Rain

Rain

A rain shaft at the base of a thunderstorm

Torrential rain in Greece.

Part of the nature series

Weather
Calendar seasons

Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Tropical seasons

Dry season
Wet season
Storms

Thunderstorm (Thundersnow)

Supercell

Downburst

Lightning

Tornado

Waterspout

Tropical cyclone (Hurricane)

Extratropical cyclone

Winter storm

Blizzard

Ice storm

Dust storm

Firestorm

Cloud
Precipitation

Drizzle (Freezing drizzle)

Rain (Freezing rain)

Snow (Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller)

Graupel

Ice pellets

Hail

Rain

2
Topics

Meteorology

Climate

Weather forecasting

Heat wave

Air pollution

Cold wave
Weather portal

Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then
precipitatedthat is, become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and
is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of
ecosystem, as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation.
The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture
contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from
convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can
organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is
maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as
rainfall along the sides of mountains. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air
caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass. The movement of the monsoon trough,
or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes.
The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities. Global
warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern
North America and drier conditions in the tropics.[citation needed] Antarctica is the driest continent. The globally
averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 millimetres (28.1in), but over the whole Earth it is much higher at
990 millimetres (39in).[1] Climate classification systems such as the Kppen climate classification system use
average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain
gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar.
Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid or even
iron rather than water.

Formation
Water-saturated air
Air contains water vapor and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the mixing ratio, is measured
in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg).[2][3] The amount of moisture in air is also commonly reported as
relative humidity; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature.[4] How
much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100%relative humidity) and forms into a
cloud (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface)[5] depends on its
temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one
way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in
order to become saturated.[6]
There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling,
radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands.[7] The air can rise
due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift).
Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface,[8] usually by being blown from one

Rain

3
surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the
emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath.[9] Evaporative cooling occurs when
moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature,
or until it reaches saturation.[10]
The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion,[] precipitation or
virga falling from above,[11] daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet
land,[12] transpiration from plants,[13] cool or dry air moving over warmer water,[14] and lifting air over mountains.[]
Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds.
Elevated portions of weather fronts (which are three-dimensional in nature)[15] force broad areas of upward motion
within the Earth's atmosphere which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus.[] Stratus is a stable cloud
deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to
the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.[16]

Coalescence
Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water
droplets. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to
remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide,
producing larger droplets. As these larger water droplets descend,
coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to
overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens
most often in clouds above freezing, and is also known as the warm
rain process.[17] In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain
enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than
coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water
droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water
droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition,
because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground
level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[18]
The shape of rain drops depend upon their size

Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to 9 millimetres (0.0039 to 0.35

in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is
spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the
oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom, like hamburger buns; very large
ones are shaped like parachutes.[19] Contrary to popular belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.[20] The
biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the Marshall Islands in 2004 some of them were as
large as 10 millimetres (0.39in). The large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles or by
collisions between drops in small regions with particularly high content of liquid water.[21]
Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short
duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.[][22] Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be
larger than other rain drops.[23] Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops due to
their larger mass to drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 millimetres (0.020in) drizzle impacts at 2 metres
per second (4.5mph) (2 m/s or 6.6ft/s), while large 5 millimetres (0.20in) drops impact at around 9 metres per
second (20mph) (9 m/s or 30ft/s).[24] The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by bubbles of air oscillating
underwater.[25][26] The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.[]

Rain

Causes
Frontal activity
Stratiform (a broad shield of precipitation with a relatively similar intensity) and dynamic precipitation (convective
precipitation which is showery in nature with large changes in intensity over short distances) occur as a consequence
of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s), such as in the vicinity of cold fronts and near and
poleward of surface warm fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside of the eyewall, and in
comma-head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones.[] A wide variety of weather can be found along an
occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass.
Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas.[] What separates rainfall from other precipitation
types, such as ice pellets and snow, is the presence of a thick layer of air aloft which is above the melting point of
water, which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches the ground. If there is a shallow near surface layer
that is below freezing, freezing rain (rain which freezes on contact with surfaces in subfreezing environments) will
result.[27] Hail becomes an increasingly infrequent occurrence when the freezing level within the atmosphere
exceeds 11,000 feet (3,400m) above ground level.[]

Convection
Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective
clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus. It falls as showers
with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a
certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have
limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to
be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform
precipitation also occurs.[][28] Graupel and hail indicate convection.[29]
In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often
associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines,
and warm fronts.[30]

Convective precipitation

Orographic effects
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains
and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air
across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and
condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively
consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate
usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the
leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift,
leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally
warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[]

Orographic precipitation

In Hawaii, Mount Waialeale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the second highest
average annual rainfall on Earth, with 460 inches (12,000mm).[31] Systems known as Kona storms affect the state
with heavy rains between October and April.[32] Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their
topography, divisible into windward (Koolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher
mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are
drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[33]

Rain

5
In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a
desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[] The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in
North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[34][35]

