Saga Book XXXDGDGDGDGD

1
SAGA-BOOK
VOL. XXX
VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON
2006
VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH

OFFICERS 2005 2006
President
Alison Finlay, B.A., B.Phil., D.Phil., Birkbeck, University of London.
Hon. Secretaries
MICHAEL BARNES, M.A.,
University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT.
Judith Jesch, B.A., Ph.D., University of Nottingham.
Hon. Treasurer
Kirsten Williams, B.A., University College London.
Hon. Assistant Secretary

David Ashurst, B.A., Ph.D., University of Durham.
Saga-Book Editors
ALISON FINLAY, B.A., B.Phil., D.Phil., Birkbeck, University of London.
Anthony Faulkes, B.Litt., M.A., dr phil., University of Birmingham.
John McKinnell, M.A., University of Durham.
Carl Phelpstead, B.A., D.Phil., Cardiff University.
Andrew Wawn, B.A., Ph.D., University of Leeds.
ISSN: 0305-9219
Printed by Short Run Press Limited, Exeter
CONTENTS
AT
SMYRJA KONUNG TIL VELDIS : R OYAL LEGITIMATION IN S NORRI

STURLUSONS MAGNS SAGA ERLINGSSONAR. Kevin J. Wanner .........
GOLDEN AGES AND FISHING GROUNDS: THE EMERGENT PAST IN THE

SLENDINGASGUR. Slavica Rankovic ...............................................
39
GRETTISFRSLA: THE HANDING ON OF GRETTIR. Kate Heslop ................
65
STEFN KARLSSON ......................................................................................
95
JOAN TURVILLE-PETRE ..............................................................................
98
REVIEWS
ATLANTIC CONNECTIONS AND ADAPTATIONS. ECONOMIES, ENVIRONMENTS AND
SUBSISTENCE IN LANDS BORDERING THE NORTH ATLANTIC. Edited by Rupert
A. Housley and Geraint Coles. (Gurn Sveinbjarnardttir) ...
Edited by John Hines, Alan Lane and Mark

Redknap. (Christopher D. Morris) ...............................................
101
LAND, SEA AND HOME.
By Terje Spurkland.
Translated by Betsy van der Hoek. (Clive Tolley) ....................
103
NORWEGIAN RUNES AND RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS.
106
HE DROWNED IN HOLMRS SEA HIS CARGO-SHIP DRIFTED TO THE SEA-BOTTOM,

ONLY THREE CAME OUT ALIVE. RECORDS AND REPRESENTATIONS OF BALTIC
TRAFFIC IN THE VIKING AGE AND THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES IN EARLY
NORDIC SOURCES. By Kristel Zilmer. (John Hines) .........................
By Angelo Forte, Richard Oram and Frederik

Pedersen. (Patricia Pires Boulhosa) .............................................
109
VIKING EMPIRES.
110
SKANDINAVISCH-SCHOTTISCHE SPRACHBEZIEHUNGEN IM MITTELALTER: DER

ALTNORDISCHE LEHNEINFLU. By Susanne Kries. (Arne Kruse) .....
112
PAPERS ON SCANDINAVIAN AND GERMANIC CULTURE, PUBLISHED IN HONOUR OF MICHAEL BARNES ON HIS SIXTY- FIFTH BIRTHDAY
28 JUNE
2005. Edited by H. F. Nielsen. (Paul Bibire) ..............................
114
ICELANDERS AND THE KINGS OF NORWAY. MEDIEVAL SAGAS AND LEGAL

TEXTS. By Patricia Pires Boulhosa. (Sverrir Jakobsson) .............
Edited by
Pernille Hermann. (Matthew Townend) .....................................
116
LITERACY IN MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN SCANDINAVIA.
118
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FLATEYJARBK. ICELAND AND THE NORWEGIAN DY-
1389. By Elizabeth Ashman Rowe. (rmann

Jakobsson) .........................................................................................
NASTIC CRISIS OF
By Torfi H.
Tulinius. (Margaret Clunies Ross) ..............................................
120
SKLDI SKRIFTINNI. SNORRI STURLUSON OG EGILS SAGA.
By Magns
Fjalldal. (Richard Dance) ..............................................................
122
ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND IN ICELANDIC MEDIEVAL TEXTS.
124
FORNALDARSAGORNAS STRUKTUR OCH IDEOLOGI. HANDLINGAR FRN ETT

SYMPOSIUM I UPPSALA 31.82.9 2001. Edited by rmann
Jakobsson, Annette Lassen and Agnete Ney. (Elizabeth
Ashman Rowe) .............................................................................
128
KOMMENTAR ZU DEN LIEDERN DER EDDA 4: HELDENLIEDER. By Klaus Von
See, Beatrice La Farge, Wolfgang Gerhold, Debora Dusse, Eve

Picard and Katja Schulz. (Carolyne Larrington) .....................
By Heiko Uecke.
(Marvin Taylor) ..........................................................................
131
GESCHICHTE DER ALTNORDISCHEN LITERATUR .
By Rory McTurk.
(William Sayers) ...........................................................................
133
CHAUCER AND THE NORSE AND CELTIC WORLDS.
139
ANDERS SRENSEN VEDELS FILOLOGISKE ARBEJDER.
By Marita Akhj
Nielsen. (Michael Barnes) .............................................................
142
3: RMUR. By HALLGRMUR PTURSSON. Edited by Margrt

Eggertsdttir, Kristjn Eirksson and Svanhildur skarsdttir; BAROKKMEISTARINN. LIST OG LRDMUR VERKUM HALLGRMS
PTURSSONAR. By Margrt Eggertsdttir. (Silvia Cosimini) ...
144
LJMLI
Royal Legitimation in Magnss saga Erlingssonar
AT SMYRJA KONUNG TIL VELDIS: ROYAL LEGITIMATION

IN SNORRI STURLUSONS MAGNSS SAGA ERLINGSSONAR
BY KEVIN J. WANNER
EW EVENTS OF THE NORWEGIAN MIDDLE AGES have

generated as much discussion among historians as the mid-twelfth
century coronation of Magns Erlingsson (Steen 194951, 2; for a bibliography of studies on the coronation and related topics up to the mid-1970s,
see Helle 1974, 6869). This event was revolutionary in several respects:
it was the first coronation of any Scandinavian monarch; it was the first
time a Norwegian was made king whose father was not king before him
(or for whom this claim was not at least made); Norways churchmen had
never before demanded, let alone received, such substantial concessions
from the crown; and, finally, it helped to establish primogeniture and
legitimate birth as privileged criteria in matters of royal succession in
Norway. And yet, for all its importance, this event is poorly chronicled
by contemporary sources. We are not even certain of the year in which it
took place. (Fagrskinna places the coronation in September 1163,
Heimskringla in the summer of 1164. For arguments favouring the former
date, see Hertzberg 1905, 3039; Nygaard Brekke 196061; Sandaaker
1998, 190, and the latter, Storm 1873, 20003; Taranger 1928, 19798;
lafa Einarsdttir 1982, 14647.) Much of the discussion, then, about
the coronation and its circumstances has revolved around attempts to
determine just what happened, and when. In this effort, historians have
had recourse to sources both documentary, in the form of letters and lawcodes, and narrative. As is typical, the former type has been preferred as
evidence to the latter, and in this case distrust of literary testimony has
been compounded by the fact that none of the extant narrative sources is
thought to have been written by a Norwegian.1 For stories of Magnss
reign and coronation we depend on three Icelandic sources: a chronicle
1
One Norwegian historian who might have covered this period, Theodoricus
monachus, explicitly declines to do so in ch. 34 of his Historia de antiquitate
regum Norwagiensium because of its distasteful civil unrest (Storm 1880, 67).
It is possible that the two other so-called Norwegian synoptics, the Latin
Historia Norwegiae (11781220?) and the vernacular grip af Nregskonunga
sgum (c.1190) extended to this period, but the endings of both are lost.
In addition to the foreign sources listed, there are several Icelandic bishops
Saga-Book
of Norways kings, Fagrskinna (c.122025), a more extensive collection

of kings sagas, Heimskringla (c.122535), and the monk Karl Jnssons
saga (c.1185 early 1200s) of Sverrir Sigurarson, the usurper who killed
Magns and in 1184 assumed his position; and one Danish, Saxo
Grammaticuss Gesta Danorum (c.121020).
Given the need for historical reconstruction that has driven scholarship
on this event, it is not surprising that more energy has been put into
assessing the accuracy of the narrative accounts than into discerning the
authorial interests that informed their selection and ordering of material.
Of those who have addressed this question, most have focused on Magnss saga Erlingssonar in Heimskringla, mainly owing to its attribution
to an author about whom relatively much is known, the Icelandic chieftain, lawspeaker and poet Snorri Sturluson (1178/791241). Even in
this case, however, there has been little agreement as to its authors
perspective on Magnss coronation. Indeed, the two most recent considerations of this question arrive at contradictory results. lafa
Einarsdttir, comparing the descriptions of the coronation in Heimskringla and Fagrskinna, concludes that
disse reprsenterer to indbyrdes fjendtlige grene af det norske kongehus i det 12.
rh. Snorri holder p Sigurd Jrsalafaris slgt, medens det trder tydeligt
frem i beretningen i Fagrskinna, at den er talerr for . . . Sverres efterkommere
p den norske trone (1982, 134).
these represent two mutually hostile branches of the Norwegian royal house in
the twelfth century. Snorri backs Sigurr Jrsalafaris family [to whom Magns
Erlingsson had a maternal connection], while it comes forth clearly in the
account in Fagrskinna, that it is a mouthpiece for . . . Sverrirs successors on
the Norwegian throne.
Conversely, Odd Sandaaker finds that Fagrskinna and Heimskringla,

along with other texts produced by or for Sverrirs dynasty, express an
identical perspective on the event:
sagas and annals, and English chronicles that provide limited information on
Magnss coronation (lafa Einarsdttir 1982, 13646). The nationality of
the author of Fagrskinna has been the subject of some controversy. Although
it has been established that this text was produced in the court milieu of
Hkon Hkonarson, and possibly commissioned by this king (Indreb 1917,
27377), most have assumed that its author was Icelandic. Alfred Jakobsen
(1970, 9398, 12324), however, has argued vigorously for Norwegian
authorship. He has been challenged by Bjarni Einarsson (1984, cxxvicxxx).
Although this question is unresolved, I will follow the majority view and
assume Icelandic authorship of Fagrskinna.
Alt m mynna ut i den konklusjonen at omtalen av kroninga og det som gjekk

fret, i alle dei fire eksisterande kjeldene: Sverresoga, kongebrevet fr
1202 (?), Fagrskinna og Heimskringla, gr attende p kongeleg inspirasjon.
Alle samstavar dei i sak, nd og tendens (1998, 192).
Everything points to the conclusion that discussions of the coronation and
that which preceded it in all of the four existing sourcesSverris saga, the
kings letter from 1202 (?), Fagrskinna and Heimskringlago back to
royal inspiration. All of them agree in content, spirit and bias.
Whereas, then, lafa Einarsdttir contrasts Snorris advocacy with Fagrskinnas opposition to the legitimacy of Magnss coronation, Sandaaker
argues that both, through equally critical portrayals of this event, promote Sverrirs and his successors interests.
It is my purpose in this paper to reopen the question of the perspective
of these texts on Magns Erlingssons coronation and its impact on
northern politics, as well as to consider the extent to which they reflect
the positions and interests of their producers as opposed to royal consumers (that Fagrskinna was written for the Norwegian court is fairly
uncontroversial; the question of potential audiences for Heimskringla is
discussed below). While my chief interest is in Snorri Sturlusons perspective on this event, this subject is most efficiently explored by comparing
Heimskringlas account with that of Fagrskinna, Snorris most probable
and proximate source for Magnss reign (Sigurur Nordal 1953, 211;
lafur Halldrsson 1979, 131). In my view, Sandaakers reading of these
texts is more accurate than lafa Einarsdttirs, and yet insufficiently
nuanced. As I intend to show, a comparison of the relevant material in
Heimskringla and Fagrskinna reveals that while both adopt a similarly
negative attitude toward Magns Erlingssons coronation, they differ in
the extent to which this attitude translates into a general judgment on
the practice of royal consecration, and in how closely they mirror the
views held by the Norwegian king and court at the time of their writing.
More precisely, I will demonstrate that Snorri, far from simply parroting
contemporary royal opinion in his account of Magnss coronation and
surrounding events, was addressing and promoting interests of his own
as a cultural producer, certainly of poetry and perhaps also of prose, for
the Norwegian court. My analysis will proceed in several stages: first, I
will describe what is known of the historical context in which the coronation occurred and salient facts about the election and legitimation of
kings in medieval Norway; second, I will compare the accounts in Heimskringla and Fagrskinna of this event and the negotiations preceding it;
third, I will seek to explain Snorris departure from contemporary royalist ideology by examining his practice and interests as a political and
Saga-Book
cultural actor in the joint Norwegian/Icelandic social sphere of the early

thirteenth century; finally, I will look at one additional episode from
Heimskringla that provides further support for my conclusions.
In 1152 the papal legate Nicholas Breakspear, later Pope Hadrian IV,
visited Norway for the purpose of establishing an archdiocese (for discussions of this event and the papal motives that lay behind it, see Helle
1974, 4553; Johnsen 1967, 34). The country at this time was ruled by
three kings, the brothers Ingi, Eysteinn and Sigurr Haraldssynir. While
such an arrangement was not uncommon in Norway, where kingship was
traditionally treated as an estate which all heirs through the paternal line
from Haraldr hrfagri, the ninth-century king credited with first unifying
the land, were entitled to claim, it was rarely conducive to peace. In this
instance, however, it proved of benefit to the legates mission: in hopes
of securing episcopal support for his faction, each of the three kings
endorsed the foundation of the archdiocese and granted concessions
designed to further the Gregorian ideals of a self-governing and politically influential Church in Norway. Although these privileges existed
more in theory than in practice for the duration of the brothers reigns, it
was not long before the Church had the chance to reassert its claims.
Within a decade of the establishment of the archiepiscopal see of Niarss
in 1152/53 all three royal brothers were dead, and Hkon heribreir
Sigurarson emerged as their sole heir (these events are recounted in
Morkinskinna ch. 85: Finnur Jnsson 192832, 15462, Fagrskinna chs
99102: Bjarni Einarsson 1984, 33241, and chs 2632 of Snorris
Haraldssona saga and the whole of his Hkonar saga heribreis: Bjarni
Aalbjarnarson 194151, III 33772). When Ingis surviving supporters
proved unwilling, however, to bow to Hkonwho, aside from being
the bastard offspring of King Sigurrs dalliance with a farmhand, had
little support among Norways cultured litethe most powerful of them,
Erlingr Ormsson, nicknamed skakki, crick-neck, arranged in 1161 to
have his five-year-old son Magns elected king (Magnss saga Erlingssonar ch. 1, Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, III 37374).
This action was unprecedented. As Knut Gjerset writes, Ingis faction
by this choice . . . set aside all rules of succession. Magns . . . was not a
kings son, and his connection with royalty came through his mother
Kristn, a daughter of Sigurr Jrsalafari (r. 110330), and this, according to laws said to have been instituted by King and Saint lfr
Haraldsson (r. 101530), gave him no claim to the throne (on Norways
traditional laws of succession, see Taranger 193436, 291). And yet
there were other models and sources of legitimacy to which a royal
aspirant could appeal. Indeed, within the wider European context, Norways laws of monarchical succession were by the mid-twelfth century
an oddity: elsewhere primogeniture was the rule, and maternal descent
was much less of a bar to kingship than illegitimate birth. Both of these
standards of succession were championed by the Church, which had
instituted as common practice in major European states the crowning
and anointing of kings by clerical agents, acts that confirmed both the
God-given nature of the royal office and a particular occupants right to
hold it. Given the standards and practices it promoted, the Church was
an obvious and, it turned out, willing ally for Erlingr in his efforts to
fortify his sons rule. In either September 1163 or the summer of 1164, the
young Magns was anointed and crowned king of all Norway by Eysteinn
Erlendsson, second Archbishop at Niarss.
The Archbishops services did not come cheap, however. Magns and
his father granted a host of concessions that, if implemented, would
revolutionise not just the role of the Church in Norwegian politics, but the
Norwegian monarchy itself. At the ceremony Magns and Erlingr are
said to have taken an oath, of which a Latin version survives (printed,
along with a Norwegian translation, in Kolsrud 193740, 46566), in
which they pledged to obey Rome, uphold the privileges granted to
Norways archdiocese at its founding in 1152/53, concede the Churchs
absolute authority in spiritual matters, limit demands upon the clergy to
what was expressly permitted by canon law and uphold Gods laws in
their country. Then there is the so-called Magnus Erlingssons privilegiebrev, a letter written in the kings name at some time between 1163 and
1176, in which Magns and his successors are named vassals of St lfr,
from whom they are to hold the kingdom as a perpetual fief. (For texts
and translations, see Vandvik 1962, 722. Most now believe this document to have been written by Archbishop Eysteinn: see Helle 1974,
6566; Kolsrud 193740, 46264; Taranger 1922; Vandvik 1962, 34
44. For a discussion of this concession, its precedents and significance,
see Koht 193436, 81109.) The brev further stipulates that upon a
kings death his crown is to be placed upon lfrs shrine in Christ
Church in Niarss, where it will remain until a successor is chosen and
crowned by the archbishop.
In addition to these new ceremonial functions, contemporary law-codes
indicate that Norwegian churchmen were to be given a greater say in the
electoral process itself: no longer to be acclaimed serially by local ings,
kings were now to be chosen by a national, representative assembly
composed of Norways archbishop and five bishops, and twelve men
10
Saga-Book
selected by each from his own diocese (Keyser and Munch 184695, I
34, IV 3132). Ideally, this assembly was to guide the transfer of an
undivided crown to the kings oldest legitimate son. In the event, however, that the candidate was afflicted by illska ea vizka, wickedness
or lack of wisdom (Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, III 398, note 1), the
new king was to be chosen from among the disqualified heirs full
brothers; if he had none, or if none were deemed suitable, the assembly
was to select that man, relation of the king or not, who seemed to them at
bazt hfi bi gus rttar at gta ok lands laga, best fitted to guard
both Gods laws and the laws of the land (Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 1941
51, III 398, note 1). The final decision was to be reached by a majority
vote of the assembly, so long as the bishops were part of that majority
(Keyser and Munch 184695, I 34). The flood of innovations contained
in these documents and laws amply demonstrates the extent to which the
Church strove to exploit the opportunity provided by Magnss coronation to articulate and realise in practice the ideology of monarchy by
the grace of God in Norway (Magns was the first king to employ the
formula Magnus Dei gratia rex Norvegie or to adopt the title Noregs
konungr; see Taranger 193436, 30203).
Having surveyed the circumstances and consequences of Magnss coronation, I now turn to Snorri Sturlusons view of this event. Like lafa
Einarsdttir and Sandaaker, I consider the best procedure is to compare
Snorris account with that found in Fagrskinna, his most likely source for
these events. Observing how Snorri followed or altered the material from
this source (or, alternatively, agreed with or differed from it in his use of
a shared model) will highlight the ways in which the narrative he crafted
served his interests as a political actor and cultural producer. It must be
admitted, however, that differences between the accounts of the coronation itself in Heimskringla and Fagrskinna reveal little, mainly because
the latters is so slight: Vgsla Magnss konungs var gr ok var hann
sjau vetra gamall, King Magnss coronation was carried out and he was
then seven years old (ch. 109, in Bjarni Einarsson 1984, 351). Snorris
account in ch. 22 of Magnss saga is not much longer, though it does add
several noteworthy details (Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, III 39798):
Magns tk konungsvgslu af Eysteini erkibyskupi, ok ar vru at vgslunni
arir fimm byskupar ok lgtinn ok fjli kennimanna. Erlingr skakki ok me
honum tlf lendir menn sru lagaeia me konungi. Ok ann dag, er vgslan var,
hafi konungr ok Erlingr boi snu erkibyskup ok lgtinn ok alla byskupa,
ok var s veizla in vegsamligsta. Gfu eir fegar ar margar strgjafar.
var Magns konungr tta vetra. rj vetr hafi hann konungr verit.
11
Magns then received royal consecration from Archbishop Eysteinn, and at

the consecration there were five other bishops and the legate and many clerics.
Erlingr skakki and with him twelve landed-men swore legal oaths along with
the king. And on the day of the consecration, the king and Erlingr entertained
the Archbishop and the legate and all the bishops, and that feast was most
glorious. Father and son gave many great gifts there. King Magns was then
eight years old. He had then been king for three years.2
Among Snorris notable additions are mention of the oaths, thought

to correspond to the Latin document described above, and his emphasis
on the predominance of churchmen at the ceremony and feast. This is as
near as either Heimskringla or Fagrskinna comes to alluding to the
concessions granted to the Church during and after the coronation. What
both texts do describe in detail, however, are the negotiations that
preceded this event. More precisely, both recount a lengthy debate between Erlingr skakki and Archbishop Eysteinn that occurred before the
coronation.
The occasion for this conversation in each text is the Archbishops
attempt to increase Church revenue in his home district of rndheimr.
In ch. 16 of Magnss saga Erlingssonar (Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 1941
51, III 39091) and ch. 108 of Fagrskinna (Bjarni Einarsson 1984, 349),
Eysteinn is said to have arranged matters so that fines to the Church
would be paid in pure silver coin, rather than the more ordinary mixed
copper and silver. In this way the archdiocese stood to double its penitential income. Erlingr uses the unrest generated by this measure as a
pretext to approach the Archbishop with demands of his own. To compare Snorris perspective on the ensuing negotiations with that of
Fagrskinna, I here translate the dialogue from both texts in columns
(line numbers, marked F for Fagrskinna and H for Heimskringla, will be
used to refer back to material from these selections), arranged so that
sections corresponding roughly in content appear across from one another (ES = Erlingr skakki; EE = Eysteinn Erlendsson): 3
2
The presence of the legate Stephanus of Orvieto is not explained by
Snorri or Fagrskinna. Scholars have speculated that the legate, having come
from England in 1163, was visiting Norway to garner support for Pope
Alexander III, who was battling the anti-pope Victor IV, or to set up an
archdiocese in Sweden (Helle 1974, 59). According to ch. 60 of Sverris saga
(Indreb 1920, 67), it was the legate who consecrated Magns, but most
scholars agree that the archbishop must have performed the ceremony.
3
Translations throughout the paper are my own, though I have benefited
greatly from the assistance and suggestions of Anthony Faulkes and Alison
Finlay. I have also consulted Finlays recent translation of Fagrskinna (2004,
Saga-Book
12
Fagrskinna (ch. 108)
Heimskringla (Magnss saga

Erlingssonar, ch. 21)
ES: Is it true, lord, what men say, that
you have increased the value of fines
due to you from farmers in the north
of the country?
EE: It is indeed true that the farmers
have permitted me to increase the value
of my fines. They have done this of
their own free will, and with no compulsion, thus increasing Gods glory
and the wealth of our foundation.
ES: Lord, you must be knowledgeable

about the law code of the people of
3 Trndelag. Now in everything which
is added to that, you will be wanting
to break the laws of King lfr helgi.
6 EE: His laws will not be broken by an
increase in his rights . . .
6
9
ES: Is that the law, lord, of King lfr

helgi, or have you taken this matter 1 2
rather further than what is written in
the law-book?
EE: The holy king lfr will have 1 5
established the laws in such a way
that he got the consent and agreement
of the people, but it is not found in 1 8
his laws that it is forbidden to increase Gods rights.
ES: If you want to increase your rights, 2 1
then you will be willing to support us in
increasing the rights of the king to the
same extent.
24
EE: You have already increased

the name and power of your son
enough. And if I have unlawfully taken 2 7
dues at an increased standard from the
people of Trndelag, I consider it to be
. . . It is a violation of the laws that he a greater violation of the law that he is 3 0
9 whom the laws prescribe is not king over king over the land who is not a kings
Norway.
son. For that there is neither law nor
precedent in this country.
33
28283) and Lee M. Hollanders translation of Heimskringla (1964, 80507).

An ellipsis in the translation indicates not removal of text, but that the speech
of the current speaker is continued further down. The full texts of the dialogues,
including the text between direct speech, are given in the original language in
the Appendix.

1 2 ES: That was not done much against
your will when Magns was chosen

as king, and all assented to this, the bish1 5 ops as well as the other people of the
country.
13
ES: When Magns was chosen as king

over the realm of Norway, it was done
with your knowledge and consent as 3 6
well as that of other bishops in this
country.
EE: I do not want to oppose Magns

1 8 being king, if you are certain that it does
not seem to the people of Trndelag that

their laws have been violated by some2 1 one being king who is not a kings son.
But I expect that all will not be in agreement, if any who have genuine claims
24 come and demand the land and power.
ES: Since, lord, it is not written in all
law-books that he who is not a kings
2 7 son may not be a king . . .
EE: You then promised, Erlingr, that if 3 9
we agreed with you that Magns should
be chosen as king, you would support
Gods rights in all respects with all your 4 2
power.
. . . and if it was with the consent of you

3 0 and the other bishops that Magns was
chosen as king over all the land, you can

support him and his rule by making it
3 3 Gods law that he be king. If you were
willing to anoint and crown him and consecrate him as king, then it cannot be
36 denied, because that is the law of both
God and men, and he and I shall give
you full support in every undertaking
39 that you wish to have backing for.
ES: I accept that I have promised to keep

Gods law and the law of the land with 4 5
all of my strength and the kings. Now
I see a better policy than that each of us
should accuse the other of breaking 4 8
promises: rather let us hold to all our
agreements. You support King Magns
in his rule, as you have promised, and I 5 1
shall support your power in all profitable things.
ES (cont.): If Magns has not been
chosen as king in accordance with ancient custom in this country, then you
by your power can give him a crown,
as Gods law provides for anointing a
king to power. And while I am not a
king or descended from a line of kings,
most kings in our memory did not know
as well as I about the laws or constitution of the land. And King Magnss
mother is the legitimate daughter of a
king and queen. Magns is also a princesss son and son of a lawfully wedded
54
57
60
63
66
14
Saga-Book
wife. And if you will give him royal
consecration, then no one can later legally depose him. William the Bastard
was not a kings son, and he was consecrated and crowned king over England,
and since then the kingship has remained
in his family in England, and all have
been crowned. Sveinn lfsson in Denmark was not a kings son, and yet he
was crowned king there, and since then
his sons and one after another of his
kinsmen crowned king. Now there is an
archdiocese in this country. That is a
great glory and honour for our land. Let
us now add further to its advantages, let
us have a crowned king no less than
Englishmen and Danes.
Both conversations end with the Archbishop assenting to Erlingrs

proposition.
Before discussing ways in which the accounts of this conversation in
Heimskringla and Fagrskinna differ, I wish to emphasise one crucial
way in which they are alike. Neither text embraces the central claim
made by the speakers: that Magns was appointed king by Gods grace.
Rather than confirming that the plan to affirm the youths right to the
kingship realises Gods eternal will, both texts represent the negotiations as, as Sandaaker puts it, ei rask og lurvut kjpsling mellom
partane, a rapid and shabby haggling between the parties (1998,
192). This is an observation with which lafa Einarsdttir half agrees
(1982, 135):
Fagrskinnas redegrelse for omstndighederne, hvorunder alliancen mellem
Erling og ystein kom i stand, er ikke flatterende for nogen af parterne.
Fagrskinnas account of the circumstances out of which the alliance between
Erlingr and Eysteinn arose is not flattering for either party.
While to extend this observation to Heimskringla would contradict her

thesis that Snorri supported the advent of royal consecration, it applies
equally well to the debate as represented in either text. And yet, however
apt these characterisations are, it seems to me necessary to modify them
somewhat by taking into account the significant differences in how each
text expresses the judgment shared by both on Erlingrs and Eysteinns
negotiations. By comparing key sections of the texts, I will show that
69
72
75
78
81
15
Snorri goes further than Fagrskinna to construct a negative and sceptical

portrait of this conversation, thereby casting greater suspicion on the
validity of clerical legitimation of Norwegian monarchs.
At first glance, Snorris extended opening exchange seems more subtle than what is found in Fagrskinna. Whereas the latter starts with an
accusation, Snorri begins with a question. And yet in terms of content
the opening salvo in Heimskringla is no less pointed or condemnatory
than that of Fagrskinna; in both, Erlingr accuses the Archbishop of
unlawfully increasing fines in his district, while Eysteinn accuses the
regent of unlawfully elevating his son to the throne. Snorris expansion
of the dialogue also allows him to focus earlier and greater attention on
the specific wrongdoings of the Archbishop, who is forced to offer two
more rationalisations than he does in Fagrskinna (F67) for his violations of St lfrs laws, neither of them very convincing (H510, 1520).
Furthermore, by having Erlingr and Eysteinn circle one another before
levelling their accusations, Snorri establishes an atmosphere of collusion and play-acting between the disputants.
More substantial differences in content emerge in each partys response
to the others accusations. In Fagrskinna the rebuttals are, like the opening charges, blunt, direct and, as a result, more effective; Eysteinn
straightforwardly insists that lfrs laws have not been broken in
seeking to increase the saints rights, while Erlingr answers that the lawbooks are not consistent in forbidding the election of a king who is
not a kings son (F67, 2527). The more drawn-out responses that Snorri
givessuch as Eysteinns argument that he, like St lfr, only got
what he could from the farmers, or Erlingrs insistence that his personal
qualities qualify him for leadership more than most kings, that Magns
is a queens son, and that everyone else is consecrating, so why shouldnt
we? (H710, 5983)seem more like rationalisations and rhetoric
than sincere or convincing defences of innocence. There are, furthermore, a number of instances in Snorris text in which both interlocutors,
while artfully qualifying their statements and employing the subjunctive mood, admit to having violated ancient law or custom. Such
admissions are altogether absent from Fagrskinna, in which all
transgressions are firmly and consistently denied (compare, for example, F67 with H2527, and F2527 with H5456). Here again, the tone
Snorri sets is more conspiratorial than confrontational; rather than combatants convinced of their own righteousness, the pair emerge as
accomplices, complicit in guilt, yet ready to turn the situation to their
mutual advantage.
16
Saga-Book
Snorri also differs from Fagrskinna in the motives he assigns to

each party. In Fagrskinna, there are signs that Eysteinn and Erlingrs
desire to secure Magnss grip on the throne derives from a concern
for Norways welfare. Snorri, however, removes any hint of disinterestedness, excising, for example, the passage in which Eysteinn
speaks of the need to guard against any heirs of dead kings who might
appear and disrupt the peace of the realm (F2224). In its place, Snorri
has the Archbishop remind Erlingr of his promise to support Gods laws
and rights with all his power when the bishops assented to his sons
election (H3943), something Fagrskinna has Erlingr offer without
prompting (F3739). Additionally, whereas Fagrskinna has Erlingr state
that by consecrating Magns the Archbishop can styrkja hann ok hans
rki, support him and his rule (F3132), Snorri substitutes ef r vili
gefa honum konungsvgslu, m engi hann taka san af konungdminum at rttu, if you will give him royal consecration, then no one
can later legally depose him (H6769), thereby keeping the emphasis
on maintenance of Magnss personal power. Nowhere in the dialogue
which Snorri provides for Erlingr does concern for the greater good of
Norway emerge.
Another important contrast lies in the extent to which Snorri stresses
the special role played by clerical agents in the selection of the new
monarch. This is an emphasis already observed in Snorris account of
the coronation itself. In Fagrskinna, Erlingr responds to the initial challenge to the legitimacy of his sons rule by declaring,
Eigi var at grt mjk mti yru ri, er Magns var tekinn til konungs, ok
jttuu v allir, sv byskupar sem annat landsflk.
That was not done much against your will when Magns was chosen as king,
and all assented to this, the bishops as well as the other people of the country
(F1215).
Here Snorri removes the reference to landsflk, making Magnss election an act of Erlingr in collusion with the Church, not one in which
non-aristocratic laymen, those who composed the local assemblies at
which kings were traditionally elected, had participated (H3438). A
similar difference is found between the two versions of Erlingrs closing
speech. In Fagrskinna, he is at pains to underscore the ways in which
canon and secular law can work together to fortify Magnss authority,
appealing to Eysteinn to join with him so that bi gus lg ok manna,
the laws of both God and men, will support his son (F3637). In his
greatly expanded version of this monologue, Snorri emphasises the radical break between the old, secular foundations of royal legitimacy and
17
the new, clerical ones (Ciklamini 1981, 284). Here, Erlingr is less concerned with using Gods law to supplement the secular than with
substituting the former for the latter. As Snorri has him state, even ef
Magns er eigi sv til konungs tekinn sem forn sir er til hr landi, if
Magns has not been chosen as king in accordance with ancient custom
in this country, the Archbishop can gefa honum krnu, sem gus lg
eru til at smyrja konung til veldis, give him a crown, as Gods law
provides for anointing a king to power, and thereby supply him with a
source of legitimacy capable of compensating for the absence of support
in Norways secular laws (H5457).
In the final analysis, two major differences emerge between Snorris
report of the conversation of Erlingr skakki and Archbishop Eysteinn
and that in Fagrskinna. First, by stressing the Churchs appropriation of
the election of Norwegian kings from the laity, and by representing
coronation as a replacement of rather than complement to ancient laws
and procedures of succession, Snorri more strongly emphasises the radical nature of the changes ushered in by this negotiation. Second, while
both texts cast a sceptical eye on the introduction of royal consecration
into Norway, Snorri reveals in starker terms the worldly interests motivating those who engineered this change, the Archbishop as much as the
regent. Both are in Snorris account more cunning, self-interested and
indifferent to violations of law and custom. As a result of these differences,
Snorri goes beyond Fagrskinna in his depiction of royal consecration as
something other than what its official ideology would wish to represent
it as; rather than a faithful realisation of divine will, Snorri represents the
introduction of this ritual as an entirely human deed, inspired by human
interests (economic and political) and effected through human means
(negotiation, renegotiation and, finally, a deal).
Given that Snorri, when compared to his nearest contemporary chronicler and probable source for this event, intensified the critical perspective
on Magnss coronation, what might have been his motivation? One
way to begin to answer this question is to consider the potential audience for his account as well as that of Fagrskinna. Scholars are generally
agreed that the latter text was written for, and perhaps even commissioned by, King Hkon Hkonarson (r. 121763) and his court (Indreb
1917, 27377; Jakobsen 1970, 89; Bagge 1991, 19, 143). Given that
Hkon was the grandson of King Sverrir, who in the 1180s was received
in Norway as illegitimate son of Sigurr munnr, killed Erlingr and
Magns and seized the throne, it is not hard to see why Fagrskinnas
18
Saga-Book
demystifying perspective on events leading up to Magnss coronation

would have appealed to this young king. While the same observation
could apply equally to Snorris representation of this event, opinions as
to the intended or primary audience for Heimskringla are more mixed
than for Fagrskinna. On the one hand, there are those who believe that
Snorris chief aim in producing this text was to write history for his
fellow Icelanders and/or posterity; in Heimskringla: An Introduction,
Diana Whaley argues for the probability that he was writing for an
Icelandic audience, noting the lack of any evidence that he was working for a patron, and insisting that in the end everythingor nearly
everythingpoints to the probability that Snorris first duty was to historical tradition as laid out in his sources (1991, 123, 143). Similarly,
Sverre Bagge has averred that
though it is not unreasonable to see some connection between the composition
of Heimskringla and Snorris contact with Norway, this work seems relatively unaffected by ideological bias, and may, despite its late date, be considered
one of the best examples of the heroic and objective tradition in storytelling
and saga writing. This is no doubt a consequence of its Icelandic origin
(1991, 204).
On the other hand, some critics who have identified ideological purposes beneath the narratives of Heimskringla envision a contemporary,
foreign and royal audience for this text; for example, Heinz Klingenberg
has argued that a thinly veiled undercurrent of praise for Hkons regent
Jarl Skli Brarson runs through parts of Heimskringla (1998, 8594;
see also Sandaaker 1988, 192). As I have argued elsewhere, I think that
it is generally incorrect to regard Snorri as a detached and objective
historian in a modern, academic mould rather than, as he appears in
thirteenth-century saga accounts, a thoroughly engaged political actor,
or to underestimate the degree to which his 121820 visit to Norway
spurred his literary activity, or the extent to which his chief products, the
Edda as well as Heimskringla, were meant for lite Norwegian consumption (Wanner 2003, 810, 23242, 38993). Recognising, however, the
paucity of evidence for Heimskringlas dissemination or reception, I
will not insist on Snorris intention to reach a foreign and/or royal audience with this text, but will instead seek to situate his and Fagrskinnas
accounts of Magnss coronation among other texts that offer an opinion on this event or on the introduction of royal consecration into
Norway. Still, it is worth observing that if Snorri did not produce his
account of the 1163/64 coronation with Norways contemporary king
and court at least partially in mind, he and it are anomalies, in that all
19
other extant versions were with little doubt produced either by or for
Hkon Hkonarson or one of his predecessors in Sverrirs line.
Certainly, the one thing that all of these kings and texts agreed on was
the illegitimacy of Magnss reign. And yet all also seem to have recognised the advantages inherent in the idea of there being a single king
whose authority was founded in Gods unchanging will. Though continental precedent suggested that confirmation of divine election ought
to be ritually delivered by one of Gods agents on earth, one could, of
course, attempt to exploit this ideology without the full cooperation of
the Church. Sverrir, the first of his restored line and usurper of Norways
first consecrated king, sought to do just this. While in ch. 10 of Sverris
saga it is claimed that during his uprising Sverrir was anointed in a
dream by the Hebrew prophet Samuel, and in ch. 123 he is said to have
compelled several of Norways bishops to perform a makeshift coronation in 1194, both the Norwegian and Roman Church regarded him as an
unlawful king (Indreb 1920, 911, 13031). Eventually, all five of
Norways bishops joined their archbishop in exile, and Sverrir died in
1202 under a papal ban (see Bagge 1996, 7480). Still, none of this
stopped Sverrir from employing the clerical ideology, if in decidedly
pro-monarchical fashion. Two texts produced under his supervision,
Sverris saga and En tale mot biskopene, A Speech against the Bishops,
give clear expression to the idea of kingship as an office filled by God;
in these texts, however, divine election is manifested not through any
agency or act of the Church, but dynastic succession alone. Nowhere are
Sverrirs claims to independence from clerical authority more baldly
stated than in the words he is reported in ch. 38 of his saga to have
spoken over Erlingr skakkis grave:
Allda-scipti er mikit orit sem er megut sia, oc er undarliga orit. Er ein mar
er nu fyrir .iii. ein fyrir konung. Oc einn fyrir Jarl, einn fyrir erkibyscup, oc em
ec sa (Indreb 1920, 42; Erlingr received the title of jarl from Valdamarr I of
Denmark from whom he received the province of Vk as fief in the late 1160s).
Times have much changed, as you can see, and it has turned out extraordinarily, when one man now stands in the place of three: one for the king, and one
for the jarl, one for the archbishop, and I am that one.
But if Sverrir was determined to fight the Church to the bitter end, his
successors were to adopt a more accommodating approach. A spirit of
reconciliation first emerges in a letter (c.1202) from Sverrirs son Hkon
(r. 120204) to the Norwegian archbishop in exile, in which the origins
of his fathers troubles with the Church are traced to the negotiations of
Erlingr skakki and Eysteinn in 1163/64. As the letter states:
20
Saga-Book
N vil ek at allir menn viti skil v at ek gef upp alla essa deild ok rttu er
verit hefir millum konungdmsins ok biskupsdms . . . , er jarlinn hf deilu
vi Eystein erkibiskup um heilagrar kirkju frjlsi (Sandaaker 1998, 181;
Sandaakers emphasis).
Now I want all men to understand that I give up completely this dispute and
quarrel that has gone on between the kingdom and bishopric . . . , [which
started] when the jarl began a dispute with Archbishop Eysteinn over the
freedom of holy Church.
By casting Erlingr as scapegoat for the tension between bishops and

kings, this document seeks to absolve both the archbishop and Sverrir of
guilt, and so open the way for a partnership between the Church and
ruling dynasty (Sandaaker 1998, 18182). By and large, the ploy worked:
the bishops returned home and, while no election was ever held according
to the rules of 1163/64, subsequent kings, including Hkon Hkonarson, did not advocate a return to old electoral procedures, but continued
to promote the idea of kingship as a God-given office, and to seek episcopal support in their contentious bids for the throne.
Fagrskinna seems to me clearly to join in the conciliatory tone
introduced into the dealings of Norways monarchy and Church by
Hkon Sverrissons 1202 letter and cultivated by his successors. While
still representing Magnss reign as illegal, this text avoids in its account of Erlingrs and Eysteinns negotiations undue denigration of the
archbishop, whose dialogue amounts to little beyond denials of wrongdoing and expressions of concern for the security of the kingship and
realm. More generally, Fagrskinna, while certainly royalist in its sympathies, employs, as Bagge notes, the ecclesiastical schema of the rex
iustus/iniquus in evaluating the reigns of kings (1991, 142). This is in
contrast to Heimskringla, in which, Bagge further observes, there is
little trace . . . of the ecclesiastical and monarchical idea of the king
holding an office on Gods behalf (1991, 131). Or, as Aron Gurevich
puts it more generally (1971, 45):
Providence, according to Snorri, is not in the least the foundation of the march
of history . . . The idea of destiny in [his] kings sagas has little in common
with the theory of world-governance by the Creators supreme will.
As these scholars and others (for example von See 1991, 35860) have
observed, Snorri evaluates kings according to genealogical claims, charismatic qualities, success in war and accommodation to the will of local
assemblies. He favours, in short, standards of legitimacy and right rule
that predate and, at least conceptually, remain independent of the influence of clerical ideals or agents.
21
Unlike the author of Fagrskinna, then, Snorri champions a more

conservative model of royal legitimacy than that promoted by the contemporary Norwegian king and court. Indeed, in many ways Snorris text
reflects not so much the ideology of the current king as that of three
decades past, of Sverrir at the apogee of his conflict with the Church.
While nothing in Heimskringla matches the vitriol of the condemnations of the clergy in En tale mot biskopene, there are a number of striking
correspondences of phrase, tone and opinion between Snorris Magnss
saga Erlingssonar and Sverris saga that suggest that those responsible
for these texts were of like mind when it came to the negotiations of
1163/64. For instance, two passages from ch. 112 of Sverris saga closely
match sections of Snorris account of the negotiations. In the first, which
may be compared with the words that Snorri places in Eysteinns mouth
at H2933, it is said that Magns
eigi var at rettu til tekinn. fyrir vi at alldri fyr hafi verit i Noregi sian cristni
com at sa vri konungr. er eigi var konungs son. oc eigi helldr i heini. at er
oc firir-boit i lanz-laugom eim er hin helgi Olafr konungr setti (Indreb
1920, 119).
was not rightly elected, because never before had it occurred in Norway after
Christianity arrived, nor in heathen [times] either, that he became king who
was not a kings son. It is also forbidden in the laws of the land instituted by
King lfr helgi.
The second passage, which relates Sverrirs speech to a contemporary

Church leader, is nearly identical to H2124, for which Fagrskinna has
no equivalent:
ef u erkibyscup villt miclo auca rett in a vil ec at u leggir leyvi ar a at ek
auca iafn-miclo konungs-rettin (Indreb 1920, 119).
if you, Archbishop, want greatly to increase your rights then I wish you to
permit me to increase the kings rights to the same extent.
Furthermore, Sverrir (as depicted in his saga) and Snorri seem equally
wary of assigning God or religion too direct a role in northern politics. In
continuing his speech at Erlingrs grave, Sverrir openly mocks the idea
that ones salvation could be decided by ones choice of sides in a civil
conflict:
Eysteinn erkibyscup oc margir arir . . . hafa iafnan sagt at allir eir menn er
beriz me Magnusi konungi. oc veri land hans. oc letiz me vi. at salur
eira manna allra vri fyr i Paradiso. en bloit vri callt a iorunne Nu megum
ver allir fagna her sva margra manna heilagleic sem her muno helgir hava orit ef
etta er sva sem erkibyscup hefir sagt . . . En ef sva illa er sem mer segir hugr
um. at um at se at leica at brostit hafi a hin fogro heitin sem eim var heitit.
22
Saga-Book
a muno eir rit lengi golldit eira lygi. oc allir eir er vi truu. oc at er mitt
ra at scipta a ara lund til. biia fyrir eim er fram ero farnir af esom heimi
oc biia til gus at Erlingi Jarli se fyrir-gefnar allar r synir er hann geri
mean hann var i esa heims lifi . . . oc biia fyrir allra manna salum eira er
latiz hafa i eso hino rangliga vandri bi nu oc fyr. biia es gu at hann
fyrir-gefi eim allar synir oc biargi salum eira (Indreb 1920, 4244).
Archbishop Eysteinn and many others . . . have always said that all those men
who fought with King Magns and defended his land, and died doing so, that
all of their souls would be in paradise before their blood was cold upon the
earth. Now we can all rejoice here at the sanctity of so many men who will
have become saints here if it is as the archbishop has said . . . But if things are
as bad as I suspect, that it is a question of the fair promises which were made
to them having been broken, then they, and all who believed this, will have
paid for long enough for their lie. And it is my advice to act in a different
manner. Pray for those who have departed from this world and pray to God
that Jarl Erlingr may be forgiven all the sins which he committed while
alive on earth . . . and pray for the souls of all those men who have died in these
wrongful troubles both now and earlier. Pray God that he forgive them all their
sins and save their souls.
Finally and most importantly, Snorri and Sverris saga share a willingness to assign specific blame to the archbishop. As the latter has Sverrir
state:
Erlingr Jarl scylldi legia orlof til at erkibyscup fri fram eim olaugum ollum
sem hann mtti vi coma bndr me sino riki. oc litz mer sva sem at myndi
hvartki gert vera at gvs laugum ne manna her i landi (Indreb 1920, 119).
Jarl Erlingr was to grant permission that the archbishop might carry out all the
injustice that he could do against the farmers within his power. And it seems
to me that that was done according to neither Gods law nor the law of men in
this land.
Like the texts produced in Sverrirs name, then, Snorris seems to have
been largely unconcerned about alienating the Norwegian church, an
attitude at odds with the interests of subsequent kings in Sverrirs line,
whose desire to harness the authorising power of ecclesiastical ideology
led them to adopt, in texts and in practice, a more accommodating (though
never wholly subservient) posture when dealing with the local archdiocese.
This last observation calls for a reformulation of the question with
which I began this section of the paper: namely, what led Snorri in his
account of Magns Erlingssons coronation and related events to resurrect a stance towards the archiepiscopacy and its legitimation of
Norwegian royalty that was so out of sympathy with current royal interests? In what is known of Snorris biography, there are signs that he had
23
little reason to support, and indeed did not support, the intrusion of
ecclesiastical influences or Gregorian ideals into northern politics. In
the first place, Snorri came into his political and social maturity at a
time when Icelandic chieftains (goar) were being forced to make an
unaccustomed choice between the pursuit of secular and religious authority. In 1190, Archbishop Eirkr varsson of Norway sent a letter to
Iceland forbidding the ordination of goar (Jn Sigursson 1857, 291).
Prior to this directive, nearly every notable goi since Icelands conversion to Christianity (c.1000) had also been a priest or bishop; after it,
there is no record of any being ordained (Jn Jhannesson 1974, 190).
Snorri was eleven when this directive arrived in Iceland, and so was part
of the first generation of chieftains sons for whom the possibility of
joint religious and secular rule was not open. More tellingly, in 1209
Snorri was one of several goar to raid the farm of Hlar, where one of
Icelands two bishops had his seat. This assault was precipitated by
resistance by the goar to Bishop Gumundr rasons energetic promotion of such familiar Gregorian principles as clerical exemption from
the authority of secular law courts (this event is narrated in chs 2427 of
slendinga saga, in Jn Jhannesson et al. 1946, I 25157).
While this domestic episode illustrates a negative response by Snorri
to an assertion of clerical authority in his native political sphere, it was,
I believe, his interactions with members of the Norwegian lite prior to
the time when he is thought to have produced Heimskringla that had the
most direct impact on his treatment of royal coronation in that work. To
support this claim, I will consider three related issues: first, as background to Snorris experiences and expectations in dealing with members
of Norways courts, the traditional role of Icelandic cultural producers
in the Norwegian court in pagan and early Christian times, as well as the
benefits and rewards associated with it; second, evidence for Snorris
aspirations to emulate that role and reap its profits; and, third, whether
and to what extent Snorri may have perceived the introduction of the
practice of coronation of Norwegian monarchs as a threat to his potential to do this. In examining these issues, I will argue that Snorri had one
very personal reason to seek to discredit the conferral of royal legitimacy by Norways archbishops: simply put, he would have regarded
them as his competitors.
It is well known that throughout the Middle Ages Icelanders were the
dominant producers of several of the most significant art-forms native
to Scandinavia (see Sigurur Nordal 1990, 19092; Schier 1975; and
the papers collected in Clunies Ross 2000). Alongside sagas, the most
24
Saga-Book
important form taken by the cultural activity of Icelanders for much of

this period was the composition and recitation of skaldic verse. Although
this art-form emerged in the courts of ninth-century Norway, Icelanders
soon monopolised the role of court poet. Indeed, after the mid-900s,
there are no certain records of any Norwegian hirskld (Frank 1978,
23; Kuhn 1983, 28485; Turville-Petre 1953, 43). More than entertainment, skaldic verse was a valued commodity in interactions between
inhabitants of these regions. For visiting Icelanders, who had little in the
way of social connections, material resources or martial assistance to
offer the politically, economically and militarily dominant Norwegians,
skaldic verse was a means of gaining favour and access. As skar
Halldrsson writes, Icelanders geru hfingjalofi a tflutningsvru
sem hallardyr konunga opnuust fyrir, made the praise of chieftains
into an export commodity before which kings hall-doors opened (1979,
94). On the other side of this exchange, Norwegian kings stood to gain
several benefits from their reception of skaldic verse: before the introduction of literacy, it was the primary means of recording history; owing
to its highly intricate form and diction, it served as a source of prestige
and distinction for those who were able to accept it as well as those who
produced it (for arguments that skaldic verse acted and perhaps even
arose as a tool for generating distinction among a political and social
lite, see Fidjestl 1997; Lindow 1975; Strm 1981, 44346); and, perhaps most crucially, skaldic poetry celebrated as well as preserved the
memory of a kings noble deeds and charismatic qualities.
Although neither can be regarded as duplicating fully the functions of
the other, there are significant parallels in the contributions made by
skaldic praise and royal consecration, and more generally by skalds and
bishops, to the construction and maintenance of royal legitimacy and
authority. Neither skalds and their poems nor bishops and their rites
effectively conferred royal status: in pagan as well as Christian times,
blood and election were the deciding factors. What the recitation of
skaldic tributes and the ceremony of anointing and crowning did provide were ritualised expressions and thus confirmations of their subjects
suitability for the royal role. Both skalds and bishops competence to
pronounce on the character and legitimacy of a royal aspirant or current
monarch were grounded in their claims to speak for or with divine power.
To the pagan skald and his audience, poetic skill was a gift from the
chief god inn, who had wrested it in the form of a potent mead from
the gods enemies, the jtnar or giants (the myth of the origins of the
poetic mead and inns acquisition of it is best known from Snorris
25
Skldskaparml chs G5758, in Faulkes 1998, I 35; see also stt. 104
10, 14041 of the eddic poem Hvaml, in Neckel 1983, 3334, 40).
Numerous kennings in the skaldic corpus allude to this myth by referring to inn as the possessor or bestower of the poetic mead and the
skill it symbolised (see Meissner 1921, 129; Kreutzer 1974, 11217).
While it would be going too far to insist that skaldic encomia offered a
stamp of divine approbation equivalent to that later supplied by episcopal consecration, the claim made by and for pagan skalds that their art
was a product of Odinic inspiration, a gift from the god of kings and
warriors as well as poets, would have lent their pronouncements an air of
truth, and given them unique authority as counsellors, confidants and
commemorators.
In light of skalds claim to divine inspiration, it might seem as if the
Conversion would have quickly and decisively deprived them of their
authority and functions, but this did not happen. While the sagas indicate that the missionary kings lfr Tryggvason (r. 9951000) and lfr
Haraldsson at first resisted accepting skalds into their service, they relented in cases where poets were willing to convert and/or restrict their
references in kennings to the pagan gods (see ch. 83 of Snorris lfs
saga Tryggvasonar and ch. 43 of his lfs saga helga, in Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, I 33032 and II 5456; on reduction in the use of
pagan mythological kennings following the Conversion, see Frank 1978,
67). The continued employment of skalds by Christian kings was partly
due to practical necessity; until the twelfth century, when standards of
literacy and court clerical staffs in Norway developed to something like
the level at which they existed in Europe, there was no one else to fill
the skalds combination of memorialising, diplomatic and advisory
roles. Skalds moreover continued to provide ideological services after
the Conversion, managing in several ways to compensate for the loss of
their status as mouthpieces of pagan divinity. In the first place, they
began to make use of the new mythology to construct kennings in praise
of patrons. For example, Arnrr jarlaskld offered this verse in praise of
King Haraldr harri c.1067 (quoted in Skldskaparml ch. 52, in
Faulkes 1998, I 78):
Bnir hefi ek fyrir beini
bragna falls vi snjallan
Grkja vr ok Gara;
gjf launak sv jfri.
I lift prayers for the causer of mens falling [in battle] to the wise guardian of
Greeks and Russians. Thus I repay the prince for his gift (Faulkes 1987, 127).
26
Saga-Book
Alongside such appeals to Christ and use of Christian kennings, there

was a gradual reintroduction of pagan mythological elements into the
poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, suggesting that even if, as
Jan de Vries puts it, Namen wie Odin oder Tr waren jetzt nur eine blasse
Erinnerung an eine lngst berwundene Zeit, names such as inn and
Tr were now only a pale reminder of a long since outdated time (1967,
12), Christian patrons continued to find satisfaction in being compared
to figures of pagan myth and legend. By the 1100s skalds had begun to
respond directly to the loss of the claim of pagan poetry to transcendent
origin by effecting a substitution of divine patron, of the Christian God
for inn. Prominent twelfth-century compositions that invoke the
Father or the Trinity as source of inspiration are Einarr Sklasons tribute to St lfr, Geisli, the Harmsl of Canon Gamli of the monastery
at ykkvibr and the anonymous Leiarvsan (on this trend and
these examples, see Klingenberg 1986, 66768; Gurn Nordal 2001,
8990). Finally, by the early thirteenth century the application of
euhemeristic theory to inn may have permitted certain skalds to think
of him as, if no longer a divine, then essentially a superhuman originator
of their art. This seems to be part of the strategy of Snorri when he
historicises inn as a king who carried the art of poetry with him as he
migrated into the North from Troy (Ynglinga saga ch. 6; Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, I 17), a city where, according to the Prologue of his
Edda, the hfingjar hafa verit um fram ara menn er verit hafa
verldu um alla manndmliga hluti, chieftains have excelled other men
who have been in the world in respect to all human qualities (Prologue
ch. 4, in Faulkes 1982, 4).
There were several ways, then, in which skalds down to Snorris time
continued to claim a prestigious origin for their compositions and lend
authority to their poetic pronouncements. Furthermore, there can be little
doubt both that Snorri was aware of the traditional avenues for advancement open to Icelandic poets in the court of Norway and that he sought
to exploit these in his own practice. In the early 1220s, the exchange of
poetic composition for material and social capital between itinerant Icelandic poets and foreign kings formed a significant literary motif in
Icelandic sagas and ttir, or short stories. John Lindow has suggested
the label of poets travel pattern for those tales in which an Icelandic
protagonist relies on verbal skill to obtain, maintain, or regain a favoured position with the monarch (2000, 219). Though Heimskringla
is not usually considered to contain discrete ttir, Snorris compilation
is nevertheless full of tales in which skalds serve and counsel, and are
27
heeded and rewarded by, kings of Norway and other countries. As for
Snorris ambition to fill the skalds role, evidence for this emerges early
in his political career. The first Norwegian whom Snorri is known to
have praised in poetry was none other than Sverrir, to whom he sent a
tribute most likely in 1202, the year of the kings death. (Evidence for
Snorris composition for Sverrir is found in Skldatal, a list of skalds
and patrons preserved in the Uppsala manuscript of Snorris Edda and
the Kringla manuscript of Heimskringla. Nothing of the poem itself
survives; on the possible nature of and motivations for Snorris poetry
for Sverrir, see Gurn Nordal 1992, 54.) While there is no record of
Snorri having composed for Sverrirs two immediate successors, the shortlived Hkon Sverrisson and Guttormr Sigurarson (both d. 1204), he did
send poetry to King Ingi Brarson (r. 120417) and his half-brother
Jarl Hkon galinn (his poetry for both is attested in Skldatal and for
the latter in ch. 34 of slendinga saga, in Jn Jhannesson et al. 1946, I
269). Only one response to this poetry has been recorded, but it was a
positive one. According to slendinga saga, written by Snorris nephew
Sturla rarson, Jarl Hkon repaid Snorris gesture with sver ok skjld
ok brynju, sword and shield and mailcoat; it is also told that
Jarlinn ritai til Snorra, at hann skyldi fara tan, ok lzt til hans gera mundu
miklar smir. Ok mjk var at skapi Snorra. En jarlinn andaist ann
tma, ok br at tanfer hans um nkkurra vetra sakir (Jn Jhannesson et al.
1946, I 269).
The Jarl wrote to Snorri that he should travel abroad [to Norway], and said he
would show great honour to him. And that was much to Snorris liking. But
the Jarl died at that time, and that delayed his journey abroad for some years.
Unfortunately for Snorri, this was becoming a pattern: Jarl Hkon died
in 1214, and his brother the king not long after, in 1217. By the time
Snorri made his first trip to Norway in the autumn of 1218, his hosts
were the recently elected, fourteen-year-old Hkon Hkonarson and his
regent, Jarl Skli Brarson, half-brother of the late King Ingi.
Snorri spent two years in Norway, primarily in the company of Skli.
During this time, he presented poetry to Skli and Kristn Nikulssdttir, widow of Hkon galinn, receiving in return gifts and friendship
from both (Jn Jhannesson et al. 1946, I 27172, 278). And while
our sources do not state that Snorri offered poetry to Hkon during his
visit, it is difficult to believe that, having panegyrised a jarl and a lady,
he would have neglected to do the same for the king. Near the end of his
trip Snorri helped dissuade Hkon and Skli from invading Iceland, with
which Norway was embroiled in a violent trade dispute, by pledging to
28
Saga-Book
work to bring the island under royal control; in return for his cooperation, he was given the title of lendr mar, the highest in the hir (see ch.
38 of slendinga saga, in Jn Jhannesson et al. 1946, I 27778, and ch.
59 of Hkonar saga Hkonarsonar, in Gubrandur Vigfsson 1887, 52,
both by Sturla rarson). Upon returning home, however, Snorri did
little to promote the kings interests, and seems, in fact, to have worked
to keep Hkon and Sklis favour mostly through cultural production.
Around 122223, Snorri completed Httatal, the longest and most ambitious skaldic praise-poem surviving, for both the king and jarl. This
poem was the seed of Snorris Edda, a treatise on poetry and mythology
that was probably finished by 1225 (see Wessn 1940), about the time
when he is believed to have begun work on Heimskringla.
Plainly, Snorri had for some time before, during and after his visit
to Norway, cast himself in the time-honoured role of the Icelander bearing poetic gifts, for which he hoped to be rewarded with goods as well as
access and influence. All things considered, he had some success. And
yet, if we look at individual responses to Snorris poetry, a telling
pattern emerges. Snorri composed for six Norwegian notables: the
kings Sverrir, Ingi and Hkon, the jarls Hkon galinn and Skli and the
lady Kristn. Of these six, only the three least powerful, all, that is, but
the kings, are known to have responded. While differences in rank
may be enough to explain this patternhaving attained the pinnacle of
Norwegian society, kings may have seen little to be gained from
doing business with Icelandic poets vying for attention and largesseit
is also necessary to consider the factors that made a nobleman into a
king during this period. Aside from Kristn, all of those whom Snorri
praised were at one time or another candidates for the crown, but only
some succeeded. What did those who attained the throne possess that
the others lacked? One key factor was the support of Norways ecclesiastical hierarchy.
Of course, things were not as clear-cut as this statement suggests; each
of the nobles under discussion had unique and complex relations with
the contemporary Church. Sverrir, as we know, seized the throne in defiance of Norways bishops; since, however, he was probably dead when
Snorris tribute arrived, perhaps even before it was composed (Gurn
Nordal 1992, 54), it seems best to leave him out of consideration of
responses to Snorris poetry. Then there is Jarl Skli, who, as legitimate
heir of King Ingi, initially enjoyed archiepiscopal backing in his bid for
the crown, but was also among the most enthusiastic consumers of Snorris
verse (see his extravagant response to Snorris gift of a drpa in ch. 38 of
29
slendinga saga; Jn Jhannesson et al. 1946, I 278). Ultimately, however, Archbishop Guttormr, bowing to the depth of Hkons support
among advocates of Sverrirs dynasty, gave his stamp of approval to the
young monarch. This occurred in the summer of 1218, mere months
before Snorri arrived in Norway (Gubrandur Vigfsson 1887, 4044).
The last two contenders, King Ingi and Jarl Hkon galinn, fit our pattern
rather neatly: Ingi was chosen as king over his older half-brother Hkon
largely because of his legitimate birth and the support of Norways archbishop (Koht 1924, 432). Whatever the particulars of each case, therefore,
a basic division holds true: those who responded to Snorris laudatory
poems were those whose aspirations to the throne had been thwarted by
lack of episcopal support, while those who did not had reached that
goal with the endorsement of the archbishop. In sum, it seems that Norways kings were no longer investing in skaldic verse as a source of
legitimacy and prestige in part because they had access to a more potent
source of both in the sanction of God, as manifested through the approval of Norways highest Church official.
We have, then, in Snorri a cultural producer who, after decades of
seeking royal recognition of his poetic talents, was faced with a radical
disjunction between what he knew (or thought he knew) of the
traditional, reciprocal relations of Icelandic skalds and Norwegian monarchs, and a reality in which the place and functions of the skald had
been largely usurped by the Church and its agents. Without the patronage of Norways most powerful consumer, Snorris poetic capital had
lost much of its market value, its capacity for conversion into material
wealth, social prestige and political influence. Snorris response to this
devaluation of his cultural capacities was to funnel his talents into new
forms of cultural production designed to resuscitate the old. Heimskringla
was one such product (the Edda, a work aimed at reinvigorating the
production and consumption of skaldic verse, ought to be viewed as
Snorris first and principal attempt to reignite patrons interest in more
traditional forms of cultural production; see Wanner 2003, 38993).
While Heimskringla, like Fagrskinna and other kings sagas, may have
reflected royal interests as a means of seeking favour, Snorri also used it
to further his own interests as an Icelandic poet, seeking to persuade his
audience of the worth of the skaldic art over and against the legitimising strategies offered by the Church. Accordingly, it is a text in which
ecclesiastical ideology is absent, and the relations of kings and skalds
are highlighted. Snorri employs the climax of Heimskringla to the same
purpose, using the potent if outdated propaganda of King Sverrir to
30
Saga-Book
paint Magnss coronation as the result of cynical collusion between a

law-breaking, self-serving politician and a no less crooked archbishop.
More than merely illicit, this ceremony was in the end also ineffective,
providing scant protection against the uprising in which both Magns
and his dynastic ambitions met their end. Finally, there is documentary
evidence suggesting that, as early as 122022, Hkon Hkonarson was
making arrangements for his own coronation, and, perhaps to further
this aim, had granted minting privileges to the current archbishop.4 If
Snorri had these recent developments in mind when constructing his
account of the negotiations of 1163/64 and their outcome, the moral it
would have held for Hkon is clear: previous rulers of Norway had traded
privileges and favours with the Church in return for legitimacy and a
crown, and look where it had got them.
In closing, I will review an episode from lfs saga Tryggvasonar in
Heimskringla that in my view supplies further evidence of Snorris
aversion to the imposition of episcopal authority on the Norwegian
monarchy and his preference for traditional measures of royal legitimacy.
As usual, this is a story not invented by Snorri, but one that he relates
in telling ways. The earliest known saga of lfr Tryggvason, during
whose reign both Iceland and Norway were largely converted to
Christianity, was written c.1190 by Oddr Snorrason of the monastery at
ingeyrar.5 In ch. 33, Oddr relates an episode in which lfr, busy converting his pagan countrymen, is visited by a one-eyed old man who
regales him into the night with tales af orrostvm ok fornvm attbvrvm,
4
This document is reproduced in Keyser and Munch 184695, I 446.
Though it is undated, scholars have concluded that the document and the
privileges it grants most likely date to the early 1220s, a period when Hkon
and Jarl Skli were embroiled in an ongoing struggle to define their spheres
of power, and one leading up to the 1223 assembly at which Hkon, with the
aid of the Norwegian archbishop, firmly established his right to and hold
upon the throne of Norway (see Steen 194951, 4243; Helle 1974, 107). In
the event, Hkon did not actually receive royal consecration until 1247, from
Cardinal William of Sabina (Hkonar saga Hkonarsonar ch. 257, in Gubrandur Vigfsson 1887, 252).
5
Oddrs original Latin text is lost, but his work survives in a nearly
contemporary Norse translation in several manuscript versions (see Finnur
Jnsson 1932, iiiviii; Jnas Kristjnsson 1988, 15759). Snorri would likely
have had access to versions in both languages but, as Anthony Faulkes (1993,
6972) has forcefully argued, there are good reasons to doubt that he would
have been able to read the Latin text. While Finnur Jnsson, editor of Oddrs saga
31
of battles and ancient events (Finnur Jnsson 1932, 131). lfr enjoys
the stories, but after being advised by a bishop to go to bed, turns in. In
the morning, the king asks for his guest, who cannot be found. Upon
learning that the man, complaining of the poor fare offered at the kings
table, had given his head cook some portions of meat to serve, lfr
orders him:
gef engum manne at. ok er hvndr var til ltin do hann egar. sian var at
brent ok eptir at voro tier ok iii. messor (Finnur Jnsson 1932, 134).
Give that to no man. And when a dog was given some it died at once. [The
meat] was then burned, and after that services and three masses were [said].
Oddrs account closes with this speech by lfr:

Miok hefir gu leyst oss af miklom haska. en sett er at fiandin hefir brvgiz
ilike Oens. ok villdi blekia oss. fyrst at taka vokv fra oss um tier . . . en
sian at fera oss etta diofvliga etr. at at fengi oss bana hormvligan ok
eigum ver etta miok gue at acka. byscvp sannae at ok kvazt at hugr vm
segia a er gestrinn melti vi hann lengst vm kveldit (Finnur Jnsson
1932, 136).
God has rescued us from great danger, and it is clear that the devil has
assumed the form of inn, and was trying to deceive us, first to make us
sleepy during the services . . . and afterwards to bring us this devilish poison, so
that it might cause us a miserable death. And for this we have God much to
thank. The bishop agreed with that and declared that this was what had
occurred to him when the guest talked with him [the king] through most
of the night.
This identification of the visitor with inn/the devil would not have
surprised the sagas audience, who would have both recognised him by
his trademark features, and been prepared for some sort of demonic mischief by Oddrs statement at the head of the episode that avfvndae . . .
ovinr allz manz kyns, the enemy of all mankind had resented lfrs
successful missionary activity (Finnur Jnsson 1932, 131).
While the essentials of this story are carried over into ch. 64 of Snorris
lfs saga Tryggvasonar, the choices Snorri makes in adapting it serve
a coherent purpose. First, there is nothing to correspond to Oddrs
(1932, xxii), as well as Theodore Andersson, its recent translator, consider the
more expansive manuscript AM 310, 4to (A) to be closer to Oddrs original,
and Finnur argues that Snorri must have used a manuscript earlier than either,
I here quote from Stockholm 19, 4to (S), which in the case of lfrs encounter
with inn has the more detailed text. The text of S is printed below that of A
in Finnur Jnssons edition, and is the basis of P. A. Munchs 1853 edition.
32
Saga-Book
prefatory statement on the devil and his snares. Snorri elaborates, however, on the scope and quality of the visitors tales (Bjarni Aalbjarnarson
194151, I 31213):
Kunni s mar segja af llum lndum . . . tti konungi gaman mikit at
rum hans ok spuri hann margra hluta, en gestrinn fekk rlausn til allra
spurninga, ok sat konungr lengi um kveldit.
That man could speak of all lands . . . The king got great pleasure from his
conversation and asked him many things, and the guest gave an answer to all
of [his] questions, and the king sat up long into the night.
As for the exasperated bishop, Snorri has him interrupt the talk of lfr
and inn not once, but twice. After lfr interviews his cook and his
guests identity has dawned on him, Snorri has the king react somewhat differently (Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, I 314):
segir konungr, at vist alla skyldi nta, segir, at etta myndi engi mar
verit hafa ok ar myndi verit hafa inn, s er heinir menn hfu lengi
trat, sagi, at inn skyldi engu leiis koma at svkja .
Then the king says that all of that food should be thrown away, saying that this
must have been no man and that it must have been inn, whom heathen men
had long believed in, [and] said that inn would not succeed in deceiving
them in any way.
Here there is no mention of the poison or unfortunate dog, and so no

indication that the king or his men were ever in danger of physical harm
(Gurevich 1971, 48).
Snorris text also has far fewer religious elements than Oddrs saga:
missing from Snorris version are lfrs repeated thanks to God, the
masses and the bishops self-congratulatory coda. Most importantly,
Snorris text, alone of existing variants of this story, omits the explicit
equation of inn and the devil. All that remains is the bishop, who, in
his inept attempts to chase off the kings visitor, comes off as somewhat
ridiculous. In Snorris text, the encounter between inn and lfr is no
longer a clash of religions in which God proves stronger than paganism
and the devil, but a competition for the kings attention in which inn
proves more engaging. As Gurevich writes of this episode (1971, 48):
From Snorris point of view in is hardly a god, and people having the true
faith do not worship him, but it is more interesting to talk with him than with
a clergyman.
Snorri believed, however, not only that lfr would be better entertained listening to inn, but also that it would benefit the king
to attend to what the pagan deity had to say, or, more precisely, what
33
he represented. For Snorri, inn is not the devil in disguise, but

the embodiment of the history and culture of the kings ancestors and
people as preserved and communicated through the medium of skaldic
verse. That Snorri considered the lore that inn imparts to lfr not
merely fascinating but salutary emerges from another choice of phrase:
rather than orrostvm ok fornvm attbvrvm, Snorri has inn relate tales
fr konungum ea rum fornum tendum, about kings or other old
events (Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, I 313). 6 inn is someone
who, like the skalds he inspired in pagan times, can inform the king
about himself. Here Snorris message to Norways king seems to have
been: its all very well to adopt the true faith once it comes along, so
long as you remember where you came from and, more importantly,
those who can remind you.
Bibliography
Andersson, Theodore M., trans., 2003. Oddr Snorrason, The Saga of Olaf
Tryggvason. Translated from the Icelandic with introduction and notes.
Bagge, Sverre 1991. Society and Politics in Snorri Sturlusons Heimskringla.
Bagge, Sverre 1996. From Gang Leaders to the Lords Anointed: Kingship in
Sverris saga and Hkonar saga Hkonarsonar.
Bjarni Aalbjarnarson, ed., 194151. Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, 3 vols.
Bjarni Einarsson, ed., 1984. grip af Nregskonunga sgum. Fagrskinna Nregs
konunga tal.
Ciklamini, Marlene 1981. A Portrait of a Politician: Erlingr skakki in Heimskringla
and in Fagrskinna. Euphorion: Zeitschrift fr Literaturgeschichte 75, 27587.
Clunies Ross, Margaret, ed., 2000. Old Icelandic Literature and Society.
Faulkes, Anthony, ed., 1982. Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Prologue and Gylfaginning.
Faulkes, Anthony, trans., 1987. Snorri Sturluson, Edda.
Faulkes, Anthony 1993. The Sources of Skldskaparml: Snorris Intellectual
Background. In Alois Wolf, ed., Snorri Sturluson: Kolloquium anllich der
750. Wiederkehr seines Todestages, 5976.
Faulkes, Anthony, ed., 1998. Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Skldskaparml, 2 vols.
Fidjestl, Bjarne 1997. Have you heard of a poem worth more? A note on the
economic background of early skaldic praise-poetry. In Bjarne Fidjestl,
Selected Papers, ed. Odd Einar Haugen and Else Mundal, trans. Peter
Foote, 11732.
Finlay, Alison, trans., 2004. Fagrskinna: A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway.
Finnur Jnsson, ed., 192832. Morkinskinna.
Finnur Jnsson, ed., 1932. Saga lfs Tryggvasonar af Oddr Snorrason munk.
6
The reading fra forn konungum oc orrustum eira appears in the A manuscript
of Oddrs saga (Finnur Jnsson 1932, 132), and so Snorris text here combines
elements that eventually appear in A and S.
34
Saga-Book
Frank, Roberta 1978. Old Norse Court Poetry: The Drttkvtt Stanza.
Gjerset, Knut 1932. History of the Norwegian People, 2 vols.
Gubrandur Vigfsson, ed., 1887. Sturla rarson, Hkonar saga Hkonarsonar.
Gurevich, Aron Ya. 1971. Saga and History: The Historical Conception of
Snorri Sturluson. Mediaeval Scandinavia 4, 4253.
Helle, Knut 1974. Norge blir en stat 11301319.
Hertzberg, Ebbe 1905. Den frste norske kongekroning, dens aarstal og ledsagende
omstndigheder. Historisk tidsskrift 4, 29171.
Holder, Alfred 1886. Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum.
Hollander, Lee M., trans., 1964. Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla: History of the
Kings of Norway.
Holtsmark, Anne, ed. 1964. En tale mot biskopene: En sproglig-historisk underskelse.
Indreb, Gustav 1917. Fagrskinna.
Indreb, Gustav, ed., 1920. Karl Jnsson, Sverris saga etter Cod. AM 327 4to.
Jakobsen, Alfred 1970. Om Fagrskinna-forfatteren. Arkiv fr nordisk filologi
85, 88124.
Johnsen, Arne Odd 1967. On the background for the establishment of the Norwegian church province: Some new viewpoints. Avhandlinger utgitt av det Norske
videnskaps-akademi i Oslo. II. Hist.-filos. Klasse. Ny serie, no. 11, 319.
Jn Jhannesson 1974. A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth: slendinga
saga, trans. Haraldur Bessason.
Jn Jhannesson, Magns Finnbogason and Kristjn Eldjrn, eds, 1946. Sturlunga saga, 2 vols.
Jn Sigursson, ed., 1857. Diplomatarium Islandicum: slenzk Fornbrfasafn I,
8341264.
Jnas Kristjnsson 1988. Eddas and Sagas: Icelands Medieval Literature, trans.
Peter Foote.
Keyser, Rudolf, and Peter Andreas Munch, eds, 184695. Norges gamle love
indtil 1387, 5 vols.
Klingenberg, Heinz 1986. Gylfaginning. Tres vidit unum adoravit. In Bela Brogyanyi and Thomas Krmmelbein, eds, Germanic Dialects: Linguistic and
Philological Investigations, 62789.
Klingenberg, Heinz 1998. Hommage fr Skli Brarson. In Hans Fix, ed.,
Snorri Sturluson: Beitrge zu Werk und Rezeption, 5796.
Koht, Halvdan 1924. Skule Jarl. Historisk tidsskrift 5, 42852.
Koht, Halvdan 193436. Noreg eit len av St. Olav. Historisk tidsskrift 30, 81109.
Kolsrud, Oluf 193740. Kong Magnus Erlingssons kronings-eid 1163. Historisk
tidsskrift 31, 45388.
Kreutzer, Gert 1974. Die Dichtungslehre der Skalden: Poetologische Terminologie
und Autokommentare als Grundlagen einer Gattungspoetik.
Kuhn, Hans 1983. Das Drttkvtt.
Lindow, John 1975. Riddles, Kennings, and the Complexity of Skaldic Poetry.
Scandinavian Studies 47, 31127.
Lindow, John 2000. Skald Sagas in their Literary Context 1: Related Icelandic
Genres. In Russell Poole, ed., Skaldsagas: Text, Vocation, and Desire in the
Icelandic Sagas of Poets, 21831.
35
Meissner, Rudolf 1921. Die Kenningar der Skalden: Ein Beitrag zur skaldischen
Poetik.
Munch, Peter Andreas, ed., 1853. Oddr Snorrason, Saga lafs Konungs Tryggvasunar: Kong Olaf Tryggvesns Saga.
Neckel, Gustav 1983. Edda. Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten
Denkmlern I: Text, rev. Hans Kuhn, 5th ed.
Nordal, Gurn 1992. Skldi Snorri Sturluson. In lfar Bragason, ed., Snorrastefna 25.27. jl 1990, 5269.
Nordal, Gurn 2001. Tools of Literacy: The Role of Skaldic Verse in Icelandic
Textual Culture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries.
Nordal, Sigurur 1953. Sagalitteraturen. In Sigurur Nordal, ed., Litteraturhistorie B: Norge og Island, 180288.
Nordal, Sigurur 1990. Icelandic Culture, trans. Vilhjlmur T. Bjarnar.
Nygaard Brekke, Egil 196061. Magnus Erlingssons kroningsr. Historisk
tidsskrift 40, 124.
lafa Einarsdttir 1982. ret 1164 for Magnus Erlingssons kroning. Gripla 5,
12747.
lafur Halldrsson 1979. Sagnaritun Snorra Sturlusonar. In Gunnar Karlsson
and Helgi orlksson, eds, Snorri: tta alda minning, 11338.
skar Halldrsson 1979. Snorri og Edda. In Gunnar Karlsson and Helgi
orlksson, eds, Snorri: tta alda minning, 89112.
Sandaaker, Odd 1998. Magnus Erlingssons kroning: ein politiserande sagatradisjon? Historisk tidsskrift 77, 18196.
Schier, Kurt 1975. Iceland and the Rise of Literature in terra nova: Some
Comparative Reflections. Gripla 1, 16881.
See, Klaus von 1991. Europa und der Norden im Mittelalter.
Steen, Sverre 194951. Tronflgeloven av 1163 og konungstekja i hundreret
etter. Historisk tidsskrift 35, 148.
Storm, Gustav 1873. Snorre Sturlassns historieskrivning, en kritiske undersgelse.
Storm, Gustav, ed. 1880. Monumenta historica Norvegie: Latinske kildeskrifter
til Norges historie i middelalderen.
Strm, Folke 1981. Poetry as an Instrument of Propaganda: Jarl Hkon and his
Poets. In Ursula Dronke, Gurn P. Helgadttir, Gerd Wolfgang Weber and
Hans Bekker-Nielsen, eds, Speculum Norroenum: Norse Studies in Memory of
Gabriel Turville-Petre, 44058.
Taranger, Absalon 1922. Kong Magnus Erlingssons privilegium for den norske
kirke. Norvegia sacra 2, 1655.
Taranger, Absalon 1928. Magnus Erlingssons kroningsr. In Festskrift til Finnur
Jnsson 29. Mai 1928, 18398.
Taranger, Absalon 193436. Om kongevalg i Norge i sagatiden. Historisk
tidsskrift 30, 273311.
Turville-Petre, Edward Oswald Gabriel 1953. Origins of Icelandic Literature.
Vandvik, Erik 1962. Magnus Erlingssons privilegiebrev og kongevigsle.
Vries, Jan de 1967. Altnordische Literaturgeschichte II: Die Sptzeit nach 1300.
2nd ed.
36
Saga-Book
Wanner, Kevin J. 2003. The Distinguished Norseman: Snorri Sturluson, The

Edda, and the Conversion of Capital in Medieval Scandinavia. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago.
Wessn, Elias 1940. Introduction to Codex Regius of the Younger Edda: MS No.
2367 4to in the Old Royal Collection in the Royal Library of Copenhagen, 532.
Whaley, Diana 1991. Heimskringla: An Introduction.
37
APPENDIX
Cited below are the full texts of the dialogues, including the text
between the passages of direct speech.
Fagrskinna ch.108 (Bjarni Einarsson 1984, 350):
mlti Erlingr skakki: Herra, sagi hann, kunnigt mun yr vera um
lgskr rnda. N at allt, er ar er lagt, munu r vilja brjta lg ens
helga lfs konungs. Erkibyskup svarar: Eigi eru brotin lg hans v,
at aukinn er rttr hans. Hitt er lagabrot, at eigi er s konungr yfir Nregi,
sem lgum stendr. Erlingr svarar: Eigi var at grt mjk mti yru
ri, er Magns var tekinn til konungs, ok jttuu v allir, sv byskupar
sem annat landsflk. Erkibyskup svarar: Eigi vil ek v mti mla, at
Magns megi konungr vera, ef veizt, at eigi ykkir rndum vera
raskat v snum lgum, at s s konungr, er eigi er konungs sonr. En v
vttir mik, at eigi veri allir eitt sttir, ef nkkurir koma, eir er sannir
eru, ok beiask lands ok rkis. Erlingr segir: Me v, herra, at eigi er
ritat llum lgbkum, at s skuli <eigi> konungr vera, er eigi er konungs
sonr, ok vri at at yru ri ok annarra byskupa, at Magns vri til
konungs tekinn yfir allt landit, megu r sv styrkja hann ok hans rki,
at at s gus lg, at hann s konungr. Vildi r smyrja hann ok krna
ok gefa hnum konungs vgslu, m eigi v neita, v at eru bi gus
lg ok manna, en hann ok ek skal veita yr fullan styrk til allrar framkvmar,
er r vili kraft hafa. Erkibyskup hugsai etta ml ok talai vi Erling,
ar til er at var allt rit ok var s fundr lagr um sumarit Bjrgvin.
Heimskringla (Magnss saga Erlingssonar, ch. 21; Bjarni Aalbjarnarson 194151, III 39597):
Ok eitt sinn var at rum eira, at Erlingr spuri: Er at me sannendum,
herra, er menn segja, at r hafi aukit auralag um sakeyri yarn vi
bndr norr landit? Erkibyskup svarar: at er vst satt, at bndr hafa
mr at veitt at auka auralag um sakeyri minn. Hafa eir at grt at sjlfri
snu, en me engum pyndingum, aukit v gus dr ok aufi staar
vrs. Erlingr segir: Hvrt eru at lg, herra, ins helga lfs konungs ea
hafi r tekit nkkuru frekara etta ml en sv sem ritit er lgbkinni?
Erkibyskup segir: Sv mun inn heilagi lfr konungr lgin hafa sett sem
hann fekk jor ok samykki alu til, en ekki finnsk at hans
lgum, at bannat s at auka gus rtt. Erlingr svarar: Vili r auka yarn
rtt, manu r styrkja vilja oss til ess, at vr aukim jafnmiklu konungs
rttinn. Erkibyskup segir: Aukit hefir n r me gngu nafn ok rki
sonar ns. En ef ek hefi aflaga tekit auralgin af eim rndum, tla
ek strra bera hin lagabrotin, er s er konungr yfir landi, er eigi er konungs
sonr. Eru ar hvrtki til ess lg n dmi hr landi. Erlingr segir: er
Magns var til konungs tekinn yfir Nregsrki, var at grt me yarri
vitand ok ri ok sv annarra byskupa hr landi. Erkibyskup segir: v
38
Saga-Book
hztu , Erlingr, ef vr samykkim me r, at Magns vri til konungs
tekinn, at skyldir styrkja gus rtt llum stum me llum krapti
num. Jti ek v, segir Erlingr, at ek hefi heitit at halda gus lg ok
landsrtt me llum mnum styrk ok konungs. N s ek hr betra r til en
hvrr okkarr kenni rum brigmli: Hldum heldr ll einkaml vr. Styrki
r Magns konung til rkis, sv sem r hafi heitit, en ek skal styrkja
yart rki til allra farslligra hluta. Fr ll ran mjkliga me eim.
mlti Erlingr: Ef Magns er eigi sv til konungs tekinn sem forn sir
er til hr landi, megu r af yru valdi gefa honum krnu, sem gus
lg eru til at smyrja konung til veldis. En tt ek sj eigi konungr ea af
konungatt kominn, hafa eir konungar n verit flestir vru minni, er
eigi vissu jafnvel sem ek til laga ea landsrttar. En mir Magnss konungs
er konungs dttir ok drttningar skilfengin. Magns er ok drttningar sonr
ok eiginkonu sonr. En ef r vili gefa honum konungsvgslu, m engi
hann taka san af konungdminum at rttu. Eigi var Viljlmr bastarr
konungs sonr, ok var hann vgr ok krnar til konungs yfir Englandi, ok
hefir san haldizk konungdmr hans tt Englandi ok allir verit krnair.
Eigi var Sveinn lfsson Danmrk konungs sonr, ok var hann ar
krnar konungr ok san synir hans ok hverr eptir annan eira frnda
krnar konungr. N er hr landi erkistll. Er at mikill vegr ok tgn
lands vrs. Aukum vr n enn me gum hlutum, hfum konung krnaan
eigi sr en enskir menn ea Danir. San tluu eir erkibyskup ok
Erlingr um etta ml optliga, ok fr allt sttgjarnliga.
Golden Ages and Fishing Grounds
39
GOLDEN AGES AND FISHING GROUNDS:

THE EMERGENT PAST IN THE SLENDINGASGUR
BY SLAVICA RANKOVIC
How golden is the golden age of the sagas?
ONSIDERING THE IMPORTANCE of the Settlement period to the

slendingasgur, Gunnar Karlsson (2000, 50) remarks that it has
been argued convincingly that all ethnic groups find a golden
age in their past if they need it in the present. The ambience of the
slendingasgur, like that of other stories about community origins, is
per meated by nostalgia, yet their representation of the past escapes the
determinism of the golden-age narrative framework. They lack the clear
linear progression from initial bliss and innocence, followed by fatal
hubris and descent into a dark age with the promise of a possible rebirth,
that Anthony Smith (1986, 192) suggests is played out in all myths of
ethnic origins. Taking his cue from Kenneth Minogue, Smith argues
(191) that
these myths resemble the motif of the Sleeping Beauty, pricked by the external
forces of evil and put to sleep until the nationalist dawn arrives to restore the
community to its true self in a new golden age.
In the slendingasgur it is precisely the beauty of the Beauty that

comes under scrutiny; rather than dwelling too much on external evil
(designing kings of Norway and their henchmen), the sagas are instead
focused on the handsome but already corrupted and inwardly scarred
body of the Icelandic Commonwealth. Indeed, most of the
slendingasgur cast a long yearning gaze at Icelands beginnings, the
time when noble pioneers, unwilling to sacrifice their freedom to a tyrant,
came to claim an uninhabited land, a little piece of paradise. On closer
inspection, however, tyrants in the sagas are never simply tyrants, their
victims are equally victims of their own characters, and even the
promised land is sometimes seen as a poor exchange for the old country,
as a Kaldbakr cold-backed mountain (Grettis saga smundarsonar
1936, 22; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, II 15) or a fishing ground:
veiist kem ek aldregi gamals aldri I do not intend to spend my
old age in that fishing camp (Laxdla saga 1934, 5; The Complete
Sagas of Icelanders, V 2).
40
Saga-Book
The slendingasgur, then, would qualify as a very strange kind of

golden-age story, only in so far as they are, like any inquiry into the past,
subject to the utopian desires of their authors and their audiences. As
Smith explains (1986, 177):
Nostalgia is so often linked with utopia; our blueprints for the future are
inevitably derived from our experiences of our pasts, and as we travel forward,
we do so looking backwards to a past that seems knowable and intelligible and
which alone can make sense of a future that is forever neither.
The utopia, the comfort of a dream and wish-fulfilment, however, is not

all the sagas offer. The past we encounter in them is an intricate blend of
glory and misery, a fusion of the seeds of prosperity and destruction. If
this suggests anything about the desires of the saga writers, it is their
need not to escape the present (by either invoking the former vigour and
unsullied magnificence of the Sleeping Beauty, or joining her in her
slumber and dreaming of a new dawn), but rather to understand it and
derive hope from it. At the same time, these lively contradictions, the
variety of perspectives on the past which compete against, or modulate
one another in the sagas, have a profound aesthetic effect on the reader.
It is the complex construction of the past in the sagas that the present
study sets out to explore.
Pathways to the past in the slendingasgur
It was Einar l. Sveinsson (1953) who suggested that the Age of Settlement, as it appears in the sagas, is a construct of the Sturlung Age, or that
perhaps there was dialogue between the two. This idea has since had a
great impact on saga scholarship, shifting the emphasis from the sagas as
more or less direct reflections of socio-historical conditions. Einar l.
Sveinssons recognition that the sagas reveal most about the time of
their composition, and a relatively recent shift of interest from political
to social history, have, as Bjarne Fidjestl (1997, 250) notes, again given
the sagas a chance to be counted sources of history, since they are a
study of how a society operates without central power. Thus the sagas
have come to be considered as ethnographic documents (Whaley 2000,
166; see also Byock 2001, 21), a medium of cultural memory (Glauser
2000, 211), or as what the French Annales School identified as longue
dure histories. As such, the sagas do not necessarily commit themselves
to facts about past events; rather, they are faithful to the impact that
these events made on a community. They document coming to terms
with the past (Glauser 2000, 204), which is also coming to terms with
the present.
41
This, of course, is only one way of approaching the past in the sagas. An
alternative way, intimately related to it, stems from another idea of Einar
l. Sveinssons that is of much interest here, as it concerns the way the past
is represented in the sagas. Einar (1953, 75) links the turbulent times, the
shifting winds of the Sturlung Age, with a kind of cold and sceptical
power of observation and a curious sobriety and realism in the sagas.
He says:
[The] Sturlung Age was anything but of a piece. Lies and virtues existed side
by side, and wherever the vices seemed about to prevail absolutely, words or
incidents could crop up to show the opposite. And in this changeable
atmosphere grew the masterpieces of the age, the Sagas of Icelanders.
More recently, Torfi Tulinius (2000, 242, 261, 260) points to uncertain
identities and questioning of the ideological foundations of the social
system in thirteenth-century Iceland as factors contributing to the
appeal of saga literature. Furthermore, Tulinius perceives these in more
general termsas traits both of a society in crisis (or transition) and of
sophisticated fiction in the Western tradition.
When the focus is thus seen to be on the historical and social circumstances of thirteenth-century Iceland, the picture that emerges is that of
a society in turmoil generating a medium (slendingasgur) in which it
tries to work itself out, exploring different pathways and leaving them
visible. This, in turn, has an aesthetic effect. Torfi Tulinius argues this
position very persuasively. The present paper will approach the issue
from the other end; instead of asking what it is in the socio-historical
circumstances that supports the representational complexity of the sagas,
I seek to explore what it is in the literary texture of the sagas that brings
the past forth so vividly.
I shall approach the question on two levels and, therefore, in two
sections. The first deals with the explicit concern of saga authors with the
veracity of the material related, as well as their engagement with a variety
of authenticating devices which we tend to associate with historiography.
By questioning and authenticating the material, the saga authors counter
some of the readers doubts even before they arise, or at least channel
them away. Voicing concerns about veracity and authentication requires
the saga authors to take a step back from the diegetic level of the narrative,
and while my first section considers these instances, the second explores
the ways the sagas achieve credibility on the diegetic plane itself. Thus
the second section is concerned with the presentation of events, their
complexity and ambiguity, the way that various perspectives, each valid
in its own right, meet, compete, negotiate. The interplay of these
42
Saga-Book
perspectives, the refusal to settle for definitive explanations, gives past

events in the sagas the appearance of processes; they come across as
animated and real. It is through this richness of both texture and framing,
I shall argue, that a compelling past emerges from the sagas.
It is important to note at this point that the remarkable representational
complexity and realism of the sagas is already to a certain extent facilitated by the very nature of their traditional medium and their distributed
authorship.1 As products of a network of authors (oral story-tellers, writers,
scribes) and evolving through time, the slendingasgur escape the
relative determinism characteristic of the agency of an individual author.
This determinism is further diffused by their traditional referentiality
(Foley 1991,7), that is, the expansion of the immediate borders of the text
at hand by the readers/listeners knowledge of tradition. Furthermore, the
general weakness in thirteenth-century Iceland of the social forces that
control and channel art production (centralised state, Church), makes the
sagas come across as little other than indexes of their own coming into
being, preserving, meshing and contrasting the old and the new, the
general and the more idiosyncratic perspectives on past events and characters. In so doing they fail to arouse in the recipient the feeling of being
addressed and possibly manipulated by an all-encompassing organising
authority. The non-linear dynamics of saga production are beyond the
scope of the present study, however, and warrant separate discussion.
1. Realism of Authentication and Questioning
One important feature of epic, whether in verse, like The Song of Roland,
Beowulf, The Nibelungenlied, or in prose, like the slendingasgur, is
the prominence of narrative. As opposed to the lyric in which the speaking
subject tends to loom large, the narrator of an epic is usually withdrawn,
shrouded in the omniscience of third-person narration. It is only rarely
that he emerges from under this shroud, and most commonly he does this
in order to evade direct responsibility for the account and invoke the
authority of the collective. This has profound consequences for the
credibility of the account. Before considering this, however, let me briefly
address the generic compatibility of the admittedly very diverse texts
classed together here as epic.
1
The distributed author as the vital facet of the emergent realism of the sagas
is further discussed in Rankovic 2005. The relation of these terms to the concepts of
emergence and distributed representation as studied in the sciences of complexity (e.g. studies of neural networks, artificial intelligence, evolutionary computation)
is also discussed there.
43
It is important to note that the verse/prose distinction is in itself a very

dubious generic marker. As Aristotle (1996, 4) famously pointed out,
Homer and Empedocles have nothing in common except the form of
verse they use. (The verse of the former was epic poetry, and that of the
latter was scientific tracts.) What J. B. Hainsworth (1991, 4) notes for the
Iliad, the Odyssey and the Aeneid, also applies here: these texts are not
attempts with varying success at the same form, but different forms of
epic. While The Song of Roland, Beowulf, The Nibelungenlied and the
slendingasgur are each undoubtedly sui generis (the long history of
epic inevitably results in a break up of the form into subgenres (Hainsworth 1991, 5)), at the same time they share much more with each other
than they do with Shakespeares sonnets or Sophocless Oedipus Rex. In
broader generic terms, being concerned with narration, they all belong
to the same group: epic. Moreover, they all exhibit a certain idea of
heroic action and are artistic expressions of the survival myth of the
nation, which Hainsworth (1991, 10, 150) deems the most important
qualities of epic. On the other hand, Carol Clover rightly points out that
although the sagas deal with generally epic subjects, they still lack
and sometimes ironise a kind of heroic grandeur implied by epic
(1986, 10). It is questionable, however, whether this attitude warrants a
separate generic label, and the alternative that Clover suggests (the
long prose form) is somewhat too general. Self-irony is not foreign to
epic and could equally be perceived as an evolutionary development
within the genre. As Jeremy Downes (1997, 17) notes: the repudiation
of past epics is in itself a traditional move, a recursion to those very
epics. Downess extensive study of the epicfrom classical to modern
and postcolonialdemonstrates a gradual inclusion of different voices,
and different forms of tradition (1997, 248) within this genre, thus
revealing its remarkable robustness and vitality.
To return to our main argument, the evasion of responsibility for an
account is a trait of oral epic, but it can also be detected in the literary
ones mentioned. The Song of Roland, Beowulf, The Nibelungenlied and
the slendingasgur are all traditional narratives produced at the interface
of orality and literacy. It is perhaps not surprising, then, that some oral
creative principles and traits should still be at play in these texts.2 And,
2 For a more thorough discussion of such features as collective production
(copying as more than a mechanical affair; dictation to secretarial scribes), oral
transmission of written texts (most of the audience is illiterate and is read to),
and written texts being absorbed back into oral tradition and recycled, see, for
example Ong 1982; Kellogg 1979; Doane 1991.
44
Saga-Book
as we shall see, the evasion of responsibility is too useful a part of that

inheritance to be dispensed with lightly.
Epic poets in oral societies do not consider themselves the authors of
epic poems but rather stewards of tradition (Meulengracht Srensen
1993, 76) and even when they produce a new poem, they would sooner
say they heard it from others than lay a claim to the authorship themselves.
Vuk Stefanovic Karadic (1976, I 536), the nineteenth-century reformer
of Serbian language, a famous collector of folk literature and a protg
of Jakob Grimm and J. W. Goethe, testifies to this:
Among the common folk no one thinks it any kind of mastery or glory to
compose a new poem; and not only do they not seek the credit for it, but each
(precisely the one who did compose it) denies this and says that he heard it
from another (my translation).
This is not done out of some misguided sense of modesty, but because it
is a powerful authenticating device on the one hand, while on the other
it suggests the poems aesthetic merit. Since, generally, epic poets want
to be taken seriously (after all, they are relating a tale of the tribe), they
call upon the authority of the collective to assert the veracity of their
account. In addition, as Radmila Peic (1990, 13) points out, drawing on
Bogatirev and Jakobson, a statement that the song has been heard from
another affirms its value (my translation). Only a worthwhile song
survives the censure of the collective, so the statement that it has been
passed on to the singer also acts as a kind of advertisement; the audience
is led to anticipate some good entertainment.
The writers of literary epics adopt and employ the evasion of responsibility in much the same fashion as their oral counterparts. The creator of
Beowulf, for example, begins by announcing that the story is going to be
about Gar-Dena the Spear-Danes and their princes whose heroic campaigns we . . . gefrunon we have heard of (Beowulf 1950, 1; Beowulf
2002, 3). Similarