The hydrolysis of metal ions

in aqueous solution.

Metal aqua ions:

Metal ions in aqueous solution exist as aqua ions, where
water molecules act as ligands, and coordinate to the
metal ion via the oxygen donor atoms as shown for the
[Al(H2O)6]3+ hexaaqua ion below:
Figure 1. The aluminum(III) hexaaqua
ion, present in aqueous solution and
in many salts such as [Al(H2O)6]Cl3,
often written as AlCl3.6H2O.

Metal ions can have varying numbers of water molecules

coordinated to them, ranging from four for the very
small Be(II) ion, up to 9 for the large La(III) ion. These
are shown in Figure 2.

coordination number = 4

coordination number = 9

Figure 2. The Be(II) and La(III) aqua ions, Be(II) generated using PM3, the
La(III) is from the CSD (Cambridge Structural Database)1, entry number SUDDAW.
As shown, the geometry around the La3+ is a tricapped trigonal prism, a common
geometry for nine-coordinate species with unidentate ligands.

The inner and outer sphere of waters around

metal ions in solution:

In the solid state, the H-atoms of the coordinated waters

are almost always H-bonded to other waters, or anions
such as nitrate or perchlorate. In aqueous solution, this
H-bonding structures the water molecules around the
aqua ion into what is called the outer-sphere of
solvating water molecules, while the water molecules
coordinated directly to the metal ion are referred to as
the inner-sphere waters. This is illustrated for the
Al(III) aqua ion below, where each H-atom from an
inner-sphere water has a water molecule H-bonded to it,
giving twelve water molecules in the outer-sphere:

Figure 3. The Al(III) aqua ion showing the six inner-sphere

waters (colored green) and twelve outer-sphere waters
H-bonded to the inner-sphere.

Diagrammatic representation of the inner and outer

sphere of waters around a metal ion in solution:
BULK
SOLVENT

inner-sphere of
waters coordinated to the metal
ion via M-O bonds

n+

BULK
SOLVENT

outer-sphere of
more structured
waters held to the
inner-sphere by
H-bonding and
electrostatic
attraction
BULK
SOLVENT

A point of interest is that water can exist also as a

bridging ligand, as in numerous complexes such as those
shown below:

Figure 4. Bridging waters as found in a) the

[Li2(H2O)6]2+ cation (CSD = CELGUV) and b) the
[Na2(H2O)10]2+ cation (CSD = ECEPIL).

Metal aqua ions as Bronsted acids:

Metal aqua ions can act as Brnsted acids, which means
that they can act as proton donors. Thus, an aqua ion
such as [Fe(H2O)6]3+ is a fairly strong acid, and has2 a
pKa of 2.2. This means that the equilibrium constant for
the following equilibrium has a value of 10-2.2.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) [Fe(H2O)5OH]2+(aq) + H+(aq)
[1]
Thus, if one dissolves a ferric salt, such as FeCl3.6H2O in
water, a fairly acidic solution of pH about 2 will result. In
fact, the orange color of such solutions is due to the
presence of the [Fe(H2O)5OH]2+ ion, and the
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ cation is actually a very pale lilac color. The
latter color can be seen in salts such as Fe(NO3)3.9 H2O,
which contains the [Fe(H2O)6]3+ cation.

The formation constant (K):

The formation constant (K1) is a measure of the stability
of a complex (ML) formed by a metal ion (M) with a
ligand (L) in aqueous solution, and refers to the
equilibrium:
M

ML

The constant is expressed as:

K1

[ ML ]
[M][L]

K values are usually rather large, and so are usually

given as log K values.

Formation constants (K1) of metal ions with

hydroxide:
As already mentioned, the hydroxide ion is a ligand. So
when, for example, [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ is formed, we can
regard this as replacement of a coordinated water by
hydroxide, rather than as loss of a proton. The two
equations are related as follows:
[Fe(H2O)6]3+

[Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H+ pKa = 2.2

[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + OH- [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H2O

log K1 = pKw pKa
= 14.0 2.2
= 11.8

Factors that control the acidity of metal ions in

aqueous solution:
Metal aqua ions display varying pKa values that are dependent
on size, charge, and electronegativity.
1) The smaller the metal ion, the more acidic it will be.
Thus, we have for the group 2 metal ions the following pKa
values (note that ionic radii3 increase down a group):

increasing
metal ion
size

increasing
metal ion
acidity

Metal ion:

Be2+

Mg2+

Ca2+

Sr2+

Ba2+

Ionic radius (): 0.27

pKa:
5.6
log K1(OH-)
8.4

0.74
11.4
2.6

1.00
12.7
1.3

1.18
13.2
0.8

1.36
13.4
0.6

The effect of the charge on the metal ion on

acidity:
The higher the charge on metal ions of about the
same size, the more acidic will the metal ion be:

increasing
metal ion
charge

Metal ion:

Na+

Ionic radius ():

pKa:
Log K1(OH-):

1.02
14.1
-0.1

Ca2+
1.00
12.7
1.3

La3+

Th4+

1.03
8.5
5.5

0.94
3.2
10.6
increasing
metal ion
acidity

The effect of electronegativity of the metal

on the acidity of its aquo ion:
3) Electronegativity. This was discussed in lecture 5,
but is repeated here briefly as a reminder. The closer a
metal is to Au in the periodic table, the higher will its
electronegativity be. Electronegativity tends to override
the first two factors in controlling the acidity of metal
aqua ions, and metal ions of higher electronegativity will
be much more acidic than metal ions of similar size and
charge, but of low electronegativity.
metal ion forms
stronger M-O
bond and pulls
electron density
from the O-H
bond

reduced electron density

in O-H bond leads to
easier loss of a proton:

Figure 5. Electronegativities of the elements.

Thus, one sees that Pb2+ has a high electronegativity

(E.N.) of 1.9, while the similarly sized and charged Sr2+
will have a low E.N. of 1.0, and consequently much
lower acidity. Similar results are observed for other pairs
of metal ions such as Ca2+ and Hg2+ (these results can
be rationalized by referring to the above periodic table in
Figure 5):
Higher electronegativity
Metal ion:

Sr2+

Pb2+

Ca2+

Ionic radius
():
1.19
E.N.
1.0
pKa
13.2
log K1(OH-) 0.8

1.18
1.9
8.0
6.0

1.00
1.0
12.7
1.3

Higher acidity/affinity for OH-

Hg2+

1.02
1.9
3.4
10.6

Species distribution diagrams for metal ions:

One finds, as for acids such as CH3COOH, that metal ions are 50%
hydrolyzed at the pH that corresponds to their pKa. This can be
summarized as a species distribution diagram as shown below:

Figure 6. Species distribution

diagram for Cu(II) in aqueous
solution. Other solution species
such as [Cu(OH)2] have been
ignored in calculating the
diagram. Note that the concentrations of Cu2+ and Cu(OH)+
are equal at a pH equal to the
pKa of 7.3. Note that log K1(OH-)
for Cu(II) = 14 7.3 = 6.7.
pH

Solubility of metal hydroxides and amphoteric

behavior.

Kso= [Fe3+] [OH-]3 =

Fe(OH)3 (s)
precipitate

10-39

pH = 6.4
[ Fe3+ ] = 10-16 M

Solubilities of metal hydroxides.

If one leaves an orange solution of a ferric salt to stand,
after a while it will clear, and an orange precipitate of
Fe(OH)3(s) will form. The extent to which Fe3+ can exist
in solution as a function of pH can be calculated from
the solubility product, Kso. For Fe(OH)3(s) the expression
for Kso is given by:
maximum Fe3+ conc at [OH-] indicated

Kso =

[Fe3+] [OH-]3

10-39

[2]

One thus finds that the maximum concentration of Fe3+

in solution is controlled by pH, as detailed on the next
slide.

Note that we need [OH-] in expression 2, which is

obtained from the pH from equation 3.
pKw

pH

pOH

= 14

[3]

Thus, if the pH is 2, then pOH = 12, and so on. pOH is

related to [OH-] in the same way as pH is related
to [H+].
pH
pOH

=
=

-log [H+]
-log [OH-]

[4]
[5]

So, to calculate the maximum concentration of [ Fe3+ ]

at pH 6.4, we use eqs. [3] to [5] to calculate that at pH
6.4, pOH = 7.6, so that [OH-] = 10-7.6 M. This is then
used in equation [2] to calculate that [Fe3+] is given by:

Problem. What is the maximum [Fe3+] at pH 6.4?

From the previous page, at pH 6.4 we have [OH-] =
10-7.6 M. Thus, putting [OH-] = 10-7.6 M into equation 2,
we get:
10-39

= [

Fe3+

] x [

10-7.6 ]3

= 3 x -7.6

[ Fe3+] = 10-39 / 10-22.8 = 10-16 M

Note that for a metal ion Mn+ of valence n that forms a
solid hydroxide precipitate M(OH)n, the equation has the
[OH-] raised to the power n. For example:
Pb2+ forms Pb(OH)2(s): Kso = 10-14.9 = [Pb2+][OH-]2
Th4+ forms Th(OH)4(s):
Kso = 10-50.7 = [Th4+][OH-]4

Problem: What is the maximum concentration of [Th4+] in

aqueous solution at pH 4.2? (log Kso = -50.7)

At pH 4.2 pOH = 14 4.2 = 9.8.

Thus, [OH-] = 10-9.8 M, so we have:
10-50.7

[Th4+] [10-9.8]4

10-50.7

[Th4+] x 10-39.2

[Th4+]

10-50.7 / 10-39.2
= -50.7 (- 39.2)

10-11.5 M

Factors that control the solubility of metal

hydroxides.
It is found that Kso is, like pKa for aqua ions, a function
of metal ion size, charge and electronegativity. Thus,
Fe3+ is a small ion of fairly high charge, and not-too-low
electronegativity, and so forms a hydroxide of low
solubility. Thus, the hydroxide of Na+, which is NaOH, is
highly soluble in water, while at the other extreme,
Pu(OH)4(s) is of very low solubility (Kso = 10-62.5). The
latter fact is fortunate, because the highly radioactive
Pu(IV) is not readily transported in water, since it exists
as a precipitated hydroxide. Examples of the effect of
charge on solubility of hydroxides are:
Ag+
Cd2+
La3+
Th4+
log Kso:
-7.4
-14.1
-20.3
-50.7

Metal oxides and hydroxides.

Metal oxides can be regarded simply as dehydrated
hydroxides. Metal hydroxides can usually be heated to
give the oxides, although sometimes very high
temperatures are required:
2 Al(OH)3(s)

Al2O3(s) + 3 H2O(g)

[6]

The formation of ceramics involves such firing of

hydrated metal salts in a kiln, with waters of hydration
being driven off. The oxides tend to be less soluble than
the freshly precipitated hydroxides, and on standing
many hydroxides lose water, and age. Thus, aged
precipitates of hydroxides can be much less soluble than
freshly precipitated hydroxides. Fresh CaO is quite
water soluble, but old samples can be highly insoluble.

Amphoteric behavior.
When one looks at the periodic table, one finds that at the
very left, metal oxides are basic. That means that if they
are dissolved in water, they give basic solutions:
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) = 2 Na+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)

[7]

On the right hand side, metal oxides dissolve to give acidic

solutions, as with sulfur trioxide:
SO3(s) + H2O (l) = 2 H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

[8]

There is a transitional area where the metals can display

both basic and acidic behavior. This is called amphoteric
behavior.

Amphoteric behavior of Al(III) in aqueous

solution:
Al(III) can display both acidic properties and basic
properties:
tetrahydroxy aluminate anion
Acidic: Al2O3(s) + 2 OH- (aq) 2 [Al(OH)4]- (aq)
[9]
Basic: Al2O3(s) + 6 H+ (aq) 2 [Al(OH2)6]3+ (aq)
[10]
hexaaqua aluminum(III) cation

At high pH Al2O3 is acidic, while at low pH it is basic. The

range of existence of the species [Al(H2O)6]3+,
[Al(H2O)5(OH)]2+, and [Al(OH)4]- is shown in the species
distribution diagram below:

Species distribution diagram for Al(III) in aqueous

solution:
cross-hatched
pH range = range
where Al(OH)3 (s)
precipitate forms
(pH ~ 4 to pH~9)

Al3+
soluble

Al(OH)3 (s)

insoluble

soluble

Amphoteric metal ions in the periodic

table:
Metal ions that are amphoteric in the periodic table are
highlighted in red below:
Zone of amphoteric metal ions

Be(II)
Mg(II)
Zn(II)
Cd(II)
Hg(II)

B(III)
Al(III)
Ga(III)
Br
In(III)
Tl(III)

C
Si

N
P
Ge

Sn (II)
Pb(II)

O
S

F
Cl
As

Sb
Bi(III)

Te
Po

Se
I

The species formed at high pH are, for example, the

tetrahedral ions [Be(OH)4]2-, [Zn(OH)4]2-, [Al(OH)4]-,
[Ga(OH)4]-, and [In(OH)4]-.

Hard and Soft Acids and Bases.

Hard and Soft Acids and Bases.

Pearsons Principle of Hard and Soft Acids and
Bases (HSAB) can be stated as follows:

Hard Acids prefer to bond with

Hard Bases, and Soft Acids
prefer to bond with Soft Bases.
This can be illustrated by the formation
constants (log K1) for a hard metal ion, a soft
metal ion, and an intermediate metal ion,
with the halide ions in Table 1:

Table 1. Formation constants with halide ions for a

representative hard, soft and intermediate metal ion .
_________________________________________________

Log K1

hard
F-

Cl-

Br-

soft
I-

classification

_________________________________________________
soft-soft interaction

soft

Ag+

0.4

3.3

4.7

6.6

Pb2+
1.3
intermediate

0.9

1.1

1.3

Fe3+

1.4

0.5

6.0

hard

_________________________________________________
hard-hard interaction

Hard and Soft Acids and Bases.

What one sees in Table 1 is that the soft Ag+
ion strongly prefers the heavier halide ions Cl-,
Br-, and I- to the F- ion, while the hard Fe3+ ion
prefers the lighter F- ion to the heavier halide
ions. The intermediate Pb2+ ion shows no
strong preferences either way. The distribution
of hardness/softness of ligand donor atoms in
the periodic Table is as follows:

Distribution of Hard and Soft Bases by donor

atom in the periodic Table:

C
F

Cl

As

Se

Br
I

Figure 2. Distribution of hardness and softness for potential donor atoms

for ligands in the Periodic Table.

Distribution of Hard and Soft Bases by donor

atom in the Periodic Table.

The hardness of ligands tends to show, as seen

in Figure 2, a discontinuity between the lightest
member of each group, and the heavier
members. Thus, one finds that the metal ion
affinities of NH3 are very different from metal
ion affinities for phosphines such as PPh3 (Ph =
phenyl), but that the complexes of PPh3 are very
similar to those of AsPh3. A selection of ligands
classified according to HSAB ideas are:

Hard and Soft Bases.

HARD: H2O, OH-, CH3COO-, F-, NH3,
oxalate (-OOC-COO-), en (NH2CH2CH2NH2).
SOFT: Br-, I-, SH-, CH3S-, (CH3)2S,
S=C(NH2)2 (thiourea), P(CH3)3, PPh3,
As(CH3)3, CN-, -S-CN (thiocyanate, Sbound)
INTERMEDIATE: C6H5N (pyridine), N3(azide), -N=C=S (thiocyanate, N-bound),
Cl(donor atoms underlined)

A very soft metal ion, Au(I):

The softest metal ion is the Au+(aq) ion. It is so soft that
the compounds AuF and Au2O are unknown. It forms
stable compounds with soft ligands such as PPh3 and
CN-. The affinity for CN- is so high that it is recovered in
mining operations by grinding up the ore and then
suspending it in a dilute solution of CN-, which dissolves
the Au on bubbling air through the solution:
4 Au(s) + 8 CN-(aq) + O2(g) + 2 H2O =
4 [Au(CN)2]-(aq) + 4 OH-

The aurocyanide ion is linear, with two-coordinate Au(I).

This is typical for Au(I), that it prefers linear twocoordination. This coordination geometry is seen in other
complexes of Au(I), such as [AuPPh3CN], for example.
Neighboring metal ions such as Ag(I) and Hg(II) are also
very soft, and show the same unusual preference for
two-coordination.
P
Au

Au
C

a)

b)

Typical linear coordination geometry found

for Au(I) in a) [Au(CN)2]- and b) [Au(CN)(PPh3)]

phenyl
group

A very hard metal ion, Al(III):

An example of a very hard metal ion is Al(III). It
has a high log K1 with F- of 7.0, and a
reasonably high log K1(OH-) of 9.0. It has
virtually no affinity in solution for heavier halides
such as Cl-. Its solution chemistry is dominated
by its affinity for F- and for ligands with negative
O-donors.
One can rationalize HSAB in terms of the idea
that soft-soft interactions are more covalent,
while hard-hard interactions are ionic. The
covalence of the soft metal ions relates to their
higher electronegativity, which in turns depends
on relativistic effects.

What one needs to be able to comment on is

sets of formation constants such as the
following:
Metal ion:

Ag+

Ga3+

Pb2+

log K1(OH-):
log K1(SH-):

2.0
11.0

11.3
8.0

6.0
6.0

What is obvious here is that the soft Ag+ ion

prefers the soft SH- ligand to the hard OHligand, whereas for the hard Ga3+ ion the
opposite is true. The intermediate Pb2+ ion has
no strong preference.

Another set of examples is given by:

Metal ion:

Ag+

H+

Log K1 (NH3):

3.3

9.2

Log K1 (PPh3):

8.2

0.6

Again, the soft Ag+ ion prefers the soft phosphine ligand, while the
hard H+ prefers the hard N-donor.

Thiocyanate, an ambidentate ligand:

Thiocyanate (SCN-) is a particularly interesting ligand. It
is ambidentate, and can bind to metal ions either
through the S or the N. Obviously, it prefers to bind to
soft metal ions through the S, and to hard metal ions
through the N. This can be seen in the structures of
[Au(SCN)2]- and [Fe(NCS)6]3- in Figure 3 below:
Figure 3. Thiocyanate
Complexes showing
a) N-bonding in the
[Fe(NCS)6]3complex with the hard
Fe(III) ion, and
b) S-bonding in the
[Au(SCN)2]- complex
with the soft Au(I) ion

Cu(I) and Cu(II) with thiocyanate:

In general, intermediate metal ions also tend to bond to
thiocyanate through its N-donors. A point of particular
interest is that Cu(II) is intermediate, but Cu(I) is soft.
Thus, as seen in Figure 4, [Cu(NCS)4]2- with the
intermediate Cu(II) has N-bonded thiocyanates, but in
[Cu(SCN)3]2-, with the soft Cu(I), S-bonded thiocyanates
are present.
Figure 4. Thiocyanate
complexes of the
intermediate Cu(II) ion
and soft Cu(I) ion. At a)
the thiocyanates are
N-bonded in [Cu(NCS)4]2with the intermediate
Cu(II), but at b) the
thiocyanates in
[Cu(SCN)3]2-, with the soft
Cu(I), are S-bonded.