Within the tropics

The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering
one or more months, when most of the average annual
rainfall in a region falls.[36] The term green season is
also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist
authorities.[37] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed
across portions of the tropics and subtropics.[38]
Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes
have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests
technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their
rainfall is equally distributed through the year.[] Some
areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in
rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence
Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the
zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their
wet season at that location
[]
location during the middle of the warm season. When
the wet season occurs during the warm season, or
summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air
quality improves,[39] freshwater quality improves,[40][41] and vegetation grows significantly.
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low
pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern
hemisphere) or counter clockwise (northern hemisphere).[42] Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives
and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may
bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[] Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall
from a tropical cyclone passage.[43]

Human influence
The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other
human sources of pollution forms cloud condensation nuclei, leads
to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of rain. As
commuters and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over
the course of the week, the likelihood of rain increases: it peaks by
Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been built up.
In heavily populated areas that are near the coast, such as the
United States' Eastern Seaboard, the effect can be dramatic: there
is a 22% higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on Mondays.[44]
Image of Atlanta, Georgia showing temperature
The urban heat island effect warms cities 0.6 C (1.1F) to 5.6 C
distribution,
with blue showing cool temperatures, red
(10.1F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra
warm, and hot areas appear white.
heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional
shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of
cities
are
increased
between
48%
and
116%.
Partly
as
a
result
of

Rain

6
this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 20 to
40 miles (32 to 64 km) downwind of cities, compared with
upwind.[45] Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of
51%.[46]
Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which can
lead to more precipitation. Precipitation generally increased over
land north of 30N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over
the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically
significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century,
although trends have varied widely by region and over time.
Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period
1999 to 2008 with respect to the average temperatures
Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe,
from 1940 to 1980
and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the
Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have
become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the
past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughtsespecially in the tropics and
subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of midand high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less
precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an
average rate of 6.1percent since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6
percent per century) and the South (11.1percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (-9.25percent).[47]
The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding which include techniques used to
increase winter precipitation over mountains and suppress hail.[]

Characteristics
Patterns
Rainbands are cloud and precipitation areas which are
significantly elongated. Rainbands can be stratiform or
convective,[48] and are generated by differences in temperature.
When noted on weather radar imagery, this precipitation
elongation is referred to as banded structure.[49] Rainbands in
advance of warm occluded fronts and warm fronts are associated
with weak upward motion,[50] and tend to be wide and stratiform
in nature.[51]
Rainbands spawned near and ahead of cold fronts can be squall
Band of thunderstorms seen on a weather radar display
lines which are able to produce tornadoes.[52] Rainbands
associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers
perpendicular to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level barrier jet.[53] Bands of thunderstorms can
form with sea breeze and land breeze boundaries, if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze rainbands become
active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location of the cold front itself.[54]
Once a cyclone occludes, a trough of warm air aloft, or "trowal" for short, will be caused by strong southerly winds
on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately northwestern, periphery (also known as the
warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded
front. The trowal creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known as its comma head, due to the comma-like shape
of the mid-tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy

Rain

7
precipitation, with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the trowal is unstable enough for convection.[]
Banding within the comma head precipitation pattern of an extratropical cyclone can yield significant amounts of
rain.[55] Behind extratropical cyclones during fall and winter, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm bodies
of water such as the Great Lakes. Downwind of islands, bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low
level wind convergence downwind of the island edges. Offshore California, this has been noted in the wake of cold
fronts.[56]
Rainbands within tropical cyclones are curved in orientation. Tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers and
thunderstorms that, together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a hurricane or tropical storm. The extent of
rainbands around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's intensity.[57]

Acidity
The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East
Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH
of 5.0-5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a
pH of 3.8-4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0.[58]
Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids,
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Sulfuric acid is derived
from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing
bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil
fuels, and mining where H2S is present. Nitric acid is produced by
natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the
combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid
has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as
ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH.[59]

Kppen climate classification

The Kppen classification depends on
average monthly values of temperature
and precipitation. The most commonly
used form of the Kppen classification
has five primary types labeled A
through E. Specifically, the primary
types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild
mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and
E,
polar.
The
five
primary
classifications can be further divided
into secondary classifications such as
rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna,
humid subtropical, humid continental,
oceanic
climate,
Mediterranean
climate, steppe, subarctic climate,
tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.

