Conduction:

FOURIER LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION

dq
dT
Q=
= -- K A
d
dx
i) area, A, normal to the direction of heat flow in m2.
dT
ii) the temperature gradient at the section,
, in 0K/mt ie: the rate
dx
of change of temperature with reference to the distance in the direction of
heat flow.
Also temperature gradient is expressed as negative since heat flows in
decrease of temperature
iii)Thermal conductivity , K, which is the property of the material in KW/m
0
K.
K A( t 2t 1)
or Q = -L
Temperature distribution in slab
(tt 1)
( xx 1 )
=
for conditions when one of its faces away
(t 2t 1 )
( x 2x 1)
from origin. ie At x = x1 ;
t = t1 and x = x2 ; t = t2
( If the entering face is coinciding with Y-axis, ie origin, then
x1 = 0 and x2 = x1)
Slope of temperature profile.
dT
Slope of temp. distribution ie:
is large for insulators. Slope of
dx
dT
temperature distribution ie
is small for the good conductors.
dx
Temperature distribution in Solids is shown below
T
Direction of heat flow
T Direction of heat flow in
direction
increasing x
in direction decreasing x

dT
dT
is + ve
is ve.
dx
dx
-dT
T
x
T1
+ dT
q
TT
+dx
+dx
T2
L
x increasing
Fig-(a)
(c)

x
Fig-(b)

x
Fig-

Fig(a)-Temperature distribution for

Fig-(b), (c)- Sign convection for
conduction flow.
steady state condition through plane wall.
dT
dx

=-

q
K

analyzing this equation, for the same value of heat , q , if

dT
is large (slope of temperature
dx
distribution is large) and there will be a large temperature difference
across the wall.
dT
If K is high (ie for conductors),
is small (slope of temperature
dx
distribution is small ) and there will be a small temperature difference
across the wall.
K is low

(ie for insulators),

t1

t1
Less slope
More slope

t3

t2

a) Insulator,
b) Conductor
Slope of temp. distribution is large.
Slope of temperature
distribution is small
Fig-: Temperature distribution in insulator and conductor
Variation of thermal conductivity
The variation of thermal conductivity is linear, for most cases, and varies
with the temperature as per relation, K =K0 (I t) . Its temperature
profile is shown in figure below. Where
K0 = Thermal conductivity at Zero temperature. and
= Coefficient of thermal conductivity. It is negative for metallic conductors
and positive for
insulating material.

Insulators)
t1
=0

ie

is

positive,(for

t2

0, ie is

negative,(for Conductors)
Temperature profile in conduction with variable conductivity
Thermal resistance and Thermal conductance in conduction Heat
transfer and Electrical Analogy with Equivalent electrical circuit.
KA (T 1T 2 )
Q=
( where T1 > T2)
L
(T 1T 2 )
=
L
KA
This can be written as:
(T 1T 2 )

Q =
=
KConduction (T1 T2)
R th
---------------------------1.11.1
Hence, we can take the terms of above equation as :L
Thermal
Resistance
of
the
slab
=
Rth
=
(
)
KA
----------------------------1.11.2
Its unit is 0K / watt
Thermal conductance is reciprocal of Resistance
1
KA
Thermal Conductance in conduction= KConduction =
=
R th
L
-- -1.11.3
Its unit is Watt / 0K If it is K per unit area then unit is Watt
/m2 0K
Electrical analogy between flow of heat and Electricity :
Electrical resistance Re , resists the flow of Current i , across Potential
difference V.
Similarly the Thermal resistance, Rth , resists the flow of heat, q , across the
temperature difference, (t1 t2).
L
T1
T2

L
)
KA

Rth = (

a)Temperature profile in slab

i
E1

E2
Re
( E1E 2)
Re

i=

b) Electrial circuit.

Qk
T1
Rk
Qk

T2
L
KA

(T 1T 2 )
L
where Rk =
KA
Rk
c) Equivalent Thermal circuit & Conduction

resistance.
Fig: 1.5. Electrical Analogy of Conduction
The Ohms law for electricity is given as;
( E1E 2)
V
i=
=
----------------------------------------------( i)
Re
Re
where
i = current in amperes
V = (E1E 2)
in ohms

is potential difference in volts, & Re = electrical resistance

The Fouriers law of conduction gives;

Q=

KA (T 1T 2 )
L

(T 1T 2 )
L
KA

This can be written as:

(T 1T 2 )

Q=
R th
(T 1T 2 )
L
Rth =
=
KA
Q

( where T1 > T2)

----------------(ii)
is the thermal resistance

Comparing the above equations I & ii, the following quantities are analogous
to each other while considering the electrical circuit in equivalent to a
thermal circuit.
Electrical circuit.
Thermal circuit.
1) Current , i, in amperes
1) Heat flow rate , q , in watts
2)Voltage , V= (E2 E1) in volts
2) Temperature difference, t =
(T1 T2)
(Electrical Potential difference)
(Thermal potential difference)
3) Electrical Resistance, Re , in Ohms
3)Thermal resistance, R th =
0
L/KA, in C/watt
4) Charge, C, in coulomb
4) Heat flow , Q , in Joules
Problem-1.11-1:
The outer surface of 10m x 3mt x o.2mt thick concrete wall is kept at temp
of 50C, while the inner surface is at 30 0C. The thermal conductivity of
concrete is 1.2 w/m K. Determine rate of heat loss from room and thermal
resistance of wall.
Answer:
Thermal resistance of conduction , Rth = / KA = 0.2 / 1.2 (10 x 3)
= 0.00556 0c / watt
Rate of heat loss = q = (t1 t2) / Rth = (30-5) / 0.00558 = 4500 watt
Problem-1.11-2:
The insulation of 7.5cm thick is fixed on side wall of a oven. The inside of wall
is at 420K. The electric coils dissipate the heat of 36.5 watt to make up the
heat loss through the walls. Calculate the wall surface area, so that the
temperature on other side of wall does not exceed 310 K. The thermal
conductivity of insulation is 0.04 w/mK.
Ans:
Q = - KA (t2 t1) /
36.5 = - 0.04 A (310-420) / 0.75 = 5.87 A
Hence A = 36.5 / 5.87 = 6.218 m2
Problem-1.11-3
One surface of a copper plate thickness of 3cm is maintained at 400 0C and
other surface at 1000C. How much heat is transferred through the plate per
square mt. The thermal conductivity of copper is 370 w/m K
Answer
q/A = -K (t2 t1) / = -370 (100-400) / 3 x 10-2 =3.7 MW / m2
Problem-1.11-4.
A plane wall of 10cm thick and 3sq.mt area is made of a material whose
conductivity is 8.5w / m K. The temperature of wall surfaces are steady at
1000C and 300C respectively.Find temperature gradient and heat flow across
wall.
Answer
Temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow is:

dt/dx = (t2 t1) / = (30-100) / 0.1 = -700 0C/m

Heat flow across the wall is by applying Fourier equation.
q = -KAdt/dx = - 8.4 x 3 x (-700) = 17850 w or 17.85 kw.
Problem 1.11-5
Two metal plates of 2.5cm and 15cm thick are bonded by an epoxy and heat
source of 43.5 kw/m2 is applied uniformly and steadily, through the thinner
plate by a radial heat source. The bonding epoxy must be held at 320K for a
short time.A thermocouple installed on the side of thinner plate next to heat
source indicates a temperature of 345K. Calculate the temperature gradient
for heat conduction through the thinner plate and the thermal conductivity of
its material.
Answer
q =43.5 kw/ m2 , L1 =2.5cm =0.025m ; L2= 15cm =o.15m
Temperature gradient , dt/dx =( t2 t1) / L = (320- 345) / 0.025 = - 1000
0
C/m
We have q/A = -K ( t2 t1) / L
ie: 43.5 x 103 = - K (-1000)
K = 43.5 w/mK
Problem 1.11-6:
A cold storage consists of a cubical chamber of dimension 2m x 2m x 2m,
maintained at 10C inside temperature. The outside wall temperature is
55C. The top and side walls are covered by a low conducting insulation with
thermal conductivity k = 0.06 W/mK. There is no heat loss from the bottom.
If heat loss through the top and side walls is to be restricted to 500W, what is
the minimum thickness of insulation required?
Solution:
To find: Thickness of insulation needed to maintain heat loss below 500W.
Assumptions: (1) perfectly insulted bottom, (2) one dimensional
conduction through five walls each of area A=4m 2, (3) steady state
conditions
Analysis: Using Fouriers law, the heat rate is given by
q = -K Atotal (t2 t1)/L
Solving for L and recognizing that A total =5 x A
L= -K Atotal (t2 t1) / q
= - 0.06 x 5 x 4 x (10-55) / 500 =0.108m =108mm
Problem-1.11-7.
A square silicon chip is of width W=5mm on a side and of thickness t=1mm.
The chip is mounted in a substrate such that there is no heat loss from its
side and back surfaces. The top surface is exposed to a coolant. The thermal
conductivity of the chip is 200W/m.K. If 5W are being dissipated by the chip,
what is the temperature difference between its back and front surfaces?
Answer
Assumptions: (1) steadystate conditions, (2) constant properties, (3) uniform
dissipation,(4) negligible heat loss from back and sides, (5) onedimensional
conduction in chip.
Analysis: All of the electrical power dissipated at the back surface of the chip
is transferred by conduction through the chip. Hence, Fouriers law,

P=q= K A (t2-t1) / L ;
(t2-t1) = L q/ K A
L = t= 1mm =0.001m; A =0.005
x 0.005 = 25 x 10-6
t2-t1) = 0.001 x 5/ 200 x 25 x 10-6 = 1.00C
Comments: for fixed P, the temperature drop across the chip decreases with
increasing k and width, as well as with decreasing thickness, t.
Problem-1.11-8.
Sheets of brass and steel, each of thickness 1cm, are placed in contact. The
outer surface of brass is kept at 100C and the outer surface of steel is kept at
00C. What is the temperature of inter-face? The ratio of K of brass and steel is
2:1.
Answer
t1 =100C; t2 = interface temp; t3 = 0C; Lb =Ls = L =1cm =0.01m
Heat flow is same ie q brass = q steel ;
- Kb A (t2 100)/L = - Ks A ( 0 - t2) / L
Hence Kb / Ks = - t2 / (t2 100) : ie. 2 (t2 100) = -t2
or 3t2 = 100 ; t2 = 100/3 =66.70C
Problem-1.11-9
How long will it take to form 4cm thick slab of ice on the surface of a lake
when the air temperature is -60C? K of ice is 1.675 w/mK, Density is 920 kg/
m3. Take the latent heat of fusion of ice as 335 kj/kg.(Lfusion)
Answer
Let d is the differential time to form ice of thickness dy
Then the energy balance gives A dy Lfu = -K A (t2 t1) / y . d

y
Lfu
y dy
d = K (T T
0
0
1
2)
Lfu
y2
Integrating; = [
]
K (T 1T 2 )
2
2
[ 920335 x 10 3 ] x 0.04
=
=
1.675[ 0 (6 ) ] x 2
= 24533.33 sec =6.815 hours = 6 hours 49min
Problem-1.11-10.
A oven wall of thickness 7.5 cm is made of insulation of thermal
conductivity 0.04 w/mK. The temperature of wall on oven side is
4200 C. The electrical coils in the oven dissipates 36.5 watts of
electrical energy to make up for the heat loss through wall.
Calculate the wall surface area perpendicular to heat flow, so that
the outside temperature of wall does not exceed 3100K.
The rate of heat dissipation = Q = 36.5 watts
K A(T 1T 2)
0.04 A ( 420310)
Q=
ie: 36.5 =
= 5.87 A
0.75
L
36.5
or A =
= 6.218 m2
5.87
1.11-11) Calculate the temperature gradient for heat flow and the
thermal conductivity of material plate of thickness 2.5 cm for a

steady state heat flow of 43.5 kw/m2 . The temperatures on both

sides of the plate are 3200K and 3450K.
Answer:
T1 = 345 K and T2 = 320 K, L = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m. Q/A = 43.5 Kw / m 2 =43.5
x 103 w / m2
T 2T 1
dT
320345
Temperature gradient =
=
=
= - 1000 0C/m
dx
0.025
L
T 2T 1
Q
From Fourier law:
=-K
A
L
3
43.5 x 10 = - K x (-1000)
Hence K = 43.5 W/ m 0K
1.11-12)Find the thermal conductivity of a rod of diameter 30mm
and 200mm long when it is maintained at 100 0C at one end and 10 0C
at other end. The surface of the rod is completely insulated such
that the heat flow is maintained at 6 watts.
Answer:
KA (T 1T 2 )
The Fouriers law is; Q =
L
d2
x 0.03 2
A = area perpendicular to heat flow =
=
= 0.71 x 10-3
4
4
K x 0.71 x 103(10010)
6=
= 0.318 K
0.2
6
Hence K =
= 18.87 W/ m-0K
0.318
1.11-13) The guarded hot plate method is used to find the thermal
conductivity of the material. Two similar 1cm thick specimens
receive heat from 6.5cm x 6.5 cm guard heater. The wattmeter
shows 15 watt and thermocouples inserted in hot and cold surfaces
indicate 325 K and 300 K respectively. Calculate the thermal
conductivity of the specimen material.
Answer:
QL
KA (T 1T 2 )
We have Q =
hence K =
A (T 1 T 2 )
L
Q = 15 watt, A = 0.065 x 0.065 = 0.00423 m2, L = 0.01 mt
15 x 0.01
K=
= 0.71 W/ m K
0.00423(325300)
Exercises of Conduction Principles.
Ex-1) The heat flow rate through a 30mm thick wood board for a
temperature difference of 300 C between the two surfaces is 120 w/m 2.
Calculate the thermal conductivity of wood.
Ex-2) If 3 kw is conducted through a section of insulating material of 0.6m 2
cross section and 2.5 cm thick and the thermal conductivity may be taken as
0.2 w/moC, compute the temperature difference across the material.

Ex-3) A temperature difference of 85 C is maintained across a fibre layer of

13cm thickness. The thermal conductivity of fiberglass is 0.035 w/m C.
Compute the heat transferred through the material per hour per unit area.
Ex-4) The temperatures of the faces of a plane wall of 15 cm thick are 375 C
and 85 C. The wall is constructed of a special glass of properties K = 0.78
w/m C, = 2700 kg/m3 ,
Cp = 0.84 KJ/kgC. What is the heat flow through the wall under steady state
conditions.

Convection:
Newtons Law of Cooling for convection heat transfer
Qc = hc As ( T w - T )
The heat flow rate is proportional to product of area perpendicular to heat
flow and the temperature difference. This equation is called as Newtons law
of cooling.
where Qc = Convective heat flow from the surface in watt or J/sec.
It is scalar quantity.
As = Surface area from which convection occurs in m2
hc = convective heat transfer coefficient in w/ m2 0K.It is not
thermodynamic
property of material, but may depend on geometry of
surface , flow
characteristics, thermodynamic properties of fluid etc. It is
the
proportionality constant in above equation.
( T w - T ) = t = temperature difference between the hot
surface and fluid in 0K
Convective heat transfer Resistance and equivalent electrical
circuit.
The Newtons equation for Convection heat transfer is;
Q = h A (t ) = h A( T1 T2 )
(T 1T 2 )
(T 1T 2 )
=
=
= Kconvection (t1 t2 )
1
R convection
hA
Comparing with the Ohms law,
0
Thermal resistance in convection = ( Rth)convection = 1/hA
C/watt --------1.15.4
Thermal Conductance in convection =Kconvection
= hA
Watt/ 0C
------------1.15.5
Circuit is given below
It is seen that the thermal resistances in combined conduction

and convection are shown in series in the electrical circuit.

