Steel Images
Steel Images
Steel Images
Crystal structure of the grains and the nature of the grain boundaries
Fig. 1.5
Plain
carbon
Alloy
Fig. 3.1
%C
%Mn
1018
0.18
0.75
1095
0.95
5160
0.60
%
other
...
%S
0.05
(max)
0.40
...
0.05
(max)
0.82 0.8 Cr 0.05
(max)
Fig. 2.2
Fig. 2.1
%P
0.04
(max)
0.04
(max)
0.04
(max)
Fig. 3.2
Location of iron atoms in face-centered cubic austenite. Small circles locate the centers of holes between
the iron atoms
Fig. 3.3
Portion of iron-carbon phase diagram for hypoeutectoid steel alloys (%C less than 0.77)
Fig. 3.5
Fig. 3.4
Extension of the iron-carbon phase diagram to hypereutectoid steel alloys (%C greater than 0.77)
Fig. 3.6
Portion of iron-carbon phase diagram and change in microstructure on cooling a 1040 steel from 850 to 760 C (1560
to 1400 F)
Portion of iron-carbon phase diagram and change in microstructure on cooling a 1095 steel from 860 to 760 C (1580 to
1400 F)
Fig. 3.7
Portion of iron-carbon phase diagram and formation of the pearlite microstructure on cooling a 1077 steel below the A1
temperature of 727 C (1340 F)
Fig. 3.8
Electron microscope image of pearlite after polishing and etching in nital. Original magnication:
11,000 . Source: Ref 3.2
Fig. 3.10
Fig. 3.9
Fig. 3.11
CHAPTER 4
Fig. 4.2
(Cm) phases
Fig. 4.1
Fig. 4.3
Fig. 4.4
Phase diagram analysis of the decomposition of 0.4 and 0.95% C austenite on cooling to the pearlite temperature, 727 C
(1340 F)
Fig. 4.5
Fig. 4.9
Fig. 4.6
Fig. 4.10
Fig. 4.7
Fig. 4.12
Fig. 4.8
Fig. 4.13
Fig. 4.14
Martensite forms on quenching austenite with varying wt%C. The carbon content determines whether the morphology
will be lath or plate
Fig. 4.15
Fig. 4.17
Fig. 4.16
Both martensite transformation temperatures, Ms and Mf, fall rapidly as wt%C in austenite increases
4.19
Fig. 4.18
4.21
4.20
Fig. 4.19
Pearlite nodules (dark areas) formed on prior-austenite grain boundaries, indicated by white lines. Slow-quenched 1095
steel. Nital etch. Original magnication: 600
Fig. 4.20
Mixed pearlite and bainite structures formed on prior-austenite grain boundaries, indicated by white lines. Faster-quenched
1095 steel. Mixed nital-picral etch. Original magnication: 1000
Fig. 4.21
SEM micrograph of pearlite at location shown in Fig. 4.20. Original magnication: 21,000
Fig. 4.22
SEM micrograph of bainite at location shown in Fig. 4.20. Original magnication: 20,000
Fig. 4.23
Austenite decomposition products for plain carbon steels during isothermal transformation (quenching and holding) at
various temperatures below A1
Fig. 4.24
SEM micrograph of a 52100 steel showing ne spherical cementite in a ferrite matrix. Original magnication: 6000
Fig. 5.1
Stress-strain diagram
Fig. 5.2
Table 5.1
Fig. 5.4
Steel
Treatment
1020
1040
1095
1020
1040
1095
Normalized
(air cooled)
As rolled
Table 5.2
Fig. 5.3
Yield
stress
MPa ksi
Tensile
stress
MPa ksi
345
370
505
330
415
570
440
595
1015
450
620
965
50
54
73
48
60
83
64
86
147
65
90
140
Elongation, %
36
28
9.5
35
25
9
Hardness test
Rockwell C
Rockwell A
Rockwell B
