GRAMMAR APPENDIX

CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Subject
Object
Complement
Noun
N o u n Structure
Article
Expression of Q u a n t i t y
Pronoun
Number
Gender
Person
Adjective
Adverb
Verb
Verb Tense F o r m
L i n k i n g Verb
Transitive Verb

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

Intransitive Verb
H e l p i n g Verb
Agreement
A c t i v e and. Passive Sentence Pairs
M o d a l or M o d a l - l i k e Verb
Phrase
Preposition
Prepositional Phrase
Clause
M a i n Clause
N o u n Clause
A d v e r b Clause
Adjective C l a u s e
-ING or - E D M o d i f y i n g Phrase
Gerund
Infinitive
C o n d i t i o n a l Sentence
C o n f u s i n g Words and Expressions

^ T l R i G r a m m a r A p p e n d i x is meant to supplement the G r a m m a r Checkpoints treated i n the text. It is

ot meant as a comprehensive review of E n g l i s h grammar.
f"
i

>

1.

Subject (S):
doer of the action i n a sentence. In standard E n g l i s h w o r d order, the subject
comes first i n a sentence.
C a r o l w i l l arrive tomorrow.
S (Noun)
To k n o w her is to love her.
S (Infinitive)

Object (O)
A . direct receiver of the action of a sentence (DO).
B. indirect receiver of the action of a sentence (IO).
C. object of a preposition (O of prep).
I h a n d e d A n d r e w the scissors that were o n the table.
JO
DO
O of Prep
In standard E n g l i s h w o r d order, direct and indirect objects f o l l o w verbs.
Objects of prepositions complete the idea of time, direction, etc. b e g u n b y a preposition a n d
come at the end of a prepositional phrase.

Grammar Appendix

393

3.

Complement (C)
A . subject i d e n t i f i e r n o u n complement after the verb BE (SC).
C a r o l is a teacher.
SC (Noun)
W h a t y o u see is w h a t y o u get.
SC (Noun clause)
B.

subject modifieradjective complement after the verb BE arid other l i n k i n g verbs (SC).
Jack is h a p p y .

C.

SC (Adjective)
object i d e n t i f i e r n o u n complement after the direct object of a sentence (OC).
They made her chairperson.
O C (Noun)

D . object modifieradjective complement after the direct object (OC).

H e r gift made me h a p p y .
O C (Adjective)
4.

Noun:

a w o r d w h i c h names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Countable noun:

can be counted. Regular countable nouns end i n -s or ~es w h e n they are

plural.
book
boy

books
boys

Uncountable noun:

shoe
dress

shoes
dresses

cannot be counted. M o s t uncountable nouns are thought of as wholes

that are made u p of different parts.

sugar
bacon
homework
information

coffee
wood
money
rice

M a n y uncountable nouns are abstract concepts.

love
happiness
freedom
poverty

fun
music
peace
importance

Languages a n d fields of study are also uncountable nouns.

French
Chinese
English

chemistry
biology
engineering

Japanese

psychology

N o u n s referring to natural phenomena are u s u a l l y uncountable.

394
.1

Grammar Appendix

ram
weather
sunshine
fire

snow
heat
darkness
wind

G e r u n d s are uncountable nouns.

it-

swimming
walking

reading
studying

Some uncountable nouns have countable meanings.

WM

uncountable:
countable:

I like tea.
The teas of India are r e n o w n e d for their f u l l - b o d i e d flavor.

uncountable:
countable:

We h a d chicken for dinner.

The chickens were m a k i n g a lot of noise last night.

Indefinite noun: refers to things that are n e w or not k n o w n to either the listener or the
speaker i n a conversation or to either the reader or the w r i t e r i n a text.
I w a n t to b u y a book.
In this sentence, n o particular book has been mentioned. It is indefinite.
Definite noun:
a sentence.

refers to t h i n g s that are k n o w m or are m a d e specific b y their use i n

The b o o k I w a n t is entitled Call of the Wild.

In this sentence book has n o w become definite. It even has a title.
Note: In order to succeed o n T O E F L questions that test nouns, it is h e l p f u l to be
familiar w i t h the irregular p l u r a l forms of the most c o m m o n E n g l i s h nouns. Some
of these i n c l u d e :
Bit

man
woman
child
tooth
foot

men
women
children
teeth
feet

goose
mouse
fish
sheep
deer

geese
mice
fish
sheep
deer

Grammar Appendix

395

5.

N oun Structure: a structure that f u n c t i o n s as a subject, object, or c o m p l e m e n t i n asentence. N o u n s a n d n o u n phrases (a n o u n plus a l l of its modifiers) are n o u n structures *
Other n o u n structures include pronouns, gerunds, infinitives, and n o u n clauses.
I
like
Pronoun
Subject

him.
Pronoun
Object

R e a d i n g is m y favorite pastime.
Gerund
Subject
I like to read.
Infinitive
Object
W h a t I w a n t is whatever y o u want.
Noun clause
Noun clause
Subject
Complement
a
Occasionally, b u t rarely, prepositional phrases function as n o u n structures. A s the TOEFCdoes not specifically test this function of prepositional phrases, they are not i n c l u d e d i n the
study of n o u n structures i n this text.

6.

Article: a w o r d w h i c h comes before a n o u n a n d affects the m e a n i n g of the n o u n . There

are t w o articles: a/an a n d the.
' '
A r t i c l e choice d e p e n d s o n the d e f i n i t e / i n d e f i n i t e categories of n o u n s as well as the"
countable/uncountable categories..The chart b e l o w classifies article a n d n o u n usage.

N O U N S A N D ARTICLES

Countable Singular N o u n s

396

Indefinite Nouns

Definite Nouns

a boy
an orange

the b o y
the orange

Countable P l u r a l N o u n s

boys
oranges

the boys
the oranges

Uncountable N o u n s

sugar

the sugar

Grammar Appendix

The spelling of a/an is a before words beginning w i t h a consonant sound. This includes the y
sound as i n the w o r d yellow. Some w o r d s beginning w i t h the v o w e l letter u actually begin
w i t h the consonant s o u n d y. These w o r d s s h o u l d be preceded b y a. Some of these w o r d s are:
unanimous
unicorn
unicycle
unification
uniform
union
unique
unit
unity
universal

universe
university
uranium
usage
usable
use
usual
utility
utopia

The spelling of a/an is an before w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l s o u n d . A few w o r d s b e g i n

w i t h the consonant letter h, but actually begin w i t h the v o w e l s o u n d uh as i n the w o r d up.
These w o r d s s h o u l d be preceded b y an. Some of these w o r d s are:

A n

heir
heirloom
homage
honest
honesty

Expression of Quantity:

honor
honorable
honorary
hour
hourly
a w o r d or phrase w h i c h makes it possible to quantify a n o u n .

S o m e E n g l i s h e x p r e s s i o n s of q u a n t i t y are u s e d o n l y w i t h c o u n t a b l e n o u n s . O t h e r
expressions of quantity are used o n l y w i t h uncountable nouns. Still other expressions of
quantity are u s e d w i t h b o t h countable a n d uncountable n o u n s . The chart b e l o w shows
w h i c h expressions of quantity are used w i t h countable and uncountable n o u n s .

USED WITH
COUNTABLE N O U N S
many
n u m b e r of
few
a few
fewer
none
some
any
a lot of
one, t w o , three,. . .
several

USED WITH
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
much
amount of
little
a little
less
none
some
any
a lot of

Grammar Appendix

397

a w o r d w h i c h replaces or refers to a n o u n or n o u n phrase.

Pronoun:

PERSONAL
SUBJECT
OBJECT

PRONOUNS
POSSESSIVE
ADJECTIVE
PRONOUN

REFLEXIVE

me

my

mine

myself

you

you

your

yours

yourself

he

him

his

his

himself

she

her

her

hers

herself

it

it

its*

we

us

our

ours

ourselves

they

them

their

theirs

themselves

one

one

one's

*NOTE:

itself

oneself

There is n o apostrophe (') i n this possessive f o r m .

