Vehicle Load Transfer

Vehicle Load Transfer
Wm Harbin
Technical Director
BND TechSource

Part I
General Load Transfer
Factors in Vehicle Dynamics

Within any modern vehicle suspension there are many factors
to consider during design and development.
Factors in vehicle dynamics:
Vehicle Configuration
Vehicle Type (i.e. 2 dr Coupe, 4dr Sedan, Minivan, Truck, etc.)
Vehicle Architecture (i.e. FWD vs. RWD, 2WD vs.4WD, etc.)
Chassis Architecture (i.e. type: tubular, monocoque, etc. ; material: steel, aluminum,
carbon fiber, etc. ; fabrication: welding, stamping, forming, etc.)
Front Suspension System Type (i.e. MacPherson strut, SLA Double Wishbone, etc.)
Type of Steering Actuator (i.e. Rack and Pinion vs. Recirculating Ball)
Type of Braking System (i.e. Disc (front & rear) vs. Disc (front) & Drum (rear))
Rear Suspension System Type (i.e. Beam Axle, Multi-link, Solid Axle, etc.)
Suspension/Braking Control Systems (i.e. ABS, Electronic Stability Control,
Electronic Damping Control, etc.)

Factors in vehicle dynamics (continued):
Vehicle Suspension Geometry
Vehicle Wheelbase
Vehicle Track Width Front and Rear
Wheels and Tires
Vehicle Weight and Distribution
Vehicle Center of Gravity
Sprung and Unsprung Weight
Springs Motion Ratio
Chassis Ride Height and Static Deflection

Turning Circle or Turning Radius (Ackermann Steering Geometry)
Suspension Jounce and Rebound
Vehicle Suspension Hard Points:
Front Suspension
Scrub (Pivot) Radius
Steering (Kingpin) Inclination Angle (SAI)
Caster Angle
Mechanical (or caster) trail
Toe Angle
Camber Angle
Ball Joint Pivot Points
Control Arm Chassis Attachment Points
Knuckle/Brakes/Steering
Springs/Shock Absorbers/Struts
ARB (anti-roll bar)

Vehicle Suspension Geometry (continued)
Vehicle Suspension Hard Points (continued):
Rear Suspension
Scrub (Pivot) Radius
Steering (Kingpin) Inclination Angle (SAI)
Caster Angle (if applicable)
Mechanical (or caster) trail (if applicable)
Toe Angle
Camber Angle
Knuckle and Chassis Attachment Points
Various links and arms depend upon the Rear Suspension configuration.
(i.e. Dependent vs. Semi-Independent vs. Independent Suspension)
Knuckle/Brakes
Springs/Shock Absorbers
ARB (anti-roll bar)
Vehicle Dynamic Considerations

Suspension Dynamic Targets
Wheel Frequency
Bushing Compliance
Lateral Load Transfer with and w/o ARB
Roll moment
Roll Stiffness (degrees per g of lateral acceleration)
Maximum Steady State lateral acceleration (in understeer mode)
Rollover Threshold (lateral g load)
Linear Range Understeer (typically between 0g and 0.4g)

Vehicle Dynamic Considerations (continued)
Suspension Dynamic Analysis
Bundorf Analysis
Slip angles (degrees per lateral force)
Tire Cornering Coefficient (lateral force as a percent of rated vertical load per degree slip
angle)
Tire Cornering Forces (lateral cornering force as a function of slip angle)
Linear Range Understeer
Steering Analysis
Bump Steer Analysis
Roll Steer Analysis
Tractive Force Steer Analysis
Brake Force Steer Analysis
Ackerman change with steering angle
Roll Analysis
Camber gain in roll (front & rear)
Caster gain in roll (front & rear if applicable)
Roll Axis Analysis
Roll Center Height Analysis
Instantaneous Center Analysis
Track Analysis
Load Transfer Analysis

Unsprung and Sprung weight transfer
Jacking Forces
Roll Couple Percentage Analysis

Total Lateral Load Transfer Distribution (TLLTD)

While the total amount of factors may seem a bit overwhelming, it may be
easier to digest if we break it down into certain aspects of the total.
The intent of this document is to give the reader a better understanding of
vehicle dynamic longitudinal and lateral load transfer as a vehicle
accelerates/decelerates in a particular direction.
The discussion will include:
Part I General Load Transfer Information
Load vs. Weight Transfer

Rotational Moments of Inertia
Part III Lateral Load Transfer
Part II Longitudinal Load Transfer
Vehicle Center of Gravity

Longitudinal Load Transfer
Suspension Geometry
Instant Centers
Side View Swing Arm
Anti-squat, Anti-dive, and Anti-lift
Cornering Forces
Suspension Geometry
Front View Swing Arm
Roll Stiffness
Anti-roll bars
Roll Center Heights

Roll Axis
Tire Rates
Roll Gradient
Lateral Load Transfer
7

In automobiles, load transfer is the imaginary "shifting" of
weight around a motor vehicle during acceleration (both
longitudinal and lateral). This includes braking, or deceleration
(which can be viewed as acceleration at a negative rate). Load
transfer is a crucial concept in understanding vehicle dynamics.
Often load transfer is misguidedly referred to as weight
transfer due to their close relationship. The difference being
load transfer is an imaginary shift in weight due to an
imbalance of forces, while weight transfer involves the actual
movement of the vehicles center of gravity (Cg). Both result in
a redistribution of the total vehicle load between the
individual tires.
9

