Introduction to Finite Elements

Development of Truss
Equations

Trusses: Engineering structures that are composed only

of two-force members. e.g., bridges, roof supports
Actual trusses: Airy structures composed of slender
members (I-beams, channels, angles, bars etc) joined
together at their ends by welding, riveted connections or
large bolts and pins

A typical truss structure

Gusset plate

Ideal trusses:
Assumptions
Ideal truss members are connected only at their ends.
Ideal truss members are connected by frictionless pins (no
moments)

The truss structure is loaded only at the pins

Weights of the members are neglected

A typical truss structure

Frictionless pin

These assumptions allow us to idealize each truss

member as a two-force member (members loaded only
at their extremities by equal opposite and collinear
forces)
member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin

FEM analysis scheme

Step 1: Divide the truss into bar/truss elements connected to
each other through special points (nodes)
Step 2: Describe the behavior of each bar element (i.e. derive its
stiffness matrix and load vector in local AND global coordinate
system)
Step 3: Describe the behavior of the entire truss by putting
together the behavior of each of the bar elements (by assembling
their stiffness matrices and load vectors)
Step 4: Apply appropriate boundary conditions and solve

Stiffness matrix of bar element

E, A

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

L: Length of bar
A: Cross sectional area of bar
E: Elastic (Youngs) modulus of bar
u (x ) :displacement of bar as a function of local coordinate x of bar
The strain in the bar at x
du

(x)
dx
The stress in the bar (Hookes law)

(x ) E (x )

d 2x

Tension in the bar

T(x ) EA

d 1x

x
x
u (x ) 1 d 1x d 2x
L
L

L
Assume that the displacement u (x ) is varying linearly along the bar

x
x
u (x ) 1 d1x d 2x
L
L

du d 2x d 1x
Then, strain is constant along the bar: dx
L
E
Stress is also constant along the bar: E d 2x d 1x
L

Tension is constant along the bar:

EA
T EA
d 2x d 1x
L

The bar is acting like a spring with stiffness k EA

L

Recall the lecture on springs

E, A

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Two nodes: 1, 2
Nodal displacements: d 1x d 2x
Nodal forces: f1x f2x
Spring constant: k EA
L

Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates

Element force
vector

f1x k - k d 1x
f k d

f 2x - k k d 2x


Element nodal

Element
stiffness
matrix

displacement
vector

What if we have 2 bars?

E1, A1

E2, A2
L2

L1

This is equivalent to the following system of springs

k1

E1A1
L1

k2

E 2A2
L2

Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x

PROBLEM

d2x

d3x

Problem 1: Find the stresses in the two-bar assembly loaded as

shown below
E, 2A
E, A
P
1
2
3
L
L
Solution: This is equivalent to the following system of springs
k1

2EA
L

k2

EA
L

Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x

d2x

d3x

We will first compute the displacement at node 2 and then the

stresses within each element

The global set of equations can be generated using the technique

developed in the lecture on springs

k1
k1
k k k
1 1 2
0
k2
here

0 d1x F1x

k2 d 2 x F2 x
d F
k2
3x
3x

d1x d3 x 0 and F2 x P

Hence, the above set of equations may be explicitly written as

k1d 2 x F1x

(1)

(k1 k2 )d 2 x P (2)
k2 d 2 x F3 x

(3)

P
PL

From equation (2) d 2 x

k1 k2 3EA

To calculate the stresses:

For element #1 first compute the element strain

(1)

d 2 x d1x d 2 x
P

L
L 3EA

and then the stress as

(1)

(1)

3A

Similarly, in element # 2

(element in tension)

d3 x d 2 x
d2 x
P

L
L
3EA
P
(2)
(2)
E
(element in compression)
3A
(2)

 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Inter-element continuity of a two-bar structure

Bars in a truss have various orientations

member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin

d 2y , f 2y
d 2y , f2y 0
d 2x , f2x

d 2x , f 2x

d1y , f1y

d 1y , f1y 0
d 1x , f1x

d1x , f1x

x
At node 1:

d1x

d1x

f
1x

f1x

d 1y

d1y
f1y 0

f1y

At node 2:

d 2x

d 2x

f 2x

f 2x

d 2y

d 2y
f2y 0

f 2y

In the global coordinate system, the vector of nodal

displacements and loads

d1x
d

d 1y ;
d 2x

d 2y

f1x
f

f 1y
f 2x

f 2y

Our objective is to obtain a relation of the form

f k d

41

4 4 41

Where k is the 4x4 element stiffness matrix in global coordinate

system

The key is to look at the local coordinates

d 2y , f2y 0

d 1y , f1y 0

d 2x , f2x

f1x k - k d 1x

f 2x - k k d 2x

d 1x , f1x

x
Rewrite as f
1x

k

f1y 0

f 2x - k
f 0
2y

EA
L

0 - k 0 d1x

0 0 0 d 1y f k d

0 k 0 d 2x

0 0 0 d
2y

NOTES
1. Assume that there is no stiffness in the local ^y direction.