Brinell
Microhardness
Vickers
kg
lb
Indenter
Measure
Use
150
60
100
5003000
1 g1 kg
330
130
220
11006615
0.04 oz2.2 lb
Depth
Depth
Depth
Diameter
Diagonal
10120
22265
Diagonal length
Fig. 5.6
Fig. 5.5
Knoop indentations in ferrite and pearlite of banded 1144 steel. Original magnication 230
Diamond pyramid (Vickers) hardness indentations in ferrite and pearlite of banded 1045 steel. Original magnication: 230
Fig. 5.11
SEM micrograph of a mostly grain-boundary fracture surface on a 1086 steel. Original magnication 95
Fig. 5.7
Ferrite
Austenite
Pearlite
Upper bainite
Lower bainite
Martensite
1015
1015
4043
4045
5860
6566
Fig. 5.12
SEM micrograph of a ductile fracture surface on a 1018 steel. Original magnication 2300
Fig. 5.9
Fig. 5.13
Fig. 5.10
SEM micrograph of a cleavage fracture surface on a 1018 steel. Original magnication 160
Fig. 5.14
Residual compressive stress on the surface will subtract from any applied tensile stress and reduce the
net tensile stress experienced in the piece
Fig. 5.15
Longitudinal residual surface compressive stresses versus case depth in four induction-hardened steels. Source: Ref 5.6
(Copyright 1963, Society for Experimental Mechanics)
%C
%Mn
%other
1018
1020
1044
1045
1060
1078
1080
1095
0.18
0.20
0.44
0.45
0.60
0.78
0.80
0.95
0.75
0.45
0.45
0.75
0.75
0.45
0.75
0.75
1.45
1.45
0.11 S
0.26 S
1.75
1.25
1.45
0.41
0.44
0.40
0.18
0.41
Maximum level, %
S
P
Si
Al
0.04
0.05
0.2
0.04
Fig. 6.3
%C
%Mn
%Cr
%Mo
%Ni
0.80
0.80
0.50
0.87
0.55
0.70
0.55
0.95
0.95
0.50
0.80
0.25
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.25
0.25
0.25
1.82
1.82
1.82
0.46
0.20
0.60
1.00
0.87
0.80
0.87
0.30
0.27
0.80
0.80
1.45
0.20
0.40
0.80
0.87
0.50
0.50
0.20
0.20
0.55
0.55
0.23
0.42
0.30
0.40
0.20
0.40
0.20
Fig. 6.4
Fig. 6.5
Fig. 7.1
Fig. 7.2
(a) The iron-carbon phase diagram, indicating that iron can dissolve up to 1.3% C at 925 C (1700 F). (b) The diffusion of
carbon into pure iron. As the carbon migrates into no-carbon regions of the bar, it continues to be absorbed from the
charcoal at the surface
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.5
Cr
Ni
800 C (1470 F)
1000 C (1830 F)
1200 C (2190 F)
Mo
72,400
1,400,000
8,200
119,000
1,690
16,800
Mn
2,840,000
194,000
27,500
6,140,000
419,000
59,400
2O
2
Fig. 7.4
(Eq 7.2)
CO 2 + C
2CO
S
Decarburize
Fig. 7.6
(Eq 7.3)
austenite
Fig. 7.7
The %CO2 above which decarburizing occurs and below which carburizing occurs for the three steels 1095, 1060, and
1020
n = 2G 1
(Eq 8.1)
log n
log 2
(Eq 8.2)
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Average diameter, m
Relative size
510
360
250
180
125
90
65
45
32
22
16
11
8.0
5.6
4.0
2.8
2.0
Very coarse
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Fig. 8.4
Very ne
Ultrane
Fig. 8.5
ASTM No.
Steel
Initial
After cycling
1045
1086
5150
9
11
8.5
14
15
14
(b) Cycled sample (grain size: ASTM No. 15). Original magnication: 800
Thermal cycling produces a ner martensite structure in 1086 steel. (a) Uncycled sample (grain size: ASTM No. 11).