Subject pronouns are used:

A.

as the subjects of m a i n or subordinate clauses;

I like Clarence because he a l w a y s smiles.

B.

after the verb B E .

This is she.**

* * N O T E : I n current c o l l o q u i a l E n g l i s h , object p r o n o u n s are also acceptable i n

this position.
Object pronouns are used:
A.

as indirect or direct objects of transitive verbs;

Jack's grandfather gave h i m a n antique stopwatch.

B.

as the objects of prepositions.

W h e n M a r y spoke to me, she m e n t i o n e d the party tonight.

Possessive adjectives are used to m o d i f y n o u n s a n d gerunds a n d s h o w possession.

I thought his s i n g i n g w o u l d be perfect for o u r ceremony.

Grammar Appendix

Possessive pronouns are used:

A.

i n place of nouns f u n c t i o n i n g as subjects or objects;

Since y o u r car isn't r u n n i n g ; let's take m i n e .

B.

after of w h e n it means possession;

A s o n of theirs is a student at C o r n e l l .

C.

after the verb B E to indicate possession.

This dress is yours.

Reflexive pronouns are used:

A . w h e n the objects a n d subjects i n a sentence are the same;
Steve cut himself o n some b r o k e n glass a n d administered first a i d to himself.
B.

as objects of the preposition by to m e a n alone;

Please try to do this exercise b y yourself.

C.

for emphasis.
The president himself visited our c o m m u n i t y .

9. Number: singular or p l u r a l . N o u n s i n E n g l i s h can be singular (one) or p l u r a l (more than

one). The p r o n o u n s that replace or refer to nouns can be singular or p l u r a l as w e l l .
That girl is a student. She likes b e i n g a student.
Sing.
Sing.
Sing.
Sing.
Those girls are students. They l i k e b e i n g students.
Plural
Plural Plural
Plural

10. Gender: feminine, masculine, or neuter. M o s t E n g l i s h n o u n s are neuter. H o w e v e r , nouns

w h i c h n a m e f e m a l e or m a l e p e o p l e (or s o m e t i m e s o t h e r a n i m a l s ) are f e m i n i n e or
masculine. The pronouns that replace these nouns s h o w feminine (she, her, hers, herself) or
masculine (he, h i m , his, himself) gender.
girlshe

boyhe

11. Person:
first, second, or third.
First person = the person or persons s p e a k i n g (e.g., I, we)
Second person = the person or persons s p o k e n to (e.g., you)
T h i r d person = the person or persons s p o k e n about (e.g., he, she, it, they, John, M a r y )

Grammar Appendix

399

12. A d j e c t i v e :

a w o r d , phrase, or clause that modifies a n o u n or n o u n structure.

The b i g d o g chased the little cat.

Adjective
Adjective
The baby p l a y i n g i n his crib is yours.
Adjective phrase
The b a b y w h o is c r y i n g is m i n e .
Adjective clause

13. A d v e r b : a w o r d , phrase, or clause that m o d i f i e s a verb, an adjective, or another adverb!.

A n adverb tells manner (how), place (where), time (when), frequency (how ofteni, ilci>
(to w h a t degree), or reason (why) an action takes place.
*?
r

H e ate q u i c k l y .
Adverb of manner

H e went home because he was tired.

Adverb of reason

A'

14. Verb: a w o r d or phrase w h i c h expresses the action or state of b e i n g i n a sentence:, .Sorru

verb forms are referred to as finite verb forms. These are the forms of verbs which;she
tense and/or n u m b e r (e.g., is, was, has, h a d , goes, went, w a l k s , w a l k e d ) . Other verb fo'rr
are referred to as n o n f i n i t e . These are the f o r m s of verbs w h i c h d o not s h o w teftsetru
themselves (e.g., g o i n g , to go, gone) a n d w h i c h can act as parts of speech other than yerj The nonfinite verb forms i n E n g l i s h are the infinitive (e.g., to go), the -ing participle ( e
going), a n d the past participle (e.g., gone).
The E n g l i s h verb has five p r i n c i p a l finite a n d nonfinite parts.
. -

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SOME ENGLISH VERBS

^'

Base Form

Present

Present
Participle

Past

Past
Participle

start
hope
study
eat
give
have
be

start(s)
hope(s)
study(ies)
eat(s)
give(s)
have (has)
a m / i s / are

starting
hoping
studying
eating
giving
having
being

started
hoped
studied
ate
gave
had
was/were

started
hoped
studied
eaten
given
had
been

Grammar Appendix

Several of the verbs i n the chart above have irregular parts, especially for their past a n d past
participle forms. B e l o w is a chart s h o w i n g more irregular past a n d past participle forms.

IRREGULAR VERBS

Base Form
arise
be
bear
beat
become
begin
bend
bet
bid
bind
bite
blow
break
bring
build
buy
catch
choose

Past Form
arose
was/were
bore
beat
became
began
bent
bet
bid
bound
bit
blew
broke
brought
built
bought
caught
chose

Past Participle
arisen
been
borne/born
beaten
become
begun
bent
bet
bid
bound
bitten
blown
broken
brought
built
bought
caught
chosen

come
cost

came
cost

come
cost

cut
dig
do
draw
eat
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
fit
fly
forbid
forget
forgive
freeze
get
give

cut
dug
did
drew
ate
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fit
flew
forbade
forgot
forgave
froze
got
gave
w ent
grew
hung
had
heard
hid
hit
held

cut
dug
done
drawn
eaten
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
fit
flown
forbidden
forgotten
forgiven
frozen
gotten
given
gone
grown
hung
had
heard
hidden
hit
held

g
grow
hang
have
hear
hide
hit
hold

Grammar Appendix

~a -*
-a Si
n 3

401

IRREGULAR VERBS (CONTINUED)

Base Form

Past Form

Past P a r t i c i p l e

hurt
keep
know
lay
lead
leave
lend
let
lie
lose
make
mean
meet
mistake
pay
put
quit
read
rid
ride
ring
rise
run
say
see
seek
sell
send
set
shake
shine
shoot
show
shrink
shut
sing
sit
sleep
slide
speak
speed
spend
spin
spread
spring
stand
steal
stick
sting
strive

hurt
kept
knew
laid
led
left
lent
let
lay
lost
made
meant
met
mistook
paid
put
quit
read
rid
rode
rang
rose
ran
said
saw
sought
sold
sent
set
shook
s h i n e d / shone
shot
showed
shrank/ s h r u n k
shut
sang
sat
slept
slid
spoke
sped/speeded
spent
spun
spread
sprang/ sprung
stood
stole
stuck
stung
strove

hurt
kept
known
laid
led
left
lent
let
lain
lost
made
meant
met
mistaken
paid
put
quit
read
rid
ridden
rung
risen
run
said
seen
sought
sold
sent
set
shaken
shined/shone
shot
showed / shown
shrunk
shut
sung
sat
slept
slid
spoken
sped/speeded
spent
spun
spread
sprung
stood
stolen
stuck
stung
striven

Grammar Appendix

IRREGULAR VERBS (CONTINUED)

Base Form

Past Form

Past Participle

struck
string
swear
sweep
swim
swing
take
teach
tear
tell
think
throw
thrust
understand
undertake
upset
wake
wear
weave
weep

struck
strung
swore
swept

stricken/struck
strung
sworn
swept

swam
swung
took
taught
tore
told
thought
threw
thrust
understood
undertook
upset
woke/waked
wore
wove
wept

swum
swung
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrown
thrust
understood
undertaken
upset
waked/woken
worn
woven
wept

win
wind
withdraw
wring
write

won
wound
withdrew
wrung
wrote

won
wound
withdrawn
wrung
written

-a

5T2

15. Verb Tense Forms: the five p r i n c i p a l v e r b parts d i s c u s s e d i n n u m b e r 14 are u s e d i n

f o r m i n g the E n g l i s h tenses.
N A M E OF T E N S E
Simple Present

H O W IT IS F O R M E D
Base F o r m (+s i n t h i r d person singular)
H e w a l k s to school every day.

Simple Past

Past F o r m
H e w a l k e d to school every day.

