PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS

Components that Meet the Performance Demands

at All Points in the Design
WHITE PAPER
INTRODUCTION
A dramatic shift has occurred in the energy industry over the last 20 years with the introduction of
smart meters and alternative energy sources to the power grid. The emergence of alternative energy
forms and the accompanying capability to monitor power usage has highlighted the need for high
reliability systems and components to maximize power availability. Solar energy is a prime example of
a successful renewable energy form that has been used for decades to heat water and more recently as
the basis for the creation of solar farms. Solar power from photovoltaic (PV) systems is also expanding
rapidly into new applications for residential, industrial and utility use since solar panels are becoming
thinner, lighter, more flexible and the technology and supporting components overall have become
more feasible to implement. However, continued consumer demands place ongoing challenges for
developers in each aspect of the design of a PV system.
As the focus of utility organizations in many countries shifts to clean energy, various promotional
measures and mandates have been offered to incentivize the use of PV systems. For example, in order
to reduce greenhouse gases more than the original mandate, the Obama administration has tripled the
renewable mandate for energy sources for federal agencies (Kennedy). Many states are also employing
their own requirements. In February 2014, Oregon enacted a bill that requires large utilities to produce
25 % of their energy from renewables by 2025 (Sickinger). In Europe, there are current mandates
calling for 27 % of all utility-generated energy to come from renewables. In the first half of 2012, PV
installations in the United States grew by 120 % (Lesser). Micro-inverters experienced an even higher
growth of 180 % in 2011 due to residential and small business growth in the United States market.
Manufacturers in China and Europe have also seen increases in marketshare, and market demands are
trending towards PV system reliability requirements of up to 25 years.
The PV inverter is one of the key elements of a PV system, serving as the unit for power conversion,
monitoring, and communication with all aspects of the PV system. It is critical for the design to be
optimally configured to harvest the most energy possible. Quality and reliability are deciding factors
when choosing a PV inverter for a solar energy system. Performance and efficiency are demanded of the
system interfaces and communications, and surge protection is typically employed in the design. This
paper will highlight the basics of PV system operation and the role of the PV inverter. The advantages
that high quality Bourns components bring to PV inverter design will be presented in terms of
solutions for the power, measurement, control, protection and communications areas of the PV inverter.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS
PV systems have broad use in residential, commercial and central power plants. The typical PV
power system will provide 5 kW for residential plants and up to 800 kW for larger power plants.
PV power plants are differentiated from one another by factors such as the method and layout by
which modules are connected, the number of phases, and the presence of a transformer. Smaller
plants are more likely to use single-phase, whereas larger plants use a collection of single-phase or
three-phase systems.
The very nature of solar energy means that the PV system will have non-uniform operating
conditions, generating power except in the absence of light. Weather patterns, maintenance, shade
from nearby objects and the accumulation of dirt, dust, or debris are just a few of the variables that
affect the system by affecting the intensity of light that reaches the panels. By design, PV systems
must be capable of operation over a wide voltage range in order to maximize the harvested power
when high intensity light is available while maintaining operation during periods of limited light
intensity. The current and voltage from the PV system to the inverter change continually. The PV
inverter is responsible for balancing these changes as it provides the grid a consistent, smooth
input that is not discernible from other energy sources.
A conversion process is required to translate the direct current generated by the PV modules to
the alternating current used by the utility grid. This conversion makes it possible to feed the PV
generated power into a utility grid or a residential or commercial electrical network. The primary
function of a PV inverter is to perform this conversion, providing power to the grid. The tasks
and operations involved in creating seamless integration with the utility or network challenges
designers as they are not always straightforward.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
HUB OF THE PV POWER SYSTEM
The inverter is part of the overall unique design of the PV system and is integral to a quality system
that is reliable and efficient. The PV inverters functions are paramount to the successful operation
of a PV system. In order to maximize the solar energy, the inverter coordinates the operations
between the plant and the inverter as well as between the inverter and the grid, ensuring efficiency
