Operating Systems-FAQ

1. What is an Operating system?

An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware. It also
provides a basis for application programs and act as an intermediary between a user
of a computer and the computer hardware. It controls and coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various application programs for the various users.
2. Why is the Operating System viewed as a resource allocator & control program?
A computer system has many resources - hardware & software that may be required
to solve a problem, like CPU time, memory space, file-storage space, I/O devices &
so on. The OS acts as a manager for these resources so it is viewed as a resource
allocator. The OS is viewed as a control program because it manages the execution
of user programs to prevent errors & improper use of the computer.

3. What is the Kernel?

A more common definition is that the OS is the one program running at all times on
the computer, usually called the kernel, with all else being application programs.

4. What are Batch systems?

Batch systems are quite appropriate for executing large jobs that need little
interaction. The user can submit jobs and return later for the results. It is not
necessary to wait while the job is processed. Operators batched together jobs
with similar needs and ran them through the computer as a group.
5. What is the advantage of Multiprogramming?
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the
CPU always has one to execute. Several jobs are placed in the main memory
and the processor is switched from job to job as needed to keep several jobs
advancing while keeping the peripheral devices in use. Multiprogramming is
the first instance where the Operating system must make decisions for the
users. Therefore they are fairly sophisticated.
6. What is an Interactive computer system?
Interactive computer system provides direct communication between the user
and the system. The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a
program directly, using a keyboard or mouse,and waits for immediate results.
7. What do you mean by Time-sharing systems?
Time- sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. It
allows many users to share the computer simultaneously. The CPU executes
multiple jobs by switching among them, but the switches occur so frequently
that the users can interact with each program while it is running.
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

8. What are multiprocessor systems & give their advantages?

Multiprocessor systems also known as parallel systems or tightly coupled
systems are systems that have more than one processor in close
communication, sharing the computer bus, the clock and sometimes memory
& peripheral devices. Their main advantages are
Increased throughput
Economy of scale
Increased reliability
9. What are the different types of multiprocessing?
Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP): In SMP each processor runs an identical copy of
the Os & these copies communicate with one another as needed. All processors are
peers. Examples are Windows NT, Solaris, Digital UNIX, OS/2 & Linux.
Asymmetric multiprocessing: Each processor is assigned a specific task. A master
processor controls the system; the other processors look to the master for instructions or
predefined tasks. It defines a master-slave relationship. Example SunOS Version 4.

10. What is graceful degradation?

In multiprocessor systems, failure of one processor will not halt the system, but only
slow it down. If there are ten processors & if one fails the remaining nine processors
pick up the work of the failed processor. This ability to continue providing service is
proportional to the surviving hardware is called graceful degradation.

11. What is Dual-Mode Operation?

The dual mode operation provides us with the means for protecting the operating system
from wrong users and wrong users from one another. User mode and monitor mode are
the two modes. Monitor mode is also called supervisor mode, system mode or privileged
mode. Mode bit is attached to the hardware of the computer to indicate the current mode.
Mode bit is '0' for monitor mode and '1' for user mode.

12. What are privileged instructions?

Some of the machine instructions that may cause harm to a system are
designated as privileged instructions. The hardware allows the privileged
instructions to be executed only in monitor mode.
13. How can a user program disrupt the normal operations of a system?
A user program may disrupt the normal operation of a system by
Issuing illegal I/O operations
By accessing memory locations within the OS itself
Refusing to relinquish the CPU

Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

14. How is the protection for memory provided?

The protection against illegal memory access is done by using two registers. The
base register and the limit register.The base register holds the smallest legal
physical address; the limit register contains the size of the range. The base and
limit registers can be loaded only by the OS using special privileged instructions.

15. What are the various OS components?

The various system components are
Process management
Main-memory management
File management
I/O-system management
Secondary-storage management
Networking
Protection system
Command-interpreter system
16. What is a process?
A process is a program in execution. It is the unit of work in a modern operating system.A
process is an active entity with a program counter specifying the next instructions to
execute and a set of associated resources. It also includes the process stack, containing
temporary data and a data section containing global variables.

17. What is a process state and mention the various states of a process?
As a process executes, it changes state. The state of a process is defined in part by the
current activity of that process. Each process may be in one of the following states:

New
Running
Waiting
Ready
Terminated
18. What is process control block?
Each process is represented in the operating system by a process control block
also called a task control block. It contains many pieces of information associated
with a specific process. It simply acts as a repository for any information that may
vary from process to process. It contains the following information:
Process state
Program counter
CPU registers
CPU-scheduling information
Memory-management information
Accounting information
I/O status information
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

19. What are the use of job queues, ready queues & device queues?
As a process enters a system, they are put into a job queue. This queue consists
of all jobs in the system. The processes that are residing in main memory and are
ready & waiting to execute are kept on a list called ready queue. The list of
processes waiting for a particular I/O device is kept in the device queue.