Weight transfer involves the actual (small) movement of the
vehicle Cg relative to the wheel axes due to displacement of
liquids within the vehicle, which results in a redistribution of
the total vehicle load between the individual tires.
Liquids, such as fuel, readily flow within their containers,
causing changes in the vehicle's Cg. As fuel is consumed, not
only does the position of the Cg change, but the total weight
of the vehicle is also reduced.
Another factor that changes the vehicles Cg is the expansion
of the tires during rotation. This is called dynamic rolling
radius and is effected by wheel-speed, temperature, inflation
pressure, tire compound, and tire construction. It raises the
vehicles Cg slightly as the wheel-speed increases.
10

The major forces that accelerate a vehicle occur at the tires
contact patch. Since these forces are not directed through the
vehicle's Cg, one or more moments are generated. It is these
moments that cause variation in the load distributed between
the tires.
Lowering the Cg towards the ground is one method of
reducing load transfer. As a result load transfer is reduced in
both the longitudinal and lateral directions. Another method
of reducing load transfer is by increasing the wheel spacings.
Increasing the vehicles wheel base (length) reduces
longitudinal load transfer. While increasing the vehicles track
(width) reduces lateral load transfer.
11
Rotational Moments of Inertia
Cg
Yaw
(r)
Roll
(p)
Pitch
(q)
y
Lateral
x
Longitudinal
Vertical
12
Moment of Inertia
Polar moment of inertia

A simple demonstration of polar moment of inertia is to compare a
dumbbell vs. a barbell both at the same weight. Hold each in the
middle and twist to feel the force reacting at the center. Notice the
dumbbell (which has a lower polar moment) reacts quickly and the
barbell (which has a higher polar moment) reacts slowly.
o Wd
d1
d1
Example:
W = 50 lb (25 lb
at each end)
d1 = 8 in
d2 = 30 in
CL
CL
d2
d2
1 2 * 25 * (8)2 3200lb in2
2 2 * 25 * (30)2 45,000lb in2

13
Moment of Inertia
Sum the polar moments of inertia

The total polar moment of inertia for a vehicle can be
determined by multiplying the weight of each component by
the distance from the component Cg to the Cg of the vehicle.
The sum of the component polar moments of inertia would
establish the total vehicle polar moment of inertia.
A vehicle with most of its weight near the vehicle Cg has a
lower total polar moment of inertia is quicker to respond to
steering inputs.
A vehicle with a high polar moment is slower to react to

steering inputs and is therefore more stable at high speed
straight line driving.
14
Moment of Inertia
Effects of polar moments of inertia

Here is an example of a V8 engine with a typical transmission
packaged into a sports car.
M(
M(
Example:
WEng = 600 lb
WTran = 240 lb
dEng = 40 in
dTran = 10 in
) WEng(dEng)2 WTran(dTran)2
) 600lb(40in)2 240lb(10in)2 984,000lb in2

dEng
dTran
15
Moment of Inertia
Effects of polar moments of inertia

Here is an example of a V8 engine with a typical transmission
packaged into a sedan.
2
2
M
(
W
Eng
(
d
Eng
)
W
Tran
(
d
Tran
)
o
2
2
2
M
(
600
lb
(
70
in
)
240
lb
(
40
in
)
3
,
324
,
000
lb
in
o
Example:
WEng = 600 lb
WTran = 240 lb
dEng = 70 in
dTran = 40 in
dEng
dTran
16
Load Transfer
17
Load Transfer
Load Transfer
The forces that enable a road vehicle to accelerate and stop
all act at the road surface.
The center of gravity, which is located considerably above

the road surface, and which is acted upon by the
accelerations resulting from the longitudinal forces at the
tire patches, generates a moment which transfers load.
As asymmetric load results in differing traction limits, a
vehicles handling is affected by the dynamic load
distribution.
18
Load Transfer
Load Transfer equations & terms
Newton' s Second Law : F = m a

Vehicle Weight *Vehicle Acceleration
Inertial Force
g
Inertial Force *CGheight

Load Transfer
Wheelbase
F = force
m = mass
a = acceleration
g = ag = acceleration due to gravity
= 32.2ft/sec2 = 9.8m/sec2
ax = acceleration in the x direction

ay = acceleration in the y direction
az = acceleration in the z direction
Weight = mass * ag
19
Load Transfer
Load transfers between the Center of Gravity and the road

surface through a variety of paths.
Suspension Geometry
Front: Location of instant centers
(Side View Swing Arm)
Rear: Instant centers, Lift Bars
(Side View Swing Arm)
Suspension Springs
Front: Coils, Air Springs, leafs or Torsion bars and Antiroll bars
Rear: Coils, Air Springs, leafs or Torsion bars and Antiroll bars
20
Load Transfer
Load transfer (continued)
Dampers (Shock Absorbers)
During transient conditions
Tires
During all conditions (where the rubber meets the road)
Where and how you balance the load transfer between the
Springs, Geometry, Dampers and Tires are key determinates as
to how well the car will accelerate and brake and the stability
associated with each condition.
21
Load Transfer Control Devices
Dampers (Shock Absorbers)

Along with the springs, dampers transfer the load of the rolling
(pitching) component of the vehicle. They determine how the
load is transferred to and from the individual wheels while the
chassis is rolling and/or pitching.
Within 65-70% critically damped is said to be the ideal damper
setting for both handling and comfort simultaneously. Most
modern dampers show some digression to them as well,
meaning they may be 70% critically damped at low piston
speeds but move lower to allow the absorption of large bumps.
Damping is most important below 4 in/second as this is where
car control tuning takes place.
22
Springs
Along with the dampers (shock absorbers), springs transfer the load
of the sprung mass of the car to the road surface. During
maneuvers, depending on instant center locations, the springs and
dampers transfer some portion of the (m x a), mass x acceleration,
forces to the ground.
Spring Rate is force per unit displacement for a suspension spring
alone .
For coil springs this is measured axially along the centerline.
For torsion bar springs it is measured at the attachment arm.