Fig. 8.2
boundaries
Fig. 8.6
Fig. 8.3
Recrystallization increases proportionately with time, as demonstrated in this 1010 steel cold rolled 90% and
annealed at 550 C (1025 F). (a) 2 min, 10% recrystallized. (b) 15 min, 80% recrystallized. Source: Ref 8.4
Fig. 8.7
Fig. 8.9
Average grain diameter of austenite versus temperature in two 1060 steels austenitized for 6 min and 2 h. Grain growth is
suppressed in the aluminum killed steel. Source: Ref 8.2
Fig. 8.8
Fig. 8.10
Fig. 8.12
Fig. 8.11
Fig. 9.1
Fig. 9.2
Iron-carbon diagram (center gure) with %C compositions of steel A and steel B. The corresponding isothermal transformation diagrams for the two steels are shown at the sides
Fig. 9.3
Fig. 9.4
Isothermal transformation diagrams for 1060 and 5160 steels. Alloying with chromium (5160) increases the transformation times. Source: Ref 9.2
Fig. 9.5
Fig. 9.6
Fig. 9.7
The 1080 isothermal transformation diagram of Fig. 9.3 explains the structure variation found in the 1086 blade. By following the track of the cooling rate lines for a given thickness, it is possible to predict which steel constituents will emerge
Fig. 9.8
Differences in cooling rate patterns result in differences between isothermal transformation (IT) and
continuous transformation (CT) diagrams
Fig. 9.9
Continuous transformation curves for steels 1036 and 5140 having approximately 0.4% C. Source: Ref 9.2
Pages
United States
British
German
French
Molybdenum steels
351
53113
115161
163220
243296
Vanadium steels
297369
British engineering
steels
373452
Other steels
Additional steels
453520
521607
Type of diagram(a)
IT
IT
IT and CT
IT and CT
CT (W.W. Cias, Climax
Molybdenum Co.)
CT (M. Atkins, Atlas CT
Diagrams, American Society for
Metals,1980)
CT (M. Atkins, Atlas CT
Diagrams, American Society
for Metals,1980)
IT
CT in old 1977 ASM book
(Ref 9.5)
Fig. 9.10
Fig. 9.11
Alternate-style continuous transformation curve that is often presented. Source: Ref 9.2
Alternate continuous transformation diagram that gives microstructures at the centers of bars of varying diameter
subjected to quenches in air, oil, or water. Source: Ref 9.4
Fig. 9.13
Fig. 9.12
(a) Experimental setup for the Jominy end quench test. (b) Machined at sides (ats) and hardness measurement locations
on quenched bar
Fig. 9.14
Fig. 9.15
Jominy hardness prole for 5160 steel austenitized at 850 and 950 C (1560 and 1740 F)
prole illustrating hardenability band for 5160H and equivalent Jominy positions for mild water and oil
quenches. Source: Ref 9.1
Surface
radius
Center
mm
in.
1060
5160
1060
5160
1060
5160
13
25
50
100
1/2
1
2
4
59
25
30
29
63
62
53
40
37
32
27
26
62
62
46
32
35
30
25
24
63
60
43
29
Fig. 10.3
Fig. 10.1
Pale yellow
Golden yellow
Brown
Purple
Bright blue
Dark blue
220
240
255
280
290
315
430
470
490
530
550
600
Fig. 10.4
Fig. 10.2
Dependence of notched impact energy on tempering temperature for 0.4 and 0.5% C steels. TME, tempered martensite
embrittlement. Source: Ref 10.2
Fig. 10.5
Fig. 10.6
%C
%Mn
Alloying element
1060
5160
0.6
0.6
0.75
0.88
None
0.8% Cr
Fig. 10.7
Fig. 10.9
Fig. 10.8
Fig. 10.11
Fig. 10.10
Source: Ref 10.3
Fig. 11.1
Fig. 11.2
Temperature dependence of time required for carbon atoms to diffuse distances, d, of 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, and 500 m
in austenite
Fig. 11.3 Ferrite () grain with pearlite (P) at its grain corners.
The maximum distance through which the carbon
must be redistributed for complete homogenization is represented
by z
Fig. 11.4
Temperature dependence of time required for chromium atoms to diffuse distances, d, of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, and
500 m in austenite
Fig. 11.5
Fig. 11.6
Effect of austenitizing temperature on (a) the asquenched hardness of 8695 steel and (b) the
amount of retained austenite at room temperature. Source: Ref
11.2. Copyright: American Metal Market
Fig. 11.7
Fig. 12.1
Fig. 12.3
Cooling curve at the surface and center of an austempered bar of 1080 steel superimposed on the continuous transformation curve
Fig. 12.2
Fig. 12.4
Hardness of several plain carbon steels after isothermal quenching. All steels are 0.80 to 0.90% Mn except 1095 and
10113, which are 0.30% Mn. Source: Ref 12.9
Martensite, Rc
Max bainite, Rc
65
66
66
65
62
62
58
57
53
48
10113
1095
1080
1060
1050
Fig. 12.6
Rods 3 mm (0.1 in.) in diameter of 1% C and 0.4% Mn produced at HRC 58 and bent under equivalent conditions.