Simple Future

will + Base F o r m of m a i n verb

H e w i l l w a l k to school every day.

Present Continuous

am/is/are + Present Participle of m a i n verb

H e is w a l k i n g to school right now.

Past Continuous

was/were + Present Participle of m a i n verb

H e was w a l k i n g to school w h e n it started to rain.

Future Continuous

will + be + Present Participle of m a i n verb

H e w i l l be w a l k i n g to school t o m o r r o w m o r n i n g at 7:30.

Grammar Appendix

403

Present Perfect

haveflias + Past Participle of m a i n verb

H e has w a l k e d to school every day this year.

Past Perfect

had + Past Participle of m a i n verb

H e h a d w a l k e d to school for six months w h e n his parents bough
h i m a car.

Future Perfect

will + have + Past Participle of m a i n verb

H e w i l l have w a l k e d to school for six months b y the time his
parents b u y h i m a car.

Pres. Perf. Cont.

have/lias + been + Present Participle of m a i n verb

H e has been w a l k i n g to school for six months.

Past Perf. Cont.

had + been + Present Participle of m a i n verb

H e h a d been w a l k i n g to school for six months w h e n his parents
bought h i m a car.

Future Perf. Cont.

will + have + been + Present Participle of m a i n verb

H e w i l l have been w a l k i n g to school for six months b\ the time
his parents b u y h i m a car.

N O T E : A s y o u can see i n the chart above, w h e n the verb B E is used i n any of its
forms to create an active* verb tense, it is f o l l o w e d b y a P R E S E N T P A R T I C I P L E (as,
for example, i n the continuous tenses).
W h e n the v e r b H A V E i s u s e d i n a n y of i t s f o r m s , i t i s f o l l o w e d b y a P A S T
P A R T I C I P L E (as, for example, i n the perfect tenses).
* Sometimes the verb B E is used to f o r m passive sentences. W h e n this happens it is f o l l o w e d b y a P A S T P A R T I C I P L E . See #21, below, for more i n f o r m a t i o n o n passive
sentences.

_ ^
~

16. Linking Verb (LV): a verb w h i c h connects the subject of a sentence to a complement Thi
complement is a n o u n structure w h i c h renames or a n adjective w h i c h describes the subject ,
it refers to.
John

is
LV

a doctor.
Corny (noun)

John

is
LV

happy.
Comp (adjective)

C o m m o n l i n k i n g verbs are: appear, be, become (and get, turn, a n d grow w h e n they JVUM
"become"), feel, look, seem, smell, sound, a n d taste.
Some l i n k i n g verbs h a v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g active m e a n i n g s . W h e n u s e d i n their activ
meanings, these verbs are f o l l o w e d b y adverbs a n d are n o longer l i n k i n g verbs.
H e appears tired.
LV
Comp
H e appears n i g h t l y at the Rathskellar lounge.
V
Adverb

404

Grammar Appendix

L i n k i n g verbs often take on active meanings w h e n the verbs are f o l l o w e d b y prepositions.

.....

.Her""

He looked happy.
- - LV
Ad]
H e l o o k e d h a p p i l y at the piece of chocolate cake on his desk.
V
Adv

e. "
.as*".

Transitive Verb: a verb that is f o l l o w e d b y a direct object (DO). Some transitive verbs are
. also f o l l o w e d b y indirect objects (IO).
L e o n a gave
Transitive verb

4 '

Rich
10

a hug.
DO

In this sentence, a hug is w h a t is given. It is the direct receiver of the verb gave. Rich is the
indirect receiver of gave. Rich is the recipient of a hug.

18. Intransitive Verb:

a verb that is not f o l l o w e d b y a direct or indirect object.

I ran
Intransitive verb

to the store.

Some intransitive verbs have c o r r e s p o n d i n g transitive equivalents.

I ran
Transitive verb

the store for m y parents.

DO

' r 19. Helping Verb: a verb w h i c h helps the m a i n verb of a sentence but does not carry the core
verb m e a n i n g of the sentence. The h e l p i n g verbs i n E n g l i s h are: H A V E , B E , D O , a n d the
modals shall, will, can, must, may, should, would, could, a n d might. H A V E , B E , and D O can
also stand alone as m a i n verbs. The m o d a l s cannot stand alone as m a i n verbs.
I have
eaten.
Helping verb
I have
Main verb

20. Agreement:

a n e w car.

a correct match between t w o sentence parts.

Expression of Q u a n t i t y + N o u n : expressions of quantity m u s t agree i n n u m b e r w i t h the

nouns they modify.
A r t i c l e + N o u n : articles must agree i n n u m b e r a n d type (definite or indefinite) w i t h the
nouns they come before.
P r o n o u n + N o u n : p r o n o u n s m u s t agree i n number, f o r m , a n d gender w i t h the nouns they
replace or refer to.
Subject + Verb: subjects and verbs i n the same sentence must agree i n n u m b e r a n d person.

Grammar Appendix

405

A l t h o u g h this basic subject-verb

special rules.

a g r e e m e n t r u l e is n o t c o m p l e x , there are several

SPECIAL S U B J E C T - V E R B A G R E E M E N T R U L E S
A . Phrases a n d clauses w h i c h come b e t w e e n the subject a n d the verb d o not change the
n u m b e r of the subject.
The picture of his classmates pleases h i m .
B.

Some p r o n o u n s take s i n g u l a r verbs e v e n t h o u g h the p r o n o u n s m a y seem p l u r a l i n

m e a n i n g . These p r o n o u n s i n c l u d e :
anybody
anyone
anything

nobody
no one
nothing

somebody
someone
something

everybody
everyone
everything

each
either
neither

Everybody likes this pie.

C.

W h e n subjects are joined b y either/or, neither/nor, or not only/but also, the verb agrees"
w i t h the closer subject.
Not only the teacher but also the students are going to the conference.

D . W h e n subjects are joined b y and or b y both/and, they take a p l u r a l verb.

Both A n n e and F r e d are c o m i n g tonight.
E.

None, all, some, any, most, majority, a n d other s i m i l a r expressions c a n take either Jt *
singular or p l u r a l verb d e p e n d i n g o n the n o u n that comes after them.
None of the sugar w a s eaten.
None of the students were pleased.

F.

Several, both, many, and few are p l u r a l w o r d s w h i c h need p l u r a l verbs.

Yew were present at the last meeting.

G . A number of requires a p l u r a l verb. The number of requires a singular verb.

A number of m y friends were here last night.
The number of classes has been r e d u c e d .
H . In sentences b e g i n n i n g w i t h it, the verb s h o u l d be singular.
It is his problems at w o r k that are b o t h e r i n g h i m .
I.

In sentences b e g i n n i n g w i t h there or here, the verb agrees w i t h the real subject,

comes after the verb.
Here are the pictures y o u w a n t e d .

406

Grammar Appendix

"~~ ~

whU-H*

].

A pair of, a flock of, a herd of, a n d other expressions i n d i c a t i n g g r o u p s of things or

animals take singular verbs even t h o u g h n o u n s used w i t h t h e m w i l l be p l u r a l .
A pair of swans mates for life.

K.

T h e v e r b s i n r e l a t i v e clauses agree w i t h the n o u n s that t h e i r h e a d r e l a t i v e w o r d s

replace.
The professor a n d the student, w h o were w o r k i n g together, wrote this article.

L.

Some n o u n s w h i c h look p l u r a l are really singular a n d take singular verbs. These w o r d s

include:
news, politics, a n d some other abstract n o u n s
mathematics, physics, linguistics, a n d any other academic subjects that end i n - s
Linguistics is his major.

M . Some nouns w h i c h look singular are really p l u r a l a n d take p l u r a l verbs. These n o u n s

include those for w h i c h the singular a n d the p l u r a l f o r m are the same. Some of these
nouns are:
fish

deer

species

series

Plural:

The magazine series are a l l located i n the reference section of the library.

Singular:

This television series is a p o p u l a r one.

N . Expressions s h o w i n g quantities of time, money, weight, a n d v o l u m e l o o k p l u r a l b u t

take singular verbs.
Three days is e n o u g h time to finish this project.
A"

Five dollars is too m u c h to p a y for this notebook.