20. What is meant by context switch?

Switching the CPU to another process requires saving the state of the old
process and loading the saved state for the new process. This task is known as
context switch. The context of a process is represented in the PCB of a process.

21. What is a thread?

A thread otherwise called a lightweight process (LWP) is a basic unit of CPU
utilization, it comprises of a thread id, a program counter, a register set and a stack.
It shares with other threads belonging to the same process its code section, data
section, and operating system resources such as open files and signals.

22. What are the benefits of multithreaded programming?

The benefits of multithreaded programming can be broken down into four
major categories:
Responsiveness
Resource sharing
Economy
Utilization of multiprocessor architectures
23. Compare user threads and kernel threads.
User threads:
User threads are supported above the kernel and are implemented by a
thread library at the user level. Thread creation & scheduling are done in the
user space, without kernel intervention. Therefore they are fast to create and
manage blocking system call will cause the entire process to block
Kernel threads
Kernel threads are supported directly by the operating system.Thread
creation, scheduling and management are done by the operating system.
Therefore they are slower to create & manage compared to user threads. If
the thread performs a blocking system call, the kernel can schedule another
thread in the application for execution
24. What is the use of fork and exec system calls?
Fork is a system call by which a new process is created. Exec is also a
system call, which is used after a fork by one of the two processes to replace
the process memory space with a new program.
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

25. Define thread cancellation & target thread.

The thread cancellation is the task of terminating a thread before it has completed. A
thread that is to be cancelled is often referred to as the target thread. For example, if
multiple threads are concurrently searching through a database and one thread
returns the result, the remaining threads might be cancelled.
26. What are the different ways in which a thread can be cancelled?
Cancellation of a target thread may occur in two different Scenarios :

Asynchronous cancellation: One thread immediately terminates the

target thread is called asynchronous cancellation.

Deferred cancellation: The target thread can periodically check if it

should terminate, allowing the target thread an opportunity to terminate
itself in an orderly fashion.

27. Define CPU scheduling.

CPU scheduling is the process of switching the CPU among various processes. CPU
scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed operating systems. By switching the CPU
among processes, the operating system can make the computer more productive.

28. What is preemptive and nonpreemptive scheduling?

Under non preemptive scheduling once the CPU has been allocated to a process,
the process keeps the CPU until it releases the CPU either by terminating or
switching to the waiting state. Preemptive scheduling can preempt a process which
is utilizing the CPU in between its execution and give the CPU to another process.

29. What is a Dispatcher?

The dispatcher is the module that gives control of the CPU to the process
selected by the short-term scheduler. This function involves:
Switching context
Switching to user mode
Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program.

30. What is dispatch latency?

The time taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start another
running is known as dispatch latency.
31. What are the various scheduling criteria for CPU scheduling?
The various scheduling criteria are
CPU utilization
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

 Throughput
Turnaround time
Waiting time
Response time
32. Define throughput?
Throughput in CPU scheduling is the number of processes that are completed
per unit time. For long processes, this rate may be one process per hour; for
short transactions, throughput might be 10 processes per second.
33. What is turnaround time?
Turnaround time is the interval from the time of submission to the time of
completion of a process. It is the sum of the periods spent waiting to get into
memory, waiting in the ready queue, executing on the CPU, and doing I/O.
34. Define race condition.
When several process access and manipulate same data concurrently, then
the outcome of the execution depends on particular order in which the access
takes place is called race condition. To avoid race condition, only one process
at a time can manipulate the shared variable.
35. What is critical section problem?
Consider a system consists of 'n' processes. Each process has segment of
code called a critical section, in which the process may be changing common
variables, updating a table, writing a file. When one process is executing in its
critical section, no other process can allowed to execute in its critical section.
36. What are the requirements that a solution to the critical section problem
must satisfy?
The three requirements are
Mutual exclusion
Progress
Bounded waiting

37. Define entry section and exit section.

The critical section problem is to design a protocol that the processes can use to
cooperate. Each process must request permission to enter its critical section. The
section of the code implementing this request is the entry section. The critical section
is followed by an exit section. The remaining code is the remainder section

Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

38. Give two hardware instructions and their definitions which can be used for
implementing mutual exclusion.

TestAndSet

boolean TestAndSet (boolean &target)

{
boolean rv =
target; target =
true; return rv;
}
Swap
void Swap (boolean &a, boolean &b)
{
boolean temp =
a; a = b;
b = temp;
}

39. What is a semaphore?

A semaphore 'S' is a synchronization tool which is an integer value that, apart
from initialization, is accessed only through two standard atomic operations; wait
and signal. Semaphores can be used to deal with the n-process critical section
problem. It can be also used to solve various synchronization problems.

