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Modals to express criticism: CAN, COULD,
MIGHT, SHOULD
Present and future
Can, could, might and should/shouldn't + infinitive are used to express criticism or
disapproval with reference to present or future time:
You can be really annoying, you know!
You shouldn't be sitting here just doing nothing!
You might be more polite.
George could really help you!
Past
Could, might and should/shouldn't + perfect infinitive are used to express criticism
or disapproval with reference to past time:
I should have booked a table in advance.
Of course, you feel sick. You shouldn't have eaten so much chocolate.
You might have told me you weren't coming!
George could really have helped you!

Modals to express assumption: WILL,

SHOULD, OUGHT TO
Present and future
Will and should + infinitive are used to express assumptions with reference to
present and future time. Assumptions with will are more probable:
"The phone's ringing." "That'll be for me."
There's no point in speaking louder. He won't understand.
I should get back before 9.
"Is it far from here?" "I should think so."
"We're going to the Swiss Alps next week." "That should be nice."
I have never tried to set up a website, but it shouldn't be too difficult.

Ought to can be used instead of should, but it is less common:

Anne ought to be at home by now.
Past
Will, should and ought to + perfect infinitive are used to express assumptions about
past events:
Some of you will have met me before.
The plane should have landed by now.

Modals to express ability: CAN, COULD, BE

ABLE TO
Present and future
Can and be able to can express present and future ability:
Tom can play the piano.
We can't enter this street because it's blocked.
I am not able to help you at the moment.
If you ask him, he can probably help you.
I will probably be able to get there by 9.
Past
Could and was/were able to can express general past ability:
I could swim when I was five.
I was able to swim when I was five.
But the past ability to perform a particular action on one occasion is expressed
with was/were able to:
Although the current was strong, I was able to swim to the other bank. (I managed
to swim to the other bank)
In the sentence above could is not possible. However, this rule is relaxed in the
negative and with verbs of the senses:

I read it but I couldn't understand / wasn't able to understand it.

I could see / was able to see him through the window.
I couldn't walk / wasn't able to walk any further.
Be able to is used to express past ability when could is grammatically not possible:
I have been able to swim since I was five.

Modals to express advice: SHOULD, OUGHT

TO, HAD BETTER
Should, ought to and had better can express advice:
You should smoke less.
We'd better leave soon.
You ought to thank her.
Ought to is less frequently used and is more formal.

Modals to express criticism: CAN, COULD,

MIGHT, SHOULD
Tags:
Present and future
Can, could, might and should/shouldn't + infinitive are used to express criticism or
disapproval with reference to present or future time:
You can be really annoying, you know!
You shouldn't be sitting here just doing nothing!
You might be more polite.
George could really help you!
Past
Could, might and should/shouldn't + perfect infinitive are used to express criticism
or disapproval with reference to past time:
I should have booked a table in advance.
Of course, you feel sick. You shouldn't have eaten so much chocolate.

You might have told me you weren't coming!

George could really have helped you!

The semi-modal DARE

Dare means "have the courage to do something" and can behave either as a modal
verb or as a main verb:

As a modal verb, dare is used in negative and interrogative sentences; it is

followed by a bare infinitive:
I daren't think how many victims there are.
How dare she criticise us?

Dare as a main verb can be followed by a bare infinitive or a to-infinitive:

Do you dare (to) tell him what happened to his bike?
Who dares (to) argue with me?
He didn't dare (to) look back.
No one would have dared (to) think about it.
But in the expression Don't you dare..., it is always followed by a bare infinitive:
Don't you dare interrupt me!

Modals to express deduction: MUST, CAN'T,

COULDN'T
Present
Must, can't and couldn't + infinitive are used to express deductions about present
events:
That child is really talented. His parents must be proud of him.
It's only 10 o'clock. He can't/couldn't be at home.
Past
Must, can't and couldn't + perfect infinitive are used to express deductions about
past events:

That dress looks expensive. It must have cost a fortune.

It can't/couldn't have been Carla you saw this morning. She is away on holiday.