Updated Kppen-Geiger climate map (direct: Final Revised Paper)

Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between
1,750 and 2,000 millimetres (69 and 79 in).[61] A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to
semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 millimetres (30

Rain

8
and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America,
Malaysia, and Australia.[] The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall is associated with large storms
that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional
tropical cyclones.[62] Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20 and
40 degrees away from the equator.[63]
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's
continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation
year round.[64] The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin,
parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of
central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.[65] A steppe is a dry
grassland.[66] Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.[]

Measurement
Gauges
Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour,[67] or
in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour.[68] The "length", or
more accurately, "depth" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate
on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an
hour.[69] One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square
meter.[70]
The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can
be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[71] The inner
cylinder is filled by 25mm (0.98in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder.
Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25mm (0.0098in)
resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate
0.25mm (0.0098in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is
discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in
Standard rain gauge
the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty.[72]
Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket
rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[73] For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that
is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what
ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough
know-how.[74]
When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where
rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[75][76] If a network is
not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather or met office will likely be interested in the
measurement.[77]

Rain

Remote sensing
One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the
amount of precipitations fallen over large basins for hydrological
purposes.[78] For instance, river flood control, sewer management
and dam construction are all areas where planners use rainfall
accumulation data. Radar-derived rainfall estimates compliment
surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce
radar accumulations, rain rates over a point are estimated by using
the value of reflectivity data at individual grid points. A radar
equation is then used, which is,
,

Twenty-four hour rainfall accumulation on the Val

where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall

d'Irne radar in Eastern Canada. Zones without data in
[79]
the east and southwest are caused by beam blocking
rate, and A and b are constants.
Satellite derived rainfall
from mountains. (Source: Environment Canada)
estimates use passive microwave instruments aboard polar orbiting
as well as geostationary weather satellites to indirectly measure
rainfall rates.[80] If one wants an accumulated rainfall over a time period, one has to add up all the accumulations
from each grid box within the images during that time.

1988 Rain in the U.S. The heaviest rain is seen in reds and yellows.

1993 Rain in the U.S.

Rain

10

Intensity
Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation:
Light rain when the precipitation rate is < 2.5 millimetres (0.098in) per hour
Moderate rain when the precipitation rate is between 2.5 millimetres (0.098in) - 7.6 millimetres (0.30in) or 10
millimetres (0.39in) per hour[][]
Heavy rain when the precipitation rate is > 7.6 millimetres (0.30in) per hour,[] or between 10 millimetres
(0.39in) and 50 millimetres (2.0in) per hour[]
Violent rain when the precipitation rate is > 50 millimetres (2.0in) per hour[]
Euphemisms for a heavy or violent rain include gully washer, trash-mover and toad-strangler.[81][82]

Return period
The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called the return period or
frequency.[83] The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based
on historic data for the location.[84] The term 1 in 10year storm describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only
likely to occur once every 10years, so it has a 10percent likelihood any given year. The rainfall will be greater and
the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The term 1 in 100year storm describes a
rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a century, so has a
1percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10year
event. As with all probability events, it is possible, though improbable, to have multiple "1 in 100Year Storms" in a
single year.[85]

Forecasting
The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the
expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a
specified time period over a specified area.[] A QPF will be
specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a
minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid
period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours
such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800GMT. Terrain is considered in
Example of a five-day rainfall forecast from the
QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological
Hydrometeorological Prediction Center
precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail.[86]
Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within
hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.[87] Forecast models show
significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the
atmosphere, which decreases with height.[88] QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a
qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.[89] Radar imagery forecasting techniques show
higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified
through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can
be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.[]

Rain

11

Impact
Effect on agriculture
Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive,
therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is
usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can
kill crops and increase erosion,[90] while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth.[91] Plants need
varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water,[92] while tropical
plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.
In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season.[] Animals
have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into
the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.[93] Developing countries have noted that their populations show
seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet
season.[94] Rain may be harvested through the use of rainwater tanks; treated to potable use or for non-potable use
indoors or for irrigation.[95] Excessive rain during short periods of time can cause flash floods.[96]

In culture
Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In temperate climates, people tend to be more stressed when
the weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than women.[97] Rain can also bring joy, as some
consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as India,[98] or during periods of
drought,[99] rain lifts people's moods. In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, "pula", is used as the name of the
national currency, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in this desert country.[100] Several cultures have
developed means of dealing with rain and have developed numerous protection devices such as umbrellas and
raincoats, and diversion devices such as gutters and storm drains that lead rains to sewers.[101] Many people find the
scent during and immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this scent is petrichor, an oil produced
by plants, then absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall.[]

Global climatology
Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000cumi) of water falls as precipitation each year across the globe
with 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000cumi) of it over the oceans.[] Given the Earth's surface area, that means the
globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39in). Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual
precipitation of less than 250 millimetres (10in) per year,[][102] or as areas where more water is lost by
evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation.[]

Deserts
The northern half of Africa is primarily
desert or arid, containing the Sahara. Across
Asia, a large annual rainfall minimum,
composed primarily of deserts, stretches
from the Gobi desert in Mongolia
west-southwest through western Pakistan
(Balochistan) and Iran into the Arabian
desert in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is

Largest deserts

Rain

12
semi-arid or desert,[103] making it the world's driest inhabited continent. In South America, the Andes mountain
range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across
western Argentina.[] The drier areas of the United States are regions where the Sonoran desert overspreads the Desert
Southwest, the Great Basin and central Wyoming.[]

Polar desert
Since rain only falls as liquid, in frozen temperatures, rain can not fall. As a result, very cold climates see very little
rainfall and are often known as polar deserts. A common biome in this area is the tundra which has a short summer
thaw and a long frozen winter. Ice caps see no rain at all, making Antarctica the world's driest continent.

