Section 6.

5Vectors in R 2 and R 3
In the introduction to this chapter, we said vectors are important because of their
application to a variety of different areas of study. In these areas, the value of using
vectors is derived primarily from being able to consider them in coordinate form, or
algebraic form, as it is sometimes described. Our experience with coordinate systems
in mathematics thus far has been restricted to the xy-plane, but we will soon begin to
see how ideas in two dimensions can be extended to higher dimensions and how this
results in a greater range of applicability.
Introduction to Algebraic Vectors
Mathematicians started using coordinates to analyze physical situations in about the
fourteenth century. However, a great deal of the credit for developing the methods
used with coordinate systems should be given to the French mathematician Rene
Descartes (15961650). Descartes was the first to realize that using a coordinate
system would allow for the use of algebra in geometry. Since then, this idea has
become important in the development of mathematical ideas in many areas. For our
purposes, using algebra in this way leads us to the consideration of ideas involving
vectors that otherwise would not be possible.
At the beginning of our study of algebraic vectors, there are a number of ideas
that must be introduced and that form the foundation for what we are doing. After
we start to work with vectors, these ideas are used implicitly without having
to be restated each time.
One of the most important ideas that we must consider is that of the unique
representation
of vectors in the xy-plane. The unique representation of the vector
!
!
OP is a matter of showing the unique representation of the point P because OP is
determined by this point. The uniqueness
! of vector representation will be first
considered for the position vector OP , which has its head at the point P1a, 0 2 and
its tail at the origin O10, 02 shown on the x-axis below. The x-axis is the set of real
numbers, R, which is made up of rational and irrational numbers.
y
2

1
O(0, 0)

1
OP

P(a, 0)

The point P is a distance of a units away from the origin and occupies exactly
one position on the !x-axis. Since each point P has a unique position on this axis,
this implies that OP is also unique because this vector is determined by P.

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The xy-plane is often referred to as R2, which means that each of the x- and
y-coordinates for any point on the plane is a real number. In technical terms,
we would say that R2
5 1x, y2 , where x and y are real numbers6.
Points and Vectors in R2 !
In the following diagram, OP can also be represented in component form by
the vector defined as 1a, b2 . This is a vector with its tail at O10, 02 and its head
at P1a, b2. Perpendicular lines have been drawn
! from P to the two axes to help
show the meaning of 1a,! b 2 in relation to OP . a is called the x-component and b is
the y-component of OP . Again, each of the coordinates of this
! point is a unique
real number and, because of this, the associated vector, OP , has a unique location
in the xy-plane.
3

y
P(a, b)

2
b
2

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1
O
0
1

x
2

Points and Vectors in R3

All planes in R2 are flat surfaces that extend infinitely far in all directions and are
said to be two-dimensional because each point is located using an x and a y or two
coordinates. It is also useful to be able to represent points and vectors in three
dimensions. The designation R3 is used for three dimensions because
each of the
!
coordinates of a point P1a, b, c2 , and its associated vector OP
1a, b, c2 , is a real
number. Here, O(0, 0, 0) is the origin in three dimensions. As in R2, each point
!
has a unique location in R3, which again implies that each position vector OP
is unique in R3.
z
In placing points in R3, we choose three axes called the x-, y-, and z-axis.
Each pair of axes is perpendicular, and each axis is a copy of the real
number line. There are several ways to choose the orientation of the
positive axes, but we will use what is called a right-handed system.
If
we imagine ourselves looking down the positive z-axis onto the
y
xy-plane
so that, when the positive x-axis is rotated 90 counterclockwise
xy-plane
it becomes coincident with the positive y-axis, then this is called a
right-handed system. A right-handed system is normally what is used to
represent R3, and we will use this convention in this book.

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311

Right-Handed System of Coordinates

z

positive z-axis
positive y-axis
y

x
positive x-axis
z

yzplane
y

x
xzplane

Each pair of axes determines a plane. The xz-plane is determined by the x- and
z-axes, and the yz-plane is determined by the y- and z-axes. Notice that, when we
are discussing, for example, the xy-plane in R3, this plane extends infinitely far in
both the positive and negative directions. One way to visualize a right-handed
system is to think of the y- and z-axes as lying in the plane of a book, determining
the yz-plane, with the positive x-axis being perpendicular to the plane of the book
and pointing directly toward you.
z
D

P (a, b, c)

C
O (0, 0, 0)

A(a, 0, 0)

B (a, b, 0)

Each point P1a, b, c2 in R3 has its location determined by an ordered triple. In the
diagram above, the positive x-, y-, and z-axes are shown such that each pair of
axes is perpendicular to the other and each axis represents a real number line.
If we wish to locate P1a, b, c2, we move along the x-axis to A1a, 0, 0 2, then in a
direction perpendicular to the xz-plane, and parallel to the y-axis, to the point
B1a, b, 02. From there, we move in a direction perpendicular to the xy-plane and
parallel to the z-axis to the point P1a, b, c2 . This point is a vertex of a right
rectangular prism.

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Notice that the coordinates are signed, and so, for example, if we are locating the
point A12, 0, 0 2 we would proceed along the negative x-axis.
A source of confusion might be the meaning of P1a, b, c2 because it may be
confused as either being a point or a vector. When referring to a vector, it
will! be stated explicitly that we are dealing with a vector and will be written as
OP
1a, b, c2, where a, b, and c are the x-, y-, and z-components respectively of
the vector. In the diagram, this position vector is formed by joining the origin
O10, 0, 02 to P1a, b, c2. When dealing with points, P1a, b, c2 will be named
specifically as a point. In most situations, the distinction between the two should
be evident from the context.
EXAMPLE 1

Reasoning about the coordinates of points in R3

In the diagram on the previous page, determine the coordinates of C, D, E, and F.
Solution
C is on the xz-plane and has coordinates 1a, 0, c2, D is on the z-axis and has
coordinates 10, 0, c2, E is on yz-plane and has coordinates 10, b, c2, and F is on
the y-axis and has coordinates 10, b, 02.
In the following example, we show how to locate points with the use of a
rectangular box (prism) and line segments. It is useful, when we first start
labelling points in R3, to draw the box to gain familiarity with the coordinate
system.

EXAMPLE 2

Connecting the coordinates of points and vector components in R3

a. In the following diagram, the point P16, 2, 4 2 is located in R3. What are the
coordinates of A, B, C, D, E, and F?
!
b. Draw the vector OP .
z
E

P(6, 2, 4)
F
O(0, 0, 0)

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Solution
a. A16, 0, 0 2 is a point on the positive x-axis, B16, 2, 0 2 is a point on the xy-plane,
C16, 0, 4 2 is a point on the xz-plane, D10, 0, 4 2 is a point on the positive z-axis,
E10, 2, 42 is a point on the yz-plane, and F10, 2, 02 is a point on the positive
y-axis.
!
b. The vector OP is the vector associated with the point P1a, b, c2. It !is the vector
with its tail at the origin and its head at P16, 2, 4 2 and is named OP
16, 2, 42 .
z
E(0, 2, 4)

D(0, 0, 4)

C(6, 0, 4)

P(6, 2, 4)

F(0, 2, 0)
y
O(0, 0, 0)

A(6, 0, 0)

B(6, 2, 0)

EXAMPLE 3

Connecting the coordinates of points and vector components in R3

a. In the following diagram, the point T is located in R3. What are the coordinates
of P, Q, R, M, N, and
! S?
b. Draw the vector OT .
z

O(0, 0, 0)

M
P

y
N

x
R

T (3, 2, 2)

Solution
a. The point P10, 2, 0 2 is a point on the positive y-axis. The point Q10, 2, 2 2 is
on the yz-plane. The point R10, 0, 2 2 is on the negative z-axis. The point

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M13, 0, 0 2 is on the negative x-axis. The point N13, 0, 2 2 is on the

xz-plane. The point S13, 2, 0 2 is on the xy-plane.
z
O(0, 0, 0)
x
R(0, 0, 2)

M(3, 0, 0)

S(3, 2, 0)

P (0, 2, 0)

y
T (3, 2, 2)
N(3, 0, 2)

Q(0, 2, 2)

!
b. The vector OT is the vector associated with the point T 13,
! 2, 2 2 and is a
vector with O as its tail and T as its head and is named OT
13, 2, 22 .
When working with coordinate systems in R3, it is possible to label planes using
equations, which is demonstrated in the following example.

EXAMPLE 4

Representing planes in R3 with equations

The point Q12, 3, 5 2 is shown in R3.
a. Write an equation for the xy-plane.

z
P(0, 3, 0)

b. Write an equation for the plane

containing the points P, M, Q, and T.
c. Write a mathematical description of
the set of points in rectangle PMQT.
d. What is the equation of the plane
parallel to the xy-plane passing
through R10, 0, 5 2?

M(2, 3, 0)

O(0, 0, 0)
S(2, 0, 0)

T(0, 3, 5)
Q(2, 3, 5)

R(0, 0, 5)

N(2, 0, 5)

Solution
a. Every point on the xy-plane has a z-component of 0, with every point on the plane
having the form 1x, y, 0 2, where x and y are real numbers. The equation is z
0.
b. Every point on this plane has a y-component equal to 3, with every point
on the plane having the form 1x, 3, z 2, where x and z are real numbers.
The equation is y
3.
c. Every point in the rectangle has a y-component equal to 3, with every point
in the rectangle having the form 1x, 3, z2, where x and z are real numbers
such that 0  x  2 and 5  z  0.
d. Every point on this plane has a z-component equal to 5, with every point
on the plane having the form 1x, y, 5 2, where x and y are real numbers.
The equation is z
5.

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There is one further observation that should be made about placing points on
coordinate axes. When using R2 to describe the plane, which is two-dimensional,
the exponent, n, in R n is 2. Similarly, in three dimensions, the exponent is 3. The
exponent in R n corresponds to the number of dimensions of the coordinate system.

IN SUMMARY
Key Idea
In R2 or R3, the location of every point is unique. As a result, every vector
drawn with its tail at the origin and its head at a point is also unique. This
type of vector is called a position vector.

Need to Know
In R2, P 1a, b2 is a point that is a units from O 10, 02 along the x-axis and
b units parallel to the y-axis.
!
The! position vector OP has its tail located at O 10, 02 and its head at P 1a, b 2.
OP
1a, b2
In R3, P 1a, b, c2 is a point that is a units from O 10, 0, 0 2 along the x-axis,
b units parallel to the y-axis, and c units parallel to the z-axis. The position
!
vector
OP has its tail located at O 10, 0, 02 and its head at P 1a, b, c2.
!
OP
1a, b, c2
In R3, the three mutually perpendicular axes form a right-handed system.

Exercise 6.5
PART A
1

1. In R3, is it possible to locate the point PQ 2, V1, 3R? Explain.

2. a. Describe in your own words what it means for a point and its associated
vector to be uniquely represented in R3.
!
!
b. Suppose that OP
1a, 3, c2 and OP
14, b, 8 2. What are the
corresponding values for a, b, and c? Why are we able to be certain that
the determined values are correct?
3. a. The points A15, b, c2 and B1a, 3, 8 2 are located at the same point in R3.
What are the values of a, b, and c?
!
b. Write the vector corresponding to OA .

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4. In R3, each of the components for each point or vector is a real number. If
we use the notation I 3, where I represents the set of integers, explain why
!
!
OP
12, 4, V3 2 would not be an acceptable vector in I 3. Why is OP
an acceptable vector in R3?
5. Locate the points A14, 4, 2 2 , B14, 4, 2 2 , and C14, 4, 2 2 using coordinate
axes that you construct yourself. Draw the corresponding rectangular box
(prism) for each, and label the coordinates of its vertices.
6. a. On what axis is A10, 1, 0 2 located? Name three other points on this axis.
!
b. Name the vector OA associated with point A.
7. a. Name three vectors with their tails at the origin and their heads on the z-axis.
b. Are the vectors you named in part a. collinear? Explain.
c. How would you represent a general vector with its head on the z-axis and
its tail at the origin?
K

8. Draw a set of x-, y-, and z-axes and plot the following points:
a. A11, 0, 0 2

b. B10, 2, 02

c. C10, 0, 3 2

d. D12, 3, 0 2

e. E12, 0, 3 2
f. F10, 2, 32

PART B

9. a. Draw a set of x-, y-, and z-axes and plot the following points: A13, 2, 4 2 ,
B11, 1, 4 2, and C10, 1, 4 2 .
b. Determine the equation of the plane containing the points A, B, and C.

10. Plot the following points in R3, using a rectangular prism to illustrate each
coordinate.
a. A11, 2, 3 2

b. B12, 1, 1 2

c. C11, 2, 12

d. D11, 1, 1 2

e. E11, 1, 12
f. F11, 1, 12

11. Name the vector associated with each point in question 10, express it in
component form, and show the vectors associated with each of the points
in the diagrams.
12. P12, a  c, a 2 and Q12, 6, 11 2 represent the same point in R3.
a. What are the values of a and c?
!
!
b. Does @ OP @
@ OQ @ ? Explain.
13. Each of the points P1x, y, 02, Q1x, 0, z2, and R10, y, z2 represent general points
on three different planes. Name the three planes to which each corresponds.

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14. a. What is the equation of the plane that contains the points M11, 0, 3 2,
N14, 0, 6 2, and P17, 0, 9 2 ? Explain your answer.
b. Explain why the plane that contains the points M, N, and P also contains
!
!
!
the vectors OM , ON , and OP .

15. The point P12, 4, 7 2 is located in R3 as shown on the coordinate axes

below.
z

B
C

x
F
D

P(2, 4, 7)
E

a. Determine the coordinates of points A, B, C, D, E, and F.

b. What are the vectors associated with each of the points in part a.?
c. How far below the xy-plane is the rectangle DEPF?
d. What is the equation of the plane containing the points B, C, E, and P?
e. Describe mathematically the set of points contained in rectangle BCEP.
16. Draw a diagram on the appropriate coordinate system for each
of the following vectors:
!
!
!
a. OP
14, 22
c. OC
12, 4, 5 2
e. OF
10, 0, 5 2
!
!
!
b. OD
13 ,4 2
d. OM
11, 3, 2 2 f. OJ
12, 2, 0 2
PART C
T

318 6 . 5

17. Draw a diagram illustrating the set of points

51x, y, z2R3 0 0  x  1, 0  y  1, 0  z  16.
!
!
18. Show that if OP
15, 10, 10 2, then @ OP @
15.
!
19. If OP
12, 3, 6 2 and B14, 2, 8 2 , determine the coordinates of point A
!
!
such that OP
AB .

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