Source: Ref 12.11
Fig. 12.5
Impact strength and percent reduction in area for austempered steels (open bars) compared to quenched and tempered
steels (solid bars) with carbon levels of 0.74, 0.78, and 0.85%. Impact test on unnotched Charpy 7 mm (0.28 in.) rod.
Source: Ref 12.10
0.951.05
0.951.05
0.800.90
0.800.90
0.600.70
0.600.70
0.600.70
1.0 0.40.6 Cr
%Mn
Max HRC
mm
in.
mm
in.
0.300.50
0.600.90
0.300.50
0.600.90
0.600.90
0.901.20
1.602.00
0.400.60
5760
5760
5558
5558
5356
5356
5356
5760
3.76
4.75
3.96
5.54
4.75
7.14
15.9
7.92
0.148
0.187
0.156
0.218
0.187
0.281
0.625
0.312
3.00
3.81
3.18
4.42
3.81
5.72
12.7
6.35
0.118
0.150
0.125
0.174
0.150
0.225
0.50
0.250
Fig. 12.7
Isothermal transformation diagram for a 1075 steel (0.75% C, 0.50% Mn) showing the transformation times to lower bainite
just above Ms and the times for combined transformation to martensite and bainite just below Ms. Source: Ref 12.16
Step 2
Hardness control:
(a) Temper to desired HRC.
(b) Adjust hardness with T. Higher values give softer bainite, often upper bainite.
Small values give hardest bainite, lower bainite.
Modied austemper No. 1 (MA1)
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Hardness control:
(a) Increase T1 of step 1 to increase %M/%B ratio and increase HRC.
(b) Increase T2 of step 2 to obtain softer bainite and drop HRC.
(c) Temper the fresh bainite at temperatures above its formation temperature to drop HRC.
Modied austemper No. 2 (MA2)
Step 1
Step 2
Hardness control:
(a) Temper to desired HRC.
(b) Reduce hold time in step 1 to increase %M/%B ratio and increase HRC prior to tempering.
(c) Change T of step 1 to control hardness of bainite component. Increase T for lower hardness, and decrease T (even to negative values)
to increase hardness.
Fig. 12.8
Fig. 12.10
None
Moderate
Violent
Fig. 12.9
Air
Oil
Water
Brine
0.02
0.3
0.40.6
0.60.8
1.0
1.53.0
3.06.0
2.2
7.5
Fig. 12.11
Fig. 12.12
Construction used to convert the cooling curve of Fig. 12.11 to a cooling rate curve
Fig. 12.13
Fig. 12.15
Ref 12.22
Fig. 12.14
Fig. 12.16
Cooling rate curves for polyalkalene glycol (PAG) polymer quenchant compared to oil quenchants. Source: Ref 12.25
Fig. 12.17
Fig. 13.3
Fig. 13.1
Fig. 13.4
Chromium-iron vertical sections of Cr-Fe-C ternary phase diagram at wt%C values of (a) 0.05 and (b) 0.1. Source:
Ref 13.5, p 9-6. Copyright: 1958 Verlag Stahleisen GmbH, Dsseldorf, Germany
405
430
446
%C
%Cr
Other(a)
0.08 max
0.12 max
0.20 max
11.514.5
1618
2327
0.10.3 Al
...
...
Fig. 13.2
Fig. 13.5
Isothermal transformation diagram for a 430 stainless steel austenitized at 1090 C (2000 F) for 15 min. Source: Ref 13.6
0.060.14
0.20.4
0.651.2
As-quenched hardness, Rc
3849
4454
5661
Fig. 13.6
18-2(a)
26-1(a)
29-4-2
%Cr
%Mo
%Ni
Max %C
Max %N
18
26
29
2
1
4
...
0.1
2
0.025
0.005
0.01
0.025
0.015
0.02
Fig. 13.7
Isothermal transformation diagram for a 410 stainless steel containing 0.11% C and 12.2% Cr austenitized at 980 C
(1800 F). Source: Ref 13.7
410
431
440A
440B
440C
%C
0.15
0.20
0.650.75
0.750.95
0.951.2
%Cr
Other(a)
11.513
1517
1618
1618
1618
...
1.252.5 Ni
0.75 Mo
0.75 Mo
0.75 Mo
Fig. 13.8
Fig. 13.9
410
431
440A
440B
440C
Source: Ref 13.2
122
68
20
7
7
ft lbf
90
50
15
5
5
Fig. 13.11
Fig. 13.10
The important regions on the 1100 C (2010 F) isothermal section of Fig. 13.10
Isothermal section of Fe-Cr-C ternary phase diagram at 1100 C (2010 F). Source: Ref 13.10
A
B
C
D
%Cr
%C
13
13
13
13
0.3
0.58
0.7
1.3
Overall,
%C/%Cr
In austenite,
%C/%Cr
440A
440B
440C
0.70/17
0.85/17
1.07/17
0.48/15.1
0.52/14.6
0.56/13.6
%C
%Cr
%Si
%Mn
Sandvik 12C27
Uddeholm AEB-L
0.60
0.65
13.5
12.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.65
Fig. 13.12
Shift of lines of Fe-Cr-C isothermal section when temperature decreases from 1100 to 1000 C (2010 to 1830 F).
Source: Ref 13.10
Fig. 13.13
Fig. 13.14
The Fe-Cr-C isothermal sections at 1000 and 1100 C (1830 and 2010 F)
c
Fig. 13.17
quench
Fig. 13.15
1090
1040
1090
As-quenched room
temperature, %
Quenched 96 C
(140 F) after
3 days, %
2000
1900
2000
21.1
4.3
19
10.2
4.3
19(a)
Knoop hardness
Martensite
Cementite (Fe3C)
K1 carbide (M23C6)
K2 carbide (M7C3)
846
1150
...
1820
Rc
65
70
73
79
Fig. 13.16
AISI No.
302
304
304L
308
309
310
%Cr
%Ni
Max %C
18
19
19
20
23
25
9
9.3
10
11
13.5
20.5
0.15
0.08
0.03
0.08
0.20
0.25
Fig. 13.18
Isothermal section of Fe-Cr-Ni phase diagram at 1100 C (2010 F). Source: Ref 13.4
Fig. 13.20
Metastable phase diagram for austenitic stainless steels quenched from temperatures near 1100 C (2010 F) (the
temperature of the isothermal section in Fig. 13.18). Source: Ref 13.3
Table 13.13
AISI No.
316
316L
321
347
%Cr
17
17
18
18
12
12
10.5
11
Max %C
0.08
0.03
0.08
0.08
Other
2.5 Mo
2.5 Mo
Ti(5 Cmin)
Nb(Cb)(8 Cmin)
Fig. 13.19
Intergranular
Pitting (crevice)
Stress-corrosion cracking
Description
To avoid(a)
MPa
ksi
301
302
1324
1103
192
160
Elongation, %
5
15
Equivalent
hardness, Rc
42
36
Fig. 13.21
Start times versus temperature for both K1 precipitation and intergranular corrosion
Fig. 13.23
Fig. 13.22
Martensitic
Semiaustenitic
Austenitic
AISI No.
Trade name
%Cr
%Ni
%C
Other(a)
630
631
600
17-4 PH Armco
17-7 PH Armco
A-286 AlleghenyLudlum
16
17
4.2
7.1
0.04
0.07
25.3
0.05
14.8
(a) Low levels of manganese and silicon are also present (Ref 13.5)
17-4 PH
17-7 PH
A-286
Source: Ref 13.7
Fig. 13.24
Compositions of the three precipitation-hardening stainless steels in Table 13.15 plotted on the metastable phase
diagram shown in Fig. 13.20
Final hardness, Rc
4244
3449
2445
Table 14.1 Classication of AISI tool steels showing weight percent composition of one alloy for each
AISI type
Type
AISI
W1
L6
S2
O2
A2
D2
H13
H21
M2
T1
T15
1.0
0.7
0.47
0.9
1.0
1.5
0.39
0.35
0.83
0.78
1.55
Mn
0.25
0.5
0.40
1.6
0.62
0.3
0.35
0.30
0.27
0.25
0.27
Si
Cr
Mo
Other
Total alloy
0.25
0.25
1.05
0.25
0.25
0.25
1.0
0.3
0.32
0.30
0.27
0.9
0.22
5.1
12
5.1
3.5
4.1
4.1
4.4
0.22
1.8
0.32
0.6
1.0
0.5
2
1.1
4.9
9
6.1
18.2
12.4
0.3
0.45
0.3
1.2
0.95
1.4
5
0.7
0.5
1.6 Ni
5 Co
0.5
3.6
2.1
4.2
7.5
14.1
8.9
13.6
17.8
24.7
27.7
Note: The P steels commonly used for molding plastics have not been included. Source: Ref 14.3
AISI
Carbon (water
hardening)
Low alloy
Shock resisting
Die steels for
cold working
W1
(1095)
L6
S2
O2
A2
D2
H13
H21
M2
T1
T15
Wear
resistance
4
4
3
2
4
6
8
3
4
7
7
9
Toughness
Hot
hardness
7 (shallow hardened)
3 (through hardened)
6
8
3
5
2
9
6
3
3
1
1
1
2
2
3
5
6
6
8
8
8
9
M3C
M23C6 (K1)
M6C
M7C3 (K2)
M2C
MC
HRC
Most
Least
70
73
75
79
79
84
Fe, Mn, Cr
Cr
Fe, Mo, W
Cr
W, Mo
V
W, Mo, V
Mo, V, W
Cr, V, Co
...
