Introduction To Quantum Mechanics: 2.1 Linear Algebra

2.
Introduction to quantum mechanics

2.1 Linear algebra
Dirac notation
Complex conjugate
Vector/ket
Dual vector/bra
Inner product/bracket
Tensor product
Complex conj. matrix
Transpose of matrix
Hermitian conj/
adjoint of matrix
Inner product
Basis, vector representation

For a set of vectors
The set
spanning
constitutes a basis for
Linear operators
A linear operator
Notation
means
Matrix representation
For
spanning
a matrix representation of
Numbers
spanning
means
form matrix
Linear operator (basis given)

matrix representation
(to be used interchangeably...)
Pauli matrices
Inner vector product

A inner product on
is
We use notation
Hilbert space = inner product space

The vectors
are orthogonal if
The norm of a vector is
An orthonormal set of vectors
obey
Vector representation
With respect to an orthonormal basis
for
the inner product is
We thus have
(an orthonormal basis will be used unless otherwise stated)
Outer vector product

The outer product
is a linear operator
Cauchy-Schwartz inequality
For two vectors
Completeness relation
For vectors
forming an orthonormal basis
for
Eigenvectors and eigenvalues

The eigenvector
with
to
obeys
the eigenvalue.
The diagonal representation of
in terms of eigenvalues
is (for diagonalizable
and orthonormal eigenvectors
Hermitian operators
The Hermitian conjugate/adjoint of
We have
An Hermitian operator obeys
and
is
,
of
Projection operator
The operator
is a projection operator
Properties
Orthogonal complement
Normal operator
An operator
is normal if
An operator is normal if and only if it is diagonalizable.

An Hermitian operator is normal.
Unitary matrix
A matrix/operator
is unitary if
Positive operator
An operator
is positive if
and real for any vector
Any positive operator is Hermitian

Any positive operator has real, positive eigenvalues
and a spectral decomposition
in terms of eigenvalues
and orthonormal eigenvectors
of
Tensor product
A tensor product between vectors
in
is a vector in
Example:
A tensor product between operators/matrices
Operation
is denoted
Properties
Matrix representation
Example:
For matrices
we have the tensor product
Operator functions
For a normal operator
, written in the spectral decomposition
we define the/operator matrix function
Trace
The trace of a matrix
is
Cyclic property
Outer product formulation
Commutators
The commutator between two operators/matrices
is
The anti-commutator between two operators/matrices
is
Matrix decompositions
Polar decomposition: For a linear operator
unitary operator and positive operators
there exists a
so that
Singular value decomposition: For a square matrix

exists unitary matrices
and a diagonal matrix
non-negative elements (singular values), such that
there
with
2.2 Postulates of quantum mechanics

State space
Postulate 1:
Associated to any isolated physical system is a
Hilbert space, known as the state space of the
system. The system is completely described by its
state vector, a unit vector in the state space
Definitions/names
A two-level, qubit state
can generally be written as
This is a superposition of the two basis states

with amplitudes and
The normalization condition gives
and
Evolution
Postulate 2:
The evolution of a quantum system is described by a
unitary transformation. That is, the state
of the
system at time is related to the state
of the
system at time by a unitary operator
as
Postulate 2:
The evolution of state
of a quantum system is described
by the Schrdinger equation
where
is Plancks constant and
Hermitian operator.
the Hamiltonian, a
Closed system
For a closed system the Hamiltonian
and the system state
is
is independent on time
where we define the unitary time evolution operator
The Hamiltonian has the spectral decomposition
where
are the energy eigenstates and
the energy.
Effective Hamiltonian for open systems

For many open systems we have an effective time
dependent Hamiltonian acting on the system
The solution to the Schrdinger equation is non-trivial
Measurement
Projection measurement postulate
A projective measurement is described by an observable,
, an
Hermitian operator on the state space of the system. The observable
has the spectral decomposition
The possible outcomes correspond to the eigenvalues
Upon measuring the state
is given by
of
, the probability of getting the result
Given that
has occured, the state immediatelly after the
measurement is (wavefunction collapse)
Measurement problem?
General measurement
Postulate 3:
Quantum measurements are described by a collection
of
measurement operators, acting on the state space of the system. The
index
refers to the possible measurement outcomes. Upon measuring
the state
, the probability of getting the result
is given by
and the state after the measurement is
The measurement operators satisfy the completeness relation
Probabilities sum to one
Projective vs general measurement

For a projective measurement
The average measured value (over an ensemble of states
The magnitude of the quantum fluctuations are
Derivation: Heisenbergs uncertainty principle is
Composite systems
Postulate 4:
The state space of a composite system is the tensor product
of the state spaces of the component systems.
If we have systems numbered through , and system
prepared in state
, the state of the total system is
General measurement and projection II

Derivation: Given projection measurements and an ancilla
system, derive the general measurement principles.
is
POVM measurement
Common formulation of general measurement postulate.
A measurement is described by measurement operators
The probability to get the outcome
is given by
We define the positive operator

which has the properties
We call
the POVM-elements and the set
a POVM.
Distinghuishing quantum states

Given a single copy of one of two non-orthogonal states
not possible to determine which state by any measurement.
Derivation: The example with
, it is
Entanglement of two qubits

A composite state
of two qubits that can not be written as a
tensor product of the states
of the two qubits is entangled,
that is
Derivation: Show that the Bell state
is entangled
Entanglement is the energy for quantum information processing
2.3 Superdense coding

Suppose that Alice wants to send two bits of classical information to
Bob by only sending one qubit. Can she do it?
2 classical bits
1 qubit
Alice
Derivation: Superdense coding
Bob

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2.

Introduction to quantum mechanics

Basis, vector representation

constitutes a basis for

Linear operator (basis given)

Inner vector product

Hilbert space = inner product space

The norm of a vector is

An orthonormal set of vectors

the inner product is

(an orthonormal basis will be used unless otherwise stated)

Outer vector product

forming an orthonormal basis

Eigenvectors and eigenvalues

The diagonal representation of

and orthonormal eigenvectors

An operator is normal if and only if it is diagonalizable.

and real for any vector

Any positive operator is Hermitian

and orthonormal eigenvectors

A tensor product between operators/matrices

we have the tensor product

, written in the spectral decomposition

we define the/operator matrix function

Outer product formulation

The anti-commutator between two operators/matrices

Singular value decomposition: For a square matrix

2.2 Postulates of quantum mechanics

can generally be written as

This is a superposition of the two basis states

where we define the unitary time evolution operator

The Hamiltonian has the spectral decomposition

are the energy eigenstates and

Effective Hamiltonian for open systems

, the probability of getting the result

The measurement operators satisfy the completeness relation

Probabilities sum to one

Projective vs general measurement

The average measured value (over an ensemble of states

The magnitude of the quantum fluctuations are

Derivation: Heisenbergs uncertainty principle is

General measurement and projection II

We define the positive operator

the POVM-elements and the set

Distinghuishing quantum states

Entanglement of two qubits

Derivation: Show that the Bell state

Entanglement is the energy for quantum information processing

2.3 Superdense coding

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