The classic definition of

'wait' wait (S)
{
while
(S<=0); S--;
}
The classic definition of
'signal' signal (S)
{
S++;
}
40. Define busy waiting and spinlock.
When a process is in its critical section, any other process that tries to enter
its critical section must loop continuously in the entry code. This is called as
busy waiting and this type of semaphore is also called a spinlock, because
the process while waiting for the lock.

Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

41. Define deadlock.

A process requests resources; if the resources are not available at that time,
the process enters a wait state. Waiting processes may never again change
state, because the resources they have requested are held by other waiting
processes. This situation is called a deadlock.
42. What is the sequence in which resources may be utilized?
Under normal mode of operation, a process may utilize a resource in the
following sequence:

Request: If the request cannot be granted immediately, then the

requesting process must wait until it can acquire the resource.
Use: The process can operate on the resource.
Release: The process releases the resource.

43. What are conditions under which a deadlock situation may arise?

A deadlock situation can arise if the following four conditions hold simultaneously in

a system:
a. Mutual exclusion
b. Hold and wait
c. No pre-emption
44. What is a resource-allocation graph?
Deadlocks can be described more precisely in terms of a directed graph
called a system resource allocation graph. This graph consists of a set of
vertices V and a set of edges E. The set of vertices V is partitioned into two
different types of nodes; P the set consisting of all active processes in the
system and R the set consisting of all resource types in the system.
45. Define request edge and assignment edge.
A directed edge from process Pi to resource type Rj is denoted by PiRj; it
signifies that process Pi requested an instance of resource type Rj and is
currently waiting for that resource. A directed edge from resource type Rj to
process Pi is denoted by RjPi, it signifies that an instance of resource type
has been allocated to a process Pi. A directed edge PiRj is called a request
edge. A directed edge RjPi is called an assignment edge.
46. What are the methods for handling deadlocks?
The deadlock problem can be dealt with in one of the three ways:
Use a protocol to prevent or avoid deadlocks, ensuring that the system
will never enter a deadlock state.
Allow the system to enter the deadlock state, detect it and then recover.
Ignore the problem all together, and pretend that deadlocks never
occur in the system.
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

47. Define deadlock prevention.

Deadlock prevention is a set of methods for ensuring that at least one of the
four necessary conditions like mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption
and circular wait cannot hold. By ensuring that that at least one of these
conditions cannot hold, the occurrence of a deadlock can be prevented.
48. Define deadlock avoidance.
An alternative method for avoiding deadlocks is to require additional information
about how resources are to be requested. Each request requires the system
consider the resources currently available, the resources currently allocated to
each process, and the future requests and releases of each process, to decide
whether the could be satisfied or must wait to avoid a possible future deadlock.

49. What are a safe state and an unsafe state?

A state is safe if the system can allocate resources to each process in some order
and still avoid a deadlock. A system is in safe state only if there exists a safe
sequence. A sequence of processes <P1,P2,....Pn> is a safe sequence for the
current allocation state if, for each Pi, the resource that Pi can still request can be
satisfied by the current available resource plus the resource held by all the Pj, with
j<i. if no such sequence exists, then the system state is said to be unsafe.

50. What is banker's algorithm?

Banker's algorithm is a deadlock avoidance algorithm that is applicable to a
resource allocation system with multiple instances of each resource type. The
two algorithms used for its implementation are:

Safety algorithm: The algorithm for finding out whether or not a system
is in a safe state.
Resource-request algorithm: If the resulting resource allocationis safe, the
transaction is completed and process Pi is allocated its resources. If the new
state is unsafe Pi must wait and the old resource-allocation state is restored.

51. Define logical address and physical address.

An address generated by the CPU is referred as logical address. An address
seen by the memory unit that is the one loaded into the memory address
register of the memory is commonly referred to as physical address.
52. What is logical address space and physical address space?
The set of all logical addresses generated by a program is called a logical
address space;the set of all physical addresses corresponding to these logical
addresses is a physical address space.
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

53. What is the main function of the memory-management unit?

The runtime mapping from virtual to physical addresses is done by a
hardware device called a memory management unit (MMU).
54. Define dynamic loading.
To obtain better memory-space utilization dynamic loading is used. With
dynamic loading, a routine is not loaded until it is called. All routines are kept
on disk in a relocatable load format. The main program is loaded into memory
and executed. If the routine needs another routine, the calling routine checks
whether the routine has been loaded. If not, the relocatable linking loader is
called to load the desired program into memory.
55. Define dynamic linking.
Dynamic linking is similar to dynamic loading, rather that loading being
postponed until execution time, linking is postponed. This feature is usually
used with system libraries, such as language subroutine libraries. A stub is
included in the image for each library routine reference. The stub is a small
piece of code that indicates how to locate the appropriate memory-resident
library routine, or how to load the library if the routine is not already present.
56. What are overlays?
To enable a process to be larger than the amount of memory allocated to it, overlays
are used. The idea of overlays is to keep in memory only those instructions and data
that are needed at a given time. When other instructions are needed, they are loaded
into space occupied previously by instructions that are no longer needed.