For leaf springs it is measured at the axle seat.
The spring rate may be linear (force increases proportionally with
displacement) or nonlinear (increasing or decreasing rate with
increasing displacement).
Units are typically lb/in.
23
Anti-roll bars
[Drawing 1] shows how an anti-roll bar (ARB) is twisted when

the body rolls in a turn. This creates forces at the four points
where the bar is attached to the vehicle. The forces are shown
in [Drawing 2]. Forces A on the suspension increase [load]
transfer to the outside tire. Forces B on the frame resist body
roll. The effect is a reduction of body roll and an increase in
[load] transfer at the end of the chassis which has the anti-roll
bar. Because the total [load] transfer due to centripetal force is
not changed, the opposite end of the chassis has reduced [load]
transfer. [6]
B
B
A
Drawing 2
Direction of Turn
Drawing 1
24
Bushing Deflection (suspension compliance)
All of the calculations shown in this presentation do not include

bushing deflection. There are many rubber bushings within a vehicle
suspension to consider when analyzing suspension compliance.
25
Frame/Chassis Deflection
All of the calculations shown in this presentation are made under

the assumption that the frame or chassis is completely rigid (both in
torsion and bending). Of course any flexing within the frame/chassis
will adversely effect the performance of the suspension which is
attached to it.
26
100% Unsprung weight includes the mass of the tires, rims,

brake rotors, brake calipers, knuckle assemblies, and ball
joints which move in unison with the wheels.
50% unsprung and 50% sprung weight would be comprised
of the linkages of the wheel assembly to the chassis.
The % unsprung weight of the shocks, springs and anti-roll
bar ends would be a function of their motion ratio/2 with
the remainder as % sprung weight.
The rest of the mass is on the vehicle side of the springs is

suspended and is 100% sprung weight.
27
28
The shocks, springs, struts and anti-roll bars are normally mounted at
some angle from the suspension to the chassis.
Motion Ratio: If you were to move the wheel 1 inch and the spring were
to deflect 0.75 inches then the motion ratio would be 0.75 in/in.
Motion Ratio = (B/A) * sin(spring angle)

29
The shocks, springs, struts and anti-roll bars are normally mounted at
some angle from the suspension to the chassis.
Motion Ratio: If you were to move the wheel 1 inch and the spring were
to deflect 0.75 inches then the motion ratio would be 0.75 in/in.
Motion Ratio =
(B/A) * sin(spring angle)
30
Wheel Rates
Wheel Rates are calculated by taking the square of the motion ratio times
the spring rate. Squaring the ratio is because the ratio has two effects on
the wheel rate. The ratio applies to both the force and distance traveled.
Because it's a force, and the lever arm is multiplied twice.

The motion ratio is factored once to account for the distance-traveled differential
of the two points (A and B in the example below).
Then the motion ratio is factored again to account for the lever-arm force
differential.
Wheel Rate (lb/in) =
Example:
K
(Motion Ratio)2* (Spring Rate)
|
A----B------------P
P is the pivot point, B is the spring mount, and A is the wheel. Here the motion
ration (MR) is 0.75... imagine a spring K that is rated at 100 lb/in placed at B
perpendicular to the line AP. If you want to move A 1 in vertically upward, B would
only move (1in)(MR) = 0.75 in. Since K is 100 lb/in, and B has only moved 0.75 in,
there's a force at B of 75 lb. If you balance the moments about P, you get
75(B)=X(A), and we know B = 0.75A, so you get 75(0.75A) = X(A). A's cancel and you
get X=75(0.75)=56.25. Which is [100(MR)](MR) or 100(MR)2.
31
Wheel Rates
Since the linkages pivot, the spring angles change as the components
swing along an arc path. This causes the motion ratio to be calculated
through a range. The graph below shows an example of these results for
both coil-over shock and anti-roll bar for an independent front suspension
from rebound to jounce positions.
Example:
Coil-over KS = 400 lb/in (linear)
Coil-over MR = 0.72-.079 in/in
ARB KS = 451.8 lb/in (body roll)
ARB MR = 0.56-0.61 in/in
300
KW = Wheel Rate (lb/in) =

(Motion Ratio - range)2* (Spring Rate - linear)
KW = MR2 * KS
Wheel Rate vs. Wheel Position
250
Wheel Rate (lb/in)
200
Ride height
150
100
Coil-over Shock
ARB
50
0
-2.49 -2.22 -1.95 -1.68 -1.42 -1.15 -0.89 -0.63 -0.36 -0.10 0.16 0.41 0.67 0.93 1.18 1.44 1.69 1.94 2.19 2.44
Rebound to Jounce (in)
32
Wheel Rates
In longitudinal pitch, the anti-roll bar (ARB) rotates evenly as the chassis
moves relative to the suspension. Therefore, the ARB only comes into play
during lateral pitch (body roll) of the vehicle (it also comes into play during
one wheel bump, but that rate is not shown here).
Example:
Coil-over KS = 400 lb/in (linear)
Coil-over MR = 0.72-.079 in/in
ARB KS = 451.8 lb/in (body roll)
ARB MR = 0.56-0.61 in/in
300
KW = Wheel Rate (lb/in) =

(Motion Ratio - range)2* (Spring Rate - linear)
KW = MR2 * KS
Wheel Rate vs. Wheel Position
250
Wheel Rate (lb/in)
200
Ride height
150
100
Coil-over Shock
ARB
50
0
-2.49 -2.22 -1.95 -1.68 -1.42 -1.15 -0.89 -0.63 -0.36 -0.10 0.16 0.41 0.67 0.93 1.18 1.44 1.69 1.94 2.19 2.44
Rebound to Jounce (in)
33
Spring Rates/Ride Frequency
The static deflection of the suspension determines its natural frequency.