O . N o u n s w hich refer to a country or a nationality can be singular or p l u r a l . W h e n one of
these w o r d s refers to a language, it is singular. W h e n one of these w o r d s refers to the
people of a country, it is p l u r a l .
T

French is a difficult language.

Pit
1

The French are interesting people.

; ft

21. Active and Passive Sentence Pairs:

but w h i c h are f o r m e d differently.

two sentences w h i c h are nearly the same i n m e a n i n g

Active:

Charles broke the w i n d o w .

Passive 1:

The w i n d o w was broken by Charles.

Passive 2:

The w i n d o w was broken.

Grammar Appendix

407

In f o r m i n g the passive:
1.
2.
3.

The direct object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
The subject of the passive sentence becomes the object of the p r e p o s i t i o n by (Passive '
or is deleted (Passive 2).
The verb of the passive sentence is f o r m e d by:
a. p u t t i n g the h e l p i n g verb B E i n the same f o r m as the verb i n the active sentence, an
b. a d d i n g the past participle of the m a i n verb.

Active:

brokepast f o r m of m a i n verb

Passive:

was brokenpast f o r m of the verb B E a n d Past Participle of m a i n verb

NOTE:

O n l y verbs that have objects (transitive verbs) can become passive.

ACTIVE A N D PASSIVE SENTENCES

Simple Pres.

ACTIVE
The d o g eats the bone.

PASSIVE
The bone is eaten b y the d o g .

Simple Past

The dog ate the bone.

The bone was eaten b y the d o g .

Simple Future The dog- w i l l eat the bone.

The bone w i l l be eaten b y the d o g .

Pres. Cont.

The dog is eating the bone.

Past Cont.

The dog was eating the bone. The bone w a s b e i n g eaten b y the "
dog.

Present Perf.

The dog has eaten the bone.

The bone has been eaten b y the

dog.

Past Perf.

The dog h a d eaten the bone.

The bone h a d been eaten b y the

dog.

Future Perf.

The dog' w i l l have eaten the

bone.

The bone w i l l have been eaten b y

the d o g .

The bone is being eaten b y the dog.

NOTE:
The future c o n t i n u o u s , present perfect c o n t i n u o u s , past perfect
continuous, a n d future perfect continuous are not u s u a l l y u s e d i n the passive.
22. Modal or Modal-like Verb: M o d a l s are h e l p i n g verbs w h i c h often express a speaker,
attitude or m o o d . M o d a l s are also used to express probability. M o d a l s are not followed b
-s i n the third p e r s o n singular f o r m . M o d a l s are i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w e d b y the base forrrtjf
a verb.
Incorrect:

H e cans do it.
H e can to do it.

Correct:

H e can do it.

M o d a l - l i k e v e r b s are t w o - w o r d or t h r e e - w o r d h e l p i n g verbs w h i c h h a v e v e r y
meanings to m o d a l s . H o w e v e r , m o d a l - l i k e verbs are different i n f o r m f r o m modals
is a chart s h o w i n g E n g l i s h m o d a l s a n d their m o d a l - l i k e equivalents.
408

Grammar Appendix

sirrah

MODALS

MODAL-LIKE VERBS

may
might
can
could
shall
should

be able to
be able to
be to/ought to/had better/be
s u p p o s e d to
u s e d to
have to/have got to
be g o i n g to
w o u l d like to
w o u l d rather

would
must
will

H e can d o it. = H e is able to d o it.

23. Phrase: a group of related w o r d s that d o not i n c l u d e b o t h a subject a n d a verb. Phrases

cannot stand alone as sentences.
N o u n phrase:

The b i g beautiful d o g is mine.

Noun phrase

Prepositional phrase:

T h e b o o k is o n the table.
Prep, phrase

24. P r e p o s i t i o n : a w o r d that joins w i t h a n o u n structure object to f o r m a p r e p o s i t i o n a l

phrase. B e l o w is a list of c o m m o n E n g l i s h prepositions.

C O M M O N PREPOSITIONS
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
as
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides

between
beyond
by
despite
down
during
except (for)
for
from
in
into
like
near
of
off
on

out
over
since
through
throughout
to
toward(s)
under
unlike
until
up
upon
with
within
without

Grammar Appendix

409

Some p r e p o s i t i o n s are c o m p o s e d of t w o or m o r e w o r d s . These p r e p o s i t i o n s are call

m u l t i p l e w o r d prepositions. B e l o w is a list of c o m m o n m u l t i p l e w o r d prepositions.

C O M M O N MULTIPLE W O R D PREPOSITIONS
according to
ahead of
along w i t h
as a consequence of
as a result of
aside f r o m
away from
because of
b y means of
contrary to
due to
for fear of
for the benefit of
for the purpose of
i n a d d i t i o n to
i n back of
i n case of
in comparison with
i n connection w i t h

i n contrast t o / w i t h
i n favor of
i n front of
i n spite of
instead of
i n the event of
next to
o n account of
o n behalf of
o n the top of
o w i n g to
p r i o r to
regardless of
subsequent to
together w i t h
w i t h reference to
w i t h regard to
w i t h respect to
w i t h the exception of

Some prepositions combine w i t h verbs. There are h u n d r e d s of s u c h combinations lh ->

combinations are sometimes called phrasal verbs.
B e l o w is a l i s t of s o m e of the c o m m o n v e r b + p r e p o s i t i o n c o m b i n a t i o n s that exist in
E n g l i s h . These combinations have been chosen because they are a m o n g the most likeK to
be f o u n d o n the T O E F L . Some of these combinations have more meanings than those lifted
here. The meanings g i v e n here are those most l i k e l y to be tested o n the T O E F L .
For more comprehensive lists of verb + p r e p o s i t i o n combinations a n d their meanings,,* Handbook of American Idioms and Idiomatic Usage, H a r o l d C . W h i t f o r d a n d Robei t I I )i\son.
Prentice H a l l Regents P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , 1973. A l s o see Longman Dictionary of Phrc
Verbs, R o s e m a r y Courtney, L o n g m a n , 1983,1989.

410

Grammar Appendix

C O M M O N VERB + PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS

Combination

Meaning

agree to
agree w i t h
a p p r o v e of
b r i n g about
b r i n g on
bring up
call o n
call off
call u p
come out
come u p
consist of
consult w i t h
count o n
depend on
differ f r o m
do w i t h o u t
get over
get u p
give out
give u p
hand in
keep o n
keep u p
listen to
l o o k after
l o o k over
look u p
m a k e out
make u p
object to
pass out
pass u p
pick u p
prepare for
put off
p u t out
recover f r o m
refer to
rely o n
reply to
respond to
succeed i n
take over
take u p
think about
t h i n k of
turn d o w n
w o r r y about

be w i l l i n g to
feel the same w a y as /about
have a favorable o p i n i o n of
cause
result i n
raise for discussion
ask (someone) to do
cancel
telephone
be p u b l i s h e d
arise
be m a d e of
get the o p i n i o n of
d e p e n d o n ; rely o n
rely o n ; count o n
be u n l i k e
sacrifice
recover f r o m
wake up
distribute
surrender
submit
continue
continue; m a i n t a i n
p a y attention to the s o u n d of
take care of
review
search for (in a book)
understand
invent; reconcile w i t h
oppose b y arguing against
distribute
fail to take advantage of
gather or collect
get ready for; study for
postpone
extinguish
get w e l l
call or direct attention to
count o n ; depend o n
answer
answer
be successful at
assume control
consider; discuss
consider
have a n o p i n i o n about
reject
have concern or anxiety about

Grammar Appendix

411

Some prepositions combine w i t h adjectives. There are h u n d r e d s of these combinations*"w e l l . Those most c o m m o n l y tested o n the T O E F L are listed below.