57. Define swapping.

A process needs to be in memory to be executed. However a process can be
swapped temporarily out of memory to a backing tore and then brought back
into memory for continued execution. This process is called swapping.
58. What are the common strategies to select a free hole from a set of available holes?

The most common strategies are

a. First fit
b. Best fit
c. Worst fit
59. What do you mean by best fit?
Best fit allocates the smallest hole that is big enough. The entire list has to be searched,
unless it is sorted by size. This strategy produces the smallest leftover hole.

Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

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60. What do you mean by first fit?

First fit allocates the first hole that is big enough. Searching can either start at
the beginning of the set of holes or where the previous first-fit search ended.
Searching can be stopped as soon as a free hole that is big enough is found.
61. What is virtual memory?
Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes that may not be
completely in memory. It is the Separation of user logical memory from physical
memory. This separation provides an extremely large virtual memory, when only

a smaller physical memory is available.

62. What is Demand paging?
Virtual memory is commonly implemented by demand paging. In demand paging,
the pager brings only those necessary pages into memory instead of swapping in
a whole process. Thus it avoids reading into memory pages that will not be used
anyway, decreasing the swap time and the amount of physical memory needed.

63. Define lazy swapper.

Rather than swapping the entire process into main memory, a lazy swapper is used.
A lazy swapper never swaps a page into memory unless that page will be needed.

64. What is a pure demand paging?

When starting execution of a process with no pages in memory, the
operating system sets the instruction pointer to the first instruction of the process,
which is on a non-memory resident page, the process immediately faults for the
page. After this page is brought into memory, the process continues to execute,
faulting as necessary until every page that it needs is in memory. At that point, it can
execute with no more faults. This schema is pure demand paging.

65. Define effective access time.

Let p be the probability of a page fault (0p1). The value of p is expected to be
close to 0; that is, there will be only a few page faults. The effective access time is:
Effective access time = (1-p) * ma + p * page fault time.ma : memory-access time

66. Define secondary memory.

This memory holds those pages that are not present in main memory.
The secondary memory is usually a high speed disk. It is known as the swap device,
and the section of the disk used for this purpose is known as swap space.

67. What is the basic approach of page replacement?

If no frame is free is available, find one that is not currently being used and free it. A
frame can be freed by writing its contents to swap space, and changing the page table
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

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to indicate that the page is no longer in memory. Now the freed frame can be
used to hold the page for which the process faulted.
68. What are the various page replacement algorithms used for page replacement?

FIFO page replacement

Optimal page replacement
LRU page replacement
LRU approximation page replacement
Counting based page replacement
Page buffering algorithm.

69. What are the major problems to implement demand paging?

The two major problems to implement demand paging is developing
a. Frame allocation algorithm
b. Page replacement algorithm
70. What is a reference string?
An algorithm is evaluated by running it on a particular string of memory
references and computing the number of page faults. The string of memory
reference is called a reference string.
71. What is a file?
A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on
secondary storage. A file contains either programs or data. A file has certain
"structure" based on its type.
File attributes: Name, identifier, type, size, location, protection, time,
date File operations: creation, reading, writing, repositioning, deleting,
truncating, appending, renaming
File types: executable, object, library, source code etc.

72. List the various file attributes.

A file has certain other attributes, which vary from one operating system to
another, but typically consist of these: Name, identifier, type, location, size,
protection, time, date and user identification
73. What are the various file operations?
The six basic file operations are

Creating a file
Writing a file
Reading a file
Repositioning within a file
Deleting a file
Truncating a file

Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

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74. What are the information associated with an open file?

Several pieces of information are associated with an open file which may be:
File pointer
File open count
Disk location of the file
Access rights

75. What are the different accessing methods of a

file? The different types of accessing a file are:

Sequential access: Information in the file is accessed sequentially

Direct access: Information in the file can be accessed without any
particular order.
Indexed access methods: Creating index for the file.

76. What is Directory?

The device directory or simply known as directory records information-such as name,

location, size, and type for all files on that particular partition. The directory can be
viewed as a symbol table that translates file names into their directory entries.

