Byzantine Empire

This article is about the medieval Roman empire. For expanded and the north stabilised. However, his assassiother uses, see Byzantine (disambiguation).
nation caused a two-decade-long war with Sassanid Persia
which exhausted the Empires resources and contributed
The Byzantine Empire, alternatively known as the East- to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of
the 7th century. In a matter of years the Empire lost its
ern Roman Empire, was the predominantly Greek[7]
speaking eastern half continuation and remainder of the richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs.
Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle
Ages. Its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day
Istanbul), originally founded as Byzantium. It survived
the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire
in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks
in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was
the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force
in Europe. Both Byzantine Empire and Eastern Roman Empire are historiographical terms created after
the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their
empire as the Roman Empire (Ancient Greek:
, tr. Basileia Rhmain; Latin: Imperium Romanum),[1] or Romania (), and to themselves
as Romans.[2]

During the Macedonian dynasty (10th11th centuries),

the Empire again expanded and experienced a twocentury long renaissance, which came to an end with the
loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the
Battle of Manzikert in 1071. This battle opened the way
for the Turks to settle in Anatolia as a homeland.
The nal centuries of the Empire exhibited a general
trend of decline. It struggled to recover during the 12th
century, but was delivered a mortal blow during the
Fourth Crusade, when Constantinople was sacked and the
Empire dissolved and divided into competing Byzantine
Greek and Latin realms. Despite the eventual recovery
of Constantinople and re-establishment of the Empire in
1261, Byzantium remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the nal two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall
of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 nally
ended the Roman Empire.

Several events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the

transitional period during which the Roman Empires
east and west divided. In 285, the emperor Diocletian
(r. 284305) partitioned the Roman Empires administration into eastern and western halves.[3] Between 324
and 330, Constantine I (r. 306337) transferred the
main capital from Rome to Byzantium, later known as
Constantinople (City of Constantine) and Nova Roma
(New Rome).[n 1] Under Theodosius I (r. 379395),
Christianity became the Empires ocial state religion
and others such as Roman polytheism were proscribed.
And nally, under the reign of Heraclius (r. 610
641), the Empires military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for ocial use instead of
Latin.[5] Thus, although it continued the Roman state
and maintained Roman state traditions, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as
it was oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture,
and characterised by Orthodox Christianity rather than
Roman polytheism.[6]

1 Nomenclature
See also: Names of the Greeks
The rst use of the term Byzantine to label the later
years of the Roman Empire was in 1557, when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Histori Byzantin, a collection of historical sources.
The term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city
of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used
from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre
(Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae), and in 1680
of Du Cange's Historia Byzantina further popularised
the use of Byzantine among French authors, such as
Montesquieu.[8] However, it was not until the mid-19th
century that the term came into general use in the Western world. As regards the English historiography in particular, the rst occasion of the Byzantine Empire appears in an 1857 work of George Finlay (History of the

The borders of the Empire evolved signicantly over its

existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and
recovery. During the reign of Justinian I (r. 527565),
the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering
much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean
coast, including north Africa, Italy, and Rome itself,
which it held for two more centuries. During the reign of
Maurice (r. 582602), the Empires eastern frontier was
1

2 HISTORY

Byzantine Empire from 716 to 1057).[9]

The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the
Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans (Latin:
Imperium Romanum, Imperium Romanorum; Greek: Basileia tn Rhmain,
Arch tn Rhmain), Romania (Latin: Romania; Greek: Rhmania),[n 2] the Roman
Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romana; Greek:
Politeia tn Rhmain), Graikia (Greek:
), and also as Rhmais (Greek: ).[12] The
inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and
even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred The Baptism of Constantine painted by Raphael's pupils (1520
to their modern language as Romaika and Graikika.
1524, fresco, Vatican City, Apostolic Palace); Eusebius of CaeAlthough the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic sarea records that (as was common among converts of early
delayed receiving baptism until shortly
character during most of its history[13] and preserved Christianity) Constantine
[21]
Romano-Hellenistic traditions,[14] it became identied by before his death
its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element.[15] The occasional use 2.1 Early history
of the term Empire of the Greeks (Latin: Imperium
Graecorum) in the West to refer to the Eastern RoThe Roman army succeeded in conquering many territoman Empire and of the Byzantine Emperor as Imperator
ries covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal
[16]
Graecorum (Emperor of the Greeks) were also used to
regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These
separate it from the prestige of the Roman Empire within
territories were home to many dierent cultural groups,
[17]
the new kingdoms of the West.
both urban populations and rural populations. GenerThe authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legiti- ally speaking, the eastern Mediterranean provinces were
mate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation more urbanised than the western, having previously been
of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by
in the year 800. Needing Charlemagnes support in his the inuence of Greek culture.[22]
struggle against his enemies in Rome, Leo used the lack
The West also suered more heavily from the instabilof a male occupant of the throne of the Roman Empire
ity of the 3rd century AD. This distinction between the
at the time to claim that it was vacant and that he could
established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised
[18]
therefore crown a new Emperor himself.
Whenever
West persisted and became increasingly important in later
the Popes or the rulers of the West made use of the name
centuries, leading to a gradual estrangement of the two
Roman to refer to the Eastern Roman Emperors, they
worlds.[22]
usually preferred the term Imperator Romaniae (meaning
Emperor of Romania) instead of Imperator Romanorum
(meaning Emperor of the Romans), a title that they ap2.2 Divisions of the Roman Empire
plied only to Charlemagne and his successors.[n 3]
No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic
worlds, where the Empire was more straightforwardly
seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as
Rm.[20] The name millet-i Rm, or Roman nation, was
used by the Ottomans through the 20th century to refer to
the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire, that is, the
Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms.

History

Main article: History of the Byzantine Empire

See also: Byzantium under the Constantinian and

Valentinian dynasties
To maintain control and improve administration, various
schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by
sharing it between individuals were tried between 285
and 324, from 337 to 350, from 364 to 392, and again
between 395 and 480. Although the administrative subdivisions varied, they generally involved a division of
labour between East and West. Each division was a form
of power-sharing (or even job-sharing), for the ultimate
imperium was not divisible and therefore the empire remained legally one statealthough the co-emperors often saw each other as rivals or enemies.
In 293, emperor Diocletian created a new administrative
system (the tetrarchy), to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire. He associated himself
with a co-emperor (Augustus), and each co-emperor then

2.4

Loss of the western Roman Empire

adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar, to

share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior
partner. The tetrarchy collapsed, however, in 313 and a
few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus.[23]

2.3

Recentralisation

In 330, Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to

Constantinople, which he founded as a second Rome
on the site of Byzantium, a city strategically located on
the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between
the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Constantine introduced important changes into the Empires military,
monetary, civil and religious institutions. As regards his
economic policies in particular, he has been accused by
certain scholars of reckless scality, but the gold solidus
he introduced became a stable currency that transformed
the economy and promoted development.[24]

3
To fend o the Huns, Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila. His successor, Marcian,
refused to continue to pay the tribute, but Attila had
already diverted his attention to the West. After his
death in 453, the Hunnic Empire collapsed, and many
of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries
by Constantinople.[27]

2.4 Loss of the western Roman Empire

After the fall of Attila, the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace, while the Western Empire deteriorated due
to continuing migration and expansion by the Germanic
nations (its end is usually dated in 476 when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer deposed the titular Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus[28] ). In 480 Emperor
Zeno abolished the division of the Empire, making himself sole Emperor. Odoacer, now ruler of Italy, was nominally Zenos subordinate but acted with complete autonproviding support to a rebellion against
Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the ex- omy, eventually
[29]
the
Emperor.
clusive religion of the state, but enjoyed imperial preference, because the emperor supported it with generous Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths, who had
privileges. Constantine established the principle that em- settled in Moesia, convincing the Gothic king Theodoric
perors could not settle questions of doctrine on their own, to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam (combut should summon instead general ecclesiastical councils mander in chief for Italy) with the aim of deposing
for that purpose. His convening of both the Synod of Ar- Odoacer. By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy, Zeno rid
les and the First Council of Nicaea indicated his interest the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate (Odoacer)
in the unity of the Church, and showcased his claim to be and moved another (Theodoric) further from the heart of
its head.[25]
the Empire. After Odoacers defeat in 493, Theodoric
ruled Italy on his own, although he was never recognised
by the eastern emperors as king (rex).[29]
In 491, Anastasius I, an aged civil ocer of Roman origin, became Emperor, but it was not until 497 that the
forces of the new emperor eectively took the measure
of Isaurian resistance.[30] Anastasius revealed himself as
an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He perfected Constantine Is coinage system by denitively setting the weight of the copper follis, the coin used in most
everyday transactions.[31] He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax. The
The Roman Empire during the reigns of Leo I (east) and Majo- State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000
rian (west) in 460 AD. Roman rule in the west would last less lb (150,000 kg) of gold when Anastasius died in 518.[32]
than two more decades, whereas the territory of the east would
remain static until the reconquests of Justinian I.

2.5 Reconquest of the western provinces

In 395, Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial oce
jointly to his sons: Arcadius in the East and Honorius
in the West, once again dividing Imperial administration.
In the 5th century the Eastern part of the empire was
largely spared the diculties faced by the Westdue in
part to a more established urban culture and greater nancial resources, which allowed it to placate invaders
with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries. This success
allowed Theodosius II to focus on the codication of the
Roman law and the further fortication of the walls of
Constantinople, which left the city impervious to most
attacks until 1204.[26]

See also: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty

Justinian I, the son of an Illyrian peasant, may already
have exerted eective control during the reign of his uncle, Justin I (518527).[33] He assumed the throne in 527,
and oversaw a period of recovery of former territories. In
532, attempting to secure his eastern frontier, he signed
a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay
a large annual tribute to the Sassanids. In the same year,
he survived a revolt in Constantinople (the Nika riots),
which solidied his power but ended with the deaths of a
reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters on his orders.[34]

2 HISTORY
recalled to Constantinople in 549.[40] The arrival of the
Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy (late 551) with an army
of some 35,000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes. Totila was defeated at the Battle of Taginae and his
successor, Teia, was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius (October 552). Despite continuing resistance from
a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by
the Franks and Alemanni, the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end.[41] In 551, Athanagild, a noble from
Visigothic Hispania, sought Justinians help in a rebellion
against the king, and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius, a successful military commander. The Empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast
until the reign of Heraclius.[42]

Justinian I depicted on one of the famous mosaics of the Basilica

of San Vitale, Ravenna.

In 529, a ten-man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian revised the Roman law and created a new
codication of laws and jurists extracts. In 534, the Code
was updated and, along with the enactements promulgated by Justinian after 534, it formed the system of law
used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era.[35]

The Eastern Roman Empire in 600 AD during the reign of Emperor Maurice.