Modals to express habits: WILL, WOULD,

USED TO
Present
Would can express annoying habits which are typical of a person:
Tom would do something like that, wouldn't he? It's so typical of him!
Will is used to emphasise the characteristics of a person rather than describing the
person himself or herself:
A friend will always help you. (this is one of the characteristics of a friend)
Past
USED TO
Used to refers to past habits and states which were true in the past but are not true
any more. It can be used with both action verbs and state verbs:
On Sundays, my parents used to take me to dance school. (habit, action verb)
I used to hate dancing in those days. (state, state verb)
The negative and interrogative forms of used to are:
I didn't use to like dancing in those days.
Why did you use to hate dancing?
Used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to + gerund (verbing):
She used to live alone in a small apartment. (it was true in the past, but not any
more)
She was used to living alone in a small apartment. (she was accustomed to it)
She got used to living alone in a small apartment. (she became accustomed to it)
WOULD
Would describes repeated past actions but not states. It can only be used with action
verbs:

From time to time, he would call her to ask if she wanted to meet for lunch.
USED TO or WOULD?
With action verbs, often either used to or would is possible:
On Sundays, my parents used to take me to dance school.
On Sundays, my parents would take me to dance school.
With state verbs, however, only used to is possible:
I used to hate dancing in those days.
I would hate dancing in those days.

BE GOING TO for intentions

Be going to is used to express future intentions that, at the moment of speaking,

have already been decided:
We are going to redecorate the living room next week.
Are you going to propose to her?
Do you think Sam's going to apply for the job?

Future simple for intentions (offers, promises

and decisions)
The future simple tense is used to express future intentions that are decided at the
time of speaking (spontaneous offers, promises and decisions):
Come on, I'll help you with those bags. (offer)
I will always love you. (promise)
I'll have a wiener schnitzel. (decision)
In the first person, shall can be used instead of will to announce intentions. Shall is
more formal than will:
I shall definitely give up smoking this year.
Modals to express necessity / obligation: MUST, HAVE (GOT) TO, NEED, SHOULD,
OUGHT TO, SHALL

Modals to express obligation: MUST, HAVE

(GOT) TO
Present and future
Must refers to obligations which come from the speaker and may be directed at the
speaker or the listener:
I really must give up smoking. (directed at the speaker)
You must keep this secret. (directed at the listener)
Have to expresses external obligations, which come from outside of the speaker.
These may be rules and regulations imposed by an external authority:
I have to get to work by 9 every day.
Do you have to wear a uniform at your school?
Absence of obligation is expressed with the negative form of have to, not
with mustn't. Mustn't is used to express that it is necessary not to do something:
I don't have to get up early tomorrow. It's a holiday. (I can get up late.)
You mustn't tell anyone. It's a secret. (Don't tell anyone.)
Have got to has the same meaning as have to, but it is more common in informal,
spoken language. The affirmative, negative and interrogative forms of have
to and have got to are:
have to

have got to

I/you/we/they have to go.

I/you/we/they don't have to go.
Do I/you/we/they have to go?
He has to go.
He doesn't have to go.
Does he have to go?

I/you/we/they have got to go.

I/you/we/they haven't got to go.
Have I/you/we/they got to go?
He has got to go.
He hasn't got to go.
Has he got to go?

Must and will have to can be used to refer to future obligations:

You must be home by 10 o'clock.
I'll have to pay my bills next week.

Past
Must has no past form. Instead, we use had to to express past obligations:
When I was at primary school, I had to wear a uniform.
We had to start all over again.

The semi-modal NEED

Present and future
Need can behave either as a modal verb or as a main verb:

As a modal verb, need is most typically used in negative sentences or in

affirmative sentences with a negative meaning. It expresses absence of obligation
or necessity, and it is followed by a bare infinitive:
You needn't worry about that.
No one need be surprised at what happened.
You need only just ask.
I doubt whether I need help you.
Need as a modal verb also occurs in interrogative sentences, but this use is much
more formal:
Need you make so much noise?