77. What are the operations that can be performed on a directory?

The operations that can be performed on a directory are
Search for a file
Create a file

Delete a file

Rename a file

List directory

Traverse the file system

78. What are the most common schemes for defining the logical structure of a
directory?
The most common schemes for defining the logical structure of a directory
Single-Level Directory
Two-level Directory
Tree-Structured Directories
Acyclic-Graph Directories
General Graph Directory

79. Define UFD and MFD.

In the two-level directory structure, each user has her own user file directory (UFD).
Each UFD has a similar structure, but lists only the files of a single user. When a job
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

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starts the system's master file directory (MFD) is searched. The MFD is indexed by
the user name or account number, and each entry points to the UFD for that user.

80. What is a path name?

A pathname is the path from the root through all subdirectories to a specified file. In a
two-level directory structure a user name and a file name define a path name.

81.What are the various layers of a file system?

The file system is composed of many different levels. Each level in the design uses
the feature of the lower levels to create new features for use by higher levels.

Application programs
Logical file system
File-organization module
Basic file system
I/O control
Devices

82. What are the structures used in file-system implementation?

Several on-disk and in-memory structures are used to implement a file system
a. On-disk structure include
Boot control block
Partition block
Directory structure used to organize the files
File control block (FCB)
b. In-memory structure include
In-memory partition table
In-memory directory structure
System-wide open file table
Per-process open table
83. What are the functions of virtual file system (VFS)?
It has two functions
a. It
separates
file-system-generic
operations
from
their
implementation defining a clean VFS interface. It allows transparent
access to different types of file systems mounted locally.
b. VFS is based on a file representation structure, called a vnode. It
contains a numerical value for a network-wide unique file .The kernel
maintains one vnode structure for each active file or directory.
84. Define seek time and latency time.
The time taken by the head to move to the appropriate cylinder or track is
called seek time. Once the head is at right track, it must wait until the desired
block rotates under the read-write head. This delay is latency time.
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

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85. What are the allocation methods of a disk space?

Three major methods of allocating disk space which are widely in use are
a. Contiguous allocation
b. Linked allocation
c. Indexed allocation

86. What are the advantages of Contiguous allocation?

The advantages are
a. Supports direct access
b. Supports sequential access
c. Number of disk seeks is minimal.
87. What are the drawbacks of contiguous allocation of disk space?
The disadvantages are
a. Suffers from external fragmentation b.
Suffers from internal fragmentation

c. Difficulty in finding space for a new file d.

File cannot be extended
e. Size of the file is to be declared in advance 88.
What are the advantages of Linked allocation?

The advantages are

a. No external fragmentation
b. Size of the file does not need to be declared 89.
What are the disadvantages of linked allocation?

The disadvantages are

a. Used only for sequential access of files. b.
Direct access is not supported
c. Memory space required for the pointers.
d. Reliability is compromised if the pointers are lost or
damaged 90. What are the advantages of Indexed allocation?
The advantages are
a. No external-fragmentation problem
b. Solves the size-declaration problems.
c. Supports direct access
91. How can the index blocks be implemented in the indexed allocation
scheme? The index block can be implemented as follows
a. Linked scheme
b. Multilevel scheme
c. Combined scheme
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

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92. Define rotational latency and disk bandwidth.

Rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the desired
sector to the disk head. The disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred,
divided by the time between the first request for service and the completion

of the last transfer.

93. How free-space is managed using bit vector implementation?
The free-space list is implemented as a bit map or bit vector. Each block is
represented by 1 bit. If the block is free, the bit is 1; if the block is allocated, bit is 0.

94. Define buffering.

A buffer is a memory area that stores data while they are transferred between two
devices or between a device and an application. Buffering is done for three reasons

a. To cope with a speed mismatch between the producer and

consumer of a data stream
b. To adapt between devices that have different data transfer sizes
c. To support copy semantics for application I/O
95. Define caching.
A cache is a region of fast memory that holds copies of data. Access to the cached
copy is more efficient than access to the original. Caching and buffering are distinct
functions, but sometimes a region of memory can be used for both purposes.

96. Define spooling.

A spool is a buffer that holds output for a device, such as printer, that cannot accept
interleaved data streams. When an application finishes printing, the spooling system
queues the corresponding spool file for output to the printer. The spooling

system copies the queued spool files to the printer one at a time.
97. What are the various disk-scheduling algorithms?
The various disk-scheduling algorithms are
a. First Come First Served Scheduling
b. Shortest Seek Time First Scheduling
c. SCAN Scheduling
d. C-SCAN Scheduling
f. LOOK scheduling
98. What is low-level formatting?
Before a disk can store data, it must be divided into sectors that the disk controller
can read and write. This process is called low-level formatting or physical formatting.
Low -level formatting fills the disk with a special data structure for each sector. The
data structure for a sector consists of a header, a data area, and a trailer.
Compiled By: K. Thirupathi Rao, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, K L University

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99. What is the use of boot block?

