204

The Skillful Teacher

something to address them; gather preassessment

data to plan 'where and how to begin where the

All children need to be engaged in conver~

sation with higher-level thinking questions.

learners are in relation to our objectives. Next, we

discussed instructional moves to consider when pre-

This is especially important for children

senting information: being intentional and using a

variety of explanatory devices, monitoring your
speech and language patterns to match to the
group and prevent confusion; being explicit and
not leaving to chance that students understand the
intention of your cues, the focus of your questions,
the necessary or critical steps in directions, the
meaning behind your references; making cognitive
connections for or wi.th students by showing or
exploring how new knowledge is like something stu-

who are low in academic proficiency. Students who are three or four grade levels
behind in literacy skills are still perfectly
capable of higher-level thinking: inference.>'
analysis, connection making. Furthermore,
teachers need to engage them in this kind
of thinking if they want to keep these children engaged in school.
Questions should be planned when we are
planning lessons, and planned with more
specificity and detail than many of us are

dents already know; providing cognitive transitions

used to doing. Don't just plan the activities

between ideas; signaling shifts; and foreshadowing.

To monitor student understanding, we discussed
the importance of checking to ensure all students

and topics for discussion and then wing it

on what questions to ask as we go.
Students should be taught to ask questions.

are understanding, unscrambling confusion when

it arises, and getting students to make their thinking visible. And the final concern is in protecting
time for summarizing. Each of these is a functional
aspect of the Clarity area of performance.

Purposes of Questions
Questions are tools for accomplishing tasks. It is
the tasks that matter, and being deliberate about
what we are trying to accomplish with the question and having the repertoire of tools for accom-

Questioning
Questioning is done in classrooms for many pur-

plishing them. Question asking is not an

independent and self-contained skill. A question

areas of performance in teaching. There are four

is a tool, and not the only one, for stimulating

many important student cognitions: framing, acti-

main points about questioning

vating, connection making, analyzing, extending,

poses. We could say that it crosses nearly all the

that we want to

highlight in this chapter. Each has large implications for practice:

applying, inferring, conjuring implications, checking for understanding, identifying points of confusion, implementing
a model of teaching,

Questioning is not a unitary skill; it is an

entire toolbox, and the tools selected should

summarizing, and other tasks. Rather than trying

be matched to the instructional purpose.

Figure 9.7 shows a variety of purposes for
asking questions. Table 9.4 includes sample
questions designed for each purpose.

to develop questioning generically as some kind

of skill, it is more productive to focus on what
mental act we want to generate in students at a
given moment and what move (perhaps a question) we will make to provoke it.

205

Clarity

Figure 9.7. Purposes of Questions

Assess Current

Kno"vi,tledge and Skills

Check for Understanding

-<l

Pinpoint

SS~Sr

Confusion

~6~

"'/~

G'(~

~c,~~ Extend

Invite Self-Assessment

;.q~-1I1. Make
1ttG'

-=:-_

~6'\ Focus Thinking

Surface Misconceptions

Instructional

Decisions

Thinking

Foreshadow

PURPOSES
.b.-9.

OF

~ ~~
6~~ ~~
6\~ \~O~ Maintain
~~~~
~~~

QUESTIONS

~1I_01l?0

~v/0l/. /f~
Attention

<y~~ Control Behavior

Boost Confidence

'v<y~

Motivate

Students

Stimulate
Promote Reflection

0-11 G' <'0

Curiosity

(~-1IG:G'-1I/"v.

and Integration

'.</G'~1l?,
~ -<l~

Connect to Student Questions

Connect to Student

~-11)'~

Experience

SOUTce: Adapted from Bellon, Bellon, and Blank (1992).

Higher-Level Thinking Questions

ing is inherently more interesting and it causes cognitive processing and organization of information

Here are some interesting statistics about teacher

that builds more elaborate mental structures. The

questions. Quite consistently studies show that about

60 percent of questions are recall or factual questions. The figure can rise to 80 percent recall in some
classrooms (Cotton, 2000). Only 20 percent are higher level, and the remaining 20 percent are procedur-

point that matters is that all students should be

brought to high levels of thinking with academic
material through an appropriate balance of higherand lower-levelquestions. To stretch students, teachers have to make sure all the students are invited

al. These are not good statistics for preparing

students adequately for a twenty-first-century world.

equally into the thinking club, not just some.

Students who get instruction without higher-

Research on questioning does not say simply

that the more high-level ques.tions, the better. It

order questions score in the fiftieth percentile on

tests compared to the seventy-fifth percentile if the

does not say that low-level questions are useless:

same students engage in lessons where there are

The popular belief that lower level questions

many higher-order questions (Gall and others,

1978). The reason for this is that higher-order think-

are less effective ... has not been upheld.

Achievement is related to the use of a variety of

Table 9.4. Sample Questions

Example

Purpose of Questions
Assessing learning
Assess Current Knowledge and Skills

"Why do some objects float in water and others sink?"

Check for Understanding

"Can you tell me in your own words how photosynthesis works?"

Pinpoint Confusions

"What did you do after you entered the data?"

Surface Misconceptions

"Why do you thinkwe

Invite Self-Assessment

"Which ones do you know well, and which ones do you need to practice
tomorrow?"

Make Instructional Decisions

"Do we need more time on this?"

have winter and summer?"

Instructing
Frame Big Ideas

"What makes humans human?"

Extend Thinking

"Is this similar or different from the situation in Palestine?"

Deepen Thinking

"Go inside that now and tell me why that position might have-made sense
from his point of view."

Foreshadow

"Based on what we've explored today, why do you think the colonists decided to stay?"

Promote Transfer

"So how could you use this information about evaporation in your everyday
practical life?"

Invite Summarizing

"What do you think were the most important points made in the discussion
so far?"

Managing the learning

Environment

Boost Confidence

"How would you do it, Tim?" [Tim is not confident of his math ability, but
Mrs. Johnson has heard him propose a novel solution in his group. She
wants him to present it to the class, knowing it will be appreciated by them
and be a validating experience for Tim.]

Control Behavior

"How would you do it, Tim?" [Tim is starting to distract Millie, and Mrs.

Maintain Attention

"How would you do it, Tim?" [Tim's attention is wandering and Mrs. Johnson
startles him back into focus.]

Johnson moves toward them while asking a question to get him engaged.]

Promoting Cognitive and Emotional Engagement

Motivate Students

"What product do you most want to design an ad program for?"

Stimulate Curiosity

"What do you know about voting and elections in this country?"

Promote Active Reflection and Integration

"What are three things you've learned, two questions you have, and one

Connection to Students' Own Questions

About Deeper Meaning

"What do you think the most important things are about having a family?"

Connect to Student Experience

"In 'Stone Soup: does the villagers' reaction to the soldiers remind you of
anything you've experienced in the neighborhood?"

thing you don't understand yet?"

"What do you think the crime movie The Negotiator might have to do with
international affairs?"
Research for Better Teaching, Inc. One Acton Place, Acton, MA 01720 (978)263-9449

www.RBTeach.com

Clarity

Figure 9.8 Map of Pedagogical Knowledge

KEY CONCEPTS
Areas of Performance
Repertoire
Matching

Curriculum
Planning
Planning
Learning
Experiences

Assessment
Personal
Relationship Building

Class Climate

Expectations
Instructional
Strategies

Principles of
Learning

Clarity

Space

Models of
Teaching

Time

Attention

Routine

Momentum

Discipline

Foundation of Essential Beliefs

Research

for Better Teaching,

Inc. One Acton Place, Acton, MA 01720 (978)263-9449 www.RBTeach.com

questions designed to accomplish specific pur-

person does not know or understand [Bellon,

poses. For example, a pattern of factual ques-

Bellon, and Blank, 1992, pp. 315-316].

tions, student responses, and teacher feedback

has been found to be the most functional
mechanism for student achievement in basic
skills....

[Furthermore] successful responding

to lower level questions is a prerequisite for

higher level learning. Students need a firm base
of factual knowledge when they are engaged in
higher level thinking activities. It is impossible
to summarize or evaluate information that a

At the conclusion of an exhaustive review of

the research on questioning, Bellon, Bellon, and
Blank (1992) concluded that teachers should plan
questions and write them down in advance as part of
the planning process to accomplish the learning
objective of the lesson. If the objective of the lesson
callsfor analysisand application of information, they
may need to ask quite a few recall questions first.

207

208

The Skillful Teacher

As always in skillful teaching, the balance of

higher- to lower-level questions must be a match to
the situation. But overall, there should be a high portion of higher-level questions for all students. Here
is a summary of the research findings on higher- and
lower-cognitive questions (Cotton, 1988, p. 5):
In most classes above the primary grades, a
combination of higher- and lower-cognitive
questions is superior to the exclusive use of

and wait time is greater than an increase in

either of these variables.by itself. Indeed,
those who have examined the relationship
between these factors tell us that, in a sense,
they cause one another.
Redirection and probing are positively
related to achievement when they are
explicitly focused on the clarity, accuracy,
plausibility, and so on of student
responses.

one or the other.

Students whom teachers perceive as slow or
poor learners are asked fewer higher-cognitive questions than students perceived as
most capable learners.
Increasing the use of higher-cognitive
questions (to considerably above the 20 percent incidence noted in most classes) pro-

Bloom's Taxonomy
All students need to be invited and supported to do
higher-level thinking, no matter what their literacy
level. To do this requires a clear framework for
understanding

what higher-level thinking is. Ben-

duces superior learning gains for students

jamin Bloom and his colleagues (1956) created the

original framework for this understanding. Bloom
and Krathwohl originally listed these levels for cog-

above the primary grades and particularly

nition:

for secondary students.

For older students, increases in the use of
higher-cognitive questions (to 50 percent or
more) are positively related to increases in
on-task behavior, length of student
responses, the number of relevant contributions volunteered by students, the number
of student-to-student interactions, student

Recall
Comprehension
Analysis
Application
Evaluation
Synthesis
Many grids, like the one in Table 9.5, illustrate the different levels of thinking with specific

use of complete sentences, speculative

thinking on the part of students, and rele-

question stems and lists of verbs found at different

vant questions posed by students.

cognitive levels.

For older students, increases in the use of

higher-cognitive questions (to 50 percent or
more) are positively related to increased
teacher expectations about children's abilities, particularly the abilities of students
whom teachers habitually regarded as slow
learners.
The degree of improvement resulting from
increases in both higher-cognitive questions

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) updated the

original Bloom framework by adding the four kinds
of knowledge to be learned to the picture: factual
knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and meta-cognitive knowledge (Table
9.6). In addition, they redefined Bloom's "synthesis category" as "creating," by which they mean
"putting elements together to form a coherent or
functional whole: reorganizing elements into a new

Table 9.5. Thinking Skills Model Categories

Category

Examples of Trigger Questions

Knowledge

Define the word

Define, repeat, identify, what, label, when,

list, who, name

What is a
Label the following

Identify the

in this

Who did
Organizing

Compare the

before and after

Contrast the

to the

Classify
Order

Differentiate between

Applying

Key Words

and

by

Compare, differentiate, contrast, order,

classify, distinguish, relate

by

How is

an example of

How is

related to

Why is

significant7

Apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete,

illustrate, show, solve, examine, modify,
relate, change, classify, experiment, discover,

Predict what would happen if

. Explain.

dramatize, sketch

Choose the best statements that

applyto
_
Identify the results of

Tell how much change there would be

when
_
Analyzing

What are the basic elements (ingredients)

in a
7
What is/are the functions(s) of
Inventory the parts of
Categorize the
Sortthe

Generating

_
of

What is the order of steps in

Hypothesize what will happen if

Predict what would be true if

Integrating

Deduce, anticipate, predict what if, infer,

apply, speculate, conclude

Conclude what the result will be if

What if
instead of

Subdivide, categorize, break down, sort,

separate

had happened
7

What would you predict/infer from

What ideas can you add to

How would you create/design a new

What might happen if you combined

What solutions would you suggest for

Evaluating

Combine, integrate, modify, create, design,

invent, compose, theorize, develop, devise,
originate, revise, synthesize, conceive, project, hypothesize

What you would do if

happened? Why7

Judge what would be the best way to solve

the problem of
_
Why did you select that solution?

?
Evaluate, argue, judge, recommend, assess,
debate, appraise, critique, defend
Evaluate whether you would,
or

. Why?

SOUTee: Reprinted with permission from Chris A. Carem and Patsy B. Davis, Kappa Delta Pi Record; Fall 2005, Kappa Delta Pi, International Honor Society in Education.

210

Table 9.6.

The Skillful Teacher

Bloom's Taxonomy Updated

Know/edge

Dimensions:

The Kind of Know/edge

to Be Learned

Procedural
Knowledge:

Meta-Cognitive
Knowledge:

Basic elements that

The interrelationships
students must know to between the basic
be acquainted with a
elements within a
discipline or solve a
larger structure that
enable them to
problem within it
function together

How to do
something: methods
of inquiry, criteria for
using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods

Knowledge of
cognition in general as
well as awareness of
one's own cognition

Remember

List, recall, recognize

Describe

Tabulate

Identify appropriate use

Understand

Summarize

Interpret

Predict

Execute

Apply

Classify

Experiment

Calculate

Construct

Analyze

Order

Explain

Differentiate

Achieve

Evaluate

Rank

Assess

Conclude

Action

Create

Combine

Plan

Compose

Actualize

Factual
Knowledge:

Cognitive
Processes

Conceptual
Knowledge:

SOUTce: Updated from Anderson and Krathwohl (2001).

pattern or structure through generating, planning

or producing." They define the other basic cognitive processes as follows. (The verbs at the core of
each type of question are from Fisher, 2005, p. 4).

Remembering (the old "recall" category):

Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory.

Understanding (the old "comprehension"

category).
Constructing meaning from oral, written,
and graphic messagesthrough interpreting,
exemplifying, classifying, summarizing,
inferring, comparing, and explaining.
Applying:
Carrying out or using a procedure through
executing or implementing.
Analyzing:
Breaking material into constituent parts,
determining how the parts relate to one
another and to an overall structure or pur-

pose through differentiating, organizing,

and attributing.

Evaluating:
Making judgments based on criteria and
standards through checking and critiquing.

Creating:
Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole: reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure
through generating, planning or producing
[Reprinted with permission from Dianna
Fisher,2005).

Tools like this are useful for planning lessons. The

implication of the research on questioning for lesson planning is that we must be deliberate about
our questions and plan a route so we use them to
get all our students into higher levels of thinking.
We also have to prepare ourselves for how students
respond to the questions.