C O M M O N ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS

associated w i t h
aware of
based o n
capable of
c o m m i t t e d to
c o m p o s e d of
confined to
confused at/about
conscious of
dedicated to
different f r o m
equal to
f o n d of

(un)impressed b y
inferior to
interested i n
( u n ) k n o w n for
(dis)pleased w i t h
p u z z l e d at/by
qualified for
(un)related to
(dis)satisfied w i t h
similar to
superior to
surprised by/at

25. P r e p o s i t i o n a l Phrase: a phrase consisting of a preposition a n d a n object. The object in'a

prepositional phrase can be one of the n o u n structures listed i n the chart below.
N o u n (phrase):

I sat b y m y mother.

Pronoun:

I sat b y her.

Gerund:

She entertains herself b y reading.

N o u n Clause:

I c o u l d tell f r o m w h a t y o u s a i d that y o u are not interested i n this book. ~

NOTE:

Infinitives cannot f u n c t i o n as objects of prepositions.

Prepositional phrases can act as adjectives i n a sentence.

The b o o k o n the table is m i n e .
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase on the table describes the n o u n book. It is therefc
acting as a n adjective.
Prepositional phrases can act as adverbs i n a sentence.
I p u t the book o n the table.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase on the table modifies the verb put. It is thererc
acting as a n adverb.

26. C l a u s e : a g r o u p of related w o r d s c o n t a i n i n g a subject a n d a finite verb. There are

types of clauses i n E n g l i s h : m a i n clauses a n d subordinate clauses. A m a i n clause cansta
alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause cannot.
A f t e r I finished m y h o m e w o r k , I w a t c h e d television.
Subordinate clause
Main clause

Grammar Appendix

27. Main Clause: a clause w h i c h can stand alone as a sentence. M a i n clauses can be joined
together b y the conjunctions and, but, or, for, so, a n d yet. W h e n this happens, a c o m m a is
usually placed just before the conjunction.
The l i v i n g r o o m is red, and the k i t c h e n is yellow.
S
V
S
V
Main clause
Main clause
M a i n clauses c a n also be joined together b y clause markers s u c h as however, nevertheless, in
addition, on the other hand, furthermore, a n d moreover. W h e n this happens i n the questions o n
the T O E F L , a s e m i c o l o n is placed just before the clause marker.
Tomi likes the color of the kitchen; however,
S V
Main clause
he does not like the color of the l i v i n g r o o m .
S
V
Main clause
B e l o w is a c h a r t of c o m m o n m a i n c l a u s e m a r k e r s . T h e s e c l a u s e m a r k e r s a r e l i s t e d
according to their meanings.

C O M M O N M A I N CLAUSE MARKERS
Preceded by a
Comma (,)

Preceded by a
Semicolon (;)

Addition

and

besides, l i k e w i s e , moreover, i n a d d i t i o n ,
additionally

Contrast

but, yet

however, nevertheless, o n the other h a n d ,

i n contrast, i n spite of this

Cause

for

because of this, for this reason

Effect

so

t h e r e f o r e , as a r e s u l t , a c c o r d i n g l y ,
consequently,

Condition

or

otherwise

Time

then, at that point, m e a n w h i l e , thereafter,

after that

Comparison

similarly, correspondingly, l i k e w i s e

Example

for example, for instance

Grammar Appendix

413

28. Noun Clause:

a sentence.

a subordinate clause w h i c h functions as a subject, object, or complement i n

N o r m clauses begin w i t h the clause marker that or w i t h one of the following question-word
clause markers: how, how many, how much, what, when, where, why, who, whom, whose, or which
For stress, the w o r d ever is sometimes added, to a question w o r d that begins a noun clause.
That he w a n t e d to go d i d n ' t surprise me.
Noun d ~
subject
n

I d o n ' t k n o w who she is.

Noun clause object

H e can become whatever he wants to become.

Noun clause complement
In some sentences, the clause m a r k e r of a n o u n clause is also the subject of the n o u n clause.
I d o n ' t k n o w who
S is c o m i n
W h e n a n o u n clause that begins w i t h that is f u n c t i o n i n g as the object of a sentence, thai
m a y be deleted.
I thought that he w a s c o m i n g .
I thought he w a s c o m i n g .

29. Adverb Clause: a subordinate clause w h i c h functions as a n a d v e r b i n a sentence. A n

adverb clause begins w i t h a clause marker. B e l o w is a chart of the most frequently used
E n g l i s h clause markers for adverb clauses. These clause markers are listed according to
their meanings. Some clause markers have more than one m e a n i n g .

C O M M O N ADVERB CLAUSE MARKERS

414

Manner

Time

Cause/Effect

Comparison

Condition

Contrast

after
as
as long as
as soon as
before
b y the time
n o w that
once
since
so long as
until
when
whenever
while

because
i n order that
since
so that
whereas

as
than

even if
if
incase
i n the event
once
only if
provided that
unless
whether or not

although
as if
even though as though
i n spite of
the fact that
though
whereas
while

Grammar Appendix

....

We w i l l go out together after he comes.

Clause marker of time
Even though he is tired, he must continue w o r k i n g .
Clause marker of contrast
NOTE:
W h e n a n a d v e r b c l a u s e c o m e s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of a sentence, i t is
f o l l o w e d b y a c o m m a . Y o u can use the c o m m a to help y o u k n o w w h e n an adverb
clause is needed i n a T O E F L question.
30. A d j e c t i v e C l a u s e : a subordinate clause w h i c h functions as a n adjective i n a sentence.
A d j e c t i v e clauses come i m m e d i a t e l y after the n o u n s they m o d i f y a n d describe, define,
identify, or give further i n f o r m a t i o n about these nouns. Adjective clauses are sometimes
called relative clauses.
Adjective clauses b e g i n w i t h one of the f o l l o w i n g clause markers, w h i c h are often called
relative pronouns: who, whose, whom, which, a n d that. Sometimes the question w o r d s when,
where, a n d why are a l s o u s e d to b e g i n r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s . F o r stress, t h e w o r d ever i s
sometimes a d d e d to a relative p r o n o u n or to when, where, or why.
The different r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s h a v e different m e a n i n g s . Some are u s e d to refer to
people. Others are u s e d to refer to things. Some are used as subjects. Others are used as
objects or to s h o w possession. The f o l l o w i n g chart classifies relative p r o n o u n s according to
their m e a n i n g and f u n c t i o n i n a sentence.

RELATIVE P R O N O U N S
R e f e r r i n g to P e o p l e

R e f e r r i n g to T h i n g s

Subject

w h o , that

w h i c h , that

Object

w h o , w h o m , that

w h i c h , that

Possessive

whose

w h o s e (rarely)

The w o m a n who lives next door is v e r y friendly.

Subject
The w o m a n who I saw next door is v e r y friendly.
Object
The w o m a n whose picture I saw i n the paper is m y neighbor.
Possessive
A preposition is never f o l l o w e d b y who or that.
whom
Le boy about wte-this story is w r i t t e n is m y cousin.
W h e n commas are nec<^ry i
adjective clause, the pronouvt/;^
y not be used,
which ^ ^ - ^ ^
^
C a r b o n , thai is an e l e m e n > s ^ f h b u i l d i n g blocks of life.
- _
na

Relative p r o n o u n s f u n c t i o n i n g as objects are often deleted.

The w o m a n that I met yesterday is v e r y friendly.
The w o m a n I met yesterday is very friendly.
Grammar Appendix

415

31. -ING or -ED M o d i f y i n g Phrase: a n adjective phrase f o r m e d b y deleting certain elements'

of a f u l l adjective or adverb clause.
There are two w a y s to create -ing a n d -ed m o d i f y i n g phrases f r o m adjective a n d adverb
clauses:
A.

Delete the subject of the clause a n d the B E f o r m of the verb:

Adjective- cirtiiM.':
H<: man w h o iplaying the p i a n o is m y h u s b a n d .
The irTa>^
pi&ying the p i a n o is m y h t i * a n d .
A d v e r b clause:

WhileTrefwas-playing the p i a n o , h e sang a song"

While
p l a y i n g the p i a n o , he sang a song.

B.

If there is n o BE f o r m of the v e r b i n the clause, y o u can sometimes delete the subject' Jj^
a n d change the verb to its -ing f o r m :
Adjective clause:
The book, w h i c h consists of six chapters, is short.
The-bk,^
consisting of six chapters, is short.
A d v e r b clause:
A f t e r he read the book, he fell asleep.
After
reading the book, he fell asleep.
A n adverb clause can o n l y be c h a n g e d to a m o d i f y i n g -ing or -ed phrase w h e n thv\
subject of the adverb clause a n d the subject of the m a i n clause are the same.
A n ing or -ed m o d i f y i n g phrase m a d e f r o m a n adverb clause must m o d i f y the subiec
of the m a i n clause.
v:
E x a m p l e where n o change is possible:
W h i l e John was w r i t i n g , I w a s p l a y i n g the p i a n o .

32. G e r u n d : the -ing f o r m of a verb u s e d as a n o u n . A g e r u n d can f u n c t i o n as the subject,.,^

object, o r c o m p l e m e n t i n a sentence. A g e r u n d is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d as the objeefapf
preposition.
S w i m m i n g is fun.
Subject
I like s w i m m i n g .
Object

'

U n l i k e s w i m m i n g , golf is b o r i n g .
Oof prep
M y favorite sport is s w i m m i n g .
Complement

am

416

Grammar Appendix

Some verbs are f o l l o w e d b y gerunds, not b y infinitives. B e l o w is a list of some of the more
c o m m o n verbs f o l l o w e d b y gerunds.

VERBS C O M M O N L Y FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

admit
anticipate
appreciate
avoid
complete
consider
delay
denv
discuss

dislike
enjoy
finish
keep
mention
mind
miss
postpone
practice

recall
recollect
recommend
resent
resist
risk
suggest
tolerate
understand

33. Infinitive: to + the base f o r m of a verb used as a n o u n , adjective, or adverb. Infinitives

and i n f i n i t i v e phrases u s e d as n o u n s c a n f u n c t i o n as subjects, objects, or c o m p l e m e n t s .
H O W E V E R , INFINITIVES C A N N O T F U N C T I O N A S OBJECTS O F PREPOSITIONS.
To be here is a pleasure.
Subject
I like to be here.
Object
M y w i s h is to be here.
Complement
H e is a good friend to have.
Adjective
I w a s sorry to see h i m leave.
Adverb

~ - ----- ______

Y o u need f l o u r to make bread.

Adverb
Infinitives often have the m e a n i n g of in order to, as i n the last samp
sentence c o u l d be rewritten, In order to make bread, you need flour.

Grammar Appendix

417

Some verbs are f o l l o w e d by infinitives, not b y gerunds. B e l o w is a list of some of the

c o m m o n verbs that are f o l l o w e d b y infinitives.

VERBS C O M M O N L Y FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

afford
agree
allow*
appear
arrange
ask
beg
care
cause*
challenge*
claim
consent
convince*
dare
decide
demaftd-
deserve
encourage*

expect
fail
forbid*
force*
hesitate
hire*
hope
instruct*
invite*
learn
manage
mean
need
offer
_. or-der*
permit*
persuade*
plan

prepare
pretend
promise
refuse
remind*
require*
seem
struggle
swear
teach*
tell*
threaten
urg_e*__
volunteer
wait
want
warn*
wish

* N O T E : T h e s e v e r b s are n o r m a l l y f o l l o w e d b y a ( p r o ) n o u n p l u s i n f i n i t i v e
combination (e.g., She w a r n e d us to be careful).
Some adjectives are c o m m o n l y f o l l o w e d b y infinitives a n d not b y gerunds. Below is
of some of the more c o m m o n adjectives that are f o l l o w e d b y infinitives.

ADJECTIVES C O M M O N L Y FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

afraid
amazed
anxious
ashamed
astonished
careful
content
delighted
determined
disappointed

418

Grammar Appendix

eager
fortunate
glad
happy
hesitant
honored
lucky
motivated
pleased
prepared

proud
ready
relieved
reluctant
sad
shocked
sorry
stunned
surprised
upset
willing

34

Conditional Sentence: a sentence w h i c h expresses a condition. There are several different

types of c o n d i t i o n a l sentences.
Factual conditionals express events that do h a p p e n w h e n certain conditions described i n
the if clause are met.
If v o u heat water, it boils.
Condition
Event
In this type of c o n d i t i o n a l sentence, if can often be replaced b y when and the m e a n i n g of the
sentence does not change.
F u t u r e c o n d i t i o n a l s express events that w i l l or may h a p p e n i n the f u t u r e if c e r t a i n
conditions described i n the '/clause are met.
If y o u eat y o u r peas, I w i l l give y o u some dessert.
Condition
Future event
H y p o t h e t i c a l conditionals express events that are u n l i k e l y to occur (but possible) if certain
conditions described i n the "/"clause are met.
If y o u ate y o u r peas, I w o u l d give y o u some dessert.
Condition
Possible event
(unlikely to be met)
Counterfactual conditionals express events that are untrue because the c o n d i t i o n i n the if
clause cannot be met.
If George Washington h a d been here, he w o u l d have k n o w n w h a t to do.
Impossible condition
Impossible event
In hypothetical a n d counterfactual conditionals, it is sometimes possible to delete the ;/and
keep the same c o n d i t i o n a l meaning. W h e n this happens, the subject a n d the verb of the
s e n t e n c e are i n v e r t e d a n d , i n h y p o t h e t i c a l c o n d i t i o n a l s , the v e r b were or should is
introduced.
If y o u ate y o u r peas, I w o u l d give y o u some dessert.
Were y o u to eat y o u r peas, I w o u l d give y o u some dessert.
If George W a s h i n g t o n h a d been here, he w o u l d have k n o w n what to do.
H a d George Washington been here, he w o u l d have k n o w n w h a t to do.

35. Co>tfusing Words and Expressions: w o r d s a n d expressions w h i c h s o u n d alike a n d / o r

w h i c h n a > ^ i m i l a r f u n c t i o n s i n E n g l i s h sentences, b u t w h i c h are not interchangeable
(cannot be sutetHuted for one another).
N O T E : N o t all m e a n i n g V ^ f t h e confusing w o r d s and expressions listed b e l o w are given. O n l y those meanings rnb_<fr quently tested on the T O E F L are discussed.
e

Grammar Appendix

419

A C C E P T (verb) / E X C E P T (preposition) The verb to A C C E P T means to agree to or to concede'

to. The preposition E X C E P T means besides or but and is f o l l o w e d b y a n object.
r

H e accepted his defeat w i t h dignity.

E v e r y t h i n g except the salad is ready to eat.
A D V I C E (noun) / A D V I S E (verb) The n o u n A D V I C E means counsel or guidance. The verb to
A D V I S E means to give counsel or advice.
v.;.
H e r advice was that I f i n d someone else to help me.
Teachers must advise their students o n academic matters.

A F F E C T (verb) / E F F E C T (noun or verb) The verb to A F F E C T means to influence or to modifuZ

The verb to E F F E C T means to bring about or to cause. The n o u n E F F E C T means the result.
The w r i t i n g of R a y B r a d b u r y has affected m e deeply.
They effected a change i n the government b y v o t i n g for a n e w president.
The effects of s u n l i g h t are m a n y a n d v a r i e d .
A L I K E (adjective) / ( U N ) L I K E (preposition) A L I K E is a n adjective used to show similajiU
between t w o or more n o u n structures. It u s u a l l y f o l l o w s the n o u n structures i t descr
( U N ) L I K E means not like a n d is a p r e p o s i t i o n w h i c h m u s t be f o l l o w e d b y an obje. I
M y brother a n d m y sister are v e r y m u c h alike.
L i k e m y brother, m y sister enjoys p l a y i n g chess.
A L M O S T (adverb) / M O S T (adjective)
The adverb A L M O S T means approximately or nm
and is used to m o d i f y verbs, adjectives, a n d other adverbs. The adjective M O S T means
greatest number or part, a n d is used to describe n o u n structures.
A l m o s t a l l of the students w i l l come to class tomorrow.
M o s t students like this class.
A L R E A D Y (adverb) / A L L R E A D Y (adjective)
T h e adverb A L R E A D Y means previously or
prior to another time, a n d is u s e d to d e s c r i b e v e r b s , adjectives, o r other adverbs. T no
adjective A L L R E A D Y means completely prepared a n d is used to describe n o u n si i IU lures

t V >

A M O N G (preposition) / B E T W E E N (preposition) A M O N G s h o w s a relationship b e t w e ^ ^

three o r m o r e n o u n s t r u c t u r e s . B E T W E E N s h o w s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t w o noun
structures.
We w i l l d i v i d e the w o r k evenly a m o n g Jack, Jane, a n d John.
We w i l l d i v i d e the w o r k evenly between Jack a n d Jane.
A M O U N T (noun) / N U M B E R (noun) / Q U A N T I T Y (noun) A M O U N T a n d Q U A N T I T Y
to uncountable n o u n s . N U M B E R refers to countable nouns.
A great a m o u n t of w o r k is yet to be done.
A n u m b e r of students w a n t to stay here d u r i n g s p r i n g break.
A great quantity of w o r k is yet to be done.