For a computer to start running when powered up or rebooted it needs to have an
initial program to run. This bootstrap program tends to be simple. It finds the
operating system on the disk loads that kernel into memory and jumps to an initial
address to begin the operating system execution. The full bootstrap program is
stored in a partition called the boot blocks, at fixed location on the disk. A disk
that has boot partition is called boot disk or system disk.

100. What is sector sparing?

Low -level formatting also sets aside spare sectors not visible to the operating
system. The controller can be told to replace each bad sector logically with one of
the spare sectors. This scheme is known as sector sparing or forwarding.

101. Explain the concept of Reentrancy.

It is a useful, memory-saving technique for multiprogrammed timesharing
systems. A Reentrant Procedure is one in which multiple users can share a
single copy of a program during the same period. Reentrancy has 2 key aspects:
The program code cannot modify itself, and the local data for each user process
must be stored separately. Thus, the permanent part is the code, and the
temporary part is the pointer back to the calling program and local variables used
by that program. Each execution instance is called activation. It executes the
code in the permanent part, but has its own copy of local variables/parameters.
The temporary part associated with each activation is the activation record.
Generally, the activation record is kept on the stack.
Note: A reentrant procedure can be interrupted and called by an interrupting
program, and still execute correctly on returning to the procedure.

101. Explain Belady's Anomaly.

Also called FIFO anomaly. Usually, on increasing the number of frames allocated
to a process' virtual memory, the process execution is faster, because fewer
page faults occur. Sometimes, the reverse happens, i.e., the execution time
increases even when more frames are allocated to the process. This is Belady's
Anomaly. This is true for certain page reference patterns.

102. What is a binary semaphore? What is its use?

A binary semaphore is one, which takes only 0 and 1 as values. They are
used to implement mutual exclusion and synchronize concurrent processes.
103. What is thrashing?
It is a phenomenon in virtual memory schemes when the processor spends
most of its time swapping pages, rather than executing instructions. This is
due to an inordinate number of page faults.
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103.

List the Coffmans conditions that lead to a deadlock.

Mutual Exclusion: Only one process may use a critical resource at a time.
Hold & Wait: A process may be allocated some resources while waiting for
others.
No Pre-emption: No resource can be forcible removed from a process holding it.

Circular Wait: A closed chain of processes exist such that each process
holds at least one resource needed by another process in the chain.

104. What are short-, long- and medium-term scheduling?

Long term scheduler determines which programs are admitted to the system
for processing. It controls the degree of multiprogramming. Once admitted, a
job becomes a process.
Medium term scheduling is part of the swapping function. This relates to
processes that are in a blocked or suspended state. They are swapped out of
real-memory until they are ready to execute. The swapping-in decision is
based on memory-management criteria.
Short term scheduler, also know as a dispatcher executes most frequently,
and makes the finest-grained decision of which process should execute next.
This scheduler is invoked whenever an event occurs. It may lead to
interruption of one process by preemption.
105.

What are turnaround time and response time?

Turnaround time is the interval between the submission of a job and its
completion. Response time is the interval between submission of a request,
and the first response to that request.
106. What are the typical elements of a process image?
User data: Modifiable part of user space. May include program data, user
stack area, and programs that may be modified.
User program: The instructions to be executed.
System Stack: Each process has one or more LIFO stacks associated with it.
Used to store parameters and calling addresses for procedure and system calls.

Process control Block (PCB): Info needed by the OS to control processes.

107. What is the Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)?
In a cached system, the base addresses of the last few referenced pages is
maintained in registers called the TLB that aids in faster lookup. TLB contains
those page-table entries that have been most recently used. Normally, each
virtual memory reference causes 2 physical memory accesses-- one to fetch
appropriate page-table entry, and one to fetch the desired data. Using TLB inbetween, this is reduced to just one physical memory access in cases of TLB-hit.

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108.

What is the resident set and working set of a process?

Resident set is that portion of the process image that is actually in real-memory at a
particular instant. Working set is that subset of resident set that is actually needed for
execution. (Relate this to the variable-window size method for swapping techniques.)

109.

When is a system in safe state?

The set of dispatchable processes is in a safe state if there exists at least one temporal
order in which all processes can be run to completion without resulting in a deadlock.

110.

What is cycle stealing?

We encounter cycle stealing in the context of Direct Memory Access (DMA).

Either the DMA controller can use the data bus when the CPU does not need
it, or it may force the CPU to temporarily suspend operation. The latter
technique is called cycle stealing. Note that cycle stealing can be done only at
specific break points in an instruction cycle.
111.

What is meant by arm-stickiness?

If one or a few processes have a high access rate to data on one track of a
storage disk, then they may monopolize the device by repeated requests to
that track. This generally happens with most common device scheduling
algorithms (LIFO, SSTF, C-SCAN, etc). High-density multisurface disks are
more likely to be affected by this than low density ones.
112.