Need as a main verb is followed by a to-infinitive and expresses that

something is necessary. It can be used in affirmative, negative and interrogative
sentences:
Do you have a minute? I need to talk to you about something.
I don't need to be told that I should lose weight.
Do you need to use the hairdryer?
If you want good results, you will need to work harder.
Past

The past tense of the main verb need to is needed to:

I needed to have my hair cut.
Why did they need to change the lock?
The negative form didn't need + to-infinitive normally refers to actions which were
unnecessary and were not performed:

We didn't need to buy any milk. We had plenty at home. (we didn't have to buy any
milk, and we didn't buy any)

Need as a modal does not have a past tense form. Needn't + perfect bare
infinitive (have + past participle), however, is used for actions which were
performed but were unnecessary:
We needn't have bought any milk. We still have plenty at home. (we bought some
milk, but it wasn't necessary)

Modals to express obligation: SHOULD,

OUGHT TO
Present and future
Should and ought to + infinitive express obligation and duty. Should is used when
we offer a subjective opinion, while ought to has a more general and more
objective meaning:
I think you should leave.
We ought to protect the environment.
Past
Should and ought to + perfect infinitive express that an action which was desirable
was not performed:
You should have consulted a doctor.
You ought to have told me earlier. Why didn't you tell me?

The modal SHALL to express obligation

Shall is used to express formal rules and regulations or commands in an archaic
style:
Visitors shall be accompanied at all times by a security guard.
You shall not kill.

Modals to express offers: CAN, COULD,

WILL, SHALL, MAY
Can, could, will, shall and may are used to express offers:
Can I help you?
May I carry your suitcase, Madam? (only in first-person questions)
I could give you a lift.
Shall I copy this document for you? (only in first-person questions)
I will make you a coffee.

Modals to express permission / prohibition:

CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, BE ALLOWED
TO, MUSTN'T, BE TO
Present and future
Can and may are used to give permission. May is more formal and less common in
everyday contexts:
You can borrow my car if you want.
Children may use the pool with adult supervision.
The negative forms cannot/can't, mustn't and may not (more formal) are used to
express prohibitions:
I'm sorry, but you can't stay here.
You mustn't touch that Ming vase.
Non-committee members may not vote on committee issues.
Used in the negative, be to can also express prohibitions:
You are not to do that again!
Can, could and may are used to ask for permission. Can is the most direct of the
three, could is more formal and tentative, and may is the most formal:

Can I use your phone?

Could I have a glass of water?
May I start my presentation?
Might, which has a more tentative meaning, is very formal and is rarely used:
Might I ask you a question?
When we talk about permission but we are not actually giving, refusing or asking
for it, we can use can/can'tor be allowed to:
Students can choose any topic for their project.
We can't eat in the library.
Are we allowed to smoke in this restaurant?
Will journalists be allowed to ask questions?
Past
Could can be used to express general permission in the past:
When I was a child, I could do basically anything that I wanted to do.
But when we talk about a particular action which was permitted and performed, we
use was/were allowed to:
Although I was underage, I was allowed to enter the race.

Modals to express possibility: MAY, MIGHT,

CAN, COULD
Present and future
May and might + infinitive are used to express present or future
possibility. May expresses a greater degree of certainty:
You should ask him. He may/might know Susan's telephone number. (Perhaps he
knows her number.)
I may/might see you later. (Perhaps I will see you later.)
You should introduce yourself; he may/might not remember you. (Perhaps she
doesn't/won't remember you.)
May and might are usually not used to introduce a question. Instead, we can
use Do you think? or be likely to/that:

Do you think he may/might know Susan's telephone number?