(However the resistances in combined convection and
radiation are shown as parallel in the circuit)

Fluid film
T1

i = Qc
T1
E1

T2
E2

T2
Rc =

Rconvection =

1
hA

( E1E 2)
Re

i =
Qc =

(T 1T 2 )
1
hA

1
hA

(T 1T 2 )
R convection

Qc
Fig (a): Circuit of convection heat flow through stationary fluid
film

TA

TA
T1

TB

T2

T1

Qc

R1 =

1
h1 A

T2

R2 =

L
KA

R3

1
h2 A
h1
h2
TB
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
( T 1T 2)
(T 1T 2 )
Qc =
=
1
L
1
+
+
R total
h1 A K A h2 A
Fig (b): Circuit of Combined convection and conduction heat flow
through stationary fluid
film and a wall separating the two fluids
Fig Circuit of convection heat flow. through stationary
fluid film
=

Boundary layer
Prof.Prandtl suggested that the fluid of flow can be divided in to two regions;
a thin layer next to the wall, which is called as Velocity boundary layer

where the shear stress is confined, and the regions outside this layer, where
the fluid is ideal ie, non-viscous and in-compressible.
The Velocity boundary layer thickness, , is defined as the distance
from the wall where velocity, u = 0.99 u ; ie the fluid velocity (u)
is 99% of the stream velocity ( u . As a result of viscous forces at the
wall (on the surface of wall) the velocity of the fluid is zero and increases to
the u (velocity of fluid) as shown.
Vertical hot plate.
Tw
T
Boundary layer
y
Flow
y
Temperature profile
velocity profile
Velocity profile
T

Temp.profile

Boundary layer
uy

Ty

Laminar flow
y y=0, u =0
Tw
a) Natural convection on vertical plate b) Forced convection on
horizontal plate
Tw = temperature of hot plate; T = temperature of fluid stream
Fig:1.6: Velocity and Temperature profile during convection
A thermal boundary layer thickness, t is defined as the
thickness from the wall where the temperature difference (T w T ) =
0.99 (Tw - T . In thermal boundary layer, the temperature varies from T w
to T . In general t is not equal to u .
The thermal boundary layer is regarded as consisting of stationary fluid
film as shown in fig 1.6, above, through which heat is conducted and then
transported by fluid motion. Thermal conductivity of fluid film is taken as
k f and rate of heat transfer is calculated.
Problem-1.15-1
Air at 200C blows over a hot plate of 50 x 75cm maintained at 250 C. The
convection heat transfer coefficient. is 25 w/m2. Calculate the heat transfer.
Answer
From Newtons law q = hA (ts - t) = 25 x (0.5 x 0.75) (250-20) = 2.156 kw
Problem -1.15-2
An electric current is passed through a wire of 1mm diameter and
10cm long. The wire is submerged in liquid water at atmosphere
pressure and current is increased till water boils. h= 5000 w/m 2 0c

and water temperature is 1000C. How much electric power is

supplied to maintain the wire temperature at 1140C.
Answer
q= hA (tw - t )
A = d L = (1 X 10-3) (10 X 10-2) = 3.142 x 10-4 m2
q = 5000 x 3.142 x 10-4 x (114-100)
= 21.99 watt
21.99 watts is supplied to maintain the temperature at 1140C
Problem-1.15-3
A 120 watt heater has been employed to maintain a plate of 0.25 m 2
area at temperature of
60 0C when its surroundings are at
temperature 200C. What fraction of heat supplied is lost by natural
convection. The convection coefficient conforms the relation
h = 2.5 ( T)0.25 w/m2 K . What happens to the rest of the heat?
Answer
Convective heat transfer coefficient
h = 2.5 ( T)0.25 = 2.5 (60 20 )0.25 = 6.287 w/m2 K
Heat lost by convection = q = h A ( T) = 6.287 x 0.25 x (60 -20) = 62.87 w
Heat lost by convection as fraction of heat supplied of 120 watt
= 62.87/ 120 = 0.5239 = 52.39%
Rest of the heat is lost by radiation = 120- 62.87 = 57.i3 w
=100-52.39 =47.61 w
Problem-1.15-4
Air flows over a rectangular plate having dimensions 0.5 m x 0.25 m.
The free stream temperature of the air is 300C. At steady state, the
plate temperature is 40C. If the convective heat transfer coefficient
is 250 W/m2.K, determine the heat transfer rate from the air to one
side of the plate.
Answer
Known: air flow over a plate with prescribed air and surface temperature
and convection heat transfer coefficient.
Find: heat transfer rate from the air to the plate
Assumptions: (1) temperature is uniform over plate area, (2) heat transfer
coefficient is uniform over plate area
Analysis: the heat transfer coefficient rate by convection from the
airstreams to the plate can be determined from Newtons law of cooling
written inthe form
q = hA (tair-tplate)
= 250 x (0.25 x 0.5) (300-40) =8125 watts.
Comments: recognize that Newtowns law of cooling implies a direction for
the convection heat transfer rate. Written in the form above, the heat rate is
from the air to plate.
Problem-1.15-5
An electric heater of exposed area of 0.09 m 2 and output of 600watt
is designed to operate fully submerged in water. Calculate the

surface temperatureof the heater when the water temperature is

370C and the surface heat transfer coefficient is 285.3 w/m 2-deg.
How is it effected if the heater is operated in air by mistake,
assuming the air is at temperature of 37 0C and the surface
coefficient is 8.5 w/m2-deg. Comment on result.
Answer:
a) Heater operating in water;
q = h A (ts ta)
Hence ts = (q / hA) + ta = {600 / (283.5 x 0.09) } + 37 = 60.50C
b) When operating in air;
ts = {600 / (8.5 x 0.09) } + 37 = 8210C
Coment:The temperature of surface of heater is too high, so that the heater element
may melt.
Problem-1.15-6
A container with out side surface area of 0.36m2 and outside
temperature of 00C contain ice at 00C. The container is placed in
ambient air at 240C and the surface coefficient of heat transfer
between the container surface and surroundings air is estimated as
6.25W/m2-deg. Cakculate rate at which ice would be changed in to
liquid water. Take latent heat of fusion of ice as 340 J / g .
Answer.
Heat flow from air to Ice, q = hA (t 2 t1) = 6.25 x 0.36 (24-0) = 54 w = 54
J/sec
Heat utalized in melting the ice in container, q = m hfg
54 = m x 340
Hence the mass rate of change of ice in to water is;
m = 54/ 340 = 0.1588 g / s =0.1588 x 3600/ 1000 = 0.572 kg
Problem-1.15-7
A lake surface is covered with 8cm thick layer of ice (K = 8 kj/m-hrdeg) when the ambient air temperature is -12.5 C. A thermocouple
on the upper surface of the layer indicate temperature of - 5C.
Assuming steady state condition of ice and no liquid sub cooling at
the bottom surface of the ice layer, find the heat transfer coef. At
upper surface. Also work out heat loss per square kilometer area.
Answer.
Ta = -12.50C
0
T 2 = -5 C
T1 = 00C
8 cm thick

Ice Layer
(Liquid)

Since the water at bottomLAKE.

of the ice layer is liquid (no sub cooling) the
minimum temperature at surface is 0 C,
Area A = 1 sq km = (1000x 1000) = 106 m2
Fouriers law
q = K A (t2 t1) / =8 x 106 x { 0- (-5)} / 0.08 = 5x 108 kj/hr

Steady flow means

Heat flow across the ice slab = convective heat transfer at top of slab and
surrounding air.
q = hA (t2 t1);
Hence 5 x 108 = h x 106 x{ -5- (-12.5)}
8
6
or h = 5 x 10 / 10 x 7.5 = 66.67 m2 hr-deg
Problem-1.15-8
Hot gases at 980C flow past the upper surface of the blade of a gas
turbine and the lower surface is cooled by air bled off the
compressor. The convective heat transfer at upper and lower
surfaces
are
estimated
as
2830
and
1415
w/m2-deg.
Respectively.The blade material has the thermal conductivity of 11.6
w/m-deg.
If
metallurgical
considerations
limits
the
blade
temperature at 870 C, work out the temperature of cooling air.
Consider the blade as a flat plate of 0.115 thick and presume the
steady state conditions have been reached.
Answer
Hot gases
0
h1
tg = 980 C
Upper surface, tu = 8700C
Gas turbine blade.

= 0.115 cm

h2

Cool Air,

tc
Fig

Lower surface , tL

Answer
Consider per unit area ie: A = 1m2 ,
h1 =heat transfer coef. at upper surface = 2830 w/m2-deg
h2 =heat transfer coef. at lower surface = 1415 w/m2-deg
K = thermal conductivity of material =11.6 w/m-deg
tg temperature of hot gasses = 980 C
tu - temperature at upper surface = 870 C
tl temperature at lower surface of blade.
tc temperature of cooling air
Heat flow from hot gasses to the upper surface of blade
q = h1 A (tg tu ) = 2830 x 1 x (980 - 870) = 311300 W / m2
This heat is conducted through the blade, hence
q = KA ( tu - tl ) /
311300 = 11.6 x 1 x (870 tl ) / 0.00115 = 10087 (870 tl)
Hence, tl = 870 311300/ 10087 =839 C
The heat transferred across the blade lower surfce is transferred to cooling
air.
311300 = 1415 x 1 x (839- tc)
or tc = 839 311300 /1415 = 619 C
Problem:1.15-9:

The oven of an electric stove, of total out side surface area 2.9 m 2
dissipates electric energy at the rate of 600 watt. The surrounding
air is at 20 C and the surface coefficient of heat transfer between
room air and surface of oven is 11.35 w/m 2 0C. Determine the
average steady state temperature of the outside surface of stove.
What would be the inside surface temperature if wall thickness of
stove is 3.8cm and thermal conductivity of the material is 0.069 W/
m-0C.
Answer:
The electrical energy is dissipated as convective heat flow from surface of
heater to the ambient air. Hence
Q = h A (to ta)
600 = 11.35 x 2.9 x (to 20)
600
So; to =
+ 20 = 38.220 C
11.35 x 2.9
Ambient air , t a = 20 C

Out side

surface (to)
ho
to
L = 3.8 cm, Stove wall.

ti
Inside surface (ti)
Q = 600 W
The electrical energy is first conducted across the wall of the oven. Hence
K A(t it 0 )
from the Fouriers equation, Q =
L
0.069 x 2.9 x (t i38.22)
600 =
= 5.26 (ti 38.22)
0.038
600
ti =
+ 38.22 = 152.290C
5.26
Inside surface temperature of the stove wall = 152.29 C
Examples of topics from 1.12 to 1.15.(CONVECTION)
Ex-1: A hot plate is maintained at a temperature of 120 0C dissipates heat at
the rate of
7500 w/ m2 to the ambient air at 30 C. Calculate the gheat transfer
coefficient for conversion between the plate and the air. (8.3 W / m2 K.)
Ex-2: The inside surface of the insulating layer is at 270 0C and the outside
surface is dissipating heat by convection in to air at 20 C. The insulation
layer is 40mm thick and has a thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/ mK. What is the
minimum value of the heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface if the
outside surface temperature should not exceed 70 C.
(120 w/m2 K).

Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity.

If Q is the total radiant energy incident on the surface of a body:i) Some part,QA will be absorbed, ii) Some part, QR will be reflected and iii)
Some part,
QTr will be transmitted. By energy balance;
QA
QR
QTr
QA + QR + QTr = Q or
+
+
= 1 or
Q
Q
Q
+ + =1
QA
i) =
; called as absorptivity. -------------1.17.1
Q
Absorptivity,, is Fraction of incident energy which is absorbed
QR
ii) =
; called as reflectivity
------------ 1.17.2
Q
Reflectivity, , is the fraction of incident energy which is
reflected.
Q Tr
iii) =
; called as transmissivity. or Transmittance.------------ 1.17.3
Q
Transmissivity, , is the fraction of incident energy which is transmitted
Transmissivity,,is fraction of incident energy which is transmitted
through body.
a) For an opaque body, = 0.
(ie: Transmissivity is Zero For Opaque
Body), hence
+ = 1. Most of the solids do not transmit any radiation, hence are
opaque.
Hence if is reduced, increases.
b)The reflectivity, , depends on the character of surface. By increasing the
surface polishing, the reflectivity, is increased and the absorptivity,
decreases.
Hence the absorptivity, , for a opaque body can be increased or decreased
by the appropriate surface treatment.
c i -Angle made by incident ray with the normal is angle of incidence
r Angle made by the reflected ray with the normal is angle of
reflection
Normal
Incident Radiation
Q

Reflected Radiation
QR

Angle of incidence
r Angle of

radiation

QA
QTr
Transmitted radiation
Fig:- 1.10, Radiation incident on a body
Specular reflection: When the surface is highly polished, the angle of
incidence ( i is equal to the angle of reflection ( r and this type of
reflection is called as Specular reflection.
Diffuse reflection: When the surface is rough, the incident radiation is
distributed in all directions, and the reflection is said to be diffuse reflection.
Black Body
A body absorbs all incident radiation is called as black body. ie: =
0 and = 0 whch means = 1. A black body is also best emitter
ie:emissivity of black body, =1. There is no perfect black body (having
= 1 ) in nature. The term black is used, since most black colored surfaces
normally shows high values of absorptivity, and they also absorb all visible
light rays, because of which they appear black to our eyes. There are some
surfaces which absorb nearly all incident radiation, yet do not appear black,
Ice, Snow, white-washed walls have absorptivities greater than 0.95.
Emissive Power: (E) and ( E )
The total emissive power(E), of a body is defined as the total radiant
energy emitted by the hot body at a certain temperature per unit time
and unit surface area at all wave lengths
The monochromatic emissive power( E ), of a body is defined as
the radiant energy emitted by the hot body at a certain temperature
per unit time and unit surface area at particular wave length ( .
Emissivity: ( );
Emissivity is a ratio given by the ratio of radiation emitted by a gray body
surface to the radiation emitted by a black body at same temperature and is
denoted by and its value varies from 0 to 1.