What are the stipulations of C2 level security?

C2 level security provides for:

Discretionary Access Control

Identification and Authentication

Auditing

Resource reuse

113. What is busy waiting?

The repeated execution of a loop of code while waiting for an event to occur
is called busy-waiting. The CPU is not engaged in any real productive activity
during this period, and the process does not progress toward completion.
114.

Explain the popular multiprocessor thread-scheduling strategies.

Load Sharing: Processes are not assigned to a particular processor. A

global queue of threads is maintained. Each processor, when idle, selects a
thread from this queue. Note that load balancing refers to a scheme where
work is allocated to processors on a more permanent basis.

Gang Scheduling: A set of related threads is scheduled to run on a set

of processors at the same time, on a 1-to-1 basis. Closely related threads /

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processes may be scheduled this way to reduce synchronization blocking,

and minimize process switching. Group scheduling predated this strategy.

Dedicated processor assignment: Provides implicit scheduling defined by

assignment of threads to processors. For the duration of program execution,
each program is allocated a set of processors equal in number to the number of
threads in the program. Processors are chosen from the available pool.

115.

When does the condition 'rendezvous' arise?

Dynamic scheduling: The number of thread in a program can be

altered during the course of execution.

In message passing, it is the condition in which, both, the sender and receiver
are blocked until the message is delivered.
116.

What is a trap and trapdoor?

Trapdoor is a secret undocumented entry point into a program used to grant

access without normal methods of access authentication. A trap is a software
interrupt, usually the result of an error condition.
117.

What are local and global page replacements?

Local replacement means that an incoming page is brought in only to the relevant
process' address space. Global replacement policy allows any page frame from any
process to be replaced. The latter is applicable to variable partitions model only.

118.

Define latency, transfer and seek time with respect to disk I/O.

Seek time is the time required to move the disk arm to the required track.
Rotational delay or latency is the time it takes for the beginning of the required
sector to reach the head. Sum of seek time (if any) and latency is the access
time. Time taken to actually transfer a span of data is transfer time.
119. Describe the Buddy system of memory allocation.
Free memory is maintained in linked lists, each of equal sized blocks. Any
such block is of size 2^k. When some memory is required by a process, the
block size of next higher order is chosen, and broken into two. Note that the
two such pieces differ in address only in their kth bit. Such pieces are called
buddies. When any used block is freed, the OS checks to see if its buddy is
also free. If so, it is rejoined, and put into the original free-block linked-list.
120.

What is time-stamping?

It is a technique proposed by Lamport, used to order events in a distributed system

without the use of clocks. This scheme is intended to order events consisting of the
transmission of messages. Each system 'i' in the network maintains a counter Ci. Every
time a system transmits a message, it increments its counter by 1 and attaches the timestamp Ti to the message. When a message is received, the receiving system 'j' sets its
counter Cj to 1 more than the maximum of its current value and the
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incoming time-stamp Ti. At each site, the ordering of messages is determined

by the following rules: For messages x from site i and y from site j, x precedes
y if one of the following conditions holds....(a) if Ti<Tj or (b) if Ti=Tj and i<j.
121. How are the wait/signal operations for monitor different from those for
semaphores?
If a process in a monitor signal and no task is waiting on the condition
variable, the signal is lost. So this allows easier program design. Whereas in
semaphores, every operation affects the value of the semaphore, so the wait
and signal operations should be perfectly balanced in the program.
122. In the context of memory management, what are placement and
replacement algorithms?
Placement algorithms determine where in available real-memory to load a
program. Common methods are first-fit, next-fit, best- fit. Replacement
algorithms are used when memory is full, and one process (or part of a
process) needs to be swapped out to accommodate a new program. The
replacement algorithm determines which are the partitions to be swapped out.
123. In loading programs into memory, what is the difference between loadtime dynamic linking and run-time dynamic linking?
For load-time dynamic linking: Load module to be loaded is read into memory.
Any reference to a target external module causes that module to be loaded
and the references are updated to a relative address from the start base
address of the application module.
With run-time dynamic loading: Some of the linking is postponed until actual
reference during execution. Then the correct module is loaded and linked.
124.

What are demand- and pre-paging?

With demand paging, a page is brought into memory only when a location on that
page is actually referenced during execution. With pre-paging, pages other than the
one demanded by a page fault are brought in. The selection of such pages is done
based on common access patterns, especially for secondary memory devices.

125. Paging a memory management function, while multiprogramming a

processor management function, are the two interdependent?
Yes.
126. What is page cannibalizing?
Page swapping or page replacements are called page cannibalizing.
127.

What has triggered the need for multitasking in PCs?

