.
Vaux le Vicomte
The first French baroque garden. An example for later designs.
The sequence shows the succession of visual images one get coming from the entrance
of the park to the house and onwards into the garden. The house is the focal point of
two opposing sequences.

108

Vaux le Vicomte Sequence from park entrance towards house

109

From the entrance of the park towards the house

The house is the first goal (climax) of the sequence.

109

110

In front of the house

110

111

From the terrace of the house looking into the garden

The house is a threshold in the totality of the sequence. A monument is the goal of this
part of the sequence.

111

112

In the garden
Looking from the 'Parterre' towards the monument.

112

113

At a sub-goal (or landmark) looking at the goal.

113

Vaux le Vicomte

Sequentie terug vanuit tuin naar huis

114

Looking back from the monument

Now the house becomes the goal of the sequence in the opposite direction.

114

115

At the sub-goal
(also represented in the sequence from the house to the monument)

115

116

Nearing the house

At the 'Parterre'.

116

117

Close to the house

117

Light for Cities

Brandi
2007

118

'Light for Cities'

In their book 'Light for Cities' (2007) Ulrike and Christoph Brandi use a sequence to show
how light influences our perception of the modern city. Light indicates several realms
within a city and gives us clues about the environment we are in. In traveling through
various areas at night we experience sequences of changing light.
The sequence is also meant to show how the perception of space at night could be
improved.
The sequence is a good example of the effective use of drawing technique to show an
idea. For this purpose much better suited than so called 'realistic' images.

118

119

1
A traveler arrives by plane. From the descending plane he/she sees the lights of the
city. He/she can recognize streets, squares, sports fields, industrial areas, living
quarters, etc., among others by means of the type of lighting.

119

120

2
On the final descent perhaps the lighting of the runway is visible. This is an extreme form
of the relation between space and light.

120

121

3
The platform is an anonymous place without references that is lighted evenly. The
docking bridges also have a cold and impersonal lighting.

121

122

4
There are always escalators in airports. Most of the time the lighting is close to the
ground. Fluorescent lights are used.

122

123

5
The internal spaces of an airport have a hybrid character. On the one hand continuous
monotonous light, often with abrubt transitions. On the other had complex lighting of
shops. There is an enormous contrast between the well designed interior of a plane
and the airport that follows after leaving it.

123

124

6
After the airport formalities the traveler hoes to a car rental. The parking lot is of the same
anonymity as the aircraft platform and the docking bridges.
The interior of the car is full of gimmicks. Still often it is not a pleasantly lighted
environment.

124

125

7
Leaving the parking lot and the airport means passing a lot of ramps, often with a lot of
concrete. The head lights of the car evoke a feeling of safety in the vicinity of the car.

125

126

8
The road leading to the city is lighted uniformly and bright. Lanterns at regular distances.
In the city itself the light is more irregular and the lampposts are lower.

126

127

9
In the city centre the light is more diverse. Most lanterns are still lower. There are traffic
lights and lighted signs.

127

10

128

10
In some areas special lighting is used. For instance at bus stops, underground stations,
etc.

128

11

129

11
The car trip ends in a parking garage, again with impersonal even lighting.
After checking in into the hotel the traveler goes into town. The town hall is lighted with
two floodlights. Besides this there is not much lighting. It is not an inviting place at
night.

129

12

130

12
In the pedestrian zone there is a lot of light but it is emitted by shop windows and
advertisements. An illusive type of lighting.

130

13

131

13
At the end of the night the traveller looks out of the window of the hotel room onto an
illuminated city.

131

Sequence Las Vegas Strip

From: Learning from Las Vegas, 1972

132

Learning from Las Vegas: sequence along the strip

Robert Venturi,; Denise Scott Brown, Steven Izenour, 1972.
Learning from Las Vegas was a ground braking research, introducing a new perspective
on urban analysis.
The new urban environment determined by the motor car plays an important role in the
research. The 'Strip' is an urban type that is about dynamics and not about traditional
static urban spaces. Consequently sequences play an important role. This is reflected
in the analysis.

132

Sequentional analysis

The examples show:

Importance of the visual qualities in motion

The role sequences can play

The limitations of sequences

133

Final conclusion
The works of Cullen, Appleyard and others make us aware of:
The importance of the visual qualities of urban space experienced in motion.
The role sequences can play in enlivening space - making it more interesting and
pleasant - and in making design concepts experiencable.
___________
On the other hand it shows that analysis and design can never solely be based on spatial
sequences.

Most ideas in this field are normative and based on experience over time, not on scientific
insights. That is not to say that they are not usable or feasable, but there are
limitations.
Sequentional analysis by its 'artistic' nature has a certain amount of popularity among
researchers and designers. As a line of thoughts it is accepted. In practice it has had
little direct impact on design, except perhaps in the design of highways (at least in The
Netherlands). Still plans clearly can benefit from an analysis in terms of sequences.

133