In the east, the RomanPersian Wars continued until 561

when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50year peace.[43] By the mid-550s, Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation, with the notable exception of the Balkans, which were subjected to repeated
incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids. Tribes of
Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern
Balkans, during the reign of Heraclius.[44] Justinian called
Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat. The strengthening of the Danube eet caused
the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty
that allowed safe passage back across the Danube.[45]

The western conquests began in 533, as Justinian sent

his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of
Africa from the Vandals who had been in control since
429 with their capital at Carthage.[36] Their success came
with surprising ease, but it was not until 548 that the
major local tribes were subdued.[37] In Ostrogothic Italy,
the deaths of Theodoric, his nephew and heir Athalaric,
and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer,
Theodahad (r. 534536), on the throne despite his weak- During the 6th century, traditional Greco-Roman culture
was still inuential in the Eastern empire. Philosophers
ened authority.[38]
such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in adIn 535, a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with dition to Christian thought and empiricism. Nevertheeasy success, but the Goths soon stiened their resis- less, Hellenistic philosophy began to be supplanted by
tance, and victory did not come until 540, when Belisarius or amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy. Polycaptured Ravenna, after successful sieges of Naples and theism was suppressed by the state. The closure of the
Rome.[38] In 535536, Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus Platonic Academy was a notable turning point. Hymns
I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine written by Romanos the Melodist marked the developforces from Sicily, Dalmatia, and Italy. Although Agape- ment of the Divine Liturgy, while architects and builders
tus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian, worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wishe succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch An- dom, Hagia Sophia, which was designed to replace an
thimus I of Constantinople denounced, despite empress older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt. The HaTheodora's support and protection.[39]
gia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments
The Ostrogoths were soon reunited under the command of Byzantine architectural history.[46] During the 6th and
of King Totila and captured Rome in 546. Belisarius, 7th centuries, the Empire was struck by a series of epiwho had been sent back to Italy in 544, was eventually demics, which greatly devastated the population and con-

2.6

Shrinking borders

tributed to a signicant economic decline and a weaken- Virgin that were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius
ing of the Empire.[47]
about the walls of the city).[53]
After Justinian died in 565, his successor, Justin II refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians. Meanwhile, the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy; by the end
of the century only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands.
Justins successor, Tiberius II, choosing between his enemies, awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians. Though Tiberius general, Maurice, led an eective campaign on the eastern
frontier, subsidies failed to restrain the Avars. They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582, while the
Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube.[48]
Maurice, who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius, intervened
in a Persian civil war, placed the legitimate Khosrau II
back on the throne and married his daughter to him. Maurices treaty with his new brother-in-law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans. By 602, a series
of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars
and Slavs back across the Danube.[48]

2.6
2.6.1

Shrinking borders
Heraclian dynasty

For more details on this topic, see Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty.
After Maurices murder by Phocas, Khosrau used

The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627,

and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem
in a majestic ceremony.[54] The war had exhausted both
the Byzantines and Sassanids, however, and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in
the following years.[55] The Byzantines suered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636,
while Ctesiphon fell in 637.[56]
2.6.2 Siege of Constantinople (674678)
The Arabs, now rmly in control of Syria and the Levant, sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor, and in 674678 laid siege to Constantinople itself.
The Arab eet was nally repulsed through the use of
Greek re, and a thirty-years truce was signed between
the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate.[57] However,
the Anatolian raids continued unabated, and accelerated
the demise of classical urban culture, with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas
within the old city walls, or relocating entirely to nearby
fortresses.[58] Constantinople itself dropped substantially
in size, from 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,00070,000,
and, like other urban centres, it was partly ruralised. The
city also lost the free grain shipments in 618, after Egypt
fell rst to the Persians and then to the Arabs, and public
wheat distribution ceased.[59]

The void left by the disappearance of the old semiautonomous civic institutions was lled by the theme system, which entailed dividing Asia Minor into provinces
occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration.
This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius, but over the course of the 7th
century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance.[60] The massive cultural and institutional
restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of terThe Byzantine Empire in 650 - by this year it had lost all of its ritory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a
southern provinces except the Exarchate of Africa.
decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness and that
the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as anthe pretext to reconquer the Roman province of
rather than a real continuation of the
[49]
Mesopotamia.
Phocas, an unpopular ruler invariably other successor state
[61]
Roman
Empire.
described in Byzantine sources as a tyrant, was the target of a number of Senate-led plots. He was eventually The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the
deposed in 610 by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantino- Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the
ple from Carthage with an icon axed to the prow of his east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion
ship.[50]
of Slavic peoples into the peninsula, and, as in Asia Mi[62]
Following the accession of Heraclius, the Sassanid nor, many cities shrank to small fortied settlements.
advance pushed deep into the Levant, occupying In the 670s, the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube
Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to by the arrival of the Khazars. In 680, Byzantine forces
[63]
Ctesiphon.[51] The counter-attack launched by Heraclius sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated.
took on the character of a holy war, and an acheiropoietos
image of Christ was carried as a military standard[52]
(similarly, when Constantinople was saved from an Avar
siege in 626, the victory was attributed to the icons of the

In 681, Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar

khan Asparukh, and the new Bulgarian state assumed
sovereignty over a number of Slavic tribes that had previously, at least in name, recognised Byzantine rule.[63]

2 HISTORY
a decisive victory against Umar al-Aqta, the emir of
Melitene (Malatya). Under the leadership of emperor
Krum, the Bulgarian threat also re-emerged, but in 815
816 Krums son, Omurtag, signed a peace treaty with Leo
V.[67]

2.6.4 Religious dispute over iconoclasm

Main article: Byzantine iconoclasm
The Greek re was rst used by the Byzantine Navy during the
Byzantine-Arab Wars (from the Madrid Skylitzes, Biblioteca Nacional de Espaa, Madrid).

In 687688, the nal Heraclian emperor, Justinian II, led

an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians, and made
signicant gains, although the fact that he had to ght
his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had
declined.[64]
Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban
aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment
of outsiders to administrative posts. He was driven
from power in 695, and took shelter rst with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians. In 705, he returned
to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan
Tervel, retook the throne, and instituted a reign of terror
against his enemies. With his nal overthrow in 711, supported once more by the urban aristocracy, the Heraclian
dynasty came to an end.[65]
2.6.3

The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated

by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm,
which was the main political issue in the Empire for
over a century. Icons (here meaning all forms of religious imagery) were banned by Leo and Constantine from
around 730, leading to revolts by iconodules (supporters
of icons) throughout the empire. After the eorts of empress Irene, the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787
and armed that icons could be venerated but not worshiped. Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a
marriage between herself and Charlemagne, but, according to Theophanes the Confessor, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favourites.[68]
In the early 9th century, Leo V reintroduced the policy
of iconoclasm, but in 843 empress Theodora restored the
veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios.[69] Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation
of East from West, which worsened during the so-called
Photian schism, when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate.[70]

Isaurian dynasty to the accession of Basil I

For more details on this topic, see Byzantine Empire un- 2.7 Macedonian dynasty and resurgence
(8671025)
der the Isaurian dynasty.
Leo III the Isaurian turned back the Muslim assault in
See also: Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty
The accession of Basil I to the throne in 867 marks the

The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III, c. 717. Striped

area indicates land raided by the Arabs.

718 and addressed himself to the task of reorganising The Byzantine Empire, c. 867.
and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor. His successor, Constantine V, won noteworthy victories in northern beginning of the Macedonian dynasty, which would rule
Syria and thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength.[66] for the next two and a half centuries. This dynasty inTaking advantage of the Empires weakness after the cluded some of the most able emperors in Byzantiums
Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s, the Arabs history, and the period is one of revival and resurgence.
re-emerged and captured Crete. They also success- The Empire moved from defending against external enefully attacked Sicily, but in 863 general Petronas gained mies to reconquest of territories formerly lost.[71]

2.7

Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (8671025)

In addition to a reassertion of Byzantine military power

and political authority, the period under the Macedonian
dynasty is characterised by a cultural revival in spheres
such as philosophy and the arts. There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the Slavic
and subsequent Arab invasions, and the Macedonian era
has been dubbed the Golden Age of Byzantium.[71]
Though the Empire was signicantly smaller than during
the reign of Justinian, it had regained signicant strength,
as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically, economically, and culturally
integrated.
2.7.1

Wars against the Arabs

For more details on this topic, see ByzantineArab Wars

(7801180).
In the early years of Basil Is reign, Arab raids on the
The military successes of the 10th century were coupled with a
major cultural revival, the so-called Macedonian Renaissance.
Miniature from the Paris Psalter, an example of Hellenisticinuenced art.

decisive blow against the Muslims, who inicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to
The general Leo Phokas defeats the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo regain Crete in 911.[74]
at Andrassos in 960, from the Madrid Skylitzes.

coasts of Dalmatia were successfully repelled, and the

region once again came under secure Byzantine control.
This enabled Byzantine missionaries to penetrate to the
interior and convert the Serbs and the principalities of
modern-day Herzegovina and Montenegro to Orthodox
Christianity.[72] An attempt to retake Malta ended disastrously, however, when the local population sided with the
Arabs and massacred the Byzantine garrison.[73]
By contrast, the Byzantine position in Southern Italy was
gradually consolidated so that by 873 Bari had once again
come under Byzantine rule,[72] and most of Southern Italy
would remain in the Empire for the next 200 years.[73] On
the more important eastern front, the Empire rebuilt its
defences and went on the oensive. The Paulicians were
defeated and their capital of Tephrike (Divrigi) taken,
while the oensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began
with the recapture of Samosata.[72]
Under Basils son and successor, Leo VI the Wise, the
gains in the east against the now weak Abbasid Caliphate
continued. However, Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902,
and in 904 Thessaloniki, the Empires second city, was
sacked by an Arab eet. The weakness of the Empire in
the naval sphere was quickly rectied, so that a few years
later a Byzantine eet had re-occupied Cyprus, lost in the
7th century, and also stormed Laodicea in Syria. Despite
this revenge, the Byzantines were still unable to strike a

The death of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon I in 927 severely

weakened the Bulgarians, allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front.[75] Melitene was permanently recaptured in 934, and in 943 the famous general
John Kourkouas continued the oensive in Mesopotamia
with some noteworthy victories, culminating in the reconquest of Edessa. Kourkouas was especially celebrated for
returning to Constantinople the venerated Mandylion, a
relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Christ.[76]
The soldier-emperors Nikephoros II Phokas (reigned
963969) and John I Tzimiskes (969976) expanded the
empire well into Syria, defeating the emirs of north-west
Iraq. The great city of Aleppo was taken by Nikephoros
in 962, and the Arabs were decisively expelled from Crete
in 963. The recapture of Crete put an end to Arab
raids in the Aegean, allowing mainland Greece to ourish once again. Cyprus was permanently retaken in 965,
and the successes of Nikephoros culminated in 969 with
the recapture of Antioch, which he incorporated as a
province of the Empire.[77] His successor John Tzimiskes
recaptured Damascus, Beirut, Acre, Sidon, Caesarea, and
Tiberias, putting Byzantine armies within striking distance of Jerusalem, although the Muslim power centres in
Iraq and Egypt were left untouched.[78] After much campaigning in the north, the last Arab threat to Byzantium,
the rich province of Sicily, was targeted in 1025 by Basil
II, who died before the expedition could be completed.
Nevertheless, by that time the Empire stretched from the

2 HISTORY

straits of Messina to the Euphrates and from the Danube A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and
to Syria.[79]
Romanos I Lekapenos ended with another crushing
Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Achelous in 917, and the
following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece. Adrianople was plundered again in 923, and
2.7.2 Wars against the Bulgarian Empire
a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924.
For more details on this topic, see ByzantineBulgarian Simeon died suddenly in 927, however, and Bulgarian
power collapsed with him. Bulgaria and Byzantium enwars.
The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued tered a long period of peaceful relations, and the Empire
was now free to concentrate on the eastern front against
the Muslims.[83] In 968, Bulgaria was overrun by the Rus
under Sviatoslav I of Kiev, but three years later, John I
Tzimiskes defeated the Rus and re-incorporated Eastern
Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire.[84]