2. If you consider the displacement at a point along the local x

direction as a vector, then the components of that vector along the
global x and y directions are the global x and y displacements.
3. The expanded stiffness matrix in the local coordinates is
symmetric and singular.

NOTES
5. In local coordinates we have

f k d

41

44 41

But or goal is to obtain the following relationship

f k d

41

4 4 41

Hence, need a relationship between d and d

d 1y
and between f and f

d1x
d

d 1y
d 2x

d 2y

d 1x


d

d 1y

d
2x
d
2y

d1x

d1x

d 2x

d 2x

d1y
d 2y

d 2y

Need to understand
how the components
of a vector change
with coordinate
transformation

Transformation of a vector in two dimensions

y

y
v x

v y cos

vx

v y

vy

v x cos

v y sin

v x sin

Angle q is
measured positive
in the counter
clockwise direction
from the +x axis)
x

The vector v has components (vx, vy) in the global coordinate system
and (v^x, v^y) in the local coordinate system. From geometry

v x v x cos v y sin
v y v x sin v y cos

In matrix form
v x cos sin v x

v
y sin cos v y

Or

v x l m v x

v
v

m
l
y
y

Direction cosines
where

l cos q
m sin q

Transformation matrix for a single vector in 2D

*
m
l

T
v
relates
T

m
l

v x
v x are components of the same
where v and v
v y
v y vector in local and global
*

coordinates, respectively.

Relationship between d and d for the truss element

d 1y

At node 1

At node 2

d 1x
* d1x
T
d1y
d1y
d 2x
* d 2x
T
d 2y
d 2y

d1x

d 2y

d1x

d
2x

Putting these together d T d

d 2y

d 2x

d 1x l
m 0
0 d1x

0
0 d1y
d 1y m l

d

0
0
l
m 2x
d 2x
d
d 0
0 m l 2y
2y

d

d1y

T *
T
44
0

0
*
T

Relationship between f and f for the truss element

At node 1

At node 2

f1y

f1x
* f1x
T
f1y
f1y

f1x

f2x
* f 2x
T
f 2y
f 2y

f 2x

f 2y

f 2x

f1x l
m 0
0 f1x

0
0 f1y
f1y m l

f

0
0
l
m 2x
f 2x
f
f 0
0 m l 2y
2y

T

f2y

f1x

Putting these together f Tf

f1y

T *
T
44
0

0
*
T

Important property of the transformation matrix T

The transformation matrix is orthogonal, i.e. its inverse is its
transpose
1

T T

Use the property that l2+m2=1

Putting all the pieces together

d 2y , f2y

d 1y , f1y

d T d

d 2x , f2x

f k d

d 1x , f1x

x
The desired relationship is

Where

f T f

f k d

41

Tf k Td
1
f T kTd

4 4 41

k T k T is the element stiffness matrix in the

T

44

44 44 44

global coordinate system

m 0
0
l
m l

0
0

T
0
0
l
m

0 m l
0

l2
lm

2
lm
m
EA
T

k T k T
L l 2 lm

2
lm m

k
0
k
- k

0 - k 0
0 0 0
0 k 0

0 0 0

l 2 lm
2
lm m
l2
lm

2
lm
m

Computation of the direction cosines

x2 x1
L
y y
m sin q 2 1
L

l cos q

2 (x2,y2)

1 (x ,y )
1 1

What happens if I reverse the node numbers?

x1 x2
l ' cos q
l
L
y1 y2
m' sin q
m
L

(x2,y2)
Question: Does the stiffness matrix change?