and safety. Tasks involved in this coordination include low-loss conversion, power optimization,
monitoring and security, communication, temperature management and protection. Regardless
of the available light, the inverter must be efficient, consuming less than a few percent of available
power in the conversion process so that nearly all of the PV input can be supplied at the output of
the inverter. To deal with the continually changing voltage and current levels in the PV modules,
the concept of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) has been introduced to PV inverters.
Through MPPT the inverter can optimize the performance of each module by tracking the
operating point to the characteristic curves and adjusting the internal resistance to achieve the
maximum power from the PV modules. Monitoring and security functions ensure that the power
levels on the grid and PV sides are at safe levels and that the inverter can interrupt the current
from the PV modules. Since the inverter is handling numerous control and monitoring functions,
it is vital to have communications protocols in place for the information to flow between modules
and the other locations. In many cases, a data logger is used with multiple inverters to retrieve and
collect the data, prepare and format it, and handle its transmission.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
FROM PV PLANT TO AC VOLTAGE
Each PV plant has unique energy output, equipment, and other factors customized to meet the
specific location, system requirements and desired energy yield. The rated capacity of the PV array
is one of the first variables to determine and is typically rated to include a 10 % margin over the
inverters rated capacity. However, a greatly undersized inverter would have a negative impact on the
PV plant since it would not be able to process part of the module power supplied during periods of
high radiation. To avoid damage to the inverter, the maximum DC voltage should not exceed the
permissible inverter input voltage.
The efficiency of the converter is very important because the input should be maximized and power
loss minimized. Nonlinear current and temperature pose challenges for the inverter since the power
constantly must be adjusted between the inverter and solar modules. Internal resistance is tracked
and adjusted systematically to help ensure the inverter is tracking to its maximum power point.
Temperature and its rate of change must be monitored since rapid temperature increases can affect the
behavior of sensitive components and cause them to fail over time. The temperature of the inverter is
important since a large rise in temperature will force the inverter to reduce its power. An efficient and
reliable cooling method or installation in a perpetually cool environment will assist in the optimal
temperature solution, as will a component layout that allows dissipation directly. The inverter should
be able to work at its highest-rated capacity up to 50 C. If the housing is thermally efficient and
provides protection from environmental conditions, then the inverter can be located near the PV
modules to minimize DC power losses into the inverter and reduce wiring and its associated expense
and potential errors.
The PV modules feeding the PV inverter are energized when exposed to any light and cannot be
turned off, so the modules remain active unless in absolute dark conditions. The PV inverter must
be able to deal with this unique characteristic of a PV module. If a cable under load is separated,
then electrical arcs can occur as a result of not extinguishing the direct current into the inverter. This
introduces the need for a circuit breaker integrated directly into the inverter. Additionally, the inverter
must have a separator that is capable of disconnecting the inverter from the grid within milliseconds.
This separator is used for safety during maintenance and in the event the grid parameters (i.e., voltage,
current, impedance and frequency) are above threshold.
One of the main tasks of the inverter is to convert the DC voltage of the solar panel into AC voltage
that is compatible with the grid. AC voltages can be transmitted long distances and transformed to
other voltage levels. The inverter performs the conversion to AC and also ensures that the solar cells
are operating at their optimal working points. It is crucial that the output AC signal is clean and
exact, appearing identical to a sine wave generated by a synchronous generator. The bridge circuit for
conversion must be synchronized and contain only the highest quality components. In addition, the
components must be compatible and complement each other in their functions.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
TECHNOLOGY INSIDE THE SYSTEM
Given the many tasks of a PV inverter, Bourns components can provide an optimal technology
foundation for robust inverters in four main areas. Power conversion is handled by rectification,
power conditioning and filtering, and there is a need for protection from overcurrent and overvoltage
conditions. Panel controls and trimmers are used for control, and measurement is carried out with
current sensing and sensor position feedback devices. Port protection is critical to maintaining
communications functionality. Figure 1 illustrates the components pertaining to the main functional
blocks in the PV system.

DC Input

Solar Panel

Panel
Position Sensors

Control

Metal Oxide Varistors

Gas Discharge Tubes
Power Transient Voltage
Suppressor Diodes

IGBT Protection
Current Sense Resistors
Transformers
High Voltage Resistors

Power Supply

Transformers
Current Sense Resistors
IGBT Protection

Photovoltaic Inverter

DC / DC

IGBT Protection
Current Sense Resistors
Transformers
High Voltage Resistors

RS-485

Power Conversion
DC / AC

TVS Diodes / Arrays

TBU High-Speed
Protectors
Gas Discharge Tubes
TISP Surge Protectors

Transformers
Current Sense Resistors
IGBT Protection

Ethernet

TVS Diodes / Arrays

Transformers
ChipGuard ESD
Suppressors
TISP Surge Protectors
TBU High-Speed
Protectors

AC Output

Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs)

Gas Discharge Tubes (GDTs)
Power Transient Voltage
Suppressor Diodes

AC Grid

USB

TVS Diodes / Arrays

ChipGuard ESD
Suppressors
Multifuse Polymer
PPTC Resettable Fuses

Control, Power & Communications

Figure 1.

5/14 e/K1352

Block diagram indicates the main functional blocks of a photovoltaic inverter

PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
TECHNOLOGY INSIDE THE SYSTEM (Continued)
Power
The power conversion process occurs sequentially. First, DC input comes into the PV inverter. At this
point, Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs), Gas Discharge Tubes (GDTs), and Power Transient Voltage
Suppressor (PTVS) Diodes are used. Next, the DC to DC conversion step includes transformers,
current sense resistors, high voltage resistors and IGBT protection. The final step in power conversion
is the AC output. The same components used here as are used in the DC input stage. Power
conditioning and filtering is achieved with a variety of non-shielded and shielded surface mount
(SMT) inductors. The inductor selection will depend on size, inductance range, and rated current
range. Bourns non-shielded SMT SDR Models are an ideal choice. The Bourns SRR and SRU models
should be evaluated if a shielded inductor is required. Table 1 compares the size, range, and shape of
shielded and non-shielded Bourns inductors.

Family

Shielded

Shape

Models

Length
(mm)

Width
(mm)

Height
(mm)

Inductance
(H)

Current
(A)

SDR

no

Rectangle

5.8 - 12.7

4.5 - 12.7

2.2 - 4.8

1 - 10,000

0.08 - 7

SDR

no

Oval

6.6 - 22

4.5 - 15

4.5 - 7

0.68 - 10,000

0.07 - 16

SDR

no

Round

3 - 13 (OD)

3 - 13 (OD)

2.5 - 7

1 - 15,000

0.06 - 9.5

SDR

yes

Square

21

3.8 - 12.7

3.8 - 12.7

1.2 - 8.5

0.47 - 15,000

0.07 - 20

SDR

yes

Oval

10.5 - 18.3

8 - 14

3 - 6.8

1 - 3,300

0.1 - 4.5

SDR

yes

Octagon

23

2.8 - 10

2.8 - 10

0.9 - 4.8

0.8 - 1,000

0.15 - 8

Table 1.

Available families, models, sizes, inductance range, and current ratings of non-shielded and
shielded inverters recommended for use in PV inverters

Overcurrent Protection
Optimal overcurrent protection can be achieved when working with a proven combination
of technologies. Polymer Positive Temperature Coefficient (PPTC) devices are well-suited for
overcurrent protection. A Bourns Multifuse PPTC resettable fuse is a thermistor with virtually no
load or inductance introduced to the circuit under normal operation. The device reacts to an increase
in current by dramatically changing its resistance and creating an open circuit when the threshold is
reached. This resettable component can return to close to its original resistance value after the surge
is cleared. Bourns Multifuse PPTC resettable fuses are available with current ratings from 50 mA
to 14 A. The Bourns Model MF-RM resettable fuse is ideal for use in PV inverters at 240 V over the
current range of 1-7 A.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
TECHNOLOGY INSIDE THE SYSTEM (Continued)
Overcurrent Protection (Continued)
When resettability is not required, a Bourns SinglFuse thin film chip fuse is a good choice. It will
heat up during a surge event and once the temperature of the element exceeds its melting point, it
converts to an open circuit. Bourns SinglFuse components are available over the current range of
500 mA to 7 A with slow blow and fast acting options.
The fastest component for overcurrent protection is the Bourns TBU High-Speed Protector (HSP).
This silicon based device reacts to an overcurrent situation within nanoseconds, restricting current
to less than 10 mA and blocking voltage as well. Like Bourns Multifuse PPTCs, the Bourns TBU
HSPs are resettable and allow the circuit to resume normal operation once the overcurrent condition
is removed.

Overvoltage Protection
A collection of components is used to provide robust overvoltage protection. A Power Transient
Voltage Suppressor (PTVS) diode is used to clamp surge voltages by rapidly moving from high
impedance to a non-linear resistance characteristic. Bourns PTVS diodes are rated for use in
circuits with 3 kA to 10 kA current and meet IEC 61000-4-5 8/20 s current surge requirements.
PTVS diodes are silicon-based and offer lower clamping voltage under surge than the Bourns MOV
technology. In clamping surges, an MOV can absorb a substantial amount of the surge energy in its
7 mm - 20 mm package. The current of this voltage-dependent resistor will increase exponentially
with increasing voltage.
A GDT is a high impedance device that creates a short circuit under surge conditions, and returns
to a high impedance state after the surge. GDTs offer several options depending on the expected
current and voltage. Bourns Models 2061 and 2063 GDTs can handle high current in the 40-60 kA
range, and Bourns Model 2097 handles higher voltages above 1 kV at a lower current level of 20
kA. Bourns Model SA2 high voltage GDT can handle even larger voltages (2.4 kV), at the slightly
lower current of 5 kA. Finally, Transient Voltage Suppressor (TVS) diodes and arrays can be used for
clamping on lower voltage lines. The Bourns Model CDSOT23, CDSOT236, and CDSOD323 TVS
diodes are well-suited for this function in PV inverters.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
TECHNOLOGY INSIDE THE SYSTEM (Continued)
Control and Measurement
A PV inverter may require adjustment in several places through Human-to-Machine Interaction
(HMI) controls. The technology behind the control can have an analog or digital output to the circuit,
though the interface to the user is identical. Analog technology includes single and multiturn panel
controls and sealed trimmers. Digital signals will be either incremental, such that the measurement
indicates the difference between the current and previous position, or absolute, such that the exact
position is provided. Absolute controls are typically more expensive, though incremental controls
require addition circuitry if the position must persist through a power cycle. Bourns offers digital
technology solutions that include contacting, optical, and magnetic encoders.
Machine-to-Machine Interface (MMI) is used to provide position feedback to the system from other
parts of the system that may be adjusted during operation such as the tilt or position of the solar
panel. As with HMI controls, the MMI position feedback sensor can provide analog or digital output.
For all of these controls, Bourns offers customization options such as rugged sensors that can be used
even in obscure locations or harsh conditions.
Current sensing is another form of measurement that is vital to the operation of the inverter, and is
provided by Bourns open air shunts and metal strip SMD resistors. Low inductance, resistance, and
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR), high peak power and temperature ratings and tight
tolerances are important features provided in Bourns current sensing components.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
TECHNOLOGY INSIDE THE SYSTEM (Continued)
Communication Port Protection
Several communications protocols are utilized in PV systems. Bourns offers proven solutions for
virtually all industrial interfaces. Designers can reference example circuits illustrated in Bourns
single-page PortNote Solutions for port types including RS-485, Ethernet, USB 2.0, USB 3.0, PoE for
powered device and power-sourcing equipment, and Gigabit Ethernet (GbE).
As shown in Figure 2, Bourns offers an especially efficient solution for GbE. It uses advanced Bourns
Transient Current Suppression (TCS) high-speed protector technology to provide a very fast
response to transient surge conditions with low let-through energy. This protection circuit includes
the Bourns TCS HSP, Bourns Model SM51589L Ethernet transformer, and a generic clamp diode
such as the BAV99S model to supply and ground. The Bourns Model TCS-DL004-250-WH TCS
HSP reduces the current seen by the GbE PHY signal input after the initial peak by about 90 %. It also
isolates the PHY inputs from the voltage across the TVS diode by more than 50 %. The peak PHY
input voltage is determined by its ESD protection and the current through the Model TCS-DL device.

1/4 SM51589L
Ethernet Transformer
Ethernet
PHY

GND
Bourns
TCS-DL004250-WH Vcc

To
Line

Vcc

1 CT : 1 CT

GND
BAV99S

Figure 2.

Gigabit Ethernet port protection solution uses an advanced transient current

suppressor, a generic diode, and Ethernet transformer for efficient protection

The dual-channel TCS HSP device provides a well-matched low resistance. It has excellent linearity
with a low insertion loss at data rates up to at least 6 GHz. High efficiency and reduced strain on
the other components in the circuit make this solution noteworthy. This circuit is an example of
how Bourns technology remains up-to-date with application demands, including achieving desired
results in a small footprint on the printed circuit board.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS
Components that Meet the Performance Demands at All Points in the Design
WORKING WITH BOURNS
Bourns has an extensive history of providing reliable solutions that have been proven in a variety of
power, measurement and control, circuit protection, and communications applications. Additional
advantages gained from selecting Bourns components include customization, value-added options,
and a world-class global supply chain. An extensive portfolio of customized magnetics, energyefficient shunts, sensors and controls, resistors, and low conductive in-circuit current protection
products assist in efficient management of the PV inverter system. Bourns surge and circuit
protection expertise enables sensitive circuits to operate reliably due to thorough testing performed
to compliance standards. Integrated solutions are also available to assist in increasing reliability
with the added benefit of reducing the physical footprint and bill of material costs. Bourns is
committed to continual technology enhancements in terms of durability, size, system compatibility,
and other features to fit the broad needs of PV systems. The company strives to provide reliable,
comprehensive long-life solutions to applications in even the most challenging environments.

REFERENCES
Kennedy, C. (2013, December 7). White House Triples Agency Renewable Energy Mandates.

White House Triples Agency Renewable Energy Mandates. Retrieved May 2. 2014.

<http://oilprice.com/Alternative-Energy/Renewable-Energy/White-House-Triples-Agency-Renewable-Energy-Mandates.html>

Sickinger, T. (2014, February 26). Oregon Senate passes bill to protect state renewable energy mandates.

OregonLive.com. Retrieved May 2. 2014.

<http://www.oregonlive.com/politics/index.ssf/2014/02/oregon_senate_passes_bill_to_p_1.html>

Lesser, A. (2014, January 28). The EUs decision to focus on emissions limits rather than renewables mandates.

Gigaom Research. Retrieved May 2. 2014.

<http://research.gigaom.com/2014/01/the-eus-decision-to-focus-on-emissions-limits-rather-than-renewables-mandates/>

For more information and for a complete list of Bourns products, please visit:

www.bourns.com
COPYRIGHT 2014 BOURNS, INC. 5/14 e/K1352
SinglFuse and TCS are trademarks of Bourns, Inc. PortNote is a registered service mark of Bourns, Inc.
Bourns, TBU, TISP, Multifuse and ChipGuard are registered trademarks of Bourns, Inc. in the U.S. and other countries.

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