The extent of the Empire under Basil II

Emperor Basil II (r. 9761025)

through the Macedonian period, spurred by the question

of religious supremacy over the newly Christianised state
of Bulgaria.[71] Ending eighty years of peace between the
two states, the powerful Bulgarian tsar Simeon I invaded
in 894 but was pushed back by the Byzantines, who used
their eet to sail up the Black Sea to attack the Bulgarian rear, enlisting the support of the Hungarians.[80] The
Byzantines were defeated at the Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896, however, and agreed to pay annual subsidies
to the Bulgarians.[74]
Leo the Wise died in 912, and hostilities soon resumed
as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a
large army.[81] Though the walls of the city were impregnable, the Byzantine administration was in disarray and
Simeon was invited into the city, where he was granted
the crown of basileus (emperor) of Bulgaria and had the
young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters. When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project, he again invaded Thrace and conquered
Adrianople.[82] The Empire now faced the problem of a
powerful Christian state within a few days marching distance from Constantinople,[71] as well as having to ght
on two fronts.[74]

Bulgarian resistance revived under the rule of the

Cometopuli dynasty, but the new emperor Basil II (r.
9761025) made the submission of the Bulgarians his
primary goal.[85] Basils rst expedition against Bulgaria,
however, resulted in a humiliating defeat at the Gates of
Trajan. For the next few years, the emperor would be
preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia, while the
Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans. The
war dragged on for nearly twenty years. The Byzantine
victories of Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened
the Bulgarian army, and in annual campaigns, Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds.[85] At the
Battle of Kleidion in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated: their army was captured, and it is said that 99 out
of every 100 men were blinded, with the hundredth man
left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home.
When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once
gallant army, he died of shock. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered, and the country became
part of the Empire.[85] This victory restored the Danube
frontier, which had not been held since the days of the
emperor Heraclius.[79]
2.7.3 Relations with the Kievan Rus
Between 850 and 1100, the Empire developed a mixed
relationship with the new state of the Kievan Rus, which
had emerged to the north across the Black Sea.[86] This
relationship would have long-lasting repercussions in the
history of the East Slavs, and the Empire quickly be-

2.7

Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (8671025)

Constantinople became the largest and wealthiest city in Europe

between the 9th and 11th centuries

Rus under the walls of Constantinople (860)

came the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev.

The Rus launched their rst attack against Constantinople in 860, pillaging the suburbs of the city. In 941,
they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, but
this time they were crushed, an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907,
when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders. Basil II could not ignore the emerging power
of the Rus, and, following the example of his predecessors, he used religion as a means for the achievement of political purposes.[87] RusByzantine relations
became closer following the marriage of the Anna Porphyrogeneta to Vladimir the Great in 988, and the subsequent Christianisation of the Rus.[86] Byzantine priests,
architects, and artists were invited to work on numerous
cathedrals and churches around Rus, expanding Byzantine cultural inuence even further, while numerous Rus
served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries, most notably as the famous Varangian Guard.[86]

Leo VI achieved the complete codication of Byzantine

law in Greek. This monumental work of 60 volumes
became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law
and is still studied today.[88] Leo also reformed the administration of the Empire, redrawing the borders of the
administrative subdivisions (the Themata, or Themes)
and tidying up the system of ranks and privileges, as well
as regulating the behaviour of the various trade guilds in
Constantinople. Leos reform did much to reduce the previous fragmentation of the Empire, which henceforth had
one center of power, Constantinople.[89] However, the increasing military success of the Empire greatly enriched
and empowered the provincial nobility with respect to
the peasantry, who were essentially reduced to a state of
serfdom.[90]

Under the Macedonian emperors, the city of Constantinople ourished, becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population of approximately
400,000 in the 9th and 10th centuries.[91] During this period, the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staed by competent aristocrats that oversaw the collection of taxes, domestic administration, and foreign policy. The Macedonian emperors also increased the Empires wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe, parEven after the Christianisation of the Rus, however, re- ticularly through the sale of silk and metalwork.[92]
lations were not always friendly. The most serious conict between the two powers was the war of 968971 in
Bulgaria, but several Rus raiding expeditions against the 2.7.5 Split between Orthodox Christianity and
Catholicism (1054)
Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople itself are also recorded. Although most were repulsed,
they were often followed by treaties that were generally Further information: EastWest Schism
favourable to the Rus, such as the one concluded at the The Macedonian period also included events of momenend of the war of 1043, during which the Rus gave an tous religious signicance. The conversion of the Bulindication of their ambitions to compete with the Byzan- garians, Serbs and Rus to Orthodox Christianity permanently changed the religious map of Europe and still restines as an independent power.[87]
onates today. Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine Greek
brothers from Thessaloniki, contributed signicantly to
the Christianization of the Slavs and in the process de2.7.4 Apex
vised the Glagolitic alphabet, ancestor to the Cyrillic
[93]
By 1025, the date of Basil IIs death, the Byzantine Em- script.
pire stretched from Armenia in the east to Calabria in
Southern Italy in the west.[79] Many successes had been
achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the
annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, and the reconquest of Crete, Cyprus, and the important city of Antioch. These were not temporary tactical gains but longterm reconquests.[72]

In 1054, relations between the Eastern and Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis, known as the EastWest Schism. Although there was
a formal declaration of institutional separation, on July
16, when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia
during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed
a bull of excommunication on the altar,[94] the so-called

10

2 HISTORY
culminating in the East-West Schism of 1054, the Normans began to advance, slowly but steadily, into Byzantine Italy.[98] Reggio, the capital of the tagma of Calabria,
was captured in 1060 by Robert Guiscard, followed by
Otranto in 1068. Bari, the main Byzantine stronghold in
Apulia, was besieged in August 1068 and fell in April
1071.[99] The Byzantines also lost their inuence over the
Dalmatian coastal cities to Peter Kreimir IV of Croatia
(r. 10581074/1075) in 1069.[100]

The seizure of Edessa (1031) by the Byzantines under George

Maniakes and the counterattack by the Seljuk Turks

Mural of Saints Cyril and Methodius, 19th century, Troyan

Monastery, Bulgaria

Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries

of gradual separation.[95]

2.8

Crisis and fragmentation

The Empire soon fell into a period of diculties, caused

to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system
and the neglect of the military. Nikephoros II, John Tzimiskes, and Basil II changed the military divisions (, tagmata) from a rapid response, primarily defensive, citizen army into a professional, campaigning army,
increasingly manned by mercenaries. Mercenaries were
expensive, however, and as the threat of invasion receded
in the 10th century, so did the need for maintaining large
garrisons and expensive fortications.[96] Basil II left a
burgeoning treasury upon his death, but he neglected to
plan for his succession. None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the
administration of the Empire increasingly fell into the
hands of the civil service. Eorts to revive the Byzantine economy only resulted in ination and a debased gold
coinage. The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat. Native troops were
therefore cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries
on specic contract.[97]

The greatest disaster took place in Asia Minor, however, where the Seljuq Turks made their rst explorations
across the Byzantine frontier into Armenia in 1065 and
1067. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia, who in 1068 secured the election of
one of their own, Romanos Diogenes, as emperor. In the
summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern
campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement
with the Byzantine army. At the Battle of Manzikert, Romanos suered a surprise defeat by Sultan Alp Arslan,
and he was captured. Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines.[97]
In Constantinople, however, a coup put in power Michael
Doukas, who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros
Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates. By 1081, the
Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire
Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia
in the west, and they had founded their capital at Nicaea,
just 90 kilometres (56 miles) from Constantinople.[101]

2.9 Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders

See also: Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty

and Komnenian restoration
During the Komnenian, or Comnenian, period from
about 1081 to about 1185, the ve emperors of the
Komnenos dynasty (Alexios I, John II, Manuel I, Alexios
II, and Andronikos I) presided over a sustained, though
ultimately incomplete, restoration of the military, territorial, economic, and political position of the Byzantine Empire.[102] Although the Seljuk Turks occupied the
heartland of the Empire in Anatolia, most Byzantine miliagainst WestAt the same time, the Empire was faced with new ene- tary eorts during this period were directed
[102]
ern
powers,
particularly
the
Normans.
mies. Provinces in southern Italy faced the Normans, who
arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. Dur- The Empire under the Komnenoi played a key role in the
ing a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome history of the Crusades in the Holy Land, which Alex-

2.9

Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders

11
2.9.1 Alexios I and the First Crusade
For more details on this topic, see Alexios I Komnenos.
See also: First Crusade
After Manzikert, a partial recovery (referred to as the

The Byzantine Empire and the Sultanate of Rm before the First

Crusade

Komnenian restoration) was made possible by the Komnenian dynasty.[108] The rst Komnenian emperor was
Isaac I (10571059), after which the Doukas dynasty held
power (105981). The Komnenoi attained power again
Alexios I, founder of the Komnenos dynasty
under Alexios I in 1081. From the outset of his reign,
Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto,
who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to
Larissa in Thessaly. Robert Guiscards death in 1085
temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following
year, the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split by
ios I had helped bring about, while also exerting enor- internal rivalries. By his own eorts, Alexios defeated
mous cultural and political inuence in Europe, the Near the Pechenegs; they were caught by surprise and annihi[109]
East, and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea un- lated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091.
der John and Manuel. Contact between Byzantium and Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn
the Latin West, including the Crusader states, increased his attention to the severe economic diculties and the
signicantly during the Komnenian period. Venetian and disintegration of the Empires traditional defences.[110]
other Italian traders became resident in large numbers However, he still did not have enough manpower to rein Constantinople and the empire (there were an esti- cover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to advance
mated 60,000 Latins in Constantinople alone, out of a against the Seljuks. At the Council of Piacenza in 1095,
population of three to four hundred thousand), and their envoys from Alexios spoke to Pope Urban II about the
presence together with the numerous Latin mercenaries suering of the Christians of the East, and underscored
who were employed by Manuel helped to spread Byzan- that without help from the West they would continue to
tine technology, art, literature and culture throughout the suer under Muslim rule.[111]
Latin West, while also leading to a ow of Western ideas
and customs into the Empire.[103]
In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Komnenian
period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history,[104] and
Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.[105] There was a
renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well
as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.[106]
Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in
Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the The brief rst coinage of the Thessaloniki mint, opened by Alexwest during this period was enormous and of long lasting ios in September 1081, on his way to confront the invading Normans under Robert Guiscard
signicance.[107]

12

2 HISTORY

Urban saw Alexioss request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his
rule.[111] On 27 November 1095, Pope Urban II called
together the Council of Clermont, and urged all those
present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and
launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the
East from the Muslims. The response in Western Europe
was overwhelming.[109]
Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary
forces from the West, but he was totally unprepared for
the immense and undisciplined force that soon arrived in
Byzantine territory. It was no comfort to Alexios to learn
that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans, among them Bohemund. Since the
crusade had to pass through Constantinople, however, the
Emperor had some control over it. He required its leaders
to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories Medieval manuscript depicting the Capture of Jerusalem during
they might reconquer from the Turks on their way to the the First Crusade
Holy Land. In return, he gave them guides and a military
escort.[112]
ties on the East, personally leading numerous campaigns
Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities
against the Turks in Asia Minor. His campaigns fundaand islands, and in fact much of western Asia Minor.
mentally altered the balance of power in the East, forcNevertheless, the Catholic/Latin crusaders believed their
ing the Turks onto the defensive, while restoring to the
oaths were invalidated when Alexios did not help them
Byzantines many towns, fortresses, and cities across the
during the siege of Antioch (he had in fact set out on the
peninsula.[119] He defeated the Danishmend emirate of
road to Antioch but had been persuaded to turn back by
Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia, while forcing
Stephen of Blois, who assured him that all was lost and
Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, to recognise
[113]
that the expedition had already failed).
Bohemund,
Byzantine suzerainty. In an eort to demonstrate the
who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch, briey
Emperors role as the leader of the Christian world, John
went to war with the Byzantines, but he agreed to bemarched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined
come Alexios vassal under the Treaty of Devol in 1108,
forces of the Empire and the Crusader states; yet despite
which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexhis great vigour pressing the campaign, his hopes were
ios reign.[114]
disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies.[120]
In 1142, John returned to press his claims to Antioch,
but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting ac2.9.2 John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade
cident. Raymond was emboldened to invade Cilicia, but
to Constantinople to beg
Main articles: John II Komnenos and Manuel I Kom- he was defeated and forced to go
[121]
mercy
from
the
new
Emperor.
nenos
Alexioss son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118
and ruled until 1143. John was a pious and dedicated
Emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the
empire suered at the Battle of Manzikert, half a century earlier.[115] Famed for his piety and his remarkably
mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of
a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm.[116]
For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus
Aurelius.
During his twenty-ve year reign, John made alliances
with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia.[117]
He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the
1120s, and in 1130 he allied himself with the German
emperor Lothair III against the Norman king Roger II of
Sicily.[118]

Byzantine Empire in orange, c.

Komnenian period

1180, at the end of the

Johns chosen heir was his fourth son, Manuel I Komnenos, who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. In Palestine,
Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem
In the later part of his reign, John focused his activi- and sent a large eet to participate in a combined in-

2.10

Decline and disintegration

vasion of Fatimid Egypt. Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement
with Raynald, Prince of Antioch, and Amalric, King of
Jerusalem.[122] In an eort to restore Byzantine control
over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to
Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the
eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military
setback, Manuels armies successfully invaded the Southern parts of Kingdom of Hungary in 1167, defeating the
Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium. By 1168, nearly
the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuels
hands.[123] Manuel made several alliances with the Pope
and Western Christian kingdoms, and he successfully
handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his
empire.[124]

13
frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilisation of the Empires European frontiers. From circa 1081
to circa 1180, the Komnenian army assured the Empires
security, enabling Byzantine civilisation to ourish.[128]

This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since
the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th
century, population levels rose and extensive tracts of new
agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows
a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements,
together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was
also ourishing; the Venetians, the Genoese and others
opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping
In the east, however, Manuel suered a major defeat in goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fa1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon, against the Turks. timid Egypt to the west and trading with the Empire via
Yet the losses were quickly recovered, and in the follow- Constantinople.[129]
ing year Manuels forces inicted a defeat upon a force In artistic terms, there was a revival in mosaic, and reof picked Turks.[125] The Byzantine commander John gional schools of architecture began producing many
Vatatzes, who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the Battle distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural
of Hyelion and Leimocheir, not only brought troops from inuences.[130] During the 12th century, the Byzantines
the capital but also was able to gather an army along the provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance
way, a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and of interest in classical authors. In Eustathius of Thessathat the defensive program of western Asia Minor was lonica, Byzantine humanism found its most characterisstill successful.[126]
tic expression.[131] In philosophy, there was resurgence
of classical learning not seen since the 7th century, characterised by a signicant increase in the publication of
2.9.3 12th-century Renaissance
commentaries on classical works.[106] In addition, the rst
For more details on this topic, see Byzantine civilisation transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West
occurred during the Komnenian period.[107]
in the twelfth century.
See also: Komnenian Byzantine army
John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and

2.10 Decline and disintegration

Main article: Decline of the Byzantine Empire

2.10.1 Dynasty of the Angeloi

Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Angelos
dynasty

'The Lamentation of Christ' (1164), a fresco from the church of

Saint Panteleimon in Nerezi near Skopje; it is considered a superb
example of 12th-century Komnenian art

both deployed considerable resources on sieges and on

city defences; aggressive fortication policies were at the
heart of their imperial military policies.[127] Despite the
defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John
and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased

Manuels death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-yearold son Alexios II Komnenos on the throne. Alexios was
highly incompetent at the oce, but it was his mother,
Maria of Antioch, and her Frankish background that
made his regency unpopular.[132] Eventually, Andronikos
I Komnenos, a grandson of Alexios I, launched a revolt
against his younger relative and managed to overthrow
him in a violent coup d'tat.[133] Utilizing his good looks
and his immense popularity with the army, he marched on
to Constantinople in August 1182 and incited a massacre
of the Latins.[133] After eliminating his potential rivals, he
had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183.

14

2 HISTORY

He eliminated Alexios II, and took his 12-year-old wife nal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squanAgnes of France for himself.[133]
dering of the public treasure and scal maladministration.
Imperial authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the center of the Empire encouraged
fragmentation. There is evidence that some Komnenian
heirs had set up a semi-independent state in Trebizond
before 1204.[138] According to Alexander Vasiliev, the
dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin, ... accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without
and disunited within.[139]
2.10.2 Fourth Crusade
For more details on this topic, see Fourth Crusade.
In 1198, Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new

Iconium was won by the Third Crusade

Andronikos began his reign well; in particular, the measures he took to reform the government of the Empire
have been praised by historians. According to George
Ostrogorsky, Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: Under his rule, the sale of oces ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favouritism; ofcials were paid an adequate salary so as to reduce the
temptation of bribery. In the provinces, Andronikoss reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement.[134]
The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make
matters worse, Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became
increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign
of terror.[135] Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle
against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter,
while the Emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime.[134]
Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to
deal with Isaac Komnenos, Bla III of Hungary (r. 1172
1196) who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary, and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia (r. 11661196)
who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire. Yet, none of these troubles would compare to
William II of Sicily's (r. 11661189) invasion force of
300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185.[136] Andronikos mobilised a small eet of 100 ships to defend
the capital, but other than that he was indierent to the
populace. He was nally overthrown when Isaac Angelos,
surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power
with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed.[137]

The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople, by Eugne

Delacroix (1840).

crusade through legates and encyclical letters.[140] The

stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt, now the
centre of Muslim power in the Levant. The crusader army
that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 was somewhat smaller than had been anticipated, and there were
not sucient funds to pay the Venetians, whose eet was
hired by the crusaders to take them to Egypt. Venetian
policy under the ageing and blind but still ambitious Doge
Enrico Dandolo was potentially at variance with that of
the Pope and the crusaders, because Venice was closely
related commercially with Egypt.[141] The crusaders accepted the suggestion that in lieu of payment they assist the Venetians in the capture of the (Christian) port
of Zara in Dalmatia (vassal city of Venice, which had
rebelled and placed itself under Hungarys protection in
1186).[142] The city fell in November 1202 after a brief
siege.[143] Innocent, who was informed of the plan but
his veto disregarded, was reluctant to jeopardise the Crusade, and gave conditional absolution to the crusaders
not, however, to the Venetians.[141]

The reign of Isaac II, and moreso that of his brother

Alexios III, saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence.
Although the Normans were driven out of Greece, in After the death of Theobald III, Count of Champagne,
1186 the Vlachs and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the leadership of the Crusade passed to Boniface of
the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The inter- Montferrat, a friend of the Hohenstaufen Philip of

2.11

Fall

Swabia. Both Boniface and Philip had married into the

Byzantine Imperial family. In fact, Philips brother-inlaw, Alexios Angelos, son of the deposed and blinded
Emperor Isaac II Angelos, had appeared in Europe seeking aid and had made contacts with the crusaders. Alexios
oered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay
the crusaders 200,000 silver marks, join the crusade and
provide all the supplies they needed to get to Egypt.[144]
Innocent was aware of a plan to divert the Crusade to
Constantinople and forbade any attack on the city, but
the papal letter arrived after the eets had left Zara.

15
Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus.[141] Although Venice was
more interested in commerce than conquering territory,
it took key areas of Constantinople, and the Doge took
the title of "Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the
Roman Empire".[146]

2.11 Fall
2.11.1 Empire in exile
For more details on this topic, see Latinokratia.

2.10.3

Crusader sack of Constantinople (1204)

After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established:
Further information: Siege of Constantinople (1203) and
the Empire of Nicaea, and the Despotate of Epirus. A
Siege of Constantinople (1204)
third one, the Empire of Trebizond was created a few
The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer
weeks before the sack of Constantinople by Alexios I of
Trebizond. Of these three successor states, Epirus and
Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next
few decades, however, and by the mid-13th century it had
lost much of southern Anatolia.[147]

The partition of the empire following the Fourth Crusade, c.

1204.

of 1203 and quickly attacked, started a major re that

damaged large parts of the city, and briey seized control. Alexios III ed from the capital, and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his
blind father Isaac. However, Alexios IV and Isaac II were
unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V. The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204,
and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre
by the rank and le for three days. Many priceless icons,
relics, and other objects later turned up in Western Europe, a large number in Venice. According to Choniates,
a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne.[145]
When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his crusaders,
he castigated them in no uncertain terms. But the situation was beyond his control, especially after his legate,
on his own initiative, had absolved the crusaders from
their vow to proceed to the Holy Land.[141] When order
had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement; Baldwin of Flanders was elected Emperor of a new Latin Empire, and
the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as Patriarch.
The lands divided up among the leaders included most
of the former Byzantine possessions, though resistance
would continue through the Byzantine remnants of the

The weakening of the Sultanate of Rm following the

Mongol invasion in 124243 allowed many beyliks and
ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor.[148] In time, one
of the Beys, Osman I, created an empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople. However, the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk
attacks, allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to
its north.
2.11.2 Reconquest of Constantinople
Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
The Empire of Nicaea, founded by the Laskarid dynasty,

The Byzantine Empire c. 1263.

managed to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins in

1261 and defeat Epirus. This led to a short-lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos, but the war-ravaged Empire was ill-equipped to deal
with the enemies that now surrounded it. To maintain
his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops
from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peas-

16

2 HISTORY

antry, causing much resentment.[149] Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair
the damage of the Fourth Crusade, but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor
suering raids from Muslim ghazis.