Static deflection is the rate at which the suspension compresses in
response to weight.
Ride Natural Frequency vs. Static Wheel Deflection

200
180
160
w = Frequency (cycles/min)
140
120
188
x
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
x = Static Deflection (in)
70
80
90
100
34
Ride frequency is the undamped natural frequency of the body in ride.

The higher the frequency, the stiffer the ride.
Based on the application, there are ballpark numbers to consider.
30 - 70 CPM for passenger cars

70 - 120 CPM for high-performance sports cars
120 - 300+ CPM for high downforce race cars
It is common to run a spring frequency higher in the rear than the front.
The idea is to have the oscillation of the front suspension finish at the
same time as the rear.
Since the delay between when the front suspension hits a bump and the
rear suspension hits that bump varies according to vehicle speed, the
spring frequency increase in the rear also varies according to the
particular speed one wants to optimize for.
35
Once the motion ratios has been established, the front and rear spring
rates can be optimized for a flat ride at a particular speed.
36

Part II
37
Center of Gravity
38
Center of Gravity Location
Locating the center of gravity in the X-Y (horizontal) plane is

performed by placing the vehicle on scales and identifying the
corresponding loads.
X, Y, positions are noted
% Front, % Rear, % Left, % Right, % Diagonal (RF,LR)
Locating the center of gravity height (hcg) can be achieved by
raising one end of the vehicle and identifying the load change
on the un-raised end which is a result of the height change on
the raised end.
39

Center of Gravity
Horizontal Plane Location
Cg
SCALE
WF
SCALE
WR
lR
lF
L
40

W WLF
% Wfront RF
Wtot
% Wrear
% Wleft
WLF WLR
100

Wtot
100
WLR WRR
100

Wtot
W WRR
100
% Wright RF
Wtot
W WLR
100
% Wdiag RF
Wtot
41

880 880
49.7% Wfront
100
3542
891 891
50.3% Wrear
100
3542
880 891
50% Wleft
100
3542
Example: C3 Corvette Upgrade
Weight total = 3542 lb
W RF = 880 lb
W LF = 880 lb
W RR = 891 lb
W LR = 891 lb
880 891
50% Wright
100
3542
880 891
50% Wdiag
100
3542
42
Wf
f 1
Wtot
W
L r L
Wtot
W
r 1 r
Wtot
L f L
Wtot
43

W tot = 3542 lb
W F = 1760 lb
W R = 1782 lb
L = 98.0 in
1782
1760
49.3in f 1
98
98
3542
3542
1760
1782
48.7in r 1
98
98
3542
3542
44
Center of Gravity Height Location
Horizontal :
Raised :
0 WLR Wf L
0 W sin hcg W cos LR Wf Wf L cos
or 0 W sin hcg W cos LR Wf L cos Wf L cos

45
tan
h sin
L cos
The center of gravity height above the spindle centerline is:
hcgabove
Wf * L * cos
hCGtotal on level ground is:
(where rt = tire radius)
Wtot * sin
hcgtotal
Wf * L2
Wtot * h
Wf * L2
Wtot * h
rt
46
tan6.98
The center of gravity height

above the spindle centerline is:
22.62 * 98 * cos 6.98 22.62 * 9604
5.11
3542 * sin6.98
3542 *12
12 sin6.98
98 cos 6.98
Example: C3 Corvette
W tot = 3542 lb
W F = 1760 lb
W R = 1782 lb
L = 98.0 in
rt = 11.89 in
h = 12 in
WF= 22.62 lb
22.62 * 9604
hCGtotal on level ground is: 17 in
11.89
3542
*
12
(where rt = tire radius)
47
48
Longitudinal (vehicle fore-aft direction) load transfer occurs

due to either positive (acceleration) or negative (braking)
acceleration.
Load transfer is associated with each of these accelerations.
This is due to the acceleration forces acting between the tire
contact patches at the road surface and the vehicle center of
gravity height which is above the road surface.
49

The vehicle load distribution on level ground is shown in the
following equations.
Front Axle WF L = W R
Rear Axle WR L = W F

WF = W R
L

WR = W F
L
Cg
WT
B
WR
WF
lR
lF
L
50

The vehicle load distribution on level ground is shown in the
following equations.
Front Axle WF L = W R
Rear Axle WR L = W F
W T = 3542 lb
W F = 1760 lb
W R = 1782 lb
L = 98.0 in
lF = 49.3 in
lR = 48.7 in
48.7
WF = 3542
1760 lb
98
49.3
WR = 3542
1782 lb
98
Cg
WT
B
WR
WF
lR
lF
L
51