=
Radiation of
Actual radiation of gray body at temperature T degree Kelvin
body at temperature T degree Kelvin

The emissivity of a surface indicates how efficient the gray body surface
emits the radiation compared to an ideal black body radiation. The value of

emissivity is a radiation property of the surface. Its value depends on the

surface characteristics. The emissivity of gray body surface is less than unity.
ie: < 1 for gray body and = 1 for the black body.
STEFAN BOLTZMAN LAW
The law states that total emissive power ( or total radiation energy emitted)
of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature. ie: Eb T s4 .
Eb = b A T s4
Where,
Eb = Maximum rate of heat Emission by a black body at given temperature
T0 Kelvin of
surface in Watts (or Emissive power of black body)
b = Stefan- Boltzman constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 w/m2 K4 (or in MKS units = 487.6 x 10-10 Kcal / hr m2K4)
A = Area of the surface emitting radiation in m2
Ts = Absolute temperature of the surface in 0K = ( t0C + 273)
Emission by a Real surface ( Gray body)
The radiant energy emitted by real surface = ER = b A T4
Radiation between two bodies
Shape factor is defined as the fraction of radient energy emitted from one
surface of a body and received by other body directly and is denoted by
F12 . This is also known as Configuration factor or angle factor or view
factor or geometric factor. F12 means fraction of energy leaving surface -1
and falling on surface -2.
Radiation
Total
radiation
F12 =
1falling on2 surface 1

Q12
F12 =
b A 1 T 41
F21 is also defined and A 1
F12 = A 2
F21 is called as
Like wise
reciprocity theorem.
Case-i:- Radiation heat transfer between two black bodies
4
Radiation leaving 1 and falling on-2 ia ; Q12 = b A1 F 12 T 1
4
Radiation falling on 1 out of energy emitted by 2 is ; Q21 = b A2 F21 T 2
Hence net exchange between two faces is;
Q12 = b A1 F 12 T 41
b A2 F21 T 42
F12 =
= b A1 F 12 ( T 14T 42
( since A 1
A2
F21 )
Q12 = b A2 F21 (( T 14T 42
or
Case-2:- Radiation Heat transfer from real surface to black surface
Consider a real surface-1 at temperature T 1 surrounded by a black surface-2
at temperature T2 then the heat transfer from real surface to black surface is
given by; (F12 = 1 )
Q = 1 b A1 (T14 T24)

Case-3)The net exchange of heat between two radiating surfaces =

Q1-2 = F1-2 1 b A1 (T14 T24).
Radiation Heat transfer from gray surface Reflections and
equivalent electrical circuit.
We have to consider Surface Resistance and Space resistance.This gives
the surface resistance to Radiation in forming the electrical circuit
G

J=

Q
A
Eb

Eb +

= (J G )

(E bJ )
Q = A (J - G)
Q=
( 1 )
[
]
A
V
( 1 )
]
Rth = Rsurface = [
Current, i =
Rth
A
Fig: 1.11- Radiation over a surface of gray body.
Two New terms are defined for finding heat exchange between non-black
surfaces.
i) Irradiation G; It is total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time
and per unit
area; ie: Watt / sec m2 .
ii) Radiosity- J ; It is total radiation which leaves the surface per unit time
and unit area
Radiosity is the sum of energy emitted and energy reflected when
transmitted energy is zero. ie:
J = Eb + G -----------------1.20.5
Since transmissivity is zero, = 0, then, + = 1
since
=1
or = 1 or
from Kirchoffs

identity, we have =
Substituting value in 1.17-5, we get J = Eb + (1 G
J E b
Hence G =
(1)
Surface Resistance
The net energy leaving the surface per unit area is
Q
= (J G )
A
J E b
Substituting G from above G =
(1)

Q
A

Q = A [J =

J E b
(1)
J E b
]
(1)

=[J-

A [J J J + Eb ]
(1)

]
A (E bJ )
(1)

( E bJ )
( 1 )
[
]
A

( E bJ )
ie Q =
( 1 )
[
]
A
Equation above is useful for conceiving the electrical circuit equivalent to
thermal circuit equivalent to electrical circuit as shown .
( 1 )
, is called as surface resistance
The quantity in denominator, ie:
A
in the radiation heat transfer electrical circuit.
The quantity in Numerator, ( Eb J ) , is considered as potential difference
Space Resistance
Now consider the exchange of radiant energy between two gray surfaces A 1
and A2, when both are viewing each other ;
Q12 = J 1
A1
F12J 2
A2
F21
A1
AA

J1
Q12
A2

J2

Rth =
Q12

1
1
or
A 1 F 12
A 2 F 21
(J 1J 2 )
=
1
. ie: Current, i =
A 2 F 21

V
Rth
Fig- 1.12: Radiatin between two surfaces and electrical circuit
with space resistance.
The radiation that leaves the surface 1 and reaches the surface 2 = J 1
A1
F12
The radiation that leaves the surface 2 and reaches the surface 1 = J 2
A2
F21
A1
F12J 2
The net exchange between two surfaces is, Q12
= J1
A2
F21
F12=
A2
F21
Since A 1
F12 ( J 1J 2
F21 (
We have Q12 = A 1
or Q12 = A 2
J 1J 2

(J 1J 2 )
(J 1J 2 )
ie: Q12 =
1
or Q12 =
1
.
A 1 F 12
A 2 F 21
1
1
The quantity
or
is called as Space resistance in
A 1 F 12
A 2 F 21
constructing the net work.
The net work circuit is shown in fig 1.12.

Combined Net Work of Surface and Space Resistances for two

surfaces

Eb 2

Eb 1

J1

Rsurface1 =

( 12 )
2 A 2

( 11 )
1 A 1

J2

1
A 1 F 12

Rspace =

R surface2 =

Fig. 1-13:- Radiation net work for two surfaces which see each
pther and nothing else.
E
[ b 1E b 2]
Qnet =

( 11)
1 A 1

+[

( 12 )
1
]+
A1 F12
2 A 2

( 11 )

( 12)
1
]+
1 A 1
A 1 F 12
2 A 2
Above equation can also be written as in terms of temperatures by using E b1
= b A1 T 14
and Eb2 = b A2 T 24 with Surface and Space resistances.
Q12 = (Fg )1-2 b A1 (T14 T24)
where (Fg )1-2 is called as Gray body Factor and is given by;
Here Total resistance Rr =

+[

][ ] [

A 1 ( 12 )
1
1 A1 1
=
1 +
+
1
1
F 12 A 2 2
1
F 12 A 2
2
Also we can write reciprocity theorem A1F1-2 = A2F2-1 (this will be proved
latter)
Problem -1
A radiator in a domestic heating system operates at a surface temperature of
600C
Calculate heat flux at the surface of the radiator if it behaves as a black
body.
Solution
Heat flux = q = Q/ A = b A T14 / A = b T14 = 5.67 x 10-8 (60+273)4
=5.67 x 1.23 x 102
=697.2 w/ m2
(Fg )1-2 =

( 11)

[ ]

Problem-2
Two infinite black plates at 8000C and 3000C exchange heat by radiation.
Calculate heat transfer per unit area.
Answer
q/A = (T14 T24) = 5.67 x 10-8 (10734 5734) = 69.03 kw/m2
Problem-3
A cylindrical rod of 1.5cm long and 2cm in diameter, positioned in a vacuum
furnace is electrically heated such that its surface of rod is maintained at
1000 K. The furnace interior is at 800 K. Calculate the power supplied to the
rod if the emissivity of the surface of rod is 0.9.
Answer
For steady state conditions, the power supplied to rod equal to radiant heat
loss from it. Since the rod is completely surrounded by furnace walls the total
radiant energy is intercepted by the walls of furnace.
q = A ( Ts4 Tsur4 ) ; A = d l = x 0.02 x 1.5 = 0.09424
q = 0.09424 x 5.67 x 10-8 (10004 8004) = 2838 w
Problem 4
A spherical shaped transistor of 2cm diameter is kept in an evacuated case
of black walls at 300C. The heat loss from transistor is only by radiation. If
the transistor
dissipates 300 mW, what will be the temperature of transistor if it is (i) Bright
aluminium of =0.035 and (ii) black anodized aluminium of =0.80.
Answer
q = 300mW = 0.3 Watt. T2 = 273 + 30 = 303 K
A = d2 = x 0.022 = 1.26 x 10-3
q = A ( Ts4 Tsur4 )
=1.26 x 10-3 x 5.67 x 10-8 x (T14 3034)
0.3 = 7.162 x 10-11 (T14 3034).
i) When =0.035
0.3/7.162 x10-11 x 0.035 = (T14 3034).

1.197 x 1011 =(T14 8.43 x 109).

T14 = (1.197 + 0.0843) 1011
= 1.2813 x 1011
Hnce T1= 598.29 K
ii)When =0.8
T1 = 342K
Problem-5
A sphere of diameter 10 mm and emissivity 0.9 is maintained at 80C inside
an oven with a wall temperature of 400C. What is the net transfer rate from
the oven walls to the object?
ANSWER
Known: spherical object maintained at a prescribed temperature within a
oven.
Find: heat transfer rate from the oven walls to the object
Assumptions: (1) oven walls completely surround spherical object, (2)
steadystate condition, (3) uniform temperature for areas of sphere and
oven walls, (4) oven enclosure is evacuated and large compared to sphere.
Analysis: heat transfer rate will be only due to radiation mode. The rate
equation is
q = A ( Ts4 Tsur4 )
A = d2 for sphere. T1 =400+273 = 673K, T2=80+273= 353K
q = . (10 x 10-3)2 . (5.67 x 10-8) . 0.9 . { 6734 - 3534}
= 3.04 w
Discussion:
This rate equation is applicable when we are calculating the net heat
exchange between a small object and larger surface that completely
surrounds the smaller one.
When performing radiant heat transfer calculations, it is always necessary to
have temperatures in Kelvin (K) unit
Problem-6
A surface of area 0.5m2, emissivity 0.8 and temperature 150 00C is placed in a
large, evacuated chamber whose walls are maintained at 25 C. Find the rate
at which radiation is emitted by the surface? What is the net rate of radiation
exchange between the surface and the chamber walls?
Answer
Known: Area, emissivity and temperature of a surface placed in a large,
evacuated chamber of prescribed temperature.
Find: (a) rate of surface radiation emission, (b) net rate of radiation exchange
between the surface and chamber walls.
Assumptions: (1) area of the enclosed surface is much less than that of
chamber walls.
Analysis (a) the rate at which radiation is emitted by the surface is emitted
qemit = A Ts4
= 0.5 . 5.67 x 10-8 . 0.8 . { 150 +273}4
= 726 w

(b) The net rate at which radiation is transferred from the surface to the
chamber walls is
qt = A (Ts4 Tsur4)
Ts =150+273 = 423K
Tsur = 25 +273 = 298 K
q = 0.5 . 5.67 x 10-8 . 0.8 { 4234 2984} = 547 W
Problem-7
The quantity of radiation received by earth from sum is 1.4 kw/m 2 (solar
constant). Assuming that sun is an ideal radiator, calculate the surface
temperature of the sun. The ratio of radii of earths orbit to the sun is 216.
Ans:
Total radiation from sun Qr = (1.4x 103) * 4 R2 where R is the radius of
earths orbit.
Total radiation emitted by Sun = Qr = A b Ts4
= 4 r2 * Ts4 where r is radius of Sun & b =1 For Sun considered as
black body
Hence 4 r2 * Ts4 = 1.4x 103 * 4 R2
Ts4 = (216)2 *1.4 x 103 / 5.67 x 10-8
=0.1152 x 1016
Ts = 5826 K
Problem -8:
A solid aluminium sphere of emissivity , initially at a high temperature, is
cooled by convection and radiation in a chamber having walls at a lower
temperature. Convective cooling is achieved with a gas passing through the
chamber. Write a differential equation to predict the variation of sphere
temperature with time during the coolingprocess.
Answer
Known: Initial temperature, diameter and surface emissivity of a solid
aluminium sphere placed in a chamber whose walls are maintained at lower
temperature. Temperature and convection coefficient associated with gas
flow over the sphere.
Find: equation which could be used to determine the aluminium
temperature as a function of time during the cooling process.
Assumptions: (1) at any time t, the temperature T of the sphere is
uniform, (2) constant properties (3) chamber walls are large relative to
sphere.
Analysis: applying an energy balance at an instant of time to a control
volume about the sphere, it follows that energy balance
Estored = - Eout
Heat rates out of Control volume due to convection and radiation
d/d ( V C T) = - (qconv + qrad) (C is specific heat
dT/d = -{1/( V CT)} [h A (t- t) + A (T4 Tsur4)]
A = d2 and V = d3/6
Hence A/V = 6/d
dT/d = (6/ C d ) [h (t- t) + (T4 Tsur4)]
is required equation

Problem:-9
An electronic package dissipating 1 kW has a surface area 1m 2. The package
is mounted on a space craft, such that the heat generated is transferred from
the exposed surface by
radiation into space. The surface emissivity of the package is 1.0. Calculate
the steady state temperature of the package surface for the following two
conditions:
(a)
the surface is not exposed to the sun
(b)
The surface is exposed to a solar flux of 750W/m2 and its absorptivity
to solar radiation is 0.25?
Answer
Known: surface area of electronic package and power dissipation by the
electronics. Surface emissivityand absorptivity to solar radiation. Solar flux.
Find: surface temperature without and with incident solar radiation.
Applying conservation of energy to the control volume:
Ein Eout + Eg = 0
s As qs - As qemit + P =0
s As qs - As Tsur4 + P = 0
Tsur = [(s As qs + P) / As ]1/4
In the shade qs =0
Tsur = [ 1000/ 1 x5.67 x 10-8]1/4 = 364 K
In the Sun
Tsur = [0.25 x 1x 750 + 1000 / 1 x 1 x 5.67 x 10-8]1/4 =380K
Problem :-10
A horizontal steel pipe having a diameter of 5cm is maintained at
temperature of 500C in a large room where the air and wall temperature are
at 20C. The surface emissivity of the steel may be taken as 0.8. Using h as
6.5 w/m2C, calculate the total heat loss by the pipe per unit length. Coment
on the result.
Answer
Total heat loss = loss by convection + loss by radiation. Surface area for
convection is taken as d l. Here l = 1mt aske per unit length of pipe.
(q/L)convection = d l h (t- t) = x 0.05x 6.5 x (50-20) =30.63 w/m
The pipe is considered as body surrounded by large enclosure so that the
radiation heat transfer can be calculated by equation
(q/L)radiation = A (T1 4 T2 4)
A = d = x 0.05
= 5.669 x 10-8 * 0.8 * x 0.05 (3234 2934 )
= 25.04 w/m
(q/L)total = (q/L)convection + (q/L)radiation = 30.63 + 25.04 = 55.67 w/m
Comment on result is:
In this type of problem both convection and radiation are approx. equal and
hence we can not neglect any one of them.
Problem:-11
A surface at 475 K convects and radiates heat to the surroundings at 335K. If
the surface conducts this heat through a solid plate of thermal conductivity

12.5 w/mK, determine the temperature gradient at surface of solid.Take h

value as 80w/m2K & radiation factor 0.9.
Ans:
Under steady state conditions,
Heat conducted through plate = convection heat loss + radiation heat loss.
- KA dt/ dx = hA (t2 tf) + A (T2 4 Tf 4)
Taking unit area A=1m2,
- 12.5 dt/ dx = 80(475 335) + 5.67 x 10-8 (4754 3354 )
= 13155
Hence dt/dx = - 13155/ 12.5 = - 1052.4 C/ m
Problem-12
A small hot surface at temperature 425 K having an emissivity 0.85
discipates heat by radiation in to surrounding area at 400 K Calcolate the
radiation heat transfer coefficient.
Answer
Q = 1 A1 (T1 4 T2 4)
= 1 A1 (T12 + T22 ) (T12 -- T22 )
= 1 A1 (T12 + T22 ) (T1 + T2 ) (T1 -- T2 )
= 1 A1 4 (Tm)3 (T1 -- T2 )
where Tm = (T1 + T2 ) /2
= hr A1 (T1 -- T2 )
hr = 4 1 (Tm)3
Tm = (425 + 400) / 2 =412.5C
-8
hr = 4 x 5.67 x 10 x 0.85 x (412.5)3
= 13.6 W /m2 K
Conduction through a composite wall , Series Resistances (Electrical
analogy)
The corresponding electrical circuit is also shown below.
Q
Area A

Layer1 T1
K1

Layer2
K2

Layer3
K3

L1

L2

L3

T1 > T2 > T3 > T4

T4

T2

T3

T1

T4
T2

T3

L1
L2
L3
R2 =
R3 =
K1 A
K2 A
K3 A
Fig 1.16. Conduction through three resistance.
Under steady state conditions, the heat flow does not vary across the wall ,
ie; it is same at each and every layer.
K 1 A(T 1T 2)
K 2 A(T 2T 3)
K 3 A(T 3T 4 )
Hence q =
=
=
L1
L2
L3
Thus the temperature drop in each layer is indicated as;
R1

L1
L2
L3
;
(T2 T3) = q
;
(T3 T4) = q
K1A
K2 A
K3A
Adding all the terms, we get temperature difference across the composite
wall.
L1
L2
L3
(T1 T4 ) = q [
+
+
]
K1A
K2 A
K3A
T 1T 4
L
L
L
or q =
[ 1 + 2 + 3 ]
K1 A K2 A K3 A
T 1T 4
q=
R 1 + R 2+ R 3
T 1T 4
V
=
( like i =
)
R
Rtotal
where Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Where R1 , R2 , R3 are conductive thermal resistances and in series circuit
the total resistance is equal to sum of all resistances in series.It appear in the
same way as the electrical resistors are connected in series.
The above analysis can be extended to n-layers of composite wall as
below
T 1T n +1
q=
R 1+ R 2+ R3 +Rn
(T1 T2) = q