Are you likely to get here before 8?
Is it likely that you will get here before 8?
Could can be used instead of may and might with the verb be:
You could be right.
They could still be waiting for us.
The negative form couldn't is often used with comparative adjectives:
The food is delicious, and the staff couldn't be more polite. (they are very polite)
Except for this use, couldn't expresses negative deduction, not possibility:
It's only 10 o'clock. He couldn't be at home. (He is usually at work at this time of
the day.)
Can may express general possibility:
Winters in Minnesota can be really cold.
Past
May, might and could + perfect infinitive express uncertainty with reference to past
actions:
We haven't heard from him for ten years. He may/might/could have died. (Perhaps
he has died, but we don't know.)
But when we want to say that something was possible but did not happen, we
use might or could:
He was very careless when crossing the road. He might/could have died. (He
didn't die.)
I could have caught the bus if I had hurried. (I didn't hurry, so I didn't catch the
bus.)
Couldn't + perfect infinitive is often used with comparative adjectives:
It was a great year, and I couldn't have been happier. (I was very happy)
May/might not + perfect infinitive is used for uncertainty, but could not + perfect
infinitive (except for the case above) expresses deduction:

I had better call Anne. She may/might not have read my e-mail. (uncertainty)
It couldn't have been John you saw this morning. He is away on
holiday. (deduction)

Modals to express predictions: BE GOING TO, WILL

BE GOING TO for predictions

Be going to is used to predict future events that are very near (and can be seen) or
seem sure to happen. Such predictions are based on present evidence:
I'm going to faint.
Look at the clouds; it's going to rain.
My sister is going to have a baby.

Future simple for predictions

The future simple is used to make predictions that are based on personal
judgement, opinion or intuition, and not on present evidence. Whether or not the
event will happen is not certain. Such predictions are often introduced by I think / I
don't think:
I don't think he'll come tonight.
I predict that Congress will pass an anti-piracy law soon.
If you ask him, he'll probably give you a lift.
In the first person, shall can be used instead of will in formal styles:
Whatever happens, we shall always be best friends.
The future simple is also used to make general predictions about facts that are
always true or events that always happen:
Salty water will freeze at a lower temperature than pure water.
A gentleman will hold the door for a lady.

Modals to express requests: CAN, COULD,

WILL, WOULD
Can, could, will and would are used to express requests:
Can you lend me $10?
Can I borrow your car?
Could you tell me where the train station is?
Could I have a cigarette?
Will you turn off your mobile phone, please?
Would you open the door for me?
Would you mind stepping outside for a moment?

Modals to express suggestions: SHOULD,

COULD, MIGHT, SHALL
Should, could, might and shall are used to express suggestions:
Shouldn't we have a pizza instead?
You could talk to your parents and ask them.
You might consider taking up meditation.
Shall we throw a party sometime next week?
Might is often used with want or like to add politeness:
I thought you might want/like to read this.
May/might as well is often used in everyday conversation to suggest something
when you can't think of anything better to do:
We may as well call it off.
You might just as well order it on the internet.

The modal SHOULD to express surprise

Should in that-clauses is used as an alternative to present or past tenses to express
surprise or disbelief:
I'm sorry that he should feel that way.
It's funny that we should be living in the same block of flats.
It's surprising that she should have said that.

The modal WOULD to express unreal situations

Present and future
Would + infinitive can refer to unreal situations in the present or future. An unreal
situation is one which is not true in the present or one which may or may not
happen in the future:
It would be nice to live by the sea. (I don't live by the sea)
It would be great to go hiking in the Appalachians again. (I may or may not go)
Would is often used in the main clause of a sentence in the second conditional:
I wouldn't do that if I were you. (I am not you)
I would help you if you asked me to. (you may or may not ask me)
Past
Would + perfect infinitive refers to unreal situations in the past. We imagine a
hypothetical past situation which did not happen. We often use an if-clause to
describe the situation:
It would have been wonderful to meet you in person.
I would have helped you if you had asked me to. (you didn't ask me)

Modals to express willingness / unwillingness: WILL,

WOULD
Present
Will can express willingness in the present:
I will take you to the airport. I have nothing to do tomorrow.
If you will wait for a moment, I'll see if Mr Hawking is available.
Won't can express unwillingness or refusal:
My bank won't allow me to make international transactions.
Greg just won't answer the phone.
The door won't open.
Past
Wouldn't can express unwillingness or refusal in the past:

I took the phone back to the shop, but they wouldn't give me a replacement.
Try as I might, the door wouldn't open.