The load transfer can be most easily determined on level ground, at
a speed low enough such that aerodynamic resistance force would
be negligible (zero). The equations are then solved for the static
load at each axle and any load transferred due to acceleration or
deceleration.
ax hcg
hcg
hcg
WT = F a
= m a WT * *
L
L
ag L
Cg
accel
WT
A
Fa
acceleration
force
hcg
WF +/- W
WR +/- W
lR
lF
L
52

The load transfer can be most easily determined on level ground, at
a speed low enough such that aerodynamic resistance force would
be negligible (zero). The equations are then solved for the static
load at each axle and any load transferred due to acceleration or
deceleration.
17
hcg
WT = F a
= 3542 * (15 / 32.2) * 286.2 lb
L
98
W T = 3542 lb
L = 98.0 in
hcg = 17 in
ax = 15 ft/sec2
ag = 32.2 ft/sec2
Cg
accel
WT
A
Fa
acceleration
force
hcg
WF +/- W
WR +/- W
lR
lF
L
53

In forward acceleration the load on the front axle can be
found by solving the moment about point B of the figure.
R a x hcg
M(B) = 0 = WF W = WT *
L ag L
accel
Cg
WT
Fa
acceleration
force
hcg
WF - W
WR + W
lR
lF
L
54

In forward acceleration the load on the front axle can be
found by solving the moment about point B of the figure.
48.7 15 17
M(B) = 0 = WF W = 3542
* 1473.8 lb
98 32.2 98
Check: 1473.8 lbs + 286.2 lbs = 1760 lb
W T = 3542 lb
W F = 1760 lb
W = 286.2 lb
l R = 48.7 in
L = 98.0 in
hcg = 17 in
ax = 15 ft/sec2
ag = 32.2 ft/sec2
Cg
accel
WT
A
Fa
acceleration
force
hcg
WF - W
WR + W
lR
lF
L
55

In forward acceleration the load on the rear axle can be
found by solving the moment about point A of the figure.
F a x hcg
M(A) = 0 = WR W = WT *
L ag L
accel
Cg
WT
Fa
acceleration
force
hcg
WF + W
WR - W
lR
lF
L
56

In forward acceleration the load on the rear axle can be
found by solving the moment about point A of the figure.
49.3 15 17
M(A) = 0 = WR W = 3542
*
98 32.2 98
2068.2lbs
Check: 2068.2 lbs - 286.2 lbs = 1782 lbs

W T = 3542 lb
W R = 1782 lb
W = 286.2 lb
l F = 49.3 in
L = 98.0 in
hcg = 17 in
ax = 15 ft/sec2
ag = 32.2 ft/sec2
Cg
accel
WT
A
Fa
acceleration
force
hcg
WF + W
WR - W
lR
lF
L
57
Longitudinal Acceleration Pitch

The vehicle pitch angle , if no suspension forces oppose it (no
anti-dive, anti-lift, or anti-squat), is a function of the load
transfer (W) and the wheel rate (KW).
If the front wheel rate is KWf and the rear is KWr then the load
transfer (W) would be divided between the left and right
wheels. Therefore vertical displacements (Z) of the sprung
(body) mass at the wheel locations are as shown.
ZR
ZF
Cg
JOUNCE
REBOUND
REBOUND
Cg
JOUNCE
(Jounce and Rebound are also known as Bump and Droop)

58

ZR =
W /2
K Wr
ZF =
W /2 W /2
+
K Wf
K Wr
ZR + ZF
=
=
rad
L
L
ZR
Cg
W /2
K Wf
W /2 W /2
+
180
K Wf
K Wr
=
*
deg
L
ZF
Cg
(no anti-dive, anti-lift, or anti-squat)

59

ZR =
286.2 / 2
.455 in
314.35
ZF =
286.2 / 2
.62 in
230.26
286.2 / 2 286.2 / 2
+
.455 + .62
.01097rad
rad = 314.35 230.26 =
98
98
286.2 / 2 286.2 / 2
+
180
314
.
35
230
.
26
=
*
.63 deg
deg
98
ZR
ZF
Cg
KW = MR2 * KS
Cg

KSf = 400 lb/in
MRf = 0.759 in/in
KSr = 600 lb/in
MRr = 0.724 in/in
W = 286.2 lb
L = 98.0 in
KWf = 230.26 lb/in

KWr = 314.35 lb/in
60
Suspension Geometry
61
Instant Centers
Instant Center (IC)

Simply put, an instant center is a point in space (either real or
extrapolated) around which the suspension's links rotate.
Instant" means at that particular position of the linkage.
"Center" refers to an extrapolated point that is the effective

pivot point of the linkage at that instant.
The IC is used in both side view swing arm (SVSA) and a front
view swing arm (FVSA) geometry for suspension travel.
Side View Geometry
Front View Geometry

62
Swing Arms
Swing Arms
There are many different types of vehicle suspension designs.
All of which have instant centers (reaction points) developed
by running lines through their pivots to an intersection point.
A swing arm by definition has an minimum of two pivot points
attaching a suspension component to the vehicle chassis or
underbody. To simplify the concept, imagine a line running
from the IC directly to the suspension component. This line is
referred to as the swing arm.
Swing Arm
SVSA
Swing Arm
FVSA
63
Swing Arms
Swing Arms
The side view swing arm controls force and motion factors
predominantly related to longitudinal accelerations, while the
front view swing arm controls force and motion factors due to
lateral accelerations.
Swing Arm
SVSA
Swing Arm
FVSA
64
Side View Swing Arm
Shown is a schematic of a solid rear drive axle with the linkages