420

Grammar Appendix

A N D ( c o n j u n c t i o n ) / A L S O (adverb)
T h e c o n j u n c t i o n A N D is u s e d to connect w o r d s ,
phrases, or clauses. A L S O is an adverb m e a n i n g in addition.
John a n d Sarah w i l l be here tomorrow.
John w i l l be here tpmorrow. Sarah w i l l also be here.
A N O T H E R (adjective) / O T H E R (adjective) / O T H E R S (pronoun) The adjective A N O T H E R
is u s e d w i t h single, countable, a n d indefinite n o u n s . O T H E R is used w i t h singular, p l u r a l ,
and uncountable definite nouns. O T H E R S is a p l u r a l p r o n o u n (not f o u n d w i t h a noun).
I w o u l d like another piece of pie.
Please s h o w me some other shoes.
Jack a n d F r e d are here. Where are the others?
A S (preposition) / L I K E (preposition) A S means in the role of or in the capacity of. L I K E means
similar to. Both of these w o r d s are prepositions a n d m u s t be f o l l o w e d b y objects.
H e w a s h a p p y as the k i n g of his country. (He w a s really a king.)
H e ate l i k e a k i n g . (He ate i n a f a s h i o n s i m i l a r to that of a k i n g , b u t he w a s not
actually a k i n g himself.)
B A S E (noun) / B A S I S (noun)
evidence or reason.

B A S E m e a n s footing, foundation,

or support. B A S I S m e a n s
-a >
(9
3

The basis for y o u r argument is faulty.

The computer sits o n a sturdy base.
BESIDE (preposition) / BESIDES (adverb/preposition)
to. B E S I D E S means in addition to or moreover, a n d
adverbs, adjectives, or sometimes entire sentences. It
an object.

The preposition B E S I D E means next

c a n be a n a d v e r b d e s c r i b i n g v e r b s ,
can also be a preposition f o l l o w e d b y

______

They have a s m a l l cabin beside the lake.

They have four children here besides the three that are at h o m e .
C O S T U M E (noun) / C U S T O M (noun)
traditional practice.