Cr
W, Mo
Fig. 14.2
Fig. 14.1
Table 14.4 Recommended heat treat practice for a sampling of tool steels
Austenitization temperature
Secondary peak
Temperature of max Rc
Type
Carbon
(water hardening)
Low alloy
Shock resisting
Die steels for
cold working
Die steels for
hot working
High speed
AISI
Max Rc
Number of
tempers
W1
L6
S2
O2
A2
D2
H13
H21
M2
T1
T15
760845
790845
845900
760800
925980
9801025
9951040
10951205
11901230
12601300
12051260
14001553
14541553
15531652
14001472
16971796
17961877
18231904
20032201
21742246
23002372
22012300
None
None
None
57
57
5859
5254
5256
6466
6567
67
None
None
None
260
454
482
524
532
543
527
543
None
None
None
500
850
900
975
990
1010
980
1010
Single
Single
Single
Single
Double
Double
Triple
Triple
Double
Double
Triple
Steel
Stress relief
after rough
machining
Preheat after
nish
machining
Austenitization
temperature
C (F)
C (F)
C (F)
Low-temperature
stabilization
Quench
media(a)
C (F)
W1
620 (1150)
W or B
S2
O2
A2
D2
H13
650 (1200)
650 (1200)
675 (1250)
675 (1250)
650 (1200)
650 (1200)
650 (1200)
600700 (11101290)
600700 (11101290)
815 (1500)
W or B
O
A
A
A
Not
Not
required
required
75 to 196 (105 to 320)
75 to 196(c) (105 to 320)(c)
75 to 196 (105 to 320)(c)
75 to 196 (105 to 320)(c)
75 to 196 (105 to 320)(c)
M2
750 (1380)
A or O
T1
700750
815870 (15001600) 12601300 (23002370)
(12901380)
A or O
840900 (15501650)
790815 (14601500)
925980 (17001800)
9801065 (18001950)
9951040 (18201900)
Temper(b)
To target Rc
To target Rc
To target Rc
To target Rc
To target Rc
D or T at
500 C (930 F)
D or T at
540 C (1000 F)
D or T at
570 C (1060 F)
(a) W, water; B, brine, A; air, O, oil. (b) D, double temper; T, triple temper. (c) Recommend prior 150 C (300 F ) stress-relief treatment. Source: Ref 14.4, 14.6
Fig. 15.1
Fig. 15.2
Three iron dendrites growing vertically into the liquid during solidication
Fig. 15.3
Fig. 15.4
Fig. 15.7
Fig. 15.5
Fig. 15.6
Development of columnar grain structure and equiaxed grain structure during solidication. CET, columnar-to-equiaxed
transition
Fig. 17.1
Section view of a 25 mm (1 in.) diameter induction-hardened 1045 steel. The trace created by
diamond pyramid hardness (DPH) indentations is visible
Fig. 17.3
Fig. 17.2
Fig. 17.5
Fig. 17.4
Fig. 17.6
Fig. 17.8
Fig. 17.9
Fig. 17.7
Fig. 17.10
Fig. 17.12
Fig. 17.11
Fig. 17.13
Carburizing
Carbonitriding
Nitriding
Nitrocarburizing
Case depth
Compressive stress level
Scoring resistance
Impact loading characteristics
Bending fatigue strength
Resistance to seizure (antigalling)
Freedom from quench cracks
Dimensional control (distortion)
Cost of steel required
Processing time
Reduction case hardness on tempering
Improvement in corrosion resistance
of nonstainless steels
Medium
Medium-high
Medium-high