replaced with a swing arm. In a solid drive axle the axle and
differential move together and are suspended from the chassis
using springs and/or trailing arms.
Fza
Cg
b
IC
Fxa
Fx
d
Fz
65
Side View Swing Arm
Shown is a schematic of an independent rear suspension (IRS)

with the linkages replaced with a swing arm. In an IRS the
differential is mounted to the chassis as the half shafts move
independently and are suspended from the chassis using
springs, control arms and trailing arms.
Fza
b
Cg
h
IC
Fxa
e
Fx
d
L
Fz
66
Anti- Geometry
67
Anti- Geometry
Anti-squat
Anti-squat in rear suspensions reduces the jounce (upward)
travel during forward acceleration on rear wheel drive cars only.
Anti-dive
Anti-dive geometry in front suspensions reduces the jounce
(upward) deflection under forward braking.
Anti-lift
Anti-lift in rear suspensions reduces rebound (downward) travel
during forward braking.
68
Anti-Squat Geometry
69
Anti-squat geometry
Anti-squat
During forward (longitudinal) acceleration the vehicle load
transfer tends to compress the rear springs (suspension
jounce) and allow the front springs to extend (suspension
rebound). Anti-squat characteristics can be designed into the
rear suspension geometry.
Anti-squat geometry produces a side view swing arm (SVSA)
that predicts suspension component behavior.
Cg
REBOUND
JOUNCE
70
Anti-squat geometry
Anti-squat
Geometry that produces an instant center (IC) through which
acceleration forces (Fza and Fxa) can act to reduce or eliminate
drive wheel spring deflection during acceleration.
Fza
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
h
WT
100% Anti-squat
Line
Fx
d
Fz
71
Anti-squat geometry
Instant center locations are projected onto the longitudinal axis

of the vehicle. This provides the location where the forces
transmitted during acceleration effectively act.
The resultant horizontal and vertical components of the

tractive force transmitted through these instant centers
determine the load percentage transfer that acts through the
suspension linkages, with the remaining load acting through
the suspension springs.
72
Anti-squat geometry
er h
tan b =
=
d
L
Fza
bb
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
h
WT
100% Anti-squat
Line
Fx
d
Fz
The percentage of anti-squat is now determined relative

to the 100% (h/L) angle.
If a suspension has 100% anti-squat, all the longitudinal
load transfer is carried by the suspension linkages and
not by the springs (h/L line would be parallel to the swing
arm line).
73
Anti-squat geometry
The magnitude of the vertical (Fza) components determines, in

part, the ability for the driver to accelerate without spinning
the tires.
The magnitude of the vertical (Fza) components also dictates

the load % transfer that is transmitted through the springs and
dampers to the road surface and the load % that transfers
directly through the suspension linkages.
74
Anti-squat geometry
The load transfer during acceleration is as shown:
h WT h
ax
F za = m a =
L ag L
(1)
The tractive effort (Fx) at the drive wheels is calculated as:
WT
ax
F xa = F x =
ag
(2)
75
Anti-squat geometry
By examining the free body of the rear suspension and

summing moments about the contact patch, the equation
below is derived.
MR = 0
F za d - F xa e r = 0
er
F za = F xa
d
Since Fxa is the Tractive Force.
(3)
WT e r
ax
F za =
ag
d
(4)
Fza
bb
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
h
WT
100% Anti-squat
Line
Fx
d
Fz
76
Anti-squat geometry
Equating equations (1) and (4) results in an equation which

indicates the relationships for 100% anti-squat.
WT h WT e r
ax =
ax
F za =
ag L ag
d
h er
=
L
d
(5)
The angle the instant center (IC) must lie on for 100% antisquat is:
er h
tan b =
=
d
L
(6)
77
Anti-squat geometry
er h
tan b =
=
d
L
If the tan < h/L then squat will occur.

Fza
bb
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
h
WT
100% Anti-squat
Line
Fx
d
Fz
78
Anti-squat geometry
Anti-squat rear solid axle

Shown is a SVSA of a solid rear drive axle. The torque reaction is
taken by the suspension components.
tan b e / d
% Anti squat =
* 100
h/L h/L
e h
100% Anti squat =
d L
Fza
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
Fx
d
L
Fz
79
Anti-squat geometry
Anti-squat rear solid axle

Shown is a SVSA of a solid rear drive axle. The torque reaction is
taken by the suspension components.
tan b 11.25 / 45
% Anti squat =
* 100 125%
h/L
20 / 100
Example: Solid Axle
e = 11.25 in
d = 45 in
L = 100 in
h = 20 in
e h
100% Anti squat =
d L
Fza
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
Fx
d
L
Fz
80
Anti-squat geometry
Anti-squat independent rear suspension

Shown is a SVSA of an independent rear suspension (IRS). The
torque reaction is taken by the chassis.
tan b e r / d
% Anti squat =
* 100
h/L
h/L
er h
100% Anti squat =
d
L
Fza
bb
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
h
WT
100% Anti-squat
Line
Fx
d
Fz
81
Anti-squat geometry
Anti-squat independent rear suspension

Shown is a SVSA of an independent rear suspension (IRS). The
torque reaction is taken by the chassis.
tan b 15.62 11.89 / 32.84