Empires remaining territory and establish a short-lived

"Serbian Empire". In 1354, an earthquake at Gallipoli
devastated the fort, allowing the Ottomans (who were
hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos) to establish themselves in Europe.[152] By the
Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Mi- time the Byzantine civil wars had ended, the Ottomans
nor, Michael chose to expand the Empire, gaining only had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals.
of the Balkans beshort-term success. To avoid another sacking of the cap- Following the Battle of Kosovo, much
came dominated by the Ottomans.[153]
ital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to
Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peas- The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help,
antry hated Michael and Constantinople.[150] The eorts but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return
of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the
marked Byzantiums last genuine attempts in restoring the See of Rome. Church unity was considered, and occaglory of the Empire. However, the use of mercenaries sionally accomplished by imperial decree, but the Orthoby Andronikos II would often backre, with the Catalan dox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority
Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resent- of Rome and the Latin Rite.[154] Some Western troops arment towards Constantinople.[151]
rived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople,
but most Western rulers, distracted by their own aairs,
did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining
2.11.3 Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Con- Byzantine territories.[155]
stantinople
Main articles: ByzantineOttoman Wars and Fall of Constantinople
The situation became worse for Byzantium during the

Smaller

Eastern
Mediterranean

States

1450 AD

Sm

alle

r S
tat
e

Kingdom of Cyprus

Venetian Territories
Genoese Territories
Duchy of Naxos
Knights of St John
200

Byzantine Empire

The Eastern Mediterranean just before the fall of Constantinople

Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so
severely that it was now little more than a cluster of
villages separated by elds. On 2 April 1453, Sultan
Mehmed's army of some 80,000 men and large numbers
of irregulars laid siege to the city.[156] Despite a desperate
last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom
[155]
Constantinople nally fell to the OtThe siege of Constantinople in 1453, according to a 15th-century were foreign),
tomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The last
French miniature.
Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was last
civil wars after Andronikos III died. A six-year-long seen casting o his imperial regalia and throwing himself
civil war devastated the empire, allowing the Serbian ruler into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were
Stefan IV Dushan (r. 13311346) to overrun most of the taken.[157]

17

2.12 Political aftermath

Ottomans in 1475.

By the time of the fall of Constantinople, the only remaining territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate
of the Morea (Peloponnese), which was ruled by brothers
of the last Emperor, Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios
Palaiologos. The Despotate continued on as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans.
Incompetent rule, failure to pay the annual tribute and
a revolt against the Ottomans nally led to Mehmed IIs
invasion of Morea in May 1460. Demetrios asked the
Ottomans to invade and drive Thomas out. Thomas ed.
The Ottomans moved through the Morea and conquered
virtually the entire Despotate by the summer. Demetrios
thought the Morea would be restored to him to rule, but
it was incorporated into the Ottoman fold.

A nephew of the last Emperor, Constantine XI, Andreas

Palaiologos claimed to have inherited the title of
Byzantine Emperor. He lived in the Morea until its
fall in 1460, then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life. Since the oce of emperor had never
been technically hereditary, Andreas claim would have
been without merit under Byzantine law. However, the
Empire had vanished, and Western states generally followed the Roman church sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty. Seeking a life in the west, Andreas
styled himself Imperator Constantinopolitanus (Emperor
of Constantinople), and sold his succession rights to both
Charles VIII of France and the Catholic Monarchs. However, no one ever invoked the title after Andreass death.

A few holdouts remained for a time. The island of

Monemvasia refused to surrender and it was rst ruled for
a short time by an Aragonese corsair. When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas
to place themselves under the Popes protection before
the end of 1460. The Mani Peninsula, on the Moreas
south end, resisted under a loose coalition of the local
clans and then that area came under Venices rule. The
very last holdout was Salmeniko, in the Moreas northwest. Graitzas Palaiologos was the military commander
there, stationed at Salmeniko Castle. While the town
eventually surrendered, Graitzas and his garrison and
some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461,
when they escaped and reached Venetian territory.[158]

Constantine XI died without producing an heir, and had

Constantinople not fallen he might have been succeeded
by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken
into the palace service of Mehmed II after the fall of
Constantinople. The oldest boy, rechristened Has Murad, became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served
as Beylerbey (Governor-General) of the Balkans. The
younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral
of the Ottoman eet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the
Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as
Grand Vizier under Mehmeds son, Bayezid II.[159]
Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider
themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of
the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. They considered that they had simply shifted its religious basis as
Constantine had done before, and they continued to refer
to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants (Orthodox
Christians) as Rm. Meanwhile, the Danubian Principalities (whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of
the Eastern Roman Emperors[160] ) harboured Orthodox
refugees, including some Byzantine nobles.

At his death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III, Grand duke of
Muscovy. He had married Andreas sister, Sophia Paleologue, whose grandson, Ivan IV, would become the rst
Tsar of Russia (tsar, or czar, meaning caesar, is a term
traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors).
Flag of the late Empire under the Palaiologoi, sporting the Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the
proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of the
tetragrammic cross symbol of the Palaiologos dynasty.
Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept
The Empire of Trebizond, which had split away from the alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution.[161]
Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was
taken by the Crusaders in 1204, became the last remnant
and last de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire. 3 Economy
Eorts by the Emperor David to recruit European powers
for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the
Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461. After For more details on this topic, see Byzantine economy.
a month-long siege, David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461. The Empire of Trebizonds The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced
Crimean principality, the Principality of Theodoro (part in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries. Euof the Perateia), lasted another 14 years, falling to the rope, in particular, could not match Byzantine economic

18

4 SCIENCE, MEDICINE AND LAW

strength until late in the Middle Ages. Constantinople

operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North
Africa, in particular as the primary western terminus of
the famous Silk Road. Until the rst half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West, the
Byzantine economy was ourishing and resilient.[162]
The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests would
represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to
a period of stagnation and decline. Isaurian reforms and,
in particular, Constantine V's repopulation, public works
and tax measures, marked the beginning of a revival that
continued until 1204, despite territorial contraction.[163]
From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the
Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the
capital.[164]
The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of
the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean,
events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the
Empire.[164] The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy,
but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of
either the foreign or domestic economic forces. GraduThe frontispiece of the Vienna Dioscurides, which shows a set of
ally, it also lost its inuence on the modalities of trade seven famous physicians
and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outow of precious metals and, according to some scholars,
even over the minting of coins.[165]
phy, and metaphysics.[168] Although at various times the
One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was Byzantines made magnicent achievements in the applitrade, fostered by the maritime character of the Em- cation of the sciences (notably in the construction of the
pire. Textiles must have been by far the most impor- Hagia Sophia), after the 6th century Byzantine scholars
tant item of export; silks were certainly imported into made few novel contributions to science in terms of deEgypt, and appeared also in Bulgaria, and the West.[166] veloping new theories or extending the ideas of classical
The state strictly controlled both the internal and the in- authors.[169]
ternational trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing
Scholarship particularly lagged during the dark years
coinage, maintaining a durable and exible monetary sysof plague and the Arab conquests, but then during
[167]
tem adaptable to trade needs.
the so-called Byzantine Renaissance at the end of the
The government attempted to exercise formal control rst millennium Byzantine scholars re-asserted themover interest rates, and set the parameters for the activity selves becoming experts in the scientic developments
of the guilds and corporations, in which it had a special of the Arabs and Persians, particularly in astronomy and
interest. The emperor and his ocials intervened at times mathematics.[170] The Byzantines are also credited with
of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital, and to several technological advancements, particularly in archikeep down the price of cereals. Finally, the government tecture (e.g. the pendentive dome) and warfare technoloften collected part of the surplus through taxation, and ogy (e.g. Greek re).
put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the
In the nal century of the Empire, Byzantine grammarform of salaries to state ocials, or in the form of investians were those principally responsible for carrying, in
ment in public works.[167]
person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to early Renaissance Italy.[171] During this
period, astronomy and other mathematical sciences were
taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of al4 Science, medicine and law
most all scholars.[172]
See also: Byzantine science, Byzantine medicine and
Byzantine law
The writings of Classical antiquity never ceased to be cultivated in Byzantium. Therefore, Byzantine science was
in every period closely connected with ancient philoso-

In the eld of law, Justinian I's reforms had a clear eect

on the evolution of jurisprudence, and Leo IIIs Ecloga
inuenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic
world.[173] In the 10th century, Leo VI the Wise achieved
the complete codication of the whole of Byzantine law

19
in Greek, which became the foundation of all subsequent
Byzantine law, generating interest to the present day.[88]

Religion

As a symbol and expression of the universal prestige of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, Justinian built the Church of the Holy
Wisdom of God, Hagia Sophia, which was completed in the short
period of four and a half years (532537)

Main article: State church of the Roman Empire

The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the aairs of the Church.
The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative, and nancial routine of administering religious aairs, and this routine was applied to the Christian
Church. Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea, the Byzantines viewed the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ, responsible particularly for
the propagation of Christianity among pagans, and for the
externals of the religion, such as administration and nances. As Cyril Mango points out, the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto One God,
one empire, one religion.[174]
The imperial role in the aairs of the Church never developed into a xed, legally dened system.[175] With the
decline of Rome, and internal dissension in the other
Eastern Patriarchates, the Church of Constantinople became, between the 6th and 11th centuries, the richest and
most inuential center of Christendom.[176] Even when
the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former
self, the Church continued to exercise signicant inuence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers. As
George Ostrogorsky points out:
The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world, with
subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the
Balkans, now lost to Byzantium, as well as in
Caucasus, Russia and Lithuania. The Church

remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire.[177]

The ocial state Christian doctrine was determined by
the rst seven ecumenical councils, and it was then the
emperors duty to impose it to his subjects. An imperial decree of 388, which was later incorporated into the
Codex Justinianus, orders the population of the Empire
to assume the name of Catholic Christians, and regards
all those who will not abide by the law as mad and foolish
persons"; as followers of heretical dogmas.[178]
Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the
state church itself, which came to be known as the Eastern
Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity, the latter never
represented all Christians in Byzantium. Mango believes
that, in the early stages of the Empire, the mad and
foolish persons, those labelled "heretics" by the state
church, were the majority of the population.[179] Besides
the pagans, who existed until the end of the 6th century, and the Jews, there were many followers sometimes even emperors of various Christian doctrines,
such as Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Arianism, and
Paulicianism, whose teachings were in some opposition
to the main theological doctrine, as determined by the
Ecumenical Councils.[180]
Another division among Christians occurred, when Leo
III ordered the destruction of icons throughout the Empire. This led to a signicant religious crisis, which ended
in mid-9th century with the restoration of icons. During
the same period, a new wave of pagans emerged in the
Balkans, originating mainly from Slavic people. These
were gradually Christianised, and by Byzantiums late
stages, Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians
and, in general, most people in what remained of the
Empire.[181]
Jews were a signicant minority in the Byzantine state
throughout its history, and, according to Roman law, they
constituted a legally recognised religious group. In the
early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated, but
then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued. In
any case, after the Arab conquests, the majority of Jews
found themselves outside the Empire; those left inside the
Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from
the 10th century onwards.[182]
Georgian monasteries rst appear in Constantinople and
on Mount Olympos in northwestern Asia Minor in the
second half of the ninth century, and from then on
Georgians played an increasingly important role in the
Empire.[183]

6 Art and literature

Main articles: Byzantine art and Byzantine literature
See also: Byzantine dress

20

7 MUSIC
Acritas. The remaining two groups include the new literary species: ecclesiastical and theological literature, and
popular poetry.[186]
Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes
of Byzantine literature that survive, only three hundred
and thirty consist of secular poetry, history, science and
pseudo-science.[186] While the most ourishing period
of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the
9th to the 12th century, its religious literature (sermons,
liturgical books and poetry, theology, devotional treatises, etc.) developed much earlier with Romanos the
Melodist being its most prominent representative.[187]

7 Music
Main article: Byzantine music
The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music, com-

Miniatures of the 6th-century Rabula Gospel display the more

abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art.

Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in
fresco, illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and,
especially in earlier periods, mosaic were the main media, and gurative sculpture very rare except for small
carved ivories. Manuscript painting preserved to the
end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.[184] Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it
maintained a continuous inuence on medieval art until near the end of the period. This was especially so
in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modied
form through the 12th century, and became formative
inuences on Italian Renaissance art. But few incoming inuences aected Byzantine style. By means of
the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread to all the Orthodox world
and beyond.[185] Inuences from Byzantine architecture,
particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse
regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania.

Earliest known depiction of a bowed lyra, from a Byzantine ivory

casket (900 1100 AD). (Museo Nazionale, Florence)

posed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church

music,[188] are, today, the most well-known forms. Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre.
Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical
tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music
is closely related to the ancient Greek system.[189] It remains the oldest genre of extant music, of which the manner of performance and (with increasing accuracy from
the 5th century onwards) the names of the composers,
and sometimes the particulars of each musical works cirIn Byzantine literature, four dierent cultural elements cumstances, are known.
are recognised: the Greek, the Christian, the Roman, and The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih
the Oriental. Byzantine literature is often classied in (d. 911); in his lexicographical discussion of instruve groups: historians and annalists, encyclopaedists (Pa- ments cited the lyra (lr) as the typical instrument of
triarch Photios, Michael Psellus, and Michael Choniates the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani
are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzan- (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probtium) and essayists, and writers of secular poetry. The ably a bagpipe).[190] The rst of these, the early bowed
only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, would

21
continued to be played throughout the empires former
realms through to the present. (See Balkan Gaida, Greek
Tsampouna, Pontic Tulum, Cretan Askomandoura, Armenian Parkapzuk, and Romanian Cimpoi.)

8 Cuisine and recreation

See also: Byzantine cuisine
The Byzantine culture of recreation and cuisine was, ini-

XXIIII XXIII XXII

II

III

XXI

XX

IIII

XVIIII XVIII

VI

VII

XVII

XVI

XV

XIIII

XIII

VIII

VIIII

XI

XII

A game of (tabula) played by Byzantine Emperor Zeno

in 480 and recorded by Agathias in 530 circa because of a very
unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red), as he threw 2, 5 and 6 and
was forced to leave eight pieces alone. See Zenos Game of
".[197]

tially, the same as late Roman, but over the following

millennium of the empires existence slowly changed into
something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian
culture.
Hydraulis, 1st century BC, Archaeological Museum of Dion,
Greece

come to be called the lira da braccio,[191] in Venice,

where is it considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later ourished there.[192] The bowed lyra is still played in former
Byzantine regions, where it is known as the Politiki lyra
(lit. lyra of the City i.e. Constantinople) in Greece,
the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy, and the Lijerica
in Dalmatia. The second instrument, the organ, originated in the Hellenistic world (see Hydraulis) and was
used in the Hippodrome during races.[193][194] A pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent by the emperor
Constantine V to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in
757. Pepins son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music.[195] The nal Byzantine instrument, the bagpipes, known as Dankiyo (from
ancient Greek: angion ( ) the container),
had been played even in Roman times. Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign
(possibly Nero) who could play a pipe (tibia, Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos) with his mouth as well as by
tucking a bladder beneath his armpit.[196] The bagpipes

The cuisine still relied heavily on the Roman condiment

garos, but it also contained foods still familiar today, such
as the cured meat pastirma (known as paston in Byzantine Greek),[198][199][200][201][202][203][204][205] baklava
(known as koptoplakous ),[206][207][208]
tiropita (known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas
plakountas),[207][208][209] and the famed medieval sweet
wines (Commandaria and the eponymous Rumney wine).
Retsina, wine avored with pine resin, was also drunk,
as it still is in Greece today, producing similar reactions
from unfamiliar visitors; To add to our calamity the
Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch,
resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable, complained
Liutprand of Cremona, who was the ambassador sent
to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman
Emperor Otto I.[210] The garos sh sauce condiment
was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed;
Liutprand of Cremona described being served food
covered in an exceedingly bad sh liquor.[210] The
Byzantines also used a soy sauce like condiment, murri, a
fermented barley sauce, which, like soy sauce, provided
umami avoring to their dishes.[211][212][213]
Byzantines were avid players of tavli (Byzantine Greek:
), a game known in English as backgammon, which
is still popular in former Byzantine realms, and still
known by the name tavli in Greece.[214] Byzantine nobles

22

were devoted to horsemanship, particularly tzykanion,

now known as polo. The game came from Sassanid Persia in the early period and a Tzykanisterion (stadium for
playing the game) was built by Theodosius II (r. 408
450) inside the Great Palace of Constantinople. Emperor
Basil I (r. 867886) excelled at it; Emperor Alexander (r.
912913) died from exhaustion while playing, Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos (r. 10811118) was injured while
playing with Tatikios, and John I of Trebizond (r. 1235
1238) died from a fatal injury during a game.[215][216]
Aside from Constantinople and Trebizond, other Byzantine cities also featured tzykanisteria, most notably Sparta,
Ephesus, and Athens, an indication of a thriving urban
aristocracy.[217] The game was introduced to the West by
crusaders, who developed a taste for it particularly during
the pro-Western reign of emperor Manuel I Komnenos.

Government and bureaucracy

See also: Byzantine bureaucracy

GOVERNMENT AND BUREAUCRACY

cracy had a distinct ability for reconstituting itself in accordance with the Empires situation. The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and inuence. Ocials were arranged in strict order around the emperor, and depended upon the imperial
will for their ranks. There were also actual administrative
jobs, but authority could be vested in individuals rather
than oces.[221]
In the 8th and 9th centuries, civil service constituted the
clearest path to aristocratic status, but, starting in the 9th
century, the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility. According to some studies of Byzantine government, 11th-century politics were dominated
by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms, including the creation of new
courtly dignities and oces.[222]

9.1 Diplomacy
For more details on this topic, see Byzantine diplomacy.
After the fall of Rome, the key challenge to the Em-

In the Byzantine state, the emperor became the sole and

absolute ruler, and his power was regarded as having divine origin.[218] The Senate ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary
council with titular members. By the end of the 8th
century, a civil administration focused on the court was
formed as part of a large-scale consolidation of power
in the capital (the rise to pre-eminence of the position of
sakellarios is related to this change).[219] The most important administrative reform, which probably started in the
mid-7th century, was the creation of themes, where civil
and military administration was exercised by one person,
the strategos.[220]
The embassy of John the Grammarian in 829, between the emperor Theophilos and the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun

The themes, c. 650

Black Sea
Paphlagonia

Constantinople

Aegean

Opsikion

Samos
phesos
Thracesians

Chaldia

Armeniacs

Optimatoi
Bucellarians
Ancyra
(Ankara)

Koloneia
Mesopotamia

Charsianon

Anatolic

Sebastea

Cappadocia
Lycandus
Edessa
Tarsus

Cibyrrhaeots
Seleucia

Adana
Antioch

DEVELOPEMENT OF THE
BYZANTINE THEMES
950 A.D.

pire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and

its neighbours. When these nations set about forging
formal political institutions, they often modelled themselves on Constantinople. Byzantine diplomacy soon
managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter-state relations.[223] This network revolved
around treaty making, and included the welcoming of the
new ruler into the family of kings, and the assimilation
of Byzantine social attitudes, values and institutions.[224]
Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and
legal distinctions between peace and war, Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means. For
example, a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus.[225]

Diplomacy in the era was understood to have an

intelligence-gathering function on top of its pure politiThe themes, c. 950
cal function. The Bureau of Barbarians in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record keeping for
Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms any issues related to the "barbarians", and thus had, perByzantine and "Byzantinism", the Byzantine bureau- haps, a basic intelligence function itself.[226] John B. Bury
Crete

Mediterranean Sea

Cyprus

23
believed that the oce exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople, and that they were under
the supervision of the Logothetes tou dromou.[227] While
on the surface a protocol oce its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received
sucient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all
the ocial translators it probably had a security function as well.[228]
Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic
practices. For example, embassies to the capital would
often stay on for years. A member of other royal houses
would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople,
not only as a potential hostage, but also as a useful pawn
in case political conditions where he came from changed.
Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays.[223] According to Dimitri Obolensky, the
preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe was due
to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy,
which remains one of Byzantiums lasting contributions
to the history of Europe.[229]

10

Language

Greek had become the common language in the Christian Church, the language of scholarship and the arts,
and, to a large degree, the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations.[232] The language
itself for a time gained a dual nature with the primary
spoken language, the constantly developing vernacular
Koine (eventually evolving into demotic Greek), existing
alongside an older literary language with Koine eventually
evolving into the standard dialect.[233]
Administrative usage of Latin persisted until the seventh
century, when it was ended by Heraclius. Scholarly Latin
would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes
although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empires culture for some time.[234]
Additionally, Vulgar Latin remained a minority language
in the Empire, and among the Thraco-Roman populations
it gave birth to the Proto-Romanian language.[235]
Likewise, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, another neoLatin vernacular developed, which would later give rise
to the Dalmatian language. In the Western Mediterranean provinces temporarily acquired under the reign
of emperor Justinian I, Latin (eventually evolving into
the various western Romance languages) continued to
be used both as a spoken language and the language of
scholarship.[236]

For more details on this topic, see Medieval Greek.

Apart from the Imperial court, administration and mil- Many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire,
and some of these were given limited ocial status in
their provinces at various times. Notably, by the beginning of the Middle Ages, Syriac and Aramaic had become more widely used by the educated classes in the
far eastern provinces.[237] Similarly Coptic, Armenian,
and Georgian became signicant among the educated in
their provinces,[238] and later foreign contacts made the
Slavonic, Vlach, and Arabic languages important in the
Empire and its sphere of inuence.[239]

Aside from these, since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond, virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time, even Chinese.[240] As
the Empire entered its nal decline, the Empires citizens
became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became integral to their identity and religion.[241]

Distribution of Greek dialects in Anatolia in the late Byzantine

Empire through to 1923. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange.
Cappadocian in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek
speaking villages in 1910.[230] )

itary, the primary language used in the eastern Roman

provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire
was Greek, having been spoken in the region for centuries
before Latin.[231] Following Romes conquest of the east
its 'Pax Romana', inclusionist political practices and development of public infrastructure, facilitated the further
spreading and entrenchment of Greek language in the
east. Indeed early on in the life of the Roman Empire,

11 Legacy
See also: Third Rome and Greek scholars in the Renaissance
Byzantium has been often identied with absolutism, orthodox spirituality, orientalism and exoticism, while the
terms Byzantine and Byzantinism have been used as
bywords for decadence, complex bureaucracy, and repression. In the countries of Central and Southeast Europe that exited the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s and
early 1990s, the assessment of Byzantine civilisation and
its legacy was strongly negative due to their connection

24

14 NOTES
Rome), since he was determined to make the Ottoman
Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire.[245] According to Cameron, regarding themselves as heirs of
Byzantium, the Ottomans preserved important aspects of
its tradition, which in turn facilitated an Orthodox revival during the post-communist period of the Eastern
European states.[244]

12 See also
Byzantine philosophy
Byzantine Rite
Index of Byzantine Empire-related articles
Legacy of the Roman Empire
List of Byzantine inventions
King David in robes of a Byzantine emperor; miniature from the
Paris Psalter

with an alleged Eastern authoritarianism and autocracy.