Rainforests
Rainforests are areas of the world with very high rainfall. Both tropical and temperate rainforests exist. Tropical
rainforests occupy a large band of the planet mostly along the equator. Most temperate rainforests are located on
mountainous west coasts between 45 and 55 degrees latitude, but they are often found in other areas.
Around 40-75% of all biotic life is found in rainforests. Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's
oxygen turnover.

Monsoons
The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), or monsoon trough, is the wettest portion of
the world's continents. Annually, the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August, then moves back
southward into the Southern Hemisphere by February and March.[104] Within Asia, rainfall is favored across its
southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due to the
monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean into the region.[105] The monsoon trough can reach as
far north as the 40th parallel in East Asia during August before moving southward thereafter. Its poleward
progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower
air pressure (a thermal low) over the warmest part of Asia.[][106] Similar, but weaker, monsoon circulations are
present over North America and Australia.[107][108] During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf
of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic ocean bring the
promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the United States as well as the Great
Plains.[109] The eastern half of the contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific
Northwest, and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 30
inches (760mm) per year.[110] Tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern sections of the United
States,[111] as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands,[112] the Northern Mariana Islands,[113] Guam,
and American Samoa.

Rain

13

Impact of the Westerlies

Westerly flow from the mild north
Atlantic leads to wetness across
western Europe, in particular Ireland
and the United Kingdom, where the
western coasts can receive between
1,000mm (39in), at sea-level and
2,500mm (98in), on the mountains of
rain per year. Bergen, Norway is one
of the more famous European
rain-cities with its yearly precipitation
of 2,250mm (89in) on average.
During the fall, winter, and spring,
Pacific storm systems bring most of
Long-term mean precipitation by month
Hawaii and the western United States
much of their precipitation.[109] Over
the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm
areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the
warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.[114]
The El Nio-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the
western United States,[115] Midwest,[116][117] the Southeast,[118] and throughout the tropics. There is also evidence
that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are
becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics.

Wettest known locations

Cherrapunji, situated on the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalaya in Shillong, India is the confirmed wettest
places on Earth, with an average annual rainfall of 11,430mm (450in). The highest recorded rainfall in a single year
was 22,987mm (905.0in) in 1861. The 38-year average at nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, India is 11,873mm
(467.4in).[119] The wettest spot in Australia is Mount Bellenden Ker in the north-east of the country which records
an average of 8,000 millimetres (310in) per year, with over 12,200mm (480.3in) of rain recorded during 2000.[120]
Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauai in the Hawaiian Islands averages more than 11,680 millimetres (460in) of
rain per year over the last 32 years, with a record 17,340 millimetres (683in) in 1982. Its summit is considered one
of the rainiest spots on earth. It has been promoted in tourist literature for many years as the wettest spot in the
world.[121] Llor, a town situated in Choc, Colombia, is probably the place with the largest measured rainfall in the
world, averaging 13,300mm (520in) per year.[] The Department of Choc is extraordinarily humid. Tutunendo, a
small town situated in the same department, is one of the wettest estimated places on Earth, averaging 11,394mm
(448.6in) per year; in 1974 the town received 26,303mm (86ft3.6in), the largest annual rainfall measured in
Colombia. Unlike Cherrapunji, which receives most of its rainfall between April and September, Tutunendo receives
rain almost uniformly distributed throughout the year.[122] Quibd, the capital of Choc, receives the most rain in the
world among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants: 9,000 millimetres (350in) per year.[] Storms in Choc can drop
500mm (20in) of rainfall in a day. This amount is more than falls in many cities in a year's time.

Rain

14

Continent

Highest average
in

Place

Elevation

mm

ft

South America

523.6

13,299 Llor, Colombia (estimated)[a][b]

Asia

467.4

Oceania

Years of
Record

m
520

158[c] 29

11,872 Mawsynram, India[a][d]

4,597

1,401 39

460.0

11,684 Mount Waialeale, Kauai, Hawaii

(USA)[a]

5,148

1,569 30

Africa

405.0

10,287 Debundscha, Cameroon

30

9.1 32

South America

354.0

8,992 Quibdo, Colombia

120

36.6 16

Australia

340.0

8,636 Mount Bellenden Ker, Queensland

5,102

North America

256.0

6,502 Henderson Lake, British Columbia

12

3.66 14

Europe

183.0

4,648 Crkvice, Montenegro

3,337

1,017 22

1,555 9

[123]

Source (without conversions): Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, National Climatic Data Center. August 9, 2004.