1 (x1,y1)

Example Bar element for stiffness matrix evaluation

E 30 10 6 psi

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

A 2 in 2
L 60 in

q 30

4
3

30 10 6 2 4
k
3
60

4
3

3
4
1
4
3

4
1

4
3

4
3
4
3
4

4
1

4
3
4
1
4

lb
in

3
l cos 30
2
1
m sin 30
2

Computation of element strains

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Recall that the element strain is

d 1x

d 1y
d 2x d 1x 1

1 0 1 0

L
L
d
2x
d
2y
1
1 0 1 0 d
L
1
1 0 1 0 Td
L

m 0
0
l
m l

0
0
1
d
1 0 1 0
0
0
l
m
L

0 m l
0
1
l m l md
L
d 1x
d
1

l m l m 1y
d
L
2x
d 2y

Computation of element stresses stress and tension

Recall that the element stress is

E
E
d 2x d 1x l
L
L

Recall that the element tension is

EA
T EA
l
L

m l

m d

m l

md

Steps in solving a problem

Step 1: Write down the node-element connectivity table
linking local and global nodes; also form the table of
direction cosines (l, m)
Step 2: Write down the stiffness matrix of each element in
global coordinate system with global numbering

Step 3: Assemble the element stiffness matrices to form the

global stiffness matrix for the entire structure using the
node element connectivity table
Step 4: Incorporate appropriate boundary conditions
Step 5: Solve resulting set of reduced equations for the unknown
displacements
Step 6: Compute the unknown nodal forces

Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2
1

1
El 1
2

60

60

L
El 3
60

El 2

1 (x ,y )
1 1

2 (x2,y2)

Stiffness matrix of element 1

d1x d1y d2x d2y

d1x

(1)

d1y
d2x

d2y

Stiffness matrix of element 3

d3x d3y d1x d1y

d3x

( 3)

d3y
d1x

d1y

Stiffness matrix of element 2

d2x d2y d3x d3y

d2x

( 2)

d2y
d3x

d3y

There are 4 degrees of

freedom (dof) per
element (2 per node)

(1)

Global stiffness matrix

d1x d1y d2x d2y d3x d3y

d1x

d1y
d2x
d2y

d3x
d3y
66

How do you incorporate boundary conditions?

( 2)

( 3)

Example 2

The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)

E: Youngs modulus
A: Cross sectional area of each bar
Solve for
P1 (1) d and d
2x
2y
(2) Stresses in each bar

y
3

El#2 P2

El#1
2
45o
1

Solution

Step 1: Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2

1
1
2
2

Table of nodal coordinates

Node

Lcos45

Lsin45

2Lsin45

Table of direction cosines

ELEMENT
Length

x2 x1
y y
m 2 1
length
length

cos45

sin45

-cos45

sin45

Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates

with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1

(1)

l2
lm

m2
EA lm

L l 2 lm

lm

d1x

l 2 lm
lm m 2
l2
lm
lm

m2

d1y d2x

d2y

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
EA

2L 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

d1x
d1y
d2x
d2y

Stiffness matrix of element 2

d2x d2y

(2)

d3x

d3y

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
EA

2L 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

d2x
d2y
d3x

d3y

Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix

1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0

EA 1 1 2 0 1 1
K

2L 1 1 0 2 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 1
The final set of equations is

Kd F

Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions

0
0

d2 x
d

d 2 y
0

Hence reduced set of equations to solve for unknown

displacements at node 2
EA 2
2L
0

0 d 2 x P1

2 d 2 y P2

Step 5: Solve for unknown displacements

P1 L
d2 x
EA

d
2 y P2 L

EA

Step 6: Obtain stresses in the elements

For element #1:
E 1
(1)

L 2

1
2

E
PP
(d 2 x d 2 y ) 1 2
2L
A 2

d1x
d
1 1y

2 d2 x
d 2 y

0
0

For element #2:

E 1
1
(2)

L 2
2

1
2

E
P1 P2

(d 2 x d 2 y )
2L
A 2

d2 x
d
1 2y

2 d3 x
d3 y

Multi-point constraints

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3-19 Plane truss with inclined boundary

conditions at node 3 (see problem worked out in class)

Problem 3: For the plane truss

y
P

El#2
2

El#1

P=1000 kN,
L=length of elements 1 and 2 = 1m
E=210 GPa
A = 610-4m2 for elements 1 and 2
= 6 2 10-4 m2 for element 3