Excellent
Good
Good
Excellent
Fair
Low-medium
Short
Yes
Shallow
High
High
Fair
Good
Good
Excellent
Good
Low
Short
Somewhat
Shallow
Very high
Very high
Fair
Good
Excellent
Not a problem
Excellent
Medium-high
Long
No
Shallow
Medium-high
Very high
Fair
Fair/good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Low-high
Short
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Fig. 17.14
Fig. 17.15
Micrograph of a 1018 steel after nitrocarburizing at 570 C (1060 F) for 3 h and oil quenching. Source: Ref 17.2, p 425
Fig. A2
Fig. A1
Fig. A3
Cold junction compensator automatically adds the required VC voltage into the thermocouple circuit
Elements
Comments
Chromel/
Alumel
Iron/
Constantan
Chromel/
Constantan
Copper/
Constantan
Pt/Pt-13%Rh
982
1800
High output
482
900
High output
593
1100
260
500
1450
2642
1700
3092
J
E
T
R
B
Pt-6%Rh/
Pt-30%Rh
Fig. A7
Fig. A4
Fig. A5
Basic thermocouple
Metal-sheathed thermocouple
Faint red
Blood or dark red
Dark cherry
Full cherry red
Bright cherry
Dark orange
Orange
Full yellow or lemon
Light yellow
White
500
550625
635
700
800
900
950
9501000
1100
1150 and up
932
10221157
1175
1292
1472
1652
1742
17421832
2012
2102 and up
Cavity radiator
Spectral emissivity = e =
Source: Ref A2
Fig. A6
Fig. A8
( R )surface
( R )cavity
(Eq A2)
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
(a) 25 microns 1 mil 0.001 in.
0.650.77
0.590.65
0.550.59
0.480.55
0.430.48
0.360.43
Fig. A9
Fig. A10
(3630 F)
Material
Steel (unoxidized)
Steel (oxidized)
Copper (unoxidized)
Copper (oxidized)
0.35
0.7
0.10
0.7
0.761.06
1.01.6
814
Minimum
Maximum
600
250
50
1110
480
58
3000
2000
1000
5430
3630
1830
Manufacturer
%C
%Cr
%Si
%Mn
%Mo
Other
AISI steel
AISI steel
AISI steel
Sandvik
Uddeholm
Minebea
Crucible
Crucible
Hitachi
Hitachi
...
...
...
0.7
0.85
1.1
0.6
0.65
0.61
0.54
1.05
1
1.05
0.6
0.73
1.03
17
17
17
13.5
12.8
12.9
14.2
14
14
14
13.8
13.81
13.8
1
1
1
0.4
0.4
0.32
0.8
0.3
0.4
0.35
1
0.5
1
1
1
1
0.4
0.65
0.67
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
1
0.5
0.5
0.75
0.75
0.75
...
...
...
0.8
4
0.6
4
...
0.2
0.2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
0.4Co, 0.2Cu
...
0.13V, 0.49Ni
0.13V, 0.49Ni
0.13V, 0.49Ni
440A
440B
440C
12C27
AEB-L
DD400
425M
154CM
ATS55
ATS34
AUS6
AUS8
AUS10
Fig. B1
Isothermal sections of the Fe-C-Cr-0.8%Mo alloy system. Solid lines at 1100 C (2010 F) and dashed lines at 1000 C
(1830 F). ThermoCalc diagram provided by A. Kajinic. Source: Ref B1
Fig. B2
Isothermal section of the Fe-C-Cr-4.0%Mo alloy system at 1100 C (2010 F). Source: Ref B1
Overall
Steel
%C
%Cr
%C
%Cr
Uddeholm AEB-L
Sandvik 12C27M
Sandvik 12C27
Sandvik 13C26
Sandvik 19C27
0.65
0.52
0.60
0.65
0.95
12.8
14.5
13.5
13
13.5
0.59
0.52
0.56
0.58
0.60
12.3
14.5
13.2
12.5
11.3