Continent

Place

Highest rainfall
in

mm

[] Asia

Mawsynram, India

467.4 11,870

Asia

Cherrapunji, India

1,042 26,470

[] Asia

Cherrapunji, India

366

9,296

Highest average annual rainfall

[]

Highest in one year

Highest in one Calendar month

[]
Highest in 24 hours

Indian Ocean

Foc Foc, La Reunion Island

71.8

1,820

[]
Highest in 12 hours

Indian Ocean

Foc Foc, La Reunion Island

45.0

1,140

North America Unionville, Maryland, USA

1.23

31.2

Highest in one minute

[]

Outside of Earth
On Titan, Saturn's largest moon, infrequent methane rain is thought to carve the moon's numerous surface
channels.[124] On Venus, sulfuric acid virga evaporates 25 kilometres (16mi) from the surface.[125] There is likely to
be rain of various compositions in the upper atmospheres of the gas giants, as well as precipitation of liquid neon in
the deep atmospheres.[][126] Extrasolar planet OGLE-TR-56b in the constellation Sagittarius is hypothesized to have
iron rain.[127]

Notes

abc

The value given is continent's highest and possibly the world's depending on measurement practices,
procedures and period of record variations.
^ The official greatest average annual precipitation for South America is 354inches at Quibdo, Colombia. The
523.6inches average at Lloro, Colombia [14 miles SE and at a higher elevation than Quibdo] is an estimated
amount.
^ Approximate elevation.
^ Recognized as "The Wettest place on Earth" by the Guinness Book of World Records.[128]

Rain

15

References
[32] Steven Businger and Thomas Birchard, Jr. A Bow Echo and Severe Weather Associated with a Kona Low in Hawaii. (http:/ / www. soest.
hawaii. edu/ MET/ Faculty/ businger/ PDF/ BowEchoPPR. pdf) Retrieved on 2007-05-22.
[48] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Rainband. (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?p=1& query=rainband& submit=Search)
Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
[49] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Banded structure. (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?id=banded-structure1) Retrieved
on 2008-12-24.
[50] Owen Hertzman (1988). Three-Dimensional Kinematics of Rainbands in Midlatitude Cyclones. (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/
1988PhDT. . . . . . . 110H) Retrieved on 2008-12-24
[51] Yuh-Lang Lin (2007). Mesoscale Dynamics. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4KXtnQ3bDeEC& pg=PA405& lpg=PA405& dq=sea+
breeze+ rainbands& source=bl& ots=CL5KD0HLAJ& sig=Gz5bwKi9yu8j25EbXLD3TVNNQ68& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result&
resnum=10& ct=result) Retrieved on 2008-12-25.
[52] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Prefrontal squall line. (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?id=prefrontal-squall-line1)
Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
[53] J. D. Doyle (1997). The influence of mesoscale orography on a coastal jet and rainband. (http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN&
cpsidt=2721180) Retrieved on 2008-12-25.
[54] A. Rodin (1995). Interaction of a cold front with a sea-breeze front numerical simulations. (http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN&
cpsidt=3570629) Retrieved on 2008-12-25.
[55] David R. Novak, Lance F. Bosart, Daniel Keyser, and Jeff S. Waldstreicher (2002). A Climatological and composite study of cold season
banded precipitation in the Northeast United States. (http:/ / cstar. cestm. albany. edu/ CAP_Projects/ Project4/ Banded Precip/ novakWAF.
pdf) Retrieved on 2008-12-26.
[56] Ivory J. Small (1999). An observation study of island effect bands: precipitation producers in Southern California. (http:/ / www. wrh. noaa.
gov/ wrh/ 99TAs/ 9918/ index. html) Retrieved on 2008-12-26.
[57] University of WisconsinMadison (1998). Objective Dvorak Technique. (http:/ / cimss. ssec. wisc. edu/ tropic/ research/ products/ dvorak/
odt. html) Retrieved on 2006-05-29.
[60] (direct: Final Revised Paper (http:/ / www. hydrol-earth-syst-sci. net/ 11/ 1633/ 2007/ hess-11-1633-2007. pdf))
[67] http:/ / www. wmo. int/ pages/ prog/ www/ IMOP/ publications/ CIMO-Guide/ CIMO%20Guide%207th%20Edition,%202008/ Part%20I/
Chapter%206. pdf
[69] Rain gauge and cubic inches (http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ gen99/ gen99115. htm)
[81] Gullywasher | Define Gullywasher at Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ gullywasher)
[82] toad-strangler - Wiktionary (http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ toad-strangler)
[93] A. Roberto Frisancho (1993). Human Adaptation and Accommodation. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-K_SYHBo42MC&
pg=PA388& lpg=PA388& dq=wet+ season+ characteristics& source=web& ots=QSA_t3uuZU& sig=iin9pzOynVHyA7x4wMYEkApeCV8&
hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=5& ct=result) University of Michigan Press, pp. 388. ISBN 978-0-472-09511-7. Retrieved on
2008-12-27.
[102] According to What is a desert? (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ deserts/ what/ ), the 250 mm threshold definition is attributed to Peveril Meigs.
[108] Bureau of Meteorology. Climate of Giles. (http:/ / www. bom. gov. au/ weather/ sa/ giles/ climate. shtml) Retrieved on 2008-05-03.
[109] J. Horel. Normal Monthly Precipitation, Inches. (http:/ / www. met. utah. edu/ jhorel/ html/ wx/ climate/ normrain. html) Retrieved on
2008-03-19.
[110] NationalAtlas.gov Precipitation of the Individual States and of the Conterminous States. (http:/ / www. nationalatlas. gov/ printable/
precipitation. html) Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
[112] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook Virgin Islands. (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/
geos/ vq. html) Retrieved on 2008-03-19.
[113] BBC. Weather Centre - World Weather - Country Guides - Northern Mariana Islands. (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ weather/ world/
country_guides/ results. shtml?tt=TT004880) Retrieved on 2008-03-19.
[114] Walker S. Ashley, Thomas L. Mote, P. Grady Dixon, Sharon L. Trotter, Emily J. Powell, Joshua D. Durkee, and Andrew J. Grundstein.
Distribution of Mesoscale Convective Complex Rainfall in the United States. (http:/ / ams. allenpress. com/ archive/ 1520-0493/ 131/ 12/ pdf/
i1520-0493-131-12-3003. pdf) Retrieved on 2008-03-02.
[115] John Monteverdi and Jan Null. Western Region Technical Attachment NO. 97-37 November 21, 1997: El Nio and California
Precipitation. (http:/ / tornado. sfsu. edu/ geosciences/ elnino/ elnino. html) Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
[118] Climate Prediction Center. El Nio (ENSO) Related Rainfall Patterns Over the Tropical Pacific. (http:/ / www. cpc. noaa. gov/ products/
analysis_monitoring/ ensocycle/ ensorain. shtml) Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
[128] UFL - Dispute between Mawsynram and Cherrapunji for the rainiest place in the world (http:/ / www. clas. ufl. edu/ users/ jsouthwo/ web/
6-per-page-Wettest-Mawsynram-in-India. pdf)

Rain

16

External links
What are clouds, and why does it rain? (http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical/climate/why does
it rain.html)
BBC article on the weekend rain effect (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/146120.stm)
BBC article on rain-making (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3893671.stm)
BBC article on the mathematics of running in the rain (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4562132.stm)

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Rain Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=560390074 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 12 Noon, 16@r, 42secondpoo, A.Z., A8UDI, ABlake, ADDFG Spy, Aarktica, Aaron
Brenneman, Abrech, Abscissa, Accurizer, Achurch, Acroterion, AdamNeallThompson, Adrian.benko, Aexon79, Agradman, Ahoerstemeier, Ahpook, Ahuskay, Aitias, Alex.tan, Alexbuirds,
Alexnevzorov, Alice21397, Altenmann, Anaraug, Anclation, Andonic, Andycjp, Andyh144, Anetode, Angela, Angus Lepper, Animum, Aniten21, Anlace, Anonyminity9k, Anonymous
Dissident, Antandrus, Aphidoidea, Aquabarrel, Art and Muscle, Asa Gaston, Ashanda, Ashantifan1224, Ashlux, Aucitypops, Aurora, AvicAWB, AxelBoldt, Axpen, BD2412, Babbage,
Badgernet, Barneyboo, Bazonka, Bejnar, Beland, Bento00, Beyond silence, Bfigura's puppy, Bhadani, Bidgee, Big Bird, Big Brother 1984, Bigbluefish, Binadot, Blehfu, Blim8183, Bobbarker2,
Bobbytheonlyone, Bongomatic, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, BoundaryRider, Bradcraig53, Brandmeister, Brandmeister (old), Brian Pearson, Bruce1ee, Bubbles1234554321999, Buddha24,
Burgercat, Buttman12, Bwbullough, CIreland, CSWarren, Caltas, Calum wray, CambridgeBayWeather, Camo lord, Canadian-Bacon, Carlwev, Carnby, Carnildo, Catcrazy5, CattleGirl,
Cbrown285, Cenarium, Ceyockey, Chavando, Chris Capoccia, Chris the speller, Chriswaterguy, Chun-hian, Ciroa, Ckelsh, Clam-man2000, Cleared as filed, Clemwang, Cometstyles,
CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Cookie90, Corn cheese, Corpx, Courcelles, Cptbobobo, CrazyC83, Cserlajos, Cvene64, D, D climacus, D0nth4t3m3, DHN, DVD R W, Dac04, DanielCD,
DarkFalls, Darkcyshadow, Darrenhusted, David.Mestel, Davidhorman, Dawnseeker2000, DeadlyAssassin, Demize, Den fjttrade ankan, Denni, Digikc94, Discospinster, Diyako, Djinn112, Dlae,
Dlohcierekim's sock, Docu, Dodo von den Bergen, Donarreiskoffer, Drmies, Dunnob, Dv82matt, Dycedarg, Dylan Lake, Dylblad, Dysepsion, Dzubint, ESkog, Eagleamn, Earthandsky, Ed8r,
Edal, Edgar181, Edison, Ego White Tray, Ehrenkater, Elassint, Elkman, Elusive...yup, Embokias, Emersoni, Emmarhian, EmoWiki, Emperorbma, Emx, Epbr123, Episcopo, Eran of Arcadia,
Erpankajj, Esolbiz, Ethanbball, Evan Zeman, Everard Proudfoot, EverettColdwell, Everyking, Ewulp, Excirial, Eyreland, Falconguy4, Famartin, Fantasticxo, Farmercarlos, FastLizard4, Favonian,
Faz90, Fergusq, Fetchcomms, Feydey, Fir0002, Fireice, Firsfron, Fl, FlavrSavr, Foledman, Fortdj33, Foxj, Franz-kafka, Funnyfarmofdoom, GB fan, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, GeneralIroh,
Geocachernemesis, Ghirlandajo, Giftlite, Gilgamesh, Gilliam, Giuliopp, Glenn, Gmip, Godriscoll334, Gogo Dodo, Gondaje, Gregisfat2, Grunt, Gunmetal Angel, Gurch, Gzkn, H2O, H2g2bob,
Hadal, Hajjmaster5, HalfShadow, HansHermans, HarryHenryGebel, Hasek is the best, Heimstern, Hekerui, Hello32020, Henry Flower, Herbee, Herbivore, HeroGiant, Heron, Hiberniantears,
Hohum, Hotdawg57, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hydrargyrum, Hydrogen Iodide, Ianisalifestyle, IceCreamAntisocial, Ikanreed, Ikariam3944, Imrichbitch, InNuce, Indiver, Indy141, Irishguy, Irishguy10,
Irixman, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JDowning, JLaTondre, JNW, JWut89LA, Jaberwocky6669, Jackfork, Jackmnelson, James Kidd, Jash121, Jason Patton, Jbarfield, Jeffrey Mall, Jesant13, Jiddisch,
Jimp, Jiy, JoanneB, JoeBlogsDord, Jogehman, John Sweeney, John Vandenberg, JohnCD, JohnCub, Johntex, Jojit fb, Jondoe111, Jonesey95, JorgeGG, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh3580,
Jujutacular, Juliancolton, Jusjih, Kajmal, Kandar, Katejay1, KatyWatkins, Kentwong95, Kerotan, Kesac, Khazar2, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Killa0813, King Lopez, Kinkyturnip, Kizor, Kjkolb,
KnowledgeRequire, Kntrabssi, Knutux, Koavf, Koopatrev, Kornfan71, Kr-val, Krawfish, Krmmachlab, Kukini, Kwamikagami, LAURENRULZ, LOL, Lahiru k, Lamadude, Lambiam, Lamrock,
Langerda, Lectonar, Leebert, Leon Beressi, LevSB, Levineps, Lexington96, Lightmouse, Lights, Lilac Soul, Lodoss, Lolkeklol, Lolpoppit, LonB, LordHarris, Lotje, Lou-86, Lradrama, Lucyin,
Luis1972, Lulz what?, Luna Santin, Luokehao, MBisanz, MDub2011, MER-C, MPerel, MacTire02, MacsBug, Mag7cute, Majorly, Malcolmxl5, Malinaccier, Malo, Man vyi, Mangwanani,
Martarius, Massimo Catarinella, Matt5797, Maxim, Mbz1, Mechanical digger, Menchi, Metricmike, Meursault2004, Minimac, Mmdoogie, Mmoneypenny, Modulatum, Moe Epsilon, Moncrief,
Monster eagle, Mr.courtney, Mrh30, Mschlindwein, Muriel Gottrop, Musicmant, Mww113, Myanw, NCurse, Nakon, Nateforthree, Nathan Johnson, NawlinWiki, Nayvik, Nburden, Nepenthes,
Nerdge, Nergaal, Netknowle, Netsnipe, Never give in, NewEnglandYankee, Nibuod, Nick Number, Night Gyr, Nivix, Nk, Nlitement, Nochoje, Nod2003, Northamerica1000, Nubertuber,
Nuujinn, O, Ocean Shores, Oda Mari, Oh.la.la.22, Ojigiri, Okedem, Omegatron, Omicronpersei8, Oneiros, Oowoo, Opelio, OrchDorkdotcom, Originalwana, Ouishoebean, Oxymoron83, P30Carl,
Paleorthid, Paolo.dL, Paranoid, Pb30, Pbroks13, Pde, PeTeRsN, Pearle, Pedro, Perfect Proposal, Persian Poet Gal, Peruvianllama, Peter Hitchmough, Peter Horn, Peter Karlsen, Petergargano,
Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Piper Brodi, Pne, Poindexter Propellerhead, Polyamorph, Polylerus, Polynova, Possum, Prashanthns, ProfDEH, Psmith, Psym, Puchiko, Puffin, Pyrotec, Qrc2006,
Quelnjim, Quercusrobur, Quicksilvre, RL0919, RTucker, Rachiddebbagh, RadRafe, Radionactive, Radon210, Ragesoss, RainbowOfLight, Raincheerleader, Raku2040, Ranemanoj, Rapparee71,
Rashed, Ratiocinate, Raven42, Razorflame, Rd232, RedWolf, Reinthal, Rena2, ReqEngineer, Retiono Virginian, RexNL, Rgoodermote, Rich Farmbrough, Richardcavell, Rjd0060, Rjwilmsi, Rob
Hooft, Rob Lindsey, Robert Sparkinton, Rojomoke, Romanm, Rpophessagr, Runner5k, Runningonbrains, Ruth-2013, RyanCross, Ryulong, Sam Li, Sanaw, Sandcherry, Sanfy, Sango123, Sanya,
Scarian, Scetoaux, Schewek, Sciurin, Scm83x, Scott Roy Atwood, Sebastian.macdougal, SebastianHelm, Seishirou Sakurazuka, Senator Palpatine, Sgv 6618, Shalom Yechiel, Shanes,
Shawnbird, Sherool, Shimonnyman, Shiragiku, Shizhao, Shrimppesto, Siim, SilentC, SimonP, Simply south, Slawojarek, Sluzzelin, Smack, Smith609, Snakeman, Snowolf, Some jerk on the
Internet, Somewhereintheuniverse, Sophos II, Spellcast, Spm, SpuriousQ, Sqoon, Squirepants101, Sskartha, Stefeyboy, Stephenb, Steven Zhang, Steveprutz, Sthelens2007, Strafpeloton2,
Strangerer, SubwayEater, Supaluminal, Superman manofsteel, Svetovid, Switchercat, Sypherr, Szilvixx, THF, Tab439, Tabletop, Takkkadox, Tamiluday, Tapir Terrific, Targeman,
Tassofantastico, Tbhotch, Tchaika, Tckma, Tcncv, Tellyaddict, Tenniru, Terra Green, Tgeorge11, Tgwena, The Anome, The Article Creator, The Hybrid, The Letter J, The Mekon, The Nut, The
Random Editor, The way, the truth, and the light, TheEgyptian, TheSimkin, Thedemonhog, Thegreatdr, Themadchilidogger, Theo10011, Thisisspammer, Thor ware, Tianru, Tiddly Tom, Tide
rolls, TigerShark, Timrem, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tom Kelly1, Tom Morris, Tonypetipas, Topbanana, TopsailHS, Treyt021, Trojan51, Trusilver, TruthIsStrangerThanFiction, Turntablistlp, Tuxedo
junction, Twiceuponatime, Ufwuct, Ultrelusive, UnicornTapestry, Ustas, Ute in DC, Vanished User 4517, Velella, Vicarious, Vicki Rosenzweig, Victor M. Vicente Selvas, Viriditas, Vkem,
Vortmax, Vpjigger16, Vranak, Vsmith, Vystrix Nexoth, WJBscribe, Wavelength, Weissmann, Wengero, Werdan7, Wetman, Wfaulk, Whirlwindlover, Whisky drinker, Why are you asking?,
Wiki alf, WilliamH, Wjdgksfk, Wknight94, Xiahou, Xtreambar, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yashkochar, Yekrats, Yhnbgt, Yofoo, Yoyo134645, Yumyum24, Zadokco, Zap Rowsdower, Ziggurat,
Zombiesyo, Zsero, , 993 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:FoggDam-NT.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FoggDam-NT.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Bidgee
File:Rain-on-Thassos.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rain-on-Thassos.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Edal Anton
Lefterov
File:Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
Contributors: Conscious, Pierre cb, Twinsday, Yarnalgo, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, 1 anonymous edits
File:Raindrops sizes.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raindrops_sizes.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Pbroks13
File:Konvektionsregen.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Konvektionsregen.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bapho, Saperaud, Severin
Heiniger, Upior polnocy
File:Steigungsregen.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steigungsregen.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dbenzhuser, Factumquintus,
Saperaud, Severin Heiniger
File:Cairns climate.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cairns_climate.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fosnez, 1 anonymous edits
File:Atlanta thermal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atlanta_thermal.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Ryanjo at en.wikipedia
File:Global Warming Map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Global_Warming_Map.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Reynolds, R.W., N.A. Rayner, T.M. Smith,
D.C. Stokes, and W. Wang
File:Sturmfront auf Doppler-Radar-Schirm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sturmfront_auf_Doppler-Radar-Schirm.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
A.Fiebig, Pierre cb, Saperaud, Stonda, Tony Wills
File:Origins of acid rain.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Origins_of_acid_rain.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Origins.gif: Original uploader was
NHSavage at en.wikipedia derivative work: Zazou (talk)
File:World Koppen Map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Koppen_Map.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Peel, M.
C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A.(University of Melbourne)
File:250mm Rain Gauge.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Bidgee
File:Radar-accumulations eng.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Radar-accumulations_eng.png License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: Pierre cb, Tony Wills, 1
anonymous edits
file:1988 US Rain.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1988_US_Rain.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
file:1993 US Rain.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1993_US_Rain.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
File:Rita5dayqpf.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rita5dayqpf.gif License: unknown Contributors: Monkeybait, Thegreatdr
File:deserts.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deserts.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Emilfaro at en.wikipedia. Later version(s)
were uploaded by Spudtater at en.wikipedia.
File:MeanMonthlyP.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MeanMonthlyP.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: PZmaps

17

License

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

18