El#3
45o
1

Determine the unknown displacements

and reaction forces.
Solution

Step 1: Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2
1
1
2
2
2
3
3

Table of nodal coordinates

Node

Table of direction cosines

ELEMENT
Length

x2 x1
y y
m 2 1
length
length

L 2

1/ 2

1/ 2

Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates

with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1

(1)

l2
lm

m2
EA lm

L l 2 lm

lm

l 2 lm
lm m 2
l2
lm
lm
d1x

m2

d1y d2x

0 0
9
-4
(210 10 )(6 10 ) 0 1

0 0
1

0 1

d2y

0
0 1
0 0

0 1
0

d1x
d1y
d2x
d2y

Stiffness matrix of element 2 d2x d2y

(2)

1
9
-4
(210 10 )(6 10 ) 0

1
1

d3x

d3y

0 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 0

d2x
d2y
d3x
d3y

Stiffness matrix of element 3

d1x

(3)

d1y

d3x

d3y

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

(210 109 )(6 2 10-4 ) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

2

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

d1x

d1y
d3x
d3y

Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix

0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5

0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5

0
0
1 0
1
0
5
K 1260 10

1
0
1
0
0

0.5 0.5 1 0 1.5

0.5

0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5

The final set of equations is

Kd F

Eq(1)

N/m

Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions

0
0

d 2 x

d3 x

d3 y

Also,

d 3y 0

y
P

El#2
2

El#1

El#3
45o
1

in the local coordinate system of element 3

How do I convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)

coordinates?

F1x
F
1y

F
2y
F3 x

F3 y

Also,

F 3x 0

y
P

El#2
2

El#1

El#3
45o
1

in the local coordinate system of element 3

How do I convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)

coordinates?

Using coordinate transformations

d 3x

d 3 y

l
m

d 3x
2

d 3 y
1

d 3y 0

m d3 x
1

lm

l d3 y
2
1
1

3x
3 y

2
2

3x

1 d3 y
1

3
y
3
x

(Multi-point constraint)

1
d 3y
d3 y d3 x 0

2
Eq (2)
d3 y d3 x 0

Similarly for the forces at node 3

F 3x

F 3 y

l
m

F 3x
2

F 3 y
1

m F3 x
1

lm

n F3 y
2
1
1

3x
3 y

2
2

3x

1 F3 y
1

3
y
3
x

2
2

F 3x 0
1
F 3x
F3 y F3 x 0

2
Eq (3)
F3 y F3 x 0

Therefore we need to solve the following equations simultaneously

Kd F

Eq(1)
Eq(2)

d3 y d3 x 0
F3 y F3 x 0

Eq(3)

Incorporate boundary conditions and reduce Eq(1) to

1
1260 105
1

1
1.5
0.5

0 d 2 x

0.5 d 3 x

0.5
d3 y

F3 x
F
3y

Write these equations out explicitly

1260 105 ( d 2 x d3 x ) P

Eq(4)

1260 105 ( d 2 x 1.5d3 x 0.5d3 y ) F3 x Eq(5)

1260 105 (0.5d3 x 0.5d3 y ) F3 y
Eq(6)
Add Eq (5) and (6)
1260 105 (d 2 x 2d3 x d3 y ) F3 x F3 y 0 using Eq(3)
1260 105 ( d 2 x 3d3 x ) 0 using Eq(2)
d 2 x 3d3 x Eq(7)
1260 105 (3d 3 x d 3 x ) P
Plug this into Eq(4)
2520 105 d 3 x 106

 d3 x 0.003968m
d 2 x 3d3 x 0.0119m
Compute the reaction forces
F1x
0
F
0
1y

5
F2 y 1260 10 0

F
1
3x

0
F3 y

500
500

0 kN
500

500

0.5
0.5
0
1.5
0.5

0.5
d
0.5
2x
0 d3 x

d
0.5
3y
0.5

ll

mm

lm

Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

In general, we will have a stiffness matrix of the form

k11
K k 21
k 31

k12
k 22
k 32

k13
k 23
k 33

And the finite element force-displacement relation

k11 k12 k13 d1 F1

k

21 k 22 k 23 d 2 F2
k 31 k 32 k 33 d 3 F3

Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

The first equation is

k11d1 k12 d 2 k13 d 3 F1

Force equilibrium
equation at node 1

Columns of the global stiffness matrix

What if d1=1, d2=0, d3=0 ?
F1 k11

While d.o.f 2 and 3 are held fixed

Force along d.o.f 1 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1

F2 k 21 Force along d.o.f 2 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1

F3 k 31 Force along d.o.f 3 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1

Similarly we obtain the physical significance of the other

entries of the global stiffness matrix

In general
Force at d.o.f i due to unit displacement at d.o.f j
k ij = keeping
all the other d.o.fs fixed