% Anti squat =
* 100 65.5%
h/L
17 / 98
Example: C3 Upgrade
e = 15.62 in
d = 32.84 in
L = 98 in
h = 17 in
r = 11.89 in
er h
100% Anti squat =
d
L
Fza
bb
Cg
IC
Fxa
e
h
WT
100% Anti-squat
Line
Fx
d
Fz
82
Anti-squat geometry
Anti-squat effects on longitudinal pitch angle

er
% pitch compensati on =
d
* 100
h h KWr
*
L L KWf
1 WT

1
1
1
h
e
r
h

Pitch angle (rad) = * *ax
*
*
*
L KWr*2 d KWf *2 L
L ag
KWr*2
83
Anti-squat geometry
% pitch compensati on =
.1136
* 100 28%
.4103
Check: (1-.28)*.63deg = .45deg
Pitch angle (rad) =
1 3542
1
17
1
3.73
1
17
*
*180
*
*
*
98 386.4
(314.35 * 2) 98 (314.35 * 2) 32.84 (230.26 * 2) 98
Pitch angle (deg) = 0.0079 rad *
180
0.45deg @65.5% Anti squat

e r = 3.73 in WT = 3542 lb
d = 32.84 in
KWr = 314.35 lb/in
L = 98 in
KWf = 230.26 lb/in
h = 17 in
ax = 180 in/sec2
r = 11.89 in
ag = 386.4 in/sec2
84
Anti-squat geometry

If e-r/d = 0, then Anti-squat = 0
Pitch angle (rad) =

1 3542
1
17
1
1
17

*
*180
*
* 0
*
98 386.4
(314.35 * 2) 98 (314.35 * 2) (230.26 * 2) 98
Pitch angle (deg) = 0.011 rad *
180
0.63deg @0% Anti squat

e r = 3.73 in WT = 3542 lb
d = 32.84 in
KWr = 314.35 lb/in
L = 98 in
KWf = 230.26 lb/in
h = 17 in
ax = 180 in/sec2
r = 11.89 in
ag = 386.4 in/sec2
85

Previous Slide
No. 60
286.2 / 2
.455 in
ZR =
314.35
286.2 / 2
.62 in
ZF =
230.26
286.2 / 2 286.2 / 2
+
.455 + .62
.01097rad
rad = 314.35 230.26 =
98
98
Check: if e-r/d = 0,
286.2 / 2 286.2 / 2
+
then anti-squat = 0
180
314
.
35
230
.
26
*
.63 deg
deg =
0.63 @ 0% Anti-squat
98
ZR
ZF
Cg
KW = MR2 * KS
Cg

KSf = 400 lb/in
MRf = 0.759 in/in
KSr = 600 lb/in
MRr = 0.724 in/in
DW = 286.2 lb
L = 98.0 in
KWf = 230.26 lb/in

KWr = 314.35 lb/in
86
Anti-dive Geometry
87
Anti-dive geometry
Anti-dive
During braking (longitudinal deceleration) the vehicle load
transfer tends to compress the front springs (suspension
jounce) and allow the rear springs to extend (suspension
rebound). Anti-dive is usually designed into both front and
rear suspensions (Anti-dive at the front and Anti-lift in the
rear).
Anti-dive geometry produces a side view swing arm (SVSA)
that predicts suspension component behavior.
REBOUND
Cg
JOUNCE
88
Anti-dive geometry
Anti-dive
The total longitudinal load transfer under steady acceleration or
braking is a function of the wheelbase (L), CG height (h), and
braking force (WT)*(ax /ag).
h WT h
load = m a =
ax
L ag L
WT (ax/ag) = braking force
Cg
h
WT
+ load
- load
L
89
Anti-dive geometry
Anti-dive
The total longitudinal load transfer under steady acceleration or
braking is a function of the wheelbase (L), CG height (h), and
braking force (WT)*(ax /ag).
h 3542
17
load = m a =
* 180 * 286.2 lb
L 386.4
98
WT = 3542 lb
L = 98 in
h = 17 in
ax = 180 in/sec2 (.46 g)
ag = 386.4 in/sec2
90
Anti-dive geometry
Load Transfer vs. Deceleration
3000
2500
Axle Load (lbf)
2000
1500
1000
Front Load (lbf)

Rear Load (lbf)
500
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Deceleration (g's)

WT = 3542 lb
L = 98 in
h = 17 in
h WT h
load = m a =
ax
L ag L
91
Anti-dive geometry
Brake Bias (brake force distribution)
The following factors will affect the load on an axle for any given
moment in time:
Weight distribution of the vehicle (static).
CG height the higher it is, the more load transference during braking.
Wheelbase the shorter it is, the more load transference during braking.
The following factors will affect how much brake torque is developed at
each corner of the vehicle, and how much of that torque is transferred
to the tire contact patch and reacted against the ground:
Rotor effective diameter

Caliper piston diameter
Lining friction coefficients
Tire traction coefficient properties
REBOUND
Cg
JOUNCE
92
Anti-dive geometry
Braking force at the tire contact patch vs. the total load on that tire
will determine the braking bias.
Changing the CG height, wheelbase, or deceleration level will
dictate a different force distribution, or bias, requirement for a
braking system.
Conversely, changing the effectiveness of the front brake

components without changing the rear brake effectiveness can also
cause our brake bias to change.
REBOUND
Cg
JOUNCE
93
Anti-dive geometry
Typical Brake System Bias
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
% Front Load
% Front Braking
% Rear Load
% Rear Braking
20%
10%
0%
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Deceleration (g's)
REBOUND
Cg
JOUNCE
% of Vehicle Load Transfer