Both Eastern and Western European authors have often
perceived Byzantium as a body of religious, political, and
philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West. Even
in 19th-century Greece, the focus was mainly on the classical past, while Byzantine tradition had been associated
with negative connotations.[242]
This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been
partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies, which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy. Averil Cameron regards as undeniable
the Byzantine contribution to the formation of the medieval Europe, and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy,
which in turn occupies a central position in the history and
societies of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Georgia,
Serbia and other countries.[243] The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts, and they are thus
regarded as transmitters of the classical knowledge, as
important contributors to the modern European civilization, and as precursors of both the Renaissance humanism
and the Slav Orthodox culture.[244]
As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the
Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from
newly emerging forces to the East. Constantly under attack, it distanced Western Europe from Persians, Arabs,
Seljuk Turks, and for a time, the Ottomans. From a different perspective, since the 7th century, the evolution
and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam.[244]
Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman
Turks in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II took the title "Kaysari Rm" (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of

List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars

List of Byzantine wars

13 Annotations
[1] The rst instance of the designation New Rome in an
ocial document is found in the canons of the First Council of Constantinople (381), where it is used to justify the
claim that the patriarchal seat of Constantinople is second
only to that of Rome.[4]
[2] Romania was a popular name of the empire used mainly
unocially, which meant land of the Romans.[10] After
1081, it occasionally appears in ocial Byzantine documents as well. In 1204, the leaders of the Fourth Crusade gave the name Romania to the newly founded Latin
Empire.[11] The term does not refer to modern Romania.
[3] In a Latin chronicle of 1190 (Continuatio Cremifanensis),
Isaac Angelos is referred as Imperator Romaniae and
Frederick Barbarossa as Imperator Romanorum. However, some years earlier, in 1169, a Genoese envoy named
Amico de Murta, in his oath taken in Constantinople on
behalf of the Genoese, had referred to Manuel Komnenos
as Imperator Romanorum. After 1204, the terms Imperium Romaniae and Imperator Romaniae were used
by the Westerners to describe the Latin Empire and its
emperors respectively.[19]

14 Notes
[1] Kazhdan & Epstein 1985, p. 1.
[2] Millar 2006, pp. 2, 15; James 2010, p. 5; Freeman 1999,
pp. 431, 435437, 459-462; Baynes & Moss 1948, p.
xx; Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 27; Kaldellis 2007, pp. 23;
Kazhdan & Constable 1982, p. 12; Norwich 1998, p. 383.
[3] Treadgold 1997, p. 847.

25

[4] Benz 1963, p. 176.

[29] Burns 1991, pp. 65, 7677, 8687

[5] Ostrogorsky 1969, pp. 105107, 109; Norwich 1998, p.

97; Haywood 2001, pp. 2.17, 3.06, 3.15.

[30] Lenski 1999, pp. 428429.

[6] Millar 2006, pp. 2, 15; James 2010, p. 5; Freeman 1999,

pp. 431, 435437, 459462; Baynes & Moss 1948, p.
xx; Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 27; Kaldellis 2007, pp. 23;
Kazhdan & Constable 1982, p. 12; Norwich 1998, p. 383.

[31] Grierson 1999, p. 17.

[32] Postan, Miller & Postan 1987, p. 140.
[33] Meier 2003, p. 290.
[34] Gregory 2010, p. 137; Meier 2003, pp. 297300.

[7] page 47
[8] Fox, What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine?; Rosser 2011, p.
1

[35] Gregory 2010, p. 150.

[36] Gregory 2010, p. 145.
[37] Evans 2005, p. xxv.

[9] Rosser 2011, p. 2.

[10] Fossier & Sondheimer 1997, p. 104.

[38] Bury 1923, pp. 180216; Evans 2005, pp. xxvi, 76.

[11] Wol 1948, pp. 57, 3334.

[39] Sotinel 2005, p. 278; Treadgold 1997, p. 187.

[12] Cinnamus 1976, p. 240; Theodore the Studite, Epistulae,

145, line 19 (" "), and 458, line 28 ("
").

[40] Bury 1923, pp. 236258; Evans 2005, p. xxvi.

[13] Ahrweiler & Laiou 1998, p. 3; Mango 2002, p. 13.

[41] Bury 1923, pp. 259281; Evans 2005, p. 93.

[42] Bury 1923, pp. 286288; Evans 2005, p. 11.
[43] Greatrex 2005, p. 489; Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 113

[14] Gabriel 2002, p. 277.

[15] Ahrweiler & Laiou 1998, p. vii; Davies 1996, p. 245;
Gross 1999, p. 45; Lapidge, Blair & Keynes 1998, p.
79; Millar 2006, pp. 2, 15; Moravcsik 1970, pp. 1112;
Ostrogorsky 1969, pp. 28, 146; Browning 1983, p. 113.

[44] Bury 1920, Preface, pp. v-vi

[45] Evans 2005, pp. 11, 5662; Sarantis 2009, passim.
[46] Cameron 2009, pp. 113, 128.

[16] Klein 2004, p. 290 (Note #39); Annales Fuldenses, 389:

Mense lanuario circa epiphaniam Basilii, Graecorum imperatoris, legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt ....

[47] Bray 2004, pp. 1947; Haldon 1990, pp. 110111;

Treadgold 1997, pp. 196197.

[17] Fouracre & Gerberding 1996, p. 345: The Frankish

court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality; instead it was now termed
the 'Empire of the Greeks.

[49] Foss 1975, p. 722.

[18] Garland 1999, p. 87.

[51] Haldon 1990, pp. 4243.

[53] Cameron 1979, pp. 56, 2022.

121; El-Cheikh

[21] Eusebius, IV, lxii.

[22] Ostrogorsky 1959, p. 21; Wells 1922, Chapter 33.
[23] Bury 1923, p. 1; Kuho 2002, pp. 177178.
[24] Bury 1923, p. 1; Esler 2004, p. 1081; Gibbon 1906,
Volume III, Part IV, Chapter 18, p. 168; Teall 1967, pp.
13,1923, 25, 2830, 3536
[25] Bury 1923, p. 63; Drake 1995, p. 5; Grant 1975, pp. 4,
12.
[26] Cameron 2009, pp. 54, 111, 153.
[27] Alemany 2000, p. 207; Bayless 1976, pp. 176177;
Treadgold 1997, pp. 184, 193.
[28] Cameron 2009, p. 52.

[50] Haldon 1990, p. 41; Speck 1984, p. 178.

[52] Grabar 1984, p. 37; Cameron 1979, p. 23.

[19] Wol 1948, pp. 11, 2728.

[20] Tarasov & Milner-Gulland 2004, p.
2004, p. 22

[48] Louth 2005, pp. 113115; Nystazopoulou-Pelekidou

1970, passim; Treadgold 1997, pp. 231232.

[54] Haldon 1990, p. 46; Baynes 1912, passim; Speck 1984,

p. 178.
[55] Foss 1975, pp. 746747.
[56] Haldon 1990, p. 50.
[57] Haldon 1990, pp. 6162.
[58] Haldon 1990, pp. 102114; Laiou & Morisson 2007, p.
47.
[59] Laiou & Morisson 2007, pp. 3842, 47; Wickham 2009,
p. 260.
[60] Haldon 1990, pp. 208215; Kaegi 2003, pp. 236, 283.
[61] Heather 2005, p. 431.
[62] Haldon 1990, pp. 4345, 66, 114115
[63] Haldon 1990, pp. 6667.

26

[64] Haldon 1990, p. 71.

14 NOTES

[100] ii 1990.

[65] Haldon 1990, pp. 7078, 169171; Haldon 2004, pp. [101] Byzantine Empire. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.;
216217; Kountoura-Galake 1996, pp. 6275.
Markham, "The Battle of Manzikert".
[66] Cameron 2009, pp. 6768.

[102] Browning 1992, p. 190.

[67] Treadgold 1997, pp. 432433.

[103] Cameron 2006, pp. 46.

[68] Cameron 2009, pp. 167170; Garland 1999, p. 89.

[104] Cameron 2006, pp. 42.

[69] Parry 1996, pp. 1115.

[105] Cameron 2006, pp. 47.

[70] Cameron 2009, p. 267.

[106] Browning 1992, pp. 198208.

[71] Browning 1992, p. 95.

[107] Browning 1992, p. 218.

[72] Browning 1992, p. 96.

[108] Magdalino 2002, p. 124.

[73] Karlin-Heyer 1967, p. 24.

[109] Byzantine Empire. Encyclopdia Britannica.

[74] Browning 1992, p. 101.

[110] Birkenmeier 2002.

[75] Browning 1992, p. 107.

[111] Harris 2014; Read 2000, p. 124; Watson 1993, p. 12.

[76] Browning 1992, p. 108.

[112] Komnene 1928, Alexiad, 10.261

[77] Browning 1992, pp. 112.

[113] Komnene 1928, Alexiad, 11.291

[78] Browning 1992, pp. 113.

[79] Browning 1992, p. 116.

[114] Komnene 1928, Alexiad, 13.34813.358; Birkenmeier

2002, p. 46.

[80] Browning 1992, p. 100.

[115] Norwich 1998, p. 267.

[81] Browning 1992, pp. 102103.

[116] Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 377.

[82] Browning 1992, pp. 103105.

[117] Birkenmeier 2002, p. 90.

[83] Browning 1992, pp. 106107.

[118] John II Komnenos. Encyclopdia Britannica.

[84] Browning 1992, pp. 112113.

[119] Stone, John II Komnenos.

[85] Browning 1992, p. 115.

[120] Harris 2014, p. 84.

[86] Browning 1992, pp. 114115.

[121] Brooke 1962, p. 326.

[87] Cameron 2009, p. 77.

[122] Magdalino 2002, p. 74; Stone, Manuel I Comnenus.

[88] Browning 1992, pp. 9798.

[123] Sedlar 1994, p. 372.

[89] Browning 1992, pp. 9899.

[124] Magdalino 2002, p. 67.

[90] Browning 1992, pp. 98109.

[125] Birkenmeier 2002, p. 128.

[91] Laiou & Morisson 2007, pp. 130131; Pounds 1979, p. [126]
124.
[127]
[92] Duiker & Spielvogel 2010, p. 317.
[128]
[93] Timberlake 2004, p. 14.
[129]
[94] Patterson 1995, p. 15.
[130]
[95] Cameron 2009, p. 83.
[131]
[96] Treadgold 1997, pp. 548549.
[132]
[97] Markham, "The Battle of Manzikert".
[133]
[98] Vasiliev 19281935, "Relations with Italy and Western
[134]
Europe".

Birkenmeier 2002, p. 196.

Birkenmeier 2002, pp. 185186.
Birkenmeier 2002, p. 1.
Day 1977, pp. 289290; Harvey 2003.
Diehl 1948.
Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003, p. 110.
Norwich 1998, p. 291.
Norwich 1998, p. 292.
Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 397.

[99] Hooper & Bennett 1996, p. 82; Stephenson 2000, p. 157. [135] Harris 2014, p. 118.

27

[136] Norwich 1998, p. 293.

[169] Cohen 1994, p. 395; Dickson, Mathematics Through the

Middle Ages.

[137] Norwich 1998, pp. 294295.

[170] King 1991, pp. 116118.