Example

The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)

E: Youngs modulus
A: Cross sectional area of each bar
Solve for d2x and d2y using the physical
P1 interpretation approach

y
3

El#2 P2

El#1
2
45o
1

Solution

Notice that the final set of equations will be of the form

k11
k
21

k12 d 2 x P1

k22 d 2 y P2

Where k11, k12, k21 and k22 will be determined using the
physical interpretation approach

To obtain the first column

2 1.cos(45)

y
3

F2y=k21

El#2

F2y=k21

2
x

1 1.cos(45)

d2x=1

Force equilibrium

F
F

T2

F2x=k11
2

El#1
1

k11
d

1
2
x
apply

1
k
d2 y 0

21
2
y

k11 T1 cos(45) T2 cos(45) 0

k21 T1 sin(45) T2 sin(45) 0

F2x=k11

T1
1
2

Force-deformation relations
EA
T1 1
L
EA
T2 2
L

Combining force equilibrium and force-deformation relations

k11

T1 T2

k21

2
T1 T2
2

EA
1 2
2L
EA
1 2
2L

Now use the geometric (compatibility) conditions (see figure)

1
2
1
2 1.cos(45)
2

1 1.cos(45)

Finally
EA
EA 2
EA
k11
( )
1 2
L
2L
2L 2
EA
k21
1 2 0
2L

 k12
d

0
2
x
apply
d2 y 1
k22 y

To obtain the second column

y
3

El#2
El#1
1

2 1.cos(45)

2
2

d2y=1

F2y=k22

T2
F2x=k12

T1
x

1 1.cos(45)

1
2

Force equilibrium

F
F

1
2

k12 T1 cos(45) T2 cos(45) 0

k22 T1 sin(45) T2 sin(45) 0

Force-deformation relations
EA
T1 1
L
EA
T2 2
L

Combining force equilibrium and force-deformation relations

k12

T1 T2

k22

2
T1 T2
2

EA
1 2
2L
EA
1 2
2L

Now use the geometric (compatibility) conditions (see figure)

1 1.cos(45)

1
2

2 1.cos(45)

1
2

This negative is due to compression

Finally
EA
k12
1 2 0
2L
EA
EA 2
EA
k22

(
)

1 2
L
2L
2L 2

 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

3D Truss (space truss)

In local coordinate system

f1x
k
f1y 0

f1z 0

f 2x k
f 0
2y
f 0
2z

0
0
0
0
0
0

0 k
0 0
0 0
0 k
0 0
0 0

f k d

0
0
0
0
0
0

d 1x
0

0 1y

0 d 1z

0 d 2x
0 d
2y
0
d 2z

The transformation matrix for a single vector in 3D

*
d T d

l1
*
T l 2
l3

m1
m2
m3

n1
n2
n3

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

l1, m1 and n1 are the direction cosines of x^

l1 cos q x
m1 cos q y
n1 cos q z

Transformation matrix T relating the local and global

displacement and load vectors of the truss element
d T d

T *
T
66
0

f T f

0
*
T

Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates

k T k T
T

66

66 66 66

2
l1 2
l1 m1
l1 n1
l1
l1 m1 l1 n1

2
2
m1
m1 n1 l1 m1 m1 m1 n1
l1 m1
2
2

l
n
m
n
n
l
n
m
n

n
EA 1 1
T
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
k T kT

2
2
L l1
l1 m1 l1 n1
l1
l1 m1
l1 n1
2
l m m 2 m n l m

m
m
n
1
1 1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1

2
2
l1 n1
m1 n1
n1
l1 n1 m1 n1 n1

Notice that the direction cosines of only the local ^x axis enter the
k matrix

Analyze the space truss shown in Figure 318. The truss is

composed of four nodes, whose coordinates (in inches) are
shown in the figure, and three elements, whose crosssectional
areas are given in the figure. The modulus of elasticity E
1:2 106 psi for all elements. A load of 1000 lb is applied at
node 1 in the negative z direction. Nodes 24 are supported
by ball-and-socket joints and thus constrained from
movement in the x; y, and z directions. Node 1 is constrained
from movement in the y direction by the roller shown in
Figure 318.

EA

k T kT

L
T

Element 3

l12 l1m1 l1n1

2
l1m1 m1 m1n1
l n m n n 2
1 1
1
1 1

Element 1

Element 2

l1

l1l1

m1

l1m1

l1n1

n1

m1m1

m1n1

n1n1