Problem 1
A kiln exterior wall is of 10cm layer of common brick with K= 0.75 w/mK. It is
followed with a layer of 4cm gypsum plaster of K= 0.5 w/mK. What thickness
of loosely packed rockwool insulation of K= 0.065 w/mK should be aded to
reduce the heat loss or gain through the wall by 75%.
Answer
Consider the multi layer wall and we calculate q per unit area, ie A=1m2 :
1st layer Brick (inside):- Thickness, 1 = 10cm = 0.1m. K1 = 0.75 w/mK
2nd Layer gypsum plaster :- Thickness, 2 = 4cm =0.04m , K2 = 0.5 w/mK
3rd layer Rock wool, 3 = ?. K = 0.065 w/mK
Resistance of brick work R1= 1 / K1 A = 0.1 / 0.75 x 1 = 0.133 deg/ w
Resistance of gypsum plaster R2= 0.04 / 0.5 x 1 = 0.08 deg/w
Resistance of Rock wool insulation = 3 / 0.065 x 1 = 0.1538 3
Heat flow with out insulation being added = t / R1 + R2 =t / 0.133+ 0.08
= 4.695 t.
Heat loss with addition of rock wool = (1- 0.75) 4.695 t = 1.174 t.
This must be equal to the heat flow when rock wheel is also considered.
1.174 t = t / ( 0.133 + 0.08 + 0.1538 3 )
Hence from this 3 = thickness of rock wool = 0.04153m = 4.153cm
Problem2
A storage chamber of interior dimentions 10m x 8m x 2.5m height is
maintained at temperature of -200C while the out side is at 25 C. The walls

and ceiling has 3 layers made of 1)60mm thick board of K = 0.2 w/mK on
the inside, 2) 90mm thick insulation of K = 0.04 w/ mK in the middle 3)
240mm thick concrete of K = 1.8w/mK. On out side.
Neglecting flow of heat through the floor, determine the rate at which heat
flows in to the chamber.
Answer
Neglecting corners and edges and floor, = Area of sides on 10mt wide + Area
of side on
8mt wide + area of top
The area of heat flow = A = (2 x 10 x 2.5) + (2 x 8 x 2.5) + (10 x 8) =
170m2
Total thermal resistance Rt = (1/A) ((650- 125)1 / K1 + 2 / K2 + 3 / K3 )
= 1/170 ( 0.06/0.2 + 0.09 / 0.04 + 2.4/1.8 )
= 0.01578 deg/w
Heat flow rate =Q = t / Rt = 25- (-20) /0.01578 = 2851.7 W
Problem 3
A furnace wall is made up of a steel plate of 10mm thick, K = 62.8 kj/m-hrdeg, lined inside with silica bricks 150mm thick, K = 7.32 kj/m-hr-deg, and on
outer side with magnesia bricks of 200mm thick, K= 18.84 kj/m-hr-deg,. The
inside and out side surfaces of the wall are at temperatures of 650C and
125C respectively. Calculate the heat loss per unit area of the wall.
It is required to reduce the heat loss to 10MJ / hour by means of air gap
between the steel and magnesia bricks. Estimate the necessary width of air
gap if the thermal conductivity of air is 0.126KJ/m hr deg.
Answer
(The units of K can be same through out, ie: KW/ m-deg or KJ / m-hr-deg.)
R1 = Resistance of silica bricks = 0.15 / 7.32 x 1 = 0.000159 deg-hr/ KJ
(inside of composite wall)
R2 = Resistance of steel plate = 0.01/ 62.8 x 1 = 0.000159 deg hr / KJ
(middle of composite wall)
R3 = Resistance of magnesia bricks = 0.20 /18.84 x 1 = 0.01061 deg hr / KJ
(out side of composite wall)
Total resistance of composite wall, = Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
= 0.03126 deg hr / KJ.
Heat loss from wall = (t2 t1) / Rt = (650- 125) / 0.03126 = 16795 KJ/ hr.
The total resistance if heat loss to be restricted to 10 MJ / hr, ie: 10 x 10 3 kJ /
hr.
= (650- 125) / 10 x 103 = 0.0525 deg hr / KJ
Hence the resistance to be for air gap R a = 0.0525 0.03126 = 0.02124 deghr / KJ
SO, Thickness of air gap = = Ra x K x A = 0.02124 x 0.126 x 1 =
2.676mm
Problem 4
A furnace wall comprises three layers: 13.5 thick inside layer of fire brick, 7.5
cm thick middle layer of insulating brick and 11.5cm thick outside layer of

red brick. The furnace operates at 870C and out side is maintained at 40C by
circulating the air. The wall measures 5m x 2m and thermal conductivities of
materials are:
K1 (Fire brick) = 1.2 w/m-deg ,
K2 (Insulating brick) = 0.14 w/m-deg
K3 (red brick) = 0.85 w/m-deg
Find the rate of heat loss from the furnace and wall interface temperature.
Answer:
The wall area 5 x 2 = 10m 2 is constant for heat transfer and same for all
layers.
Resistance of fire brick = R1 = 1/ K1 A = 0.135 / 1.2 x 10 = 0.01125 deg/ w
Resistance of Insulating brick = R2 = 2 / K2 A
= 0.075 / 0.14 x 10 =
0.05357 deg/ w
Resistance of Red brick = R3 = 3 / K3 A = 0.115 / 0.85 x 10 = 0.01353
deg/ w
Total resistance of composite wall = Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.07835 deg / w
Heat flows from inside of furnace at temp 870C to out side at temp 40C.
Heat loss = (870 40) / 0.07835 = 10593.5 W
b) Let t1 = 870 C , t2 = interface temperature between fire brick and
insulation brick
t3 = interface temp. between insulation brick and red brick. t 4 =out side
temp=40C
Since the total heat loss through each layer is assumed to be constant
as10593.5 W
then for the inside layer, fire brick only,
10593.5 = (870 t2) / 0.01125
t2 =750.82 C
Similarly 10593.5 = (750.82 t3) / 0.05357

t3 = 183.33 C
Problem 5:
A 30 cm wall of a reactor is made up of an inner layer of fire brick , K = 0.85
w/ mK
Covered with a layer of insulation, K = 0.15 w/mK. The reactor operates at
temperature 1600K while the ambient temp is 295 K.Calculate the thickness
of which gives minimum heat loss. Also work out the heat loss presuming the
insulating material has maximum temperature of 1475K. If the calculated
heat loss is unacceptable, would the addition of another layer of insulation
be a satis factory solution? Comment on result.
Solution
Under steady state conditions, the heat transfer is constant through out the
wall and is same for each layer. Assuming per unit area of wall, and t i is
interface temperature,
Q = (t1 t2) / (1/ K1 + 2 / K2 ) = (t1 ti) / (1/ K1 ) = (ti t2) / (2 / K2 )
(composite wall)
(fire brick)
(insulation)
We have 2 = (0.3- 1), then taking the first two equations,
(1600 295) / [ (1/ 0.85) + (0.3- 1)/0.15] = (1600-1475)/ (1/ 0.85)

From this equation, 1 = 0.1125 = 11.25cm = Thickness of fire brick

Thickness of insulation = 2 = 30 11.25 = 18.75cm
Heat flow per unit area of the wall = q = (t1 ti) / 1/ K1
= (1600 1475) / 0.1125/ 0.85
= 944.45 w/ m2
The heat loss from the wall will get reduced if further insulating layer is
added. This reduce the temperature drop across the fire brick lining and
subsequently increase the interface temperature, t i . How ever, this value of
interface temperature is set at the maximum possible value (by fixing
temperature of 1475 K), the addition of insulation of further layer will
increase the interface temperature and hence is not a satisfactory solution.

Conduction through a composite wall , Parallel Resistances

(Electrical analogy)
The total heat transfer, because A and B are in parallel, is Q = QA + QB
T1
L
T2
Layer-1
K1

A1
Q
A2

L1 = L2 = L

Layer-2
K2

R1

K1A

T1

T2
R2
1

1 1
+
R1 R2

K2 A

(Like the addition of electrical resistances

R total
which are parallel)
R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2
1
Rtotal =
=
or
R total
R1 R 2
R 1+ R 2
Fig-1.17. Conduction through two resistances in parallel.
Hence Q = [ K1 A1

T 1T 2
L

] + [ K2 A 2

T 1T 2
L

[T 1T 2 ]
L
K1 A 1

[T 1T 2 ]
[T 1T 2 ]
[ T 1T 2 ]
=
+
=
+
L
R1
R2
K2 A 2
1
1
= [ T 1 T 2
[
+
]
R1
R2
1

= [ T 1 T 2 [
(since parallel resistances are added
R total
1 1
1
+
as
=
R1 R2
R total
[T 1T 2 ]
=
----------------1.22-1
Rtotal
[T 1T 2 ]
R1 R 2
or
Q=
R1 + R2

Problem-1:Two slabs each 100mm thick and made of materials with

thermal conductivities of 16 W /m-seg and 200 W/m-deg, are placed
in contact which is not perfect. Due to roughness of surfaces, only
40% of area is in contact on either side of contact and air fills
0.02mm thick gap in the remaining area. If the extreme surfaces of
the arrangement are at temperatures of 2500 C and 300C , determine
the heat flow through the composite system, the contact resistance
and temperature drop at contact.
Take the thermal conductivity of air as 0.032 W/m deg. and assume
that half of the contact (of the total contact) is due to either
material.
SOLUTION:B
100mm 0.02100mm
mm
C
Air

Q
A

E
D

RA
Q

RB
RC

RE
Q

RD
If Area ,AA , is taken as 1 sq.mt, then AB = 0.2 sqmt (ie 20%) = AD
and AC = 0.6 (60%)
Various thermal resistances are calculated as below. Take perpendicular to
flow is 1 mt2
A
100 x 103
RA =
=
= 0.00625 deg/ W
K A AA
16 x 1
B
0.02 x 103
RB =
=
= 0.00000625 deg / W
K B AB
16 x 0.2
C
0.02 x 103
RC =
=
= 0.001042 deg / W
K C AC
0.032 x 0.6
D
0.02 x 103
RD =
=
= 0.0000005 deg / W
K D AD
200 x 0.2
3
E
100 x 10
RE =
=
= 0.0005 deg / W
K E AE
200 x 1
The resistances RB , RC , RD are in series , Hence
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
=
+
=
+
=
R eq
RB
R C RD
0.00000625
0.001042 0.0000005
160000 + 959.7 + 2000000
= 2160959.7 W/ DEG
1
Req =
= 0.462 x 10-6 deg/W
2160959.7
Req , ie equivalent resistance is in series with RA and RE
Hence , Rtotal = RA + Req + RE
= 0.00625 +0.462 x 10-6 + 0.0005 = 0.00675 deg/W
T
25030
Hence heat transfer rate through the system = Q =
=
R total
0.00675
= 32592 watts
b) Contact Resistance = 0.462 x 10-6 deg/ w
Temperature drop = T = Q x Contact resistance
= 32592 x 0.462 x 10-6
= 0.01505 C
Thermal Resistance of slab including convection resistance:-

Since the energy will flow first through block from fluid A and then through
fluid B, we say that the resistances are thermally in series arrangement.
Surface films on both sides.
Fluid A
L

TA

TA
T12
Qc

TB
=
h1

TB

T2

h2
Fluid-B

1
h2 A

R1 =

T1
1
h1 A

T2

R2 =

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
(T A T B )
Qc =
1
L
1
+
+
h1 A K A h2 A

L
KA

R3

(T A T B )
R total

Fluid films on both sides

Fig (1.19): Circuit of Combined convection and conduction heat flow
through stationary fluid film and a wall separating the two fluids
(Note: Temp. Distribution in surface film is a curve, It is convex at entry and
concave at exit.
Temperature distribution in solid is a straight line. Temperature distribution in
fluid is a st. line.)
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 +R5
(for a series circuit, the total resistance is sum of all
resistances and the resistances of conduction and convection are
treated as series circuit))
The steady state heat flow rate through the walls is given by:
T A T B
Q=
Rtotal
Problem
The wall in a furnace consists of 125mm thick refractory bricks and 125mm
thick insulating bricks separated by an air gap of 12mm. A 12mm thick
plaster covers the outer surface.The inner surface is at 1100 C and ambient
temperature is 25 C. the heat transfer coefficient of outside wall to air is 17
w/m2 K. and the resistance by air gap to heat flow is 0.16 k/w. The thermal
conductivities of refractory brick brick, insulating brick and plaster are 1.6,
0.3, and 0.14 w/ m-K respectively. Calculate a) The rate of heat loss per unit
area of wall surface, b) The interface temperature through the wall and c) the
temperature of the outside surface of the wall. d)Coment on the result of
outer temperature.

Answer.
.
t1 = 11000C

This inner film resistance is neglected Thick plaster

Out side film
R1
R2
R4
R3

R5

Insulating brick
Air gap

Refractory
Brick
t2 = 250C

125mm

12mm 125mm 12mm

Fig

Consider A =1m2
Assume the resistance due to convection and radiation at inner wall is
neglected and temperature at inner wall surface is 1100 K. Hence no drop in
temperature. ie (t1 =t2)
R1 = Resistance of refractory brick = x1/ K1A = 0.125 / 1.6 x 1 = 0.0781 K/ w
R2 = Resistance of air gap = 0.16 K/w (given)
R3 =Resistance of insulating brick = 0.125 / 0.3 x1 = 0.417 K/W
R4 = Resistance of plaster = 0.012 /0.14 x1 = 0.0857 K/W
R5 = Resistance of air film out side = 1/hA =1/17 x1 = 0.0588 K/W
RT = total resistance = 0.0781 + 0.16 +0.417 + 0.0857 +0.0588
= 0.7996 0.8 K/w
Rate of heat transfer per unit area =q = (t1 to) /0.8 = (1100 25)/ 0.8
=1344 w =1.344 kw
Let the interface temperatures are t3, t4 , t5 , and out side temperature as t6
, Applying the electrical analogy to each surface,
t 1t 3
1100t 3
q=
ie; 1344 =
. Solving, t3 = 995 C
R1
0.0781
t 3t 4
995t 4
q=
ie; 1344 =
. Solving, t4 = 780 C
R2
0.16
t 4 t 5
780t 5
q=
ie; 1344 =
. Solving, t5 = 220 C
R3
0.417
t 5t 6
220t 6
q=
ie; 1344 =
. Solving, t6 = 104.1 C
0.0857
R4

Comment: A good furnace design will load to an outer wall temperature of 60

C or below as required by factory act, to prevent injury to personnel when
contacted with wall and safe working conditions.
1.22) Combined Convection and Radiation
QR = b A1 (T14 T24)
(refer to topic-1.20; fig-1.14)
2
2
2
= b A1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 - T22)
= b A1 (T12 + T22) (T1 + T2) (T1- T2)
= b A1 4 (Tm)3 (T1- T2) ( where Tm = (T1 + T2) / 2 )
or QR = hr A1 (T1- T2) -----------------------------------------(T 1T 2 )
(T 1T 2 )
=
1
=
R Radiation
hr A 1
We have hr = b (T12 + T22) (T1 + T2)
It is a good approximation to the radiation heat transfer which resembles the
convective heat transfer rate.
Where
hr = 4 b (Tm)3
where Tm = (T1 + T2)/2
& hr = 6 .
at
atmospheric conditions
Note that the radiation resistance is drawn as parallel resistance
when combined with convective resistances
1
RConvection =
hC A 1
T1

T2
RRadiation

1
hR A 1

1 1
+
R total
R Convection R Radiation
R1 R2
R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2
Rtotal =
=
or
R1 R 2
R 1+ R 2
Fig-b:- Electrical circuit, (Thermal circuit)
Example:A steam pipe ( =0.9 of 0.4 diameter has a surface temperature of
500 K. The pipe is located in a room at 27 C and the convection heat
transfer coefficient is 25 W/m 2K. Calculate the combined heat
transfer coefficient and the rate of heat loss per unit length of pipe.
Answer:
Radiation
heat
transfer
Q1-2
=
hr A1 (T1- T2)
------------------------------------------ 1.20.12
where hr = b (T12 + T22) (T1 + T2)
= 0.9 x 5.67 x 10-8 (5002 + 3002) (500+300) = 13.88 W/m2K
h = hc + hr = 25 + 13.88 = 38.88 w/m2K
Rate of heat loss = Q1-2 = hr A1 (T1- T2) = 38.88 x D L (500 -300)
=

= 38.88 x

x 0.4 x 1 x 200 = 9771.6

W = 9.77 KW.

Combined heat
coefficient. (U)

transfer
L1

Layer1 T1
K1

TH
Q
Area A

T2

Coefficient
L2

or

Overall

Layer2
K2

Layer3
K3

T3

T4

TH > T1 > T2 > T3 > T4 > TC

TC
TC

T1
R1

1
hcold A

transfer

L3

TH

RH =

heat

T2
=

L1
K1 A

T3
R2

T4
L2
K2 A

R3

L3
K3 A

1
hhot A

Fig: 1.21; Heat transfer through three layer composite wall with convection
on both
exterior surfaces showing the temperature profile and thermal
circuit
T H T C
Q=
R total
T H T C
T H T C
L
L
L
=
=
1
1
+ 1 + 2 + 3 +
R total
hhot A K 1 A K 2 A K 3 A hcold A
Usually the heat flow through composite structure is written in the form
(T H T C )
Q = UA ( T H T C ) =
1
UA
Where U represents over all heat transfer coefficient.
L
L
L
1
1
1
+ 1 + 2 + 3 +
=
UA
hhot A K 1 A K 2 A K 3 A hcold A

L L L
1
1
+ 1 + 2+ 3+
hhot K 1 K 2 K 3 hcold
=RH + R1 + R2 + R3 + RC
1
or U =
R H + R 1 + R 2 + R3 + R C
overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of over all thermal
resistance to the heat flow. The over all surface coefficient has its numerical
value same whether the heat flows from either side incase of a slab or
multi layer slab. It is because the area considered perpendicular to heat
flow is same on both sides.
Hence UO AO = Ui Ai
How ever in case of heat flow in cylinders the values of U are different for the
different directions as area is different.
Problem.
The walls of a lavishly furnished room cabin consists of two layers of
wood (K = 0.10 W/mK) each of 2cm thick, sand-witching 5cm of
fiberglass (k=0.038W/m K) insulation. The cabin interior is
maintained at 20 C when the ambient air temperature is 2 0C. The
interior and exterior convective heat transfer coefficients are 3 and
6 w/m2K respectively. Exterior is coated with a white acrylic paint (
= 0.9). Estimate the heat flux through the wall.
Answer:
The heat flux through the wall is, Q = UA (Ti T0)
LA
LB
LC
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
+
hc i
hc o+ hR o
U
KA
KB
KC
The exterior radiation coefficient is given by
(273+20)+(273+ 2)
Tm3 where Tm =
hR o = 4
=
2
(293)+(275)
(568)
==
= 284
2
2
hR o = 4 x 5.67 x 10-8 x 0.9 x 2843 = 4.2 W/ m2K
1
1
0.02
0.05
0.02
1
=
+
+
+
+
= 2.15 (w/m2K)-1
U
3
0.10
0.038
0.10
6 +4.2
U = 0.466 w/m2K
q = Q/A = U (Ti T0) = 0.466(20-2) = 8.38 W/ m2
HEAT TRANSFER WITH INTERFACE RESISTANCE (or: Contact
Resistance)
Due to this apparent decrease in the heat flow area and also due to
presence of air voids, there occurs a large resistance to heat flow at the
interface. The resistance is referred as thermal contact resistance and it
causes the drop in temperature between two materials at the
interface. Fig. 1.22 (a) shows the temperature distribution with out contact
resistance and fig: 1.22 (b) shows the temperature distribution with drop of
temperature because of contact resistance
Hence

1
U

(T2A T2B) =temp drop at interface

T2 is interface temperature.
T1

K1

K2

T1
T2A

T2

T3
T3

T2 B

L1

L2

Lg
Fig: 1.22 (a)- No temperature drop ;
Fig: 1.22 (a)Temperature drop
at interface, shows temp. distribution.
at interface; shows
temp.distribution
Ac = contact area, Av = voids area, Lg = thickness of void space at
interface,
Kf = thermal conductivity of fluid in voids, hc = contact coefficient,
A = Total cross- sectional area normal to heat flow. and taking the half of the
length of void , ie Lg/2, on the side of layer- A and other half Lg/2 on to the
side of layer-B, then
T 2 A T 2 B
T 2 AT 2 B
T 2 AT 2 B
Lg
Lg
Lg
Q=
+
=
1
+
hC A
2 K A A C 2 K B AC
K f Av
1
1
+
Lg
Lg
Lg
Hence, hC A
=
+
2 K A A C 2 K B AC K f A v
1
1
1
Lg
1
1
=
[
+
]
+
Lg
2 K A A C 2 K B AC
Kf Av
1
1
1
K
+
K
1
=
[
+
]
B
A
Lg
K
A
2 AC K B K A
f
v
2 AC K B K A
1
K f Av
=
[
+
]
Lg
KB+ K A
1
2KB KA
1
AC
Av
hC =
[
+
K ] ------------1.23.1
Lg
( KB+ K A)
A
A f
In most cases the air is filled in voids and value of Kf is very small
compared to
KA and KB. The problem to find contact coefficient from above equation is
the measurement of quantities Ac , Av , and Lg .

Problem-1
Two large aluminium plates , K =240 w/mK, each 2cm thick, with 10
m surface roughness are placed in contact under 105 N / m2
pressure in air. The temperature at the out side surface s are 390C
and 406C. Calculate a)heat flux b) temperature drop due to contact
resistance c) contact temperatures. Thermal contact resistance with
air as interfacial fluid for 10 m roughnes at 105 N/m2 (or 1bar).
Answer
a)Rate of heat flow = q = (t1 t2) / R1 + R2 + R3 . consider area A=1 sq.mt.
R1 = Resistance of plate-1 = L/ KA = 0.02 / 240 x 1 = 8.34 x 10-5 m2 K/W
R2 = Resistance of air gap = 2.75 x 10-4 m2 K/W
R3 = R1
RT = Total resistance = 8.34 x 10-5 + 2.75 x 10-4 +8.34 x 10-5 = 4.418 x 10-4
m2 K/W
q = (406-390) / 4.418 x 10-4 = 3.62 x 104 w/m2
b) The temperature drop in each section is proportional to the resistance.
Hene the fraction of the contact resistance is
R2 / RT = 2.75 / 4.418 = 0.622
The temperature drop = (R2 / RT) x the total temp.drop = 0.622 x (406-390)
= 0.622x 16 = 9.95 C
The temperature drop in both aluninium plates = 16 - 9.95 = 6.05C
The temp.drop in each plate = 6.05/2 = 3.025 C
c) Contact surface Temperature of plate-1 =406 temp. drop in plate-1
= 4063.025 = 402.975C
Contact surface temperature of plate-2 = 402.975 9.95 = 393.025 C
Problem-2
Two nos of 304 S.S steel bars of 3cm diameter and 10cm long have
the ground surfaces with surface roughness of about 1 m. If the
surfaces are pressed together with apressure of 50 atm. and the
combination of this two bar is exposed to a temperature difference
of 100 C calculate the axial heat flow and temperature drop across
the contact surface.
Thermal conductivity of steel is 16.3 w/m deg and the thermal
contact coefficient is given by 1/ hc = 5.28 x 10-4 m2 0C/ W.
Answer.
Area of flow of heat = d2/4 = x (0.03)2 /4 = 7.069 x 10-4 sq mt.
L =10cm =0.1 mt ; R 1 = Resistance of bar-1 = L / KA = 0.1 / 16.3 x 7.069 x
10-4 =8.679 C/w
R2 = Contact resistance = 1/hc A = 5.28 x 10-4 / 7.069 x 10-4 = 0.747 C/W
R3 = R1 : RT = Total resistance = 8.679 + 0.747 + 8.679 = 18.105
Over all heat flow q= 100/ 18.105 =5.52 w
The temperature drop at contact surface
= Fraction of contact resistance in total resistance x total temperature
drop
= (R2 / RT) x (T) = (0.747 / 18.105) x 100 = 4.13C
Contact resistance is 4% of total resistance.

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A HALLOW CYLINDER: (Heat flow in radial

direction)
dT
The rate of heat transfer, Q = - KA
by Fouriers Law.---1.24-1
dr
dT
= -- K (2 r L)
dr
dr
Q
= -- (2 L K) dT
r
Integrating with boundary conditions :
At r = r1 , T = T1 and at r = r2 , T = T2 ;
r
T
dr
Q
= - 2 LK dT
r
r
T
r2
Q ln (
) = -- (2 L K) (T2 T1)
(here ln means the natural
r1
logaritham)
2 L K (T 1 T 2 )
r
Hence Q =
----------(1.24.2 )
( T1 > T2 and r2 >
ln( 2 )
r1
r1)
(T 1 T 2)
or Q =
---------(1.24-3)
R th
r2
ln ( )
r1
Where Rth = Thermal resistance =
--------(1.24.4)
2LK
The equivalent thermal circuit is also shown in fig 1.15
dr
2

Q
r
r2

r1

Fig-a: Physical system of hallow

cylinder
Q
T1

T2

r2
)
Rth =
r1
2LK
(b)- Electrical circuit
ln(

Heat flow equation of hallow cylinder in the form written

for a plane wall, takingwall thickness.
Some times it is convenient to write the heat flow equation of hallow cylinder
in the form written for a plane wall, taking wall thickness; Then the wall
thickness is (r2- r1) and area is Am. This is given below.
2 L K (t 1 t 2 )
r
We have Q =
ln ( 2 )
r1
Multiplying and dividing Eq.1-24-1, with (r2 r1) , and also multiplying and
dividing
the inside term of ln. term with 2 L, as we get PERIMETER AREA of cylinder
is 2 r L
2 L(r 2 r 1) K (t 1 t 2 )
2 Lr
Q =
( r 2 r 1 ) ln( 2 L r 2 )
1
K ( A 2A 1 ) (t 1 t 2 )
A
=
( r 2 r 1 ) ln( A 2 )
1
K A m (t 1 t 2)
=
( r2 r1 )
t 2 t1

= - K Am [
r 2r 1
This equation resembles the heat transfer equation of plane wall.
( A 2 A 1 )
A
where Alm = Log- Mean area =
-------- ---------
ln( 2 )
A1
(1.24.6)
A1 = Inside surface area = 2 r1 L
A2 = Out side surface area = 2 r2 L
( r 2r 1 = Wall Thickness of hollow cylinder.
Concept of Log-Mean radius:2 L(r 2 r 1)
( A 2 A 1 )
r
A
We have Log- Mean area =
=
ln( 2 )
ln( 2 )
r1
A1
= 2 L rm ------------ (1.24-7)
Obviously logarithemic mean radius of the cylinder tube is given as:
(r 2 r 1 )
r
rm =
------------------(1.28.7)
ln( 2 )
r1

When

r2
r1

= 1, then the value of arithmetic mean radius ie

differs from the value of logarithmetic radius ie rm = ln (

4%. If

r2
r1

r2
r1

r a=

r 2+ r 1
2

) by about

= 1.5 , then the deviation is by 1.3%. Hence when the value

r2
< 2, the logarithametic mean radius can be avoided and in place of it
r1
we may use arithmetic mean with out appreciable error.
However the log mean radius has important applications in designing the
lagging of steam pipes and insulation of electrical cables.

Temperature distribution across the cylindrical

derived from fundamental Fourier equation.

wall;

Temperature across the cylindrical wall varies logarithamically with the

radius.
Equation of temperature variation in cylindrical wall is derived from the heat
flow equation.
We have equation for heat flow as
dt
Q= K.2rL.
---------------- 1.24.1
dr .
Q
dr
dt =
2 LK .
r.
dr
= C1
r.
Integrating,
t = C1 ln (r) + C2. ----------------------- (i)
where the constants C1 and C2 are evaluated from conditions
when r = r1 ; t = t1 and r = r2 ; t = t2
t1 = C1 ln (r1) + C2. ----------------------- (ii)
t2 = C1 ln (r2) + C2. ------------------------ (iii)
(iii) (ii) gives that
(t2 t1) = C1 ln (r2) C1 ln (r1)
= C1 ln (r2 / r1)
t 2t 1
r
Hence C1 =
-------------------------(iv)
ln( 2 )
r1
Substituting C1 in (ii).
(t 2t 1 )(ln r 1 )
r
t1 =
+ C2
ln( 2 ) .
r1
( t t )( ln r 1)
[ 2 1
]
r2
C2 = t1
-------------------- (v)
ln( ).
r1

Substituting C1 and C2 from (iv) and (v) in equation (i) and simplifying, we
get
the temperature distribution in dimensionless form as;
( t t )( ln r 1)
( t t )( ln r)
[ 2 1
]
[ 2 1
]

r2
r2
t= t1 +

--------1.24-8
ln( ).
ln( ).
r1
r1
r
ln( )
( t t 1)
r1
=

(t 2t 1 )

This shows that the temperature varies logarithamically with radius of

cylinder.
Hence the profile is curve (like a hyperbola) in the cylindrical solid wall, (it is
not a line as in case of plane wall). It is independent of the value of K, ie type
of material, steel, wood or Rubber etc. Isotherms (or temperature profile of
constant temperature) are concentric circles lying between the inner and
outer cylinder boundaries.
r2
This temperature profile is nearly linear for values of
= 1, but non
r1
linear for larger
r2
values of
.
r1

Heat conduction through multi cylindrical

internal and external convective coefficient.

wall

with

hi
K1
T0

K2
h

T3
T2
pipe) (R1)
T1

ho

Ti
r1

Layer-1

(Metal

thickness

of

Layer-2 (layer
of lagging) (R2)
T

To
r3
Q

Ti

r2
T1

T2

T3

To

Ri
R1
R2
R0
Fig:1.24.One dimentional heat flow through multi cylindrical wall ; electrical
analogy.
a) Total Resistance considering the inside and outside convective
coefficients.
Multi cylindrical walls are frequently employed to reduce heat losses such
as in Steam pipes lagging or increase the heat conduction such as in
electrical cables. The above fig. 1.24
shows the pipe with a layer of Insulation. Consider a length, L of the cylinder.
1
Ri = Resistance of inside fluid film ( in Convection). =
2 r 1 L hi
r
ln( 2 )
r1
R1 = Resistance of the first layer (in conduction) =
2 L K1
r3
ln ( )
nd
r2
R2 = Resistance of the 2 layer layer (in conduction) =
2 L K2
1
Ro = Resistance of out side fluid film ( in Convection). =
2 r 3 L ho
Rtotal = Ri (convection) + R1 (conduction) + R2 (conduction0 + Ro (convection0
r
r
ln( 2 )
ln( 3 )
1
r1
r2
=
+
+
2 r 1 L hi
2 L K1
2 L K2
--------1.25-1
T iT 0
Q =
Rtotal
T iT 0
r
r
ln( 2 ) ln( 3 )
or Q =
r1
r2
1
1
+
+
+
2 r 1 Lh i 2 L K 1 2 L K 2 2 r 3 L ho

1
2 r 3 L ho

Over all heat transfer coefficient. (Ui and Uo )

Q = Ui Ai (Ti To ) = Uo Ao (Ti To )
T iT 0
r
r
ln( 2 ) ln( 3 )
Q=
r1
r2
1
1
+
+
+
2 r 1 Lh i 2 L K 1 2 L K 2 2 r 3 L ho
T iT 0
r
r
ln( 2 ) ln( 3 )
Ui 2 r1 L (Ti To ) =
r1
r2
1
1
+
+
+
2 r 1 Lh i 2 L K 1 2 L K 2 2 r 3 L ho
r
r
ln ( 2 )
ln ( 3 )
1
r1
r2 r1 1
= 1
Ui
+r 1
+r 1
+
hi
K1
K2
r3 ho
where Ui is overall heat transfer coefficient on in side area.
Similarly over all heat transfer coefficient based on out side area, U o is given
as;
r2
r3
ln ( )
ln ( )
1
r3 1
1
}
r1
r2
={
+ r3 (
+
+ r3 (
Uo
r 1 hi
ho

K1
K2
Problem-1. A cylindrical cement tube of radii 0.05cm and 1.0 cm has a wire
along the axis. To maintain a steady temperature difference of 1200 C
between the inner and outer surfaces, current of 5 amp. is made to flow in
the wire. Resistance of wire is 0.1 ohm per cm length of wire. Calculate the
thermal conductivity of the cement pipe material.
Answer:
Resistance of wire per meter lengrth = 0.1 x 100 = 10 per mt length
Heat generated = I2 R = 52 x 10 = 250 Watts/ mt
Under steady state conditions; Heat generated = Heat conducted through
the cylinder.
Q = 2 K L (t1 t2)
L = 1mt
ln (r2 / r1)
250 = (2 K) x 1 x ( 120 )
ln (1.0 / 0.05)
K = 250 x ln (1.0 / 0.05) / 2 120 = 0.994 W / m-deg
Problem-2:- A stainles steel tube with inner diameter 12mm, thickness
0.2mm and length 50cm is heated with nicrome wire fitted along the axis.
The entire 15 kw energy generated in tube is transferred through its outer
surface. Find the intensity of current flow and temperature drop across the
wall of the tube. The tube material has thermal conductivity of 18.5 W / mdeg and specific resistance of 0.85 -mm2 / m.
Answer:
Power generated = I2Re = 15 kw = 1500 watts.

Electrical resistance = Re = L/ A
Specific resistance = = 0.85 -mm2 / m. = 0.85 (cm/100) 2 / 100 cm.
= 0.85 x 10-4 -cm
L = 50 cm
A = (r22 r12)
r1 = 6mm = 0.6cm,
r2 = 6 + 0.2 = 6.2mm =
0.62cm
= (0.622 0.602)
= 0.077 cm2
Hence Re = 0.85 x 10-4` x 50 / 0.077 = 551.9 x 10-4
Power generated = I2Re = 15 KW =15000 w
Intensity of current flow =I = (15000 / 551.9 x 10-4 )1/2 = 5.213 x 102 =
521.3 amp
Under steady state conditions, the heat generated equal to the heat transfer
through the cylindrical tube.
Q = 2 K L (t1 t2)
ln (r2 / r1)
15000 = 2 K (18.5) x 0.5 x (t1 t2) / ln (6.2/ 6) = 1771.58 (t1 t2)
(t1 t2) = 15000/ 1771.58 = 8.467 C.
Problem-3: A jet plane is considered as a tube of 3mt diameter and 20mt
length. It is lined with 3cm thick insulation of thermal conductivity of 0. 042
w/m K and is maintained at 20 C for the comfort of passangers travelling in
the jet. The average out side temperature is -30C at the operating height.
What is the rate of heating needed inside the jet compartment. Neglect the
end effects.
Answer:
Heat supplied in compartment = Heat leaked out of the compartment.
Heat leaked out =
Q = 2 K L (t1 t2) =
ln (r2 / r1)
= 2 x 0.042 x 20 x {20- (-30) } / ln (300/294)
= 13060 watt = 13.06 kw.
Heat supplied = 13.06 kw
Problem-4: A wire of 0.5mm diameter is stretched along the axis of a
cylinder of 50mm diameter and 250mm in length. The wire is maintained at
a temperature of 750 K by passing current through it, while the cylinder is
kept at 250 K by the gas inside the tube whose K is 0.0251 w/m K. Find the
rate at which the heat is dissipated both by conduction and radiation, if the
wire is perfectly black.
Answer: Heat dissipated by conduction = QC = 2 K L (t1 t2)
ln (r2 / r1)
= 2 x 0.0251 x 0.25 x
(750 250)
ln ( 25mm /
0.25mm)
= 4.28 w.

Heat dissipated by radiation

QR = A1 (T14 T24)
= 5.67 X 10-8 x 2 x 0.25 x 10-3 x 0.25 x
( 750 250)
=6.958 Watts
Problem-5: A steam pipe is covered with two layers of insulation. The
inner layer of 30mm thick has K = 0.17 w/ m K and outer layer of 50mm
thick of K = 0,023 w/m K. The pipe is made of steel (k= 58 w/mK and has
inner and outer diameters of 160mm and 170mm respectively. The
temperature of saturated steam is 300 C and of ambient air is 50 C. If the
inside and out side heat transfer coefficients are 30 and 5.8 w/ sq.mt. K resp.
Calculate the rate of heat loss per mt length of pipe.

Answer:
85
115

80
165

L = 1mt Inner radius of pipe = r1 = 80mm, Outer radius of pipe = r2 =

85mm,
outer radius with 1st layer of insulation=r3 = 115mm ,
Outer radius with 2nd layer of insulation = r4 = 165mm , ti = 300 C , to = 50 C
1
ln(r 2/r 1)
ln(r 3/r 2)
+(
+
Q = [(ti to) / {
+(
(2 . r 1. L. hi )
2 L. K1
2 L. K2
1
}
(2 . r 3. L . ho)
1
ln (85 /80)
ln (115 /85)
= 2 (300 50)/
+
+
+
(30 x 0 . 08)
58
0.17
ln (165/115)
1
+
0.023
5 . 8 x 0 . 16
= 82.94 w/ mt
PROBLEM-6: An aluminium pipe of K= 185 w/m K carrying steam is
maintained at 110 C and is kept in a room whose ambient temperature is 30
C. The pipe has inner dia 10cm and outer dia 12cm. The convective heat
transfer coefficient is 15 w/ m2 K . a)Determine the heat transfer rate per
unit length. b)To reduce the heat loss from pipe, it is covered with a 5cm
thick layer of insulation (k= 0.2 w/m k) Determine the rate of heat loss per

unit length and the percentage reduction in heat loss by providing insulation.
Neglect the convective resistance on steam side.
Answer:
Before insulation:
1
ln(r 2/ r 1)
+
Q =
[(ti to) / (
(2 . r 2. L .ho)
2 L.K
1
ln(6 /5)
= (110 -30) / (
) +
(2 . 0 . 06 x 1 x 15)
2 x 1 x 185
-4
= 80 / 1.57 x 10 + 0.177
= 452 w/mt
After Insulation:
1
ln(r 2/ r 1)
ln(r 3/r 2)
+ (
+
Q =
[(ti to) / (
(2 . r 3. L . ho)
2 L. K1
2 L. K2
1
ln(6/5)
ln(11 /6)
+ (
+
= ( 110 30) / (
(2 . 0.11 x 1 x 15)
2 1 x 185
2 x 1 x 0.2
= 80 / (1.57 x 10-4) + 0.482 + 0.096
= 138 w/ m
Reduction of heat loss from pipe by insulation = (452- 138)/ 452 = 0.695 or
69.5 %
Problem-7:Steam at 350 C is flowing through a pipe (k= 80 w/m k) of 5cm
inner diameter and 5.6 cm outer dia. covered by 3cm thick insulation of , K =
0.05 w/m K. Heat is lost to the surroundings at 5 C by natural convection and
radiation. The combined
h is 20 w/m K. Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe as 60 w/mK
determine a) The rate of heat loss from the pipe per unit length of pipe. b)
The temperature drop across the pipe and insulation.
Answer:
Fig below gives the thermal resistance in series.
Ri = 1/ h1A1 ;
h1 = 60 w/m-K;
A1 = 2 r1 L = 2 x 0.025 x 1 = 0.157
2
m
Ri = 1 / 60 x 0.157 = 0.106 K/W

Fig:
R1 =
R2 =

ln (r 2/r 1)
ln(2.8/2.5)
=
= 0.00023 K/W
2 L. K1
2 x 1 x 80
ln (r 3/r 2)
ln (5.8/2.8)
=
= 2.318 K/W
2 L. K2
2 x 1 x 0.05

Ro = 1/ h2 A3 = 1/20 x 0.364 = 0.137 K/W

Rtotal = Ri + R1 + R2 + Ro = 0.106 + 0.00023 + 2.318 +0.137 = 2.56123 K/w

Rate of heat transfer = Q = (T1 T2) / Rtotal = (350 5)/ 2.56123 = 134.7 W
b) T pipe = Q x R1 = 134.7 x 0.00023 = 0.03 C
Tinsulation = 134.7 x 2.318 = 312.2 C
Problem-8: A steam pipe of 10cm outside diameter is covered with two
layers of insulation, each having thickness of 2.5 cm. The average thermal
conductivity of one layer is 3 times that of other and the surface temperature
of the insulated pipe is fixed.
Examin the position of better insulating layer relative to the steam pipe if
heat dissipation from steam is to be minimum. What percentage saving in
heat dissipation results from the arreangement.
Answer:
r1 = 5cm, r2 = 7.5cm, r3 = 10cm.
Let K and 3K are thermal conductivities of two insulating materials.
i) Better insulator (material with low Thermal conductivity0 is placed inside ie
next to steam pipe.
ln(r 2/r 1)
ln (r 3/r 2)
Thermal resisstance = Rt =
+
2 L.K
2 L.3K
ln(7.5/5.0)
ln (10/7.5)
=
+
= 0.2506 / L K
2 L. K
2 L.3 K
Heat dissipation Q1 = T/ Rt = T. L K / 0.2506 = 3.99 T. L K .
ii) Better insulation is out side.
ln(7.5/5.0)
ln(10/7.5)
Rt =
+
= 0.2114 / L K
2 L.3 K
2 L. K
Heat dissipated = Q2 = T/ Rt = T L K / 0.2114 = 4.7303 T. L K
Q1/ Q2 3.99 / 4.7303 = 0.843.
Obviously the heat dissipation is small when the material with low thermal
conductivity is placed next to the pipe.
Saving in heat dissipation = (4.7303- 3.99) / 3.99 = 0.1855 = 18.55 %
Problem -9 : A steam main 0f 75mm inside diameter and 90mm outside
diameter is logged with two layers of insulation. The layer in contact with
pipe is 38mm asbestos ond the other is 25mm thick magnesia layer. the
surface coefficients of inside and out side surfaces are 227 w/m2 k and 6.8
w/m2 k respectively. Steam temperature is 375 C and ambiant temperature is
35 C. Calculate the steady state heat loss from steam for 60m length of
pipe. Also work out the overall coefficient of heat transfer based on inside
and outside surfaces of lagged steam main pipe. Comment on the result.
Thermal conductivities of pipe material is 45 w/mk, Asbestos: 0.14 w/m-k and
magnesia insulation
is 0.07 w/m K .
Answer:
r1 = 75/2 = 37.5 mm = 0.0375 mt.
A1 = 2 r1 L = 2 0.0375 x
60
r2 = 90/2 mm = 45mm = 0.045 mt.
= 14.1372

r3 = 45 mm + 38mm = 83mm = 0.083mt ,

r4 = 83+25 = 108mm = 0.108mt
A0 =2 ro L = 2 0.108 x 60 = 40.715.
i) Inner steam film resistance = 1/ hi A1 = 1/ 14.1372 x 227 = 3.117 x 10-4 0K/
W
ln (r 2/r 1)
ln(0.045/0.0375)
ii) Pipe resistance =
=
= 0.1075 x 10-4 0K/ W
2 L. K1
2 60 x 45
ln (r 3/r 2)
ln(0.083/0.045)
iii) Asbestos resistance =
=
= 116.048 x 10-4
2 L. K2
2 60 .0.14
0
K/ W
ln(r 4 /r 3)
ln(0.108/0.083)
iv) Magnesia insulation resistance =
=
=99.822
2 L. K 3
2 60 .0.07
x 10-4
v) Out side film resistance = 1/ ho A0 = 1/ 6.8 x 40.715 = 36.137 x 10-4
Total resistance in series Rt = 255.2315 x 10-4 0K/ W
Heat loss through pipe = (T2 T1)/ Rt = (375- 35) / 255.2315 x 10-4 = 13321
W
b) Heat lost can be expressed as,
Q = Uo Ao (T2 T1) = Ui Ai (T2 T1)
Where Uo and Ui are overall coefficients of heat transfer based on out side
area A0 and inside area Ai respectively.
Uo = Q / Ao (T2 T1) = 13321 / 40.715 x (375- 35) = 0.962 w/ m2 K
Ui = 13321 / 14.1372 x 340 = 62.19 w/m2 K
Important conclusions:
1) Resistances to heat flow is mainly due to laggings and not by metal pipe.
2)Total resistance is mostly and strongly controlled by film with lowest
coefficient. Also little gain would be obtained if the steam side film
coefficient is increased, but a large gain would result by an increase of air
side film coefficient.
3) Resistance of pipe material and resistance due to inner film could have
neglected with out any appreciable error.

Heat conduction through a Spherical shell

Q = KA

dT
dT
= K . 4 r2 .
dr .
dr .
(where A is area of spherical surface at radius r normal to heat

flow.)

r
r1

r2

T1 Inside temperature
T2 Out side temperature.

T1

T2

r 2r 1
4 K r 2 r1
Fig: 1,26-i: Steady state heat conduction through Sphere and
electrical analogy.
R=

Separating the variables of equation 1-26-1 and Integrating at given

boundary conditions;
r2

Q dr
4 K r
r
1

Q
4K

1
r1
Q=

Hence

Q=

T2

dT
T1

1
= ( T2
r2
4 K ( T 1 T 2 ) r1 r2
(r 2r 1 )
(T 1 T2)
(r 2r 1 )
[
]
4 K r 1 r 2 .

T1 )

r 2r 1
4 K r 2 r1
Quite often it is convenient to write the heat flow equation through a sphere
in the same way as that equation written for a plane wall considering
thickness,
= (r2 r1) and equivalent area as Am .
K A gm ( T 1 T 2 )
Hence Q =
---------------1.26.4
(r 2 r 1)
4 K ( T 1 T 2 ) r1 r2
We have derived the equation 1.26-1 as Q =
(r 2r 1 )
Comparing both equations above, we write;
Agm = 4 r1 r2. ----------------------------1.26.5
where, Agm = Geometric Mean area ,
= A1 A2
= (4 r 12 . 4 r 22)
.
=4 r1 r2
Resistance in case of Spherical shell = Rth =

(T 1 T 2)
Hence Q =

(r 2 r 1)
]
K Agm .

-------------------------1.26.6

We can also specify geometric mean area as,

Agm = 4 rgm2
, where rgm = geometric mean radius. = r 1 r 2
-------1.30.5
Thermal resistance:.
(T 1 T 2)
( T 1 T 2)
From equation1.26.6, we have Q =
=
(r 2 r 1)
Rth
[
]
K Agm .
( r 2r 1 )
where,
Thermal resistance = Rth = K Agm . )
---------------1.26.7

Different expressions for Thermal resistances are given below.

A) For Slab:
Rslab = / K A.
A = area of surface
(t t 1)
x
Temperature distribution in wall :
=
( x 2x 1)
(t 2t 1 )
r2
ln ( )
r1
B) Cylinder: Rcylinder = Rth = Thermal resistance =
2LK
r 2r 1
=
K Am
where Alm = Logarithamic mean area
( A 2 A 1)
=
A2
ln[
]
A1.
or Alm = 2 rlm. L
(r 2 r 1)
where, logarithmic mean radius = rlm =
r2
ln[
]
r1.
when the ratio r2 /r1 < 2 then we can use arithmetic mean radius ra =
(r1 + r2) / 2
instead of log mean radius, rlm. Arithmetic mean area, Aa = 2 ra. L
r
ln( )
(T T 1)
r1
Temperature distribution in cylinder is:
=

(T 2T 1 )

(r 2r 1)
]
C) Sphere:
Rsphere = [
K Agm
where Agm = Geometric mean area
= A1 A2
= 4 r1 r2.

or Agm = 4 rgm2
where rgm = r 1 r 2
Temperature distribution in spherical shell.
The equation for temperature profile will be derived in the next chapter from
the general
conduction equation in spherical coordinates.
However the final equation for the temp. profile is given below for
information.
(t t 1)
( rr 1 )
r2
}
= {
-----------------------1.26.8
r.
(t 2 t 1 )
(r 2 r 1).
I
MPORTANT RESULT
The equation, above, indicates that the temperature distribution
associated with radial conduction through a sphere is represented
by a hyperbola.
Note: If Spherical shell with two layers of insulation and inside out
side film coefficients

Q=

T 1 T 2
(r r )
(r r )
1
1
+[ 2 1 ]+[ 3 2 ]+
2
4
K
r
r
.
4
K
r
r
.
4 r 1 hi
4 r 32 h0
1 2
3 2

Conduction through Hollw Spherical shell walls.

Problem-1: A hollow sphere of inner radius 30 mm and outer radius 50mm
is electrically heated at inner surface at a rate of 105 watt/m2 . At the outer
surface, it dissipates heat by convection in to a fluid at 100 C having heat
transfer coefficient 400 w/m2 K . Determine the temperature at the inside
and out side the surfaces of spehere. The thermal conductivity of material of
sphere is 15 W/ m K.
Answer:
r1 = 0.03m, r2 = 0.05m
Rate of heat dissipation = Q = q x 4 r12 = 105 x 4 0.032 = 1130.44 W
Resistance due to wall of sphere (by conduction)
R1 =( r2 r1) / (4 k r1 r2)
=(0.05- 0.03) / (4 15 x 0.05 x 0.03)
= 0.0708 0k/w
Resistance due to outside film ( by convection)
R2 = 1/ h0 Ao
A0 = 4 r0 2
2
= 1/ 400 x 4 0.05
= 0.0796 K/W
Q = (t1 t0) / R1 + R2

1130.44 =( t1- 100)/ 0.0708 + 0.0796 = (t1 100) / 0.1504

t1 = (1130.4 x 0.1504 )+100 = 270 C
Under the steady state conditions the heat flow through each section is
same, hence
Q = (t2 t0) / R2
1130.44 =( t2 - 100)/ 0.0796
t2 = temperature at outer surface of the sphere = 1130.44 x 0.0796 +100
= 189.98 C
PROBLEM-2: A spherical shell of 3mt internal diameter and made of 2cm
thick stainless steel (K = 15 w/m k ) is used to store the ice water at 00 C .
The heat is lost to surroundings at 25 C by natural convection and radiation
with a combined heat transfer coefficient 15.5 w/m2 K . The convective
coefficient at inner surface is 80 w/m2 K , determine the a) rate of heat
trabsfer to the iced water in the tank b) amount of ice that melts during 24
hours, if the latent heat of ice = 334 KJ/Kg.
Answer:
r1 = 1.5mt, r2 = 1.5 +0.02 = 1.52mt, A1 = 4 r1 2 = 4 1.52 = 28.26 sq.mt
A2 =4 r2 2 = 4 1.522 = 29.02
sq.mt
Resistance due to Convection film at inner surface
R1 = 1/h1A1 = 1/ 80 x 28.26 = 4.42 x 10-4 k/w
Resistance due to wall of sphere
R2 = ( r2 r1) / (4 k r1 r2) = (1.52 1.5)/ (4 x 15 x 1.5 x 1.52) =
0.4666 x 10-4 k/w
Resistance due to convective film out side surface
R3 = 1/ ho A2 = 1/15.5 x 29.2 = 22.23 x 10-4 K/w
Total resistance, Rt = 4.42 x 10-4 + 0.4666 x 10-4 + 22.23 x 10-4 = 27.116 x
10-4 k/w
a)Rate of heat transfer to iced water = Q = (to ti) / Rt =( 25-0 ) / 27.116 x
10-4
= 9219.65 W
b) Amount of heat transfer during 24 hours = Q = 9219.65 x 24 x 3600
= 7.96 x 108 Joules
= 7.96 x 105 KJ
Latent heat of ice is 334 Kj/Kg , means, the ice takes 334 Kj of heat to
melt 1 kg of ice at 00 C.
Hence the amount of ice that melts in aperiod of 24 hours = 7.96 x 105 / 334
= 2383 kg.
Critical Thickness of Insulation.
Rt1 , Rt2 , Rt3 are thermal resistances of Inside film, insulation material and
outside film respectively.
With the assumptions of:
1) Steady state conditions
2) One dimentional heat flow in radial direction only.

3) Negligible thermal resistance of material of tube wall.

4)Negligible radiation exchange between outer surface of insulation and
surroundings.
The heat transmitted can be expressed as:
t it o
r
ln
Q=
------------- 1.27.1
ri
1
1
+
+
2 r i L hi 2 KL 2 r Lh o
Referring 1.27.1, the values K, ri , hi , h0 and L are constants. Therefore the
resistance depends on the radius, r , of insulation.
On examining the equation, with increase of r , ie thickness of insulation,
the resistance of insulation increases but the thermal resistance of outer film
drops. The thermal resistance of inside film coefficient is unaffected by the
increase of r . Obviously, the addition of insulation ,(increase of r) may lead
to increase or decrease the rate of heat flow, depending on the change of
total resistance on increase of r.

The effect of insulation can be studied by differentiating the total resistance

(of Dr of above expression) with respect of r and setting to zero and finding
the value of r .
Insulation of variable thickness
Negligible metal thickness
h0 (outside film coef)
In side film coef.

hi
ti
ri
r
t1
t2

t0

t0
Q ti

t1
Rt1

ie

d Rt
dr

t2

1
= 2 r Lh
i
i

d
dr

Rt2 =

r
ri
2 KL
ln

r
ri
]=0
1
1
+
+
2 r i L hi 2 KL 2 r L ho
1
1
-x
=0
------(i)
2 L ho
r2

t0
1

Rt3 = 2 r L h
o

ln

1
1
x
2 KL
r
1
1
ie K r 2
=0
r h0
1
1
K

=0
or r =
K r h0
ho
To find whether the result maximize or minimize we have to find the
second derivative of (i).
2
1
1
1
d Rt
1
[2 x 3 ]
= -+
2
2
2 L ho
2 KL
r
r
dr
2
3
1
K
1
ho
ho
[ 3]
= -+
{ Substituting r =
}
2
L ho
ho
2 KL
K
K
ho 2
ho 2
= -+
2 K3L
K3 L
ho 2
=
which is positive hence condition is minimum.
K3 L
K
Hence r = h
represents the condition for minimum resistance. Hence
o
K
the heat flow is maximum at rc =
. Hence the insulation radius at
ho
which the thermal resistance is minimum is called as critical radius,
rc . Critical radius depends only on thermal quantities K and h0 only.
Dependence of heat loss on thickness of insulation.
At radius of insulation on a pipe equal to the critical radius, ie r = rc, then
the thermal resistance reaches the minimum value and the heat loss will be
more than that bare pipe looses. Hence the effect of insulation is to increase
the heat loss rather than to reduce.
Dependence of heat loss on the thickness is shown in figure below, as two
cases are practically important.

Case 1) When rc is calculated by expression, rc =

K
ho

it becomes ri

< rc
Q

m
a

ri

rc
r*
r
The addition of insulation to bare pipe (point a of the figure) leads to
increase of heat loss until the thickness of insulation reaches radius of critical
radius, rc . This is due to the progressive decrease in the outside convective
film resistance which predominates the increase of insulation resistance and
hence net result is total resistance decreases ;and the heat flow increases
than that which bare pipe transmits.
Any further increase of insulation thickness (from m) reduces the heat loss
from the peak value. However the heat loss will be more till the thickness
reaches the radius of r*, where the heat loss is equivalent to that
transmitted by the bare pipe. Hence an insulation thickness greater than
the radius , r* must be added to reduce the heat loss below that of uninsulated bare pipe.
Hence for the steam pipes where the heat loss must be minimum, the
insulation (Lagging of steam pipes) is to have radius more than r* .
The phenomenon of heat loss increase on addition of insulation is mostly
occur when insulating materials of poor quality is applied to the pipes and
wires of small radius. This situation is advantageous for insulating the
electric wires and cables. The electric wires are given a outer coating with a
primary objective of providing protection from electrical hazards, However it
is advantageous to dissipate heat so that the conductor is kept with in the
safe temperature limits and current carrying capacity of cable increases.
Hence for electrical cables and wires, the insulation is coated to have
radius nearer to point m as shown in figure.
K
Case-2) When rc is calculated by expression, rc =
it becomes ri
ho

> rc
Q

rc

ri

r (pipe radius)

The effect of wall thickness (ie insulation thickness) dominates and insulation
resistance dominates the convective resistance and hence the overall
thermal resistance increases. The heat flow is reduced and the insulation
acts as better lagging which obstruct the heat loss from the pipes.
Heat insulation is main objective of the steam and refrigeration piping. For
insulation to be properly effective, the outer radius must be greater than the
critical radius and choosen material for insulation must be having quality
such that it have low thermal conductivity

Critical radius of insulation for spherical shells.

T 1T 2
(rr i)
1
1
We have Q =
+[
]+
2
4 r i hi 4 K r r i . 4 r 2 h0
(r r i)
1
1
+[
]+
Rt =
2
2
4
K
r
r
.
4 r i hi
4 r h0
i
d Rt
=
dr
value of Rt)

d
dr

(r r i)
1
1
+[
]+
] = 0 (for minimum
2
2
4
K
r
r
.
4 r i hi
4 r h0
i

1 rr 1
1 1
+
]=0
4 K . r r 1 4 h 0 r 2
1
1 1
1 1
d
{ }+
[
]=0
4 K . r 1 r 4 h0 r 2
dr
2
1
+
3 = 0
2
4 h0 r
4 K r .
2
1
h0 r = 0
K
2
1
=
h0 r
K
2K
2K
r=
ie
rc = h
h0
0
ie

d
dr

----------------------------------------------------------------Problem-1 : A pipe of 20mm outside diameter is to be insulated with

asbestos which has a thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/m deg. The local
coefficient of convection at out side surroundings is 5 w/m2 K.
Comment on the utility of asbestos as the insulating material. What
should be the minimum value of thermal conductivity of insulating
material to reduce the heat transfer.
Answer:The critical radius of insulation for optimum heat transfer from the pipe =

K
0.1
=
= 0.02 m = 20mm
h0
5
given pipe radius = r0 = 10mm
For insulation to be effective, in restricting heat, the pipe radius r0 must be
greater than or equal to the critical radius, rc [ ie r0 rc ] .
But here r0 < rc and hence there is no point in using the asbestos as
insulating material. Addition of asbestos insulation will increase the heat flow
and hence not desirable.
The insulating material with less K is to be used
Hence if the insulation to be effective, r0 > rc ; Hence
K
0.01 >
ie K < 5 x 0.01 = 0.05 w/mK
5
Hence the maximum conductivity of insulation permitted is 0.05 w/mK
Problem-2:Calculare the critical radius of insulation of Asbestos [ K=
0.17 W/m C] surrounding a pipe and exposed to room air at 20 C
with h = 3.0 w/m2C. Calculate the heat loss from above pipe carrying
with a 2000C fluid when covered with the critical radius of insulation
and without insulation. The dia of pipe is 5 cm. Coment on result.
b) If fiberglass having thermal conductivity of 0.04 w/m k is
employed as insulation material, then find critical radius and
comment on result.
Answer:K
o .17
Critical radius = rc =
=
= 0.0567m = 5.67 cm
h0
3.0
Inside radius of insulation = out side radius of pipe = 5/2 = 2.5 cm
t it o
r
ln
Heat transfer with critical radius, rc = Q =
ri
1
+
2 KL 2 r L ho
(neglecting the resistance due to inside
film)
rc =

20020
5.67
= 105.7 W /mt length
2.5
1
+
2 x 0.17 2 x 0.567 x 3.0
With out insulation and with convection from outer surface of pipe is
Q
= h (2 r) (ti to) = 3 x (2 0.025) (200 20) = 84.8 W/ mt.
L
length
Comment: The addition of 3.17 cm ie (5.67 2.5) of insulation actually
increases the heat transfer by 25%.
K
0.04
b)Critical radius with fibre glass = rc =
=
= 0.0133 m = 1.13
h0
3
cm.
Q
L

ln

Comment: Since the value of critical radius is less than the out side radius
of the pipe (2.5 cm), the addition of any fibre glass insulation will cause
decrease in heat loss.

Three dimentional Heat conduction equation in Cartesian

coordinates.
(or Fouriers equation for steady state three dimensional heat
transfer in Cartesian Coordinates).
Consider an element of rectangular parallel-piped in a coordinate frame with
sides dx, dy and
dz parallel to the three coordinate axes.
dQy
dQx

dQz

Z
dz

dQx+dx
dy

dx
X
Q y+ dy

dQz+dz

Y
Fig:2.1:Element in cartesian coordinates: establishing the general
heat conduction equation.
i)Volume of element = V = dx.dy.dz.
ii)Let Kx , Ky , and Kz are the thermal conductivity of material along the
respective
coordinate axes.
iii)Let dQx , dQy and dQz are the quantities of heat entering the element
along respective
coordinate axes.
iv)Let dQx + dx , dQy + dy and dQz + dz are the heat quantity leaving the
element along the
coordinate axes.

A) Heat flow along the X-direction : Area perpendicular to flow of

heat;A = dy.dz.
d Qx
= -- Kx (dy.dz) (t/x)
d
t
----------------------------(a)
x

Also dQx + dx = dQx +

(dQx) dx + -----------+ -----.
x
(expanding total derivatve dQx + dx by Tailors series)
Net heat transfered in to element in X-direction;

dQx -- dQx + dx =
(dQx) dx .
(ignoring other terms)
x

=+
[ Kx d (dy.dz) (t/x)] dx . (substituting
x
from (a)

=+
[ Kx (t/x)] dx. dy.dz . d
x

=
[ Kx (t/x)] dx. dy.dz . d
x

t
=
[ Kx
] dV . d -----------------------------(1)
x
x
B) Similarly net heat transferred in to element in Y direction ;

t
dQy dQy + dy =
[ Ky
] dV . d -------------------------------y
y
(2)
C) Similarly net heat transferred in to element in Z direction;

t
dQz dQz + dz =
[ Kz
] dV . d -------------------------------- (3)
z
z
Net amount of heat, dQ, transferred in to element is 1 + 2 + 3.

t
+
+
]
dQ = [
( Kx
( Ky
( Kz
x
x
y
y
z
z
dV . d.----(4)
D) qg is heat generated in Joules/m3 sec, then total heat generation in
element in time d.
dQg = qg dV d .
-----------------------------------------------(5)
E) Internal energy of element(dE) =mass x specific heat x temperature
rise in time d.
t
dE = ( dV) . Cp . (
d.) ---------------------(6)
.
Total heat stored in the body is to increase the total internal energy of,
dE =dQ + dQg . ----------------------------------------------------(7)
Substituting 4, 5, 6 in equation 7, we get .
dQx = -- Kx d (dy.dz)

 dV . Cp .
Kz

t
.

d. = [

( Kx

( Ky

t
] dV. d
z
+ qg dV d

cancelling dV. d. on both sides, we get

t

+
+
Cp .
= [
( Kx
( Ky
( Kz
.
x
x
y
y
z
t
] + qg ----------(2.1.1)
z
t
ie: Cp .
= (K t ) + qg -----------------------------(2.1.2)
.

where = (
+
+
called as
x
y
z
Laplasian perator of 1st order .
t
t
t

&t = (
+
+
x
y
z
The equation -2.1.1 is called as Three dimentional general conduction
equation for
non-homogeneous, anisotropic, self heat generating and un-steady
state heat flow in rectangular (or Cartesian ) coordinates
Case-1: For Isotropic material. ie: Kx = Ky = Kz = K, the equation (8)
is as below.
Material is Isotropic material then Thermal conductivity, K, is constant in all
directions. (The material is called anisotropic, if K is different in directions of
X, Y, Z directions. Wood, Brick are examples of anisotropic)
t
2 t
2 t
2 t
Cp .
= K[
+
+
] + qg
.
x2
y2
z2
qg
C p
t
2 t
2 t
2 t
or
=[
+
+
] +
2
2
2
K
.
K
x
y
z
2
2
2
qg
1
t
t
t
t
ie:
= [
+
+
] +
2
2
2

.
K
x
y
z
------------(2.1.3)
K
Thermal conductivity
where , is Thermal diffusivity, =
=
C p
Thermal capacity
Case-2: N0 heat generation ie qg =0. and K is constant
Then
1
t
2 t
2 t
2 t
[
+
+
] =
--- (2.1.4) called
2
2
2

.
x
y
z
as Fourier Equation
1
t
or 2 t =
-------------------(2.1.4)

2 t
= [
+
x2
operator or Vector operator.
2

2 t
y2

Case-3: Steady state condition,

t
=0
.

2 t
z2

] ; is called as Laplace

, K = constant , and with

heat generation.
qg
2 t
2 t
2 t
[
+
+
] +
= 0 -----(2.1.5) called
2
2
2
K
x
y
z
as Poissons Equation
qg
or 2 t +
= 0 --- ----------------- (2.1.5)
K
Case -4: Steady state, No heat generation and K is constant.
2 t
2 t
2 t
[
+
+
] = 0 --------(2.1.6) called as
x2
y2
z2
Laplace Equation
or 2 t = 0 --------------------------------------(2.1.6)
Case -5: Steady state, No heat generation and K is constant and
one dimentional heat flow.
2 t
= 0 ----------------------(2.1.7)
x2
2.2. Thermal Diffusivity
It is denoted by and it is defined as ratio:
K
Thermal conductivity
ie = =
=
C p
Thermal capacityHeat storage capacity
The heat storage capacity represents the thermal capacitance or thermal
inertia of the material ie its sluggishness to conduct the heat. In the study of
steady state conduction it is noticed that temperature distribution is
influenced by the only property called thermal conductivity, K. (from the
conduction equation). However in case of unsteady state conduction, the
temperature distribution is influenced by thermal conductivity as well as
another property called as thermal diffusivity. It is main property concerned
during the unsteady state heat conduction.
A high value of thermal diffusivity is the result either from the high value
of the thermal conductivity (K) or lower value of thermal capacity ( Cp). The
high thermal diffusivity means that the higher rate of heat distribution in a
material.

General heat conduction equation in cylindrical Coordinates (or

Polar Coordinates ).
It is more convenient to consider cylindrical coordinates r, , and z,
when the temperature distribution is to be found in cylindrical objects of type
rods and pipes.
Three dimensional heat conduction problem in cylindrical coordinates with
temperature variation t = f (r, , z, is analysed.
1)Consider an element of dimensions in cylindrical coordinates dr, r d and
dz.
Hence volume dV = (dr . r d . dz)
2)Assume the thermal conductivity K, of the material do not vary with
position.
ie: Isetropic material is considered.
3)Density and specific heat CP of the material do not vary with position.
4)Uniform heat generation at the rate of qg per unit volume and unit time
We write the energy balance in radial, tangential and axial directions.
Q +d
Q z+ dZ
(Radial Direction) Qr
along dr direction
r d
dz
Q
Q
Tangential direction

r+dr

Axial direction
Q

dr
Fig 2.2: Heat conduction in element in cylindrical coordinates
A) Heat flow in Radial direction in to element.
Heat stored in the element along radial direction is
1
t
2t
= K. dV. d [
+
] -----------2
r
r
r

(1)

Heat flow in Tangential direction in to element

1
2 t
Heat stored in element = K dV d [ (
)
(
) ] -------------- (2)
r2
2
Heat flow in axial direction in to element.
2 t
Heat stored in element = K dV d (
) ------------------------------------ Z2
(3)
Heat genarated in control volume is given by;
Qg = qg dV d. -------------------------------------------------------(4)
Rate of change of Internal energy of element = dE = ( dV) . Cp . (
t
d.) ------(5)
.
Energy balance in element gives that; 5 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ;
t
1
t
2t
( dV) . Cp . (
d.) = K. dV. d [(
)+
]
2
.
r
r
r
1
2 t
+ K dV d [ (
)
(
) ] + K dV d
r2
2
2 t
(
) + qg dV d
2
Z
1

qg
K

t
.

2t
r 2

1
r

t
r

+(

1
r2

) (

2 t
2

) +(

2 t
)]
Z2

Case-1: Steady state unidirectional (one dimensional) flow in radial

direction
1
t
2t
+
=0
2
r
r
r
1
r t
(
) =0
r
r r
1
rt
(
) =0
since
0, then
r
r r
d rdt
(
) =0 ; (Taking total derivative as it is
or
dr dr
unidirectional)
Integrating both sides
dt
=Constant
r
dr
Uni-directional time dependent conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates, with heat generation
Equation-2.3.1 reduces to

2t
r 2

+
1
r

qg
1
t
1
+
]=
r
r

K
qg
rt
1
(
) +
=
r r

t
.
t
.

---------------------------

(2.3.3)
Its general equation is
1
qg

t
1
t
(
)
( rn
) +
=
n
r
r .

.
r
K
-------------------------(2.3.4)
(n=1 for cylinder and n=2 for sphere
Convertion of cartesian coordinates to cylindrical coordinates :

(or called as Analytical method of deriving the general

conduction equation in
Cylindrical coordinates)
The conduction equation in rectangular coordinates is given by
qg
1
t
2 t
2 t
2 t
= [
+
+
] +
2
2
2

.
K
x
y
z
------(1)
The rectangular and cylindrical coordinates are related by ;
x = r cos ;
y = r sin ; and z = z -------------(2)
t
i) By the chain rule,
is writeen in terma of x and y ; as,
r .
t
t
x
t
y
=
+
----------------(A)
r .
x .
r .
y
r
x
y
x = r cos ; hence
= cos ,
y = r sin ; hence
=
r
r
sin
Hence substituting in (A)
t
t
t
=
cos +
sin
r .
x .
y.
Multiflying with cos on both sides,
t
t
t
cos
=
cos2 +
cos sin
r .
x .
y.
t
t
t
or
cos sin = cos
-cos2 --------------(2)
y.
r .
x .
t
ii) By the chain rule,
is writeen as,
.
t
t
x
t
y
=
+
---------------------(B)
.
x .
.
y.

x
x = r cos ; hence
= -- (r sin )

y
y = r sin ; hence
= r cos

Substituting in B, we get

t
.

t
t
(-- (r sin ) +
( r cos )
x .
y.
sin
Multiplying with
we get
r
sin
t
t
t
= -sin2 ) +
(sin cos )
r
.
x .
y.
t
sin
t
t
or
(sin cos ) =
+
sin2 )
y.
r
.
x .
--------------(3)
iii) From (2) and (3)
t
t
sin
t
t
cos
-cos2 =
+
sin2 )
r .
x .
r
.
x .
t
sin
t
t
cos
-=
(sin2 + cos2 )
r .
r
.
x .
t
t
sin
t
or
= cos
-------------------------(4)
x .
r .
r
.
Differentiating again

sin
t
2 t
-
=
(cos
(
2

x
.
r
.

x
.
r

.
x

t
sin
t
-(
)
= cos
(
r .
x .
r . x .
t
Substituting
from (4), we get.
x .

t
sin
t
2 t

sin

=
cos

cos

--
cos
r
.
r

.
x2
r .
r .
t
sin
t

-r .
r
.
On simplifying, we get
2 sin cos
t
2 t
2t
sin2
2
=
cos

[
]
+
[
]
+
[
r2
.
r
x2
r 2
2
2
t
sin
t
]+ [
] ----(6)
2
r .
r
2
Similarly
t
t
cos
t
= Sin
+
---------------- (7)
y.
r .
r
.
2
2
2 sin cos
t
t
t
t
cos2
2
=
sin

(
)
-+
2
2
r2
.
r
r
y
r
2
2
cos
t
+
) -----------(8)
2
2
r

From 6, and 8 we get

2
2
2
2
1
1
t
t
t
t
t
+
=[
+
+ (
) (
)
2
2
2
2
2
r
r
r
x
y
r

--------(9)
=

Substituting (9) in (1)

1
1
t
1
t
2t
=
+
+ (
2

.
r
r
r2
r
qg
+
K
This is same as that derived from fundamentals

) (

2 t
2

)+

2 t
z2

General heat conduction equation in Spherical coordinates from

fundamentals.
The temperature is function of three space coordinates and time as t= f
(r ,, , )
1)Consider an element of dimensions in cylindrical coordinates dr, (r d)
and
(r sin d).
Hence volume dV = (dr) . (r d) . (r sin d).
2)Assume the thermal conductivity K, of the material do not vary with
position.
ie: Isetropic material is considered.
3)Density and specific heat CP of the material do not vary with position.
4)Uniform heat generation at the rate of qg per unit volume and unit time
We write the energy balance in radial, tangential and axial directions.
Q ,+d
Qr
Q + d
(- direction)
r sin d

r d

Qr ,+dr
(r direction)

Q
dr

( -direction

Fig:2.3. Heat conduction in Spherical coordinates.

(Note: Work out following from principles, only answers are given)
A) Heat flow in to element along the - direction;
1
Heat stored in the element along radial direction = K.dV. d . [
2
r sin2
2
t
] (1)
2

B)Heat flow in to element along the - direction;

Heat stored in the element along radial direction is = K (dV) d
1

t
(sin
) ----(2)
r 2 . sin

C)Heat flow in to element along the r - direction;

Heat stored in the element along radial direction is= K
2 t
(r
) ----(3)
r
r
Heat generated with in control volume.
Qg = qg dV d ------------(4)
Internal energy of element = dE = ( dV) . Cp . (

1
2
r .

(dV) d

t
.

d.)----------(5)

t
.

E) Internal energy of element = dE = ( dV) . Cp . (

d.)

--------------- (5)
Energy balance guves 5 = 1+ 2+ 3+4

( dV).Cp.(
1
r 2 . sin

t
d) = K.dV. d .
.

t
(sin
)

+ K

(dV) d

1
1
t
2 t
= [ 2 2

.
r sin
2
qg
2 t
(r
) +
------(6)
r
r
K

] +

1
r sin2

2 t
2

1
r2.

2 t
(r
)
r
r

1
r 2 . sin

] + K (dV) d

+ qg dV d

t
(sin
)

1
r2.

Steady state Uni-directional conduction equation in sphere with out

heat generation
Equation (6) reduces to
1
d
dt
=0
(
)
(r2
r2.
dr
dr
Initial and Boundary Conditions;
The general conduction equation for temperature distribution is of ;
i) First order differential equation in time coordinates.
ii)Second order differential equation in Spatial coordinates;
(In cartesian coordinates temperature is expressed in terms of three
coordinates x, y, z .
In cylindrical coordinates temperature is expressed in terms of three
coordinates r, . z .
In spherical coordinates temperature is expressed in terms of three

coordinates r, . . )
On solving the first order equation, we integrate once and we obtain one
constant.
On solving the second order equation, we integrate twice and we obtain two
constants. Hence six constants are obtained in integrating three varibles
second order differential equation.
The general conduction equation is to be solved for temperature distribution
at given conditions. Obviously, for the complete solution of general
conduction equation in different coordinate we need to find seven
Integration constants.
These constants are evaluated by applying a set of Initial and Boundary
conditions.
Initial Conditions:
These conditions describe the temperature in a medium at the initial
moment of time.
These conditions are needed for time dependent problems (ie transient).
The initial conditions can be expressed as:
When = 0 ; t = t (x, y, z) -----------------------------------(1)
(ie temperature changes at different positions)
For a Uniform temperature distribution, (ie :the temperature is constant)
When = 0 ; t = t0 = constant.-----------------------------(1a)
Boundary conditions:
These refer to the physical conditions existing at the boundaries of the
system considered.
They are temperature or the heat flow at the surface of body. The typical
conditions are as follows;

i)Boundary condition of 1st kind.

Prescribed surface temperature.condition:- The temperature at the
boundary is prescribed at each time. ie ts = t (x, y, z, )
Y
t y at b

f (x , )

= t2

b
t x at a
t x at 0

f ( y , )

= t1

=0

X
0
a
t y at 0 = 0
Fig:2.4. Boundary condition of first kind

The Boundary conditions of 1st kind for the slab shown below.
At
i) x = 0: t (x, y, ) = 0
ie at x = 0 , t = 0
----------------- 1.
f ( y , )
x = a; t (x, y, ) =
ie at x= a , t = t1 = f ( y , )
------- 2.
ii) y = 0 ; t (x, y, ) = 0
ie: at y = 0, t = 0 ----------------- 3.
y = b ; t (x, y, ) = f (x , )
ie: at y = b, t = t2 = f (x , ) ------ 4.
iii) z= 0 : t (z, x, ) = 0
ie at Z=0, t = 0 ------------------- 5.
z = c : t (z, x, ) = t3
ie : at Z = c, t = t3 ----------------6.
ii) Boundary condition of 2nd kind.
Prescribed conductive heat flux condition:

-K [

t
]
r

x =0

= q0

t x ,

Fig: 2.5.Boundary condition of second kind

The heat flux is prescribed at the boundary surface and is expressed as:
t
At x = 0 ;
- K [ ] x =0 = q0
x
q 0
t
ie: at x = 0 ;
=
= F0
------------------- 1.
x
K
Also Prescribed heat flux condition for adiabatic boundary or plane of
symmetry is
reduced as
t
At x = 0, when
= 0, ------------------------------------ 2.
x

iii)Boundary condition of 3rd kind.

Prescribed convective condition: The heat convected from a fluid at the
surface of a solid is completely conducted in to solid. Also the heat leaving
the solid by conduction by convection to the fluid at surface.
Boundary layer
t1

qx = h1 . ( t1 tx= 0 )

= -- K [

t
x

qx =

h2 . ( tx= t2 )
t
= -- K [
]x=
x .

]x = 0

t2
x
Fig: 2.6. Boundary condition of third kind.
t
At x = 0 ; h1 . ( t1 tx= 0 ) = -- K [
]x = 0
x
t
ie
At x = 0;
[K
+ h1 t ]x = 0 = h1 t1 = F1
x
---------------------------- 1.
t
At x = ;
-- K [
]x= = h2 . ( tx= t2 )
x .
t
ie
At x = ;
[K
+ h2 t]x= = h2 t2 = F2
x .
------------------------------ 2.
The convective conditions are
t
At x = 0, h1 t1 = [ K
+ h1 t ]x = 0
-----------(1)
x
t
At x = , h2 t2 = [K
+ h2 t]x= ---------------(2)
x .
The convective boundary conditions are expresed in compact form as below.
t
[K
+ hi t]x= or x= 0 = Fi
x
where hi is the convective coefficient at x = 0 , hi = h1 and at x = , hi =
h2

Fi is expressed as function in terms of

t
x .

at boundary surface.