Increased speed and memory capacity of microprocessors

together with the support fir virtual memory and

Growth of client server computing

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128. What are the four layers that Windows NT have in order to achieve
independence?

129.

Hardware abstraction layer

Kernel
Subsystems
System Services.

What is SMP?

To achieve maximum efficiency and reliability a mode of operation known as

symmetric multiprocessing is used. In essence, with SMP any process or
threads can be assigned to any processor.
130.

What are the key object oriented concepts used by Windows NT?

Encapsulation
Object class and instance

131.

Is Windows NT a full blown object oriented operating system? Give reasons.

No Windows NT is not so, because its not implemented in object oriented

language and the data structures reside within one executive component and are
not represented as objects and it does not support object oriented capabilities .
132. What is a drawback of MVT?
It does not have the features like

133.

ability to support multiple processors

virtual storage
source level debugging

What is process spawning?

When the OS at the explicit request of another process creates a process,

this action is called process spawning.
134.

How many jobs can be run concurrently on

MVT? 15 jobs

135.

List out some reasons for process termination.

Normal completion

Time limit exceeded

Memory unavailable

Bounds violation

Protection error

Arithmetic error

Time overrun

I/O failure

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136.

What are the reasons for process suspension?

137.

Invalid instruction
Privileged instruction
Data misuse
Operator or OS intervention
Parent termination.

swapping
interactive user request
timing
parent process request

What is process migration?

It is the transfer of sufficient amount of the state of process from one machine
to the target machine
138.

What is mutant?

In Windows NT a mutant provides kernel mode or user mode mutual

exclusion with the notion of ownership.
139.

What is an idle thread?

The special thread a dispatcher will execute when no ready thread is found.
140.

What is FtDisk?

It is a fault tolerance disk driver for Windows NT.

141.

What are the possible threads a thread can have?

142.

Ready
Standby
Running
Waiting
Transition
Terminated.

What are rings in Windows NT?

Windows NT uses protection mechanism called rings provides by the process

to implement separation between the user mode and kernel mode.
143.

What is Executive in Windows NT?

In Windows NT, executive refers to the operating system code that runs in
kernel mode.
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144.

What are the sub-components of I/O manager in Windows NT?

Network redirector/ Server

Cache manager.
File systems
Network driver
Device driver

145.

What are DDks? Name an operating system that includes this feature.

DDks are device driver kits, which are equivalent to SDKs for writing device
drivers. Windows NT includes DDks.
146.

What level of security does Windows NT

meets? C2 level security.

147.

Explain the steps that a shell follows while processing a command.

After the command line is terminated by the key, the shel goes ahead with
processing the command line in one or more passes. The sequence is well
defined and assumes the following order.
Parsing: The shell first breaks up the command line into words, using spaces
and the delimiters, unless quoted. All consecutive occurrences of a space or
tab are replaced here with a single space.
Variable evaluation: All words preceded by a $ are avaluated as variables,
unless quoted or escaped.
Command substitution: Any command surrounded by backquotes is executed
by the shell which then replaces the standard output of the command into the
command line. Wild-card interpretation: The shell finally scans the command
line for wild-cards (the characters *, ?, [, ]). Any word containing a wild-card is
replaced by a sorted list of filenames that match the pattern. The list of these
filenames then forms the arguments to the command. PATH evaluation: It finally
looks for the PATH variable to determine the sequence of directories it has to
search in order to hunt for the command.
148 What is a sector? Track? Cylinder?

Sector smallest block that can be read or written on a disk.

Track collection of sectors all on same circumference on a single surface.
Cylinder collection of all tracks of same radius on a multi platter disk.

148. How is information on the disk referenced?

By the drive number, surface, track, and sector.

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149.

Describe how multiplatter disks are organized into tracks and sectors.

The disks have from three to twenty platters rotating concentrically together. Each platter
has two surfaces (except outer platters sometimes do not have outer surfaces), giving us
N surfaces. These platters are divided up into C concentric cylinders, all rotating together
around the same axis. The intersection of a cylinder with a surface is called a track, a
circle on a single surface. Each track is divided up into K circular segments called
sectors. So, the number of sectors on a disk = N _ C _ K.

150.

What is seek time?

Time for the read/write head to find the desired cylinder.

151. What is latency time?
Time for the disk to rotate to the start of the desired sector.
152. What characteristics determine the disk access speed?

Seek time: time for head to reach specified track.

Latency time: determined by rate of rotation.
Transfer time: determined by rate of rotation, amount of data to be
transferred and the density of the data on the disk.

Mahatma Gandhi :

Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do
are in harmony.
When I despair, I remember that all through history the ways of truth
and love have always won. There have been tyrants, and murderers,
and for a time they can seem invincible, but in the end they always
fall.

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