% of Total Braking Force
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
94
Anti-dive geometry
Anti-dive (front) and Anti-lift (rear) suspension
Shown is an SVSA with lines (100% Anti-dive/lift) representing the load transfer
during braking. If the ICs are below these lines, the percentage of anti will be
below 100%. If the ICs are above these lines, the percentage of anti will be above
100%.
% Anti dive = tan bf *(L / h)*(% front braking ) * 100

% Anti lift = tan br *(L / h)*(1 % front braking ) * 100
100% Anti-dive
Line
C
100% Anti-lift
Line
ax
WT
ICf
br
bf
%FB x L
ICr
1 - %FB x L
L
95
Anti-dive geometry
Shown is an SVSA with lines (100% Anti-dive/lift) representing the load transfer
during braking. If the ICs are below these lines, the percentage of anti will be
below 100%. If the ICs are above these lines, the percentage of anti will be above
100%.
% Anti dive = .1124 *(5.765)*(.71) * 100 46%

% Anti lift = .4894 *(5.765)*(.29) * 100 82%

tan bf = .1124
tan br = .4894
L = 98 in
h = 17 in
% front braking @ .46g = .71
96
Anti-dive geometry
Since Anti-dive and Anti-lift are a resultant of braking force, and the
braking force changes due to brake bias, the % Anti changes as the rate
of deceleration changes.
Anti-dive & Anti-lift vs. Brake Bias
120%
% Anti-dive
% Front Braking
100%
% Anti-lift
% Rear Braking
% Anti-dive & Anti-lift

% of Total Braking Force
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Deceleration (g's)
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
97
Design factors in
Anti-dive and Anti-Squat
Since load transfer is a function of deceleration rate, and
the brake forces are shared, anti-dive geometry on the drive
axle may need to be more aggressive than anti-squat
geometry.
Swing arm length and angle dictates the rate of change of
geometry forces.
98
Design factors in
Anti-dive and Anti-Squat
For an independent suspension a percentage of 100% would
indicate the suspension is taking 100% of the load transfer under
acceleration/braking instead of the springs which effectively binds
the suspension.
However, in the case of leaf spring rear suspension the anti-squat
can often exceed 100% (meaning the rear may actually raise
under acceleration) and because there isn't a second arm to bind
against, the suspension can move freely.
Traction bars are often added to drag racing cars with rear leaf
springs to increase the anti-squat to its maximum. This has the
effect of forcing the rear of the car upwards and the tires down
onto the ground for better traction.
99
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ziech, J., Weight Distribution and Longitudinal Weight Transfer - Session 8,

Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University.
Hathaway, R. Ph.D, Spring Rates, Wheel Rates, Motion Ratios and Roll
Stiffness, Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan
University.
Gillespie, T. Ph.D, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive
Engineers International, Warrendale, PA, February, 1992, (ISBN: 978-1-56091199-9).
Reimpell, J., Stoll, H., Betzler, J. Ph.D, The Automotive Chassis: Engineering
Principles, 2nd Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Woburn, MA, 2001, (ISBN 0 7506
5054 0).
Milliken, W., Milliken, D., Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive
Engineers International, Warrendale, PA, February, 1994, (ISBN: 978-1-56091526-3).
Puhn, F., How to Make Your Car Handle, H.P. Books, Tucson, AZ, 1976 (ISBN 0912656-46-8).
100
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Part III - Lateral Load Transfer
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Vehicle Load Transfer

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Vehicle Load Transfer

Vehicle Load Transfer

Factors in Vehicle Dynamics

Factors in Vehicle Dynamics

Chassis Ride Height and Static Deflection

Factors in Vehicle Dynamics

Vehicle Dynamic Considerations

Factors in Vehicle Dynamics

Load Transfer Analysis

Roll Couple Percentage Analysis

Vehicle Load Transfer

Load vs. Weight Transfer

Part III Lateral Load Transfer

Part II Longitudinal Load Transfer

Vehicle Center of Gravity

Anti-squat, Anti-dive, and Anti-lift

Roll Center Heights

Load vs. Weight Transfer

Load vs. Weight Transfer

Load vs. Weight Transfer

Load vs. Weight Transfer

Rotational Moments of Inertia

Polar moment of inertia

1 2 * 25 * (8)2 3200lb in2

2 2 * 25 * (30)2 45,000lb in2

Sum the polar moments of inertia

A vehicle with a high polar moment is slower to react to

Effects of polar moments of inertia

) 600lb(40in)2 240lb(10in)2 984,000lb in2

Effects of polar moments of inertia

The center of gravity, which is located considerably above

Newton' s Second Law : F = m a

Inertial Force *CGheight

ax = acceleration in the x direction

Load transfers between the Center of Gravity and the road

Load Transfer Control Devices

Dampers (Shock Absorbers)

Load Transfer Control Devices

For torsion bar springs it is measured at the attachment arm.

Load Transfer Control Devices

[Drawing 1] shows how an anti-roll bar (ARB) is twisted when

Load Transfer Control Devices

Bushing Deflection (suspension compliance)

All of the calculations shown in this presentation do not include

Load Transfer Control Devices

All of the calculations shown in this presentation are made under

Sprung and Unsprung Weight

100% Unsprung weight includes the mass of the tires, rims,

The rest of the mass is on the vehicle side of the springs is

Sprung and Unsprung Weight

Springs Motion Ratio

Motion Ratio = (B/A) * sin(spring angle)

Springs Motion Ratio

Because it's a force, and the lever arm is multiplied twice.

KW = Wheel Rate (lb/in) =

Wheel Rate vs. Wheel Position

KW = Wheel Rate (lb/in) =

Wheel Rate vs. Wheel Position