C O S T U M E m e a n s clothing.
^

~~~~~~

CUSTOM

means

H e r H a l l o w e e n costume was very_el_ar3omcL

It is a custom i n this country to eat t u r l x e y ^ T h a n k s g i v r n g Day.
L

D E S C E N T T n o u n ) / D E C E N T (adjective) The n o u n D E S C E N T means i w ^ . w

adjective D E C E N T means respectable or suitable, a n d is used to describe n o u n structures.
The descent into the G r a n d C a n y o n takes several hours.
Tt is difficult to f i n d a decent place to w o r k i n this library.
D O (verb) / M A K E (verb) D O often meane .0 complell^xcjo
create, to construct, or to produce,,

perform. M A K E often means to

- -

I m a k e all of m y o w n clothes.
She d i d her h o m e w o r k at the last minute.

Grammar Appendix

421

E S P E C I A L L Y (adverb) / S P E C I A L (adjective) The adverb E S P E C I A L L Y means particularly

and is used to describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The adjective S P E C I A L means
distinctive, extraordinary, or unique, a n d is used to describe noun structures.
Today, his birthday, is a v e r y special day.
She felt especially uncomfortable discussing her salary.
F A R T H E R (adjective) / F U R T H E R (adjective or adverb) Both F A R T H E R a n d F U R T H E R a n
b e u s e d to refer to d i s t a n c e . O n l y F U R T H E R c a n be used to refer to t i m e , degree, ..y
quantity.
t

M o n t a n a is-fcdJ3r/further f r o m V e r m o n t than it seems.

We w i l l p r o v i d e y o T r > ^ i ^ h r instructions later.
urt

F I R S T (adjective, noun) / F O R M E R (adjective, n o u n > ^ S ^ r e f e ^ ^

beginning_
n o u n strucLuro a g r o u p of three or more n o u n structures. F O R M E R refers to tin- mill
first i n a set of t w o n o u n structures.
M

?!

The first of her three c h i l d r e n was a boy.

I have seen b o t h Peter a n d P a u l , but I have only met the fofSSLF O R M A L L Y ( a d v e r b ) / F O R M E R L Y ( a d v e r b ) F O R M A L L Y m e a n s i n a formal rrmmL,
F O R M E R L Y means previously or before (in time).
' -i
a

She w a s formally a d m i t t e d to the H o n o r Society last night.

F o r m e r l y w e l i v e d i n Billings; n o w , w e live i n BurlingtonH A D B E T T E R (verb) / W O U L D R A T H E R (verb)

H A D B E T T E R is u s e d to express

0M1aal1e.1v

or advisability. W O U L D R A T H E R is used to express preference.

We h a d better leave n o w , or w e w i l l be late for class.
We w o u l d rather not be late for class.
H A R D (adjective, adverb) / H A R D L Y (adverb) The adjective H A R D often means M-u
also often means rigid, the opposite of soft. The adverb H A R D m e a n s diligently. It tollovv
the verb it describes. The adverb H A R D L Y means barely or scarcely- It usually c o m e he <.
the verb it describes.
This b o o k is too h a r d for me to u n d e r s t a n d .
I h a r d l y saw h i m at C h r i s t m a s .
H e tried hard to come h o m e for C h r i s t m a s .
I M A G I N A R Y (adjective) / I M A G I N A T I V E (adjective)

'

I M A G I N A R Y means 7

I M A G I N A T I V E means showing great imagination, creative.

Unicorns, leprechauns, a n d trolls are i m a g i n a r y creatures.
This imaginative writer has created a w o n d e r f u l fantasy story-

I T ' S (pronoun + verb) / I T S (possessive adjective) IT'S is the p r o n o u n it f ' "

verb has. ITS is the third person singular possessive adjective, u s e d w h e n
to has no female or male gender.
1 1

The d o g w a g g e d its tail h a p p i l y w h e n it saw its master.

It's time to go n o w , isn't it?

422

Grammar Appendix

^ | ft
e
_
u

or.

L A T E R (adjective, adverb) / L A T T E R (adjective, p r o n o u n ) / L A S T (adjective) L A T E R is the

c o m p a r a t i v e f o r m of the adjective or a d v e r b late. It refers to a t i m e i n the f u t u r e or
f o l l o w i n g a p r e v i o u s time. L A T T E R refers to the second of t w o n o u n structures a n d can
function as an adjective or as a p r o n o u n . It is u s u a l l y preceded b y the. L A S T is an adjective
referring to the final n o u n structure i n a g r o u p .
H e a r r i v e d later than I d i d .
I like b o t h N a n c y a n d Jack, but I s p e n d more time w i t h the latter.
The last time I s a w her, she was t h i n k i n g of m o v i n g to France.
L A Y (verb) / L I E (verb) To L A Y means to put or to place a n d can be f o l l o w e d b y a direct object.
To L I E often means to repose. In this m e a n i n g , to L I E cannot be f o l l o w e d b y an object. These
t w o verbs are c o n f u s i n g because some of their p r i n c i p a l parts are the same f o r m .
Base Form
lay
lie

Past Form
laid
lay

Past Participle
laid
lain

Present Participle
laying
tying

Yesterday, he l a i d his hat o n the table, (to lay)

Yesterday, he l a y i n bed all day. (to lie)
LIE (verb)/ LIE (verb) To L I E can have t w o meanings. It can m e a n to repose or it can m e a n not
to tell the truth. Some of the p r i n c i p a l parts for these t w o meanings are different.
Base Form
lie
(repose)
lie
(not tell truth)

Past Form
lay

Past Participle
lain

Present Participle
lying

lied

lied

lying

Yesterday, he lav i n bed all day.

Yesterday, he l i e d to me about the money.
L O O S E (adjective) / L O S E (verb) T h e adjective L O O S E means not tight. T h e v e r b L O S E
means to misplace or to be defeated.
H i s belt was so loose that it fell off.
I hope I don't lose this money.

-'

~-~

M A Y B E (adverb) / M A Y BE (modal + BE) The adverb M A Y B E means posslBlyxx perhaps, M A Y

B E functions as the verb i n a sentence a n d expresses w h a t m i g h t or w i l l p o s s i b l y exist.
M a y b e w e s h o u l d p u t more coal o n the fire.
She m a y b e the o n l y person I k n o w w h o o w n s a Ferrari.
N E A R (adverb, preposition) / N E A R L Y (adverb) N E A R means not too far, close by. It most
often functions to describe verbs or as a p r e p o s i t i o n f o l l o w e d b y an object. The adverb
N E A R L Y means almost. It describes verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
"^~-^he lives near, a n d he lives far.
I n e ^ ^ j n i s s e d m y meeting today.
N O (adjective) / N O T (acIVi-^w N O N E (prortowsiL. The adjective N O makes a n o u n structure
negative. The adverb N O T m s * ^ verb negative. N O N E is a negative p r o n o u n .
a

There were n o cookies i n the jar.

H e is not jogging this week because it is too hot outdoors.
I w a n t e d a cookie, but there were none.
Grammar Appendix

423

ON THE CONTRARY /O N THE OTHER (HAND)

O N T H E C O N T R A R Y is a cla
m a r k e r u s e d to contradict s o m e t h i n g w h i c h has been said or t h o u g h t before. O N T H E
O T H E R ( H A N D ) is the second part of the t w o part clause marker on the one hand . . . on the
other (hand).
H e is not feeling tired today; o n the contrary, he is feeling quite w e l l .
O n the one h a n d , I feel like g o i n g o u t tonight; o n the other, I feel like curling up by
the fire.
'
P A S S E D (verb) / P A S T (adjective, n o u n , preposition) P A S S E D is the past tense f o r m of to'
pass, w h i c h means to elapse or to go by. W h e n P A S T means a time before the present, it cart
describe n o u n structures or be a n o u n alone. W h e n P A S T means by or in front of, it fs" a'
preposition f o l l o w e d b y an object.
...
Time passed slowly.
In the past, w e used to eat d i n n e r early.
(noun)
She w a l k e d c a l m l y past the b a r k i n g d o g .
(preposition)

..
> .

Q U I E T (adjective) / Q U I T E (adverb) T h e adjective Q U I E T means not noisy a n d is useck

describe n o u n structures. The adverb Q U I T E means very or fairly, a n d is used to intensi
the m e a n i n g of a n adjective or sometimes of a n adverb or verb.
'
The quiet little b o y sat i n the back of the r o o m .
H e is really quite interested i n s t u d y i n g engineering.
R A I S E (verb) / R I S E (verb)

f~

To R A I S E means to lift a n d can be f o l l o w e d b y a direct objectfTt

RISE means to go up or to ascend, a n d cannot be f o l l o w e d b y a direct object.

*'

If y o u have a question, please raise y o u r h a n d .

W a r m air rises.

r .*>
v

R E M E M B E R (verb) / R E M I N D (verb) To R E M E M B E R means to recall or to think about

To R E M I N D means to cause someone to remember.

I cannot remember her name.

Please r e m i n d John to call m e at 5:00.
S E N S I B L E (adjective) / S E N S I T I V E ( a d j e c t i v e )
S E N S I B L E m e a n s reasonable or
S E N S I T I V E means touchy, sympathetic, or easily affected by outside influences.
A sensible diet includes lots of fresh fruits a n d vegetables.
Plants are v e r y sensitive to light.
S E T (verb) / S I T (verb) To SET means to put or to place, a n d can be f o l l o w e d b y a direct (
To SIT means to be seated a n d cannot be f o l l o w e d b y a n object. The p r i n c i p a l parts of
t w o v e r b s are similar a n d can be confusing.
Base F o r m
set
sit

Past F o r m
set
sat

Past P a r t i c i p l e
set
sat

Please set the books o n the table.

I usually sit i n the seat next to John's.
424

Grammar Appendix

Present P a r t i c i p l e
setting
sitting

SO . T H A T / S U C H . . . T H A T Both of these expressions are used to intensify a cause a n d

effect m e a n i n g . H o w e v e r , S O . . . T H A T is u s e d w i t h a n adjective or a n a d v e r b , w h i l e
S U C H . . . T H A T is u s e d w i t h a m o d i f i e d n o u n .
-"-

H e was so h a p p y that he c o u l d h a r d l y contain himself.

This is s u c h a g o o d book that I can't stop reading it.

T H A N (conjunction) / T H E N (adverb)
T h e c o n j u n c t i o n T H A N is u s e d i n f o r m i n g
comparatives. The adverb T H E N expresses a time after another time.
C l a r a is taller than Wade.
We filled out the proper forms; then, w e w a i t e d for our refund.
THEIR (adjective) / T H E Y ' R E (pronoun + verb) / T H E R E (adverb) T H E I R is the possessive
third person p l u r a l adjective. T H E Y ' R E is the p r o n o u n they p l u s the verb are. T H E R E is a n
adverb m e a n i n g in that place. T H E R E is also u s e d to begin sentences i n w h i c h the subject
has been m o v e d to the end of the sentence.

. \

They p u t their m i n d s a n d muscle into f i n i s h i n g the task.

We w i l l w a i t a n d see if they're c o m i n g .
I left the oranges on the table over there.

T H O R O U G H (adjective) / T H R O U G H (preposition) T h e adjective T H O R O U G H means

complete. The p r e p o s i t i o n T H R O U G H often means from one point or place to another on the
5^'* '
other side a n d is f o l l o w e d b y a n object.
b;
p .

She d i d a t h o r o u g h job investigating the issue,

She w a l k e d t h r o u g h the house to the garden.
T O ( p r e p o s i t i o n ) / T O O ( a d v e r b ) / T W O (adjective) T h e p r e p o s i t i o n T O has s e v e r a l
meanings. It is f o l l o w e d b y a n object. T h e adverb T O O indicates a n excessive amount a n d
describes a n adjective or another adverb. The adjective T W O is a number.
M a r i a w e n t to the bank.
This book is too difficult for me.
There are t w o people w a i t i n g to see y o u .
T O O (adverb) / V E R Y (adverb)
negative result.

T O O i m p l i e s a negative result. V E R Y does n o t Trrrply^a

This d o o r is tooireavy-to_c>prL
(It is impossible to open the door.)
This door is very heavy, but w e must-open it.
(It is possible to open the door.)

r o n o u n + verb) / W H O S E (relative p r o n o u n ) - W H O ' S is the p r o n o u n who p l u s the

verb 7 ? o r ~ 7 T t K L j ^ T T O S E is a possessive relative p r o n o u n .
W h o ' s c o m i n g to the picnic on Saturday?
I a m not sure whose coat this is.
Y O U R (possessive adjective) / Y O U ' R E ( p r o n o u n + verb) Y O U R is the s e c o n d p e r s o n
singular or p l u r a l possessive adjective. Y O U ' R E is the p r o n o u n you p l u s the verb are.

;.

W h e n y o u received y o u r a w a r d , w e were all very p r o u d of y o u .

Y o u shouldn't feel b a d that you're not able to come.
Grammar Appendix

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