[138] Angold 1997; Paparrigopoulos & Karolidis 1925, p. 216
[171] Robins 1993, p. 8.
[139] Vasiliev 19281935, "Foreign Policy of the Angeloi".

[172] Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003, p. 189.

[140] Norwich 1998, p. 299.

[173] Troianos & Velissaropoulou-Karakosta 1997, p. 340

[141] The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Con[174] Mango 2007, p. 108.
stantinople. Encyclopdia Britannica.
[175] Meyendor 1982, p. 13.

[142] Britannica Concise, Siege of Zara.

[143] Georey of Villehardouin 1963, p. 46.

[176] Meyendor 1982, p. 19.

[177] Meyendor 1982, p. 130.

[144] Norwich 1998, p. 301.

[145] Choniates 1912, The Sack of Constantinople.

[178] Justinian Code: Book 1, Title 1; Blume 2008, Headnote

C. 1.1; Mango 2007, p. 108.

[146] Norwich. A History of Venice. pp. 127143. ISBN 978- [179]

0-14-101383-1.
[180]
[147] Kean 2006; Madden 2005, p. 162; Lowe-Baker, The
Seljuks of Rum.
[181]
[148] Lowe-Baker, The Seljuks of Rum.
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[149] Madden 2005, p. 179; Reinert 2002, p. 260.
[183]
[150] Reinert 2002, p. 257.
[184]
[151] Reinert 2002, p. 261.
[185]
[152] Reinert 2002, p. 268.

Mango 2007, pp. 108109.

Blume 2008, Headnote C. 1.1; Mango 2007, pp. 108
109, 115125.
Mango 2007, pp. 115125.
Mango 2007, pp. 111114.
Whittow 1996, p. 200.
Rice 1968; Weitzmann 1982.
Rice 1968, Chapters 1517; Weitzmann 1982, Chapters
27; Evans 2004, pp. 389555.

[153] Reinert 2002, p. 270.

[186] Mango 2007, pp. 275276.

[154] Runciman 1990, pp. 7172.

[187] Byzantine Literature. Catholic Encyclopedia.

[155] Runciman 1990, pp. 8485.

[188] The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2007 Byzantine music

[156] Runciman 1990, pp. 8486.

[189] Ecumenical Patriarchate

[157] Hindley 2004, p. 300.

[190] Kartomi, Margaret J. (1990), On Concepts and Classications of Musical Instruments, University of Chicago Press,
p. 124, ISBN 0-226-42548-7

[158] Miller 1907, p. 236

[159] Lowry, Heath W. (2003). The Nature of the Early Ot[191] Encyclopdia Britannica (2009), lira, Encyclopdia Britoman State. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. p. 115-116.
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[160] Clark 2000, p. 213.
[192] Arkenberg, Rebecca (October 2002), Renaissance Violins, Metropolitan Museum of Art, retrieved 2006-09-22
[161] Seton-Watson 1967, p. 31
[162] Laiou & Morisson 2007, pp. 1, 2338.
[163] Laiou & Morisson 2007, pp.
Magdalino 2002, p. 532.

3, 45, 4950, 231;

[193] Journal of Sport History, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Winter, 1981) p.

44.
[194] Douglas Earl Bush, Richard Kassel editors, The Organ:
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[164] Laiou & Morisson 2007, pp. 9091, 127, 166169, 203
[195] Douglas Bush and Richard Kassel eds., The Organ, an
204; Magdalino 2002, p. 535.
Encyclopedia. Routledge. 2006. p. 327.
[165] Matschke 2002, pp. 805806.
[196] Discourses by Dio Chrysostom (Or. 71.9)", The Seventyrst Discourse: On the Philosopher (Volume V) (Loeb
[166] Laiou 2002, p. 723; Laiou & Morisson 2007, p. 13.
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[197] Austin, Roland G. Zenos Game of ", The Journal
[168] Anastos 1962, p. 409.
of Hellenic Studies 54:2, 1934. pp 202-205.

28

14 NOTES

[198] Andrew Dalby, Siren Feasts, p. 109, 201

[211] Jayyusi, Salma Khadra; Marn, Manuela (1992), The

Legacy of Muslim Spain (2nd, illustrated ed.), BRILL,
[199] Ash, John (2006). A Byzantine journey (2nd ed.). LonISBN 9789004095991, p. 729.
don: Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 9781845113070.
Having inherited pastirma from the Byzantines, the Turks [212] Perry, Charles (April 1, 1998), Rot of Ages, Los Angeles
Times, retrieved 2014-09-29
took it with them when they conquered Hungary and Romania,
[213] Perry, Charles (October 31, 2001), The Soy Sauce That
Wasn't, Los Angeles Times, retrieved 2009-03-21
[200] Underwood, Irina Petrosian ; David (2006). Armenian
food : fact, ction & folklore (2nd ed.). Bloomington,
[214] Austin, Roland G. Zenos Game of ", The Journal
Ind.: Yerkir Pub. ISBN 9781411698659. In Byzantine
of Hellenic Studies 54:2, 1934. pp 202-205.
times, the city was called Caesarea Mazaca. There and
throughout Byzantium, the technique called pastron was [215] Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford
an accepted salt-curing tradition. Turks reintroduced pasDictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxtron as pastirma.
ford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-504652-6.
[201] Sax, David (2009). Save the deli : in search of perfect pastrami, crusty rye, and the heart of Jewish deli- [216] Anna Komnene,The Alexiad, Book XIV, Chapter IV,
catessen. Boston: Houghton Miin Harcourt. p. 25.
translator Elizabeth Dawes
ISBN 9780151013845. Its origins, which may date back
as far as Byzantium, can be found in Turkey, where bas- [217] Laiou, Angeliki E., ed. (2002). The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth
turma was a form of pressing spiced meat.
Century. Washington, District of Columbia: Dumbarton
Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-288-9..
[202] Wright, Cliord A. (1999). A Mediterranean feast : the
story of the birth of celebrated cuisines of the Mediterranean, from the merchants of Venice to the Barbary Cor- [218] Mango 2007, pp. 259260.
sairs : with more than 500 recipes. New York: William
[219] Louth 2005, p. 291; Neville 2004, p. 7.
Morrow and Co. p. 742. ISBN 9780688153052. Cheese,
horek, and pastirma were all known to the Byzantines
[220] Cameron 2009, pp. 138142; Mango 2007, p. 60.
[203] Davidson, Alan (2014). The Oxford Companion to Food. [221] Cameron 2009, pp. 157158; Neville 2004, p. 34.
Oxford University Press. p. 123. Retrieved 21 October
2014. This is certainly true of Byzantine cuisine. Dried [222] Neville 2004, p. 13.
meat, a forerunner of the pastirma of modern Turkey, be[223] Neumann 2006, pp. 869871.
came a delicacy.
[204] Smith, Bruce Kraig ; Andrew (2013). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. Oxford University Press. ed. Retrieved 21 October 2014. When the Ottomans settled in Istanbul they also adpoted a number of
Byzantine dishes, one of which was a form of cured beef
called paston and which the Turks called pastirmaIt became and remains a specialty of Kayseri in Cappadocia in
west central Turkey.

[224] Chrysos 1992, p. 35.

[225] Antonucci 1993, pp. 1113.
[226] Antonucci 1993, pp. 1113; Seeck 1876, pp. 3133
[227] Bury & Philotheus 1911, p. 93.
[228] Dennis 1985, p. 125.

[229] Obolensky 1994, p. 3.

[205] Anagnostakis, Ilias (2013). Flavours and Delights. Tastes
and Pleasures of Ancient and Byzantine Cuisine. Armos. [230] Dawkins, R.M. 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A
p. 81. paston or tarichonCured meats were either eaten
study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Camraw or cooked in pasto-mageireia with bulgur and greens,
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
mainly cabbage.
[231] Millar 2006, p. 279.
[206] John Ash, A Byzantine Journey, page 223
[232] Bryce 1901, p. 59; McDonnell 2006, p. 77; Millar 2006,
pp. 9798; Oikonomides 1999, pp. 1213.
[207] Patrick Faas (2003). Around the Roman Table: Food and
Feasting in Ancient Rome. Chicago: University of Chicago
[233] Oikonomides 1999, pp. 1213.
Press. p. 184.
[208] Speros Vryonis The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia
Minor, 1971, p. 482

[234] Apostolides 1992, pp. 2526; Wroth 1908, Introduction,

Section 6

[235]
[209] Rena Salaman, Food in Motion the Migration of Foodstus and Cookery Techniques from the Oxford Sympo- [236]
sium on Food Cookery, Vol. 2, p. 184
[237]
[210] http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/liudprand1.asp

Sedlar 1994, pp. 403440.

Oikonomides 1999, pp. 1011.
Beaton 1996, p. 10; Jones 1986, p. 991; Versteegh 1977,
Chapter 1.

15.2

Secondary sources

[238] Campbell 2000, p. 40; Hacikyan et al. 2002, Part 1

[239] Baynes 1907, p. 289; Gutas 1998, Chapter 7, Section 4;
Comrie 1987, p. 129.
[240] Beckwith 1993, p. 171; Halsall 1998; Oikonomides 1999,
p. 20.
[241] Kaldellis 2007, Chapter 6; Nicol 1993, Chapter 5.
[242] Cameron 2009, pp. 277281.
[243] Cameron 2009, pp. 186277.
[244] Cameron 2009, p. 261.
[245] Bhar 1999, p. 38; Bideleux & Jeries 1998, p. 71.

15
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16

Further reading

Ahrweiler, Hlne; Aymard, Maurice (2000). Les

Europens. Paris: Hermann. ISBN 2-7056-6409-2.

Evans, Helen C. & Wixom, William D (1997). The

glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle
Byzantine era, A.D. 843-1261. New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-81096507-2.
Haldon, John (2001). The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era. Stroud,
Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 07524-1795-9.
Hussey, J. M. (1966). The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. IV: The Byzantine Empire. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Jereys, Elizabeth, Byzantine Literature, in
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An
Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited
by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara,
ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610691776
Runciman, Steven (1966). Byzantine Civilisation.
London: Edward Arnold (publisher) Limited. ISBN
1-56619-574-8.
Runciman, Steven (1990) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-06164-4.
Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1972). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-215253-X.

17 External links

Byzantine Empire on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen

now)
De Imperatoribus Romanis. Scholarly biographies
of many Byzantine emperors.
12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of The
Stony Brook School; audio lectures. NYTimes review.
18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman
(Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout
its lifetime).

Byzantine & Christian Museum

Angelov, Dimiter (2007). Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium (12041330). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University 17.1 Byzantine studies, resources and bibPress. ISBN 0-521-85703-1.
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Baboula, Evanthia, Byzantium, in Muhammad in
History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of
the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick
and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014.
ISBN 1610691776

Fox, Clinton R. What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine?

(Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors)
Byzantine studies homepage at Dumbarton Oaks.
Includes links to numerous electronic texts.

36
Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet. Links
to various online resources.
Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial
Centuries, c. 7001204. Online sourcebook.
De Re Militari. Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars.
Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history.
Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and
Daily Life. Hosted by the University of Vienna; in
English.
Constantinople Home Page. Links to texts, images
and videos on Byzantium.
Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and
Culture.
Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian
Academy of Sciences (with further resources and
a repository with papers on various aspects of the
Byzantine Empire)

17

EXTERNAL LINKS

37

18
18.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Byzantine Empire Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20Empire?oldid=651122980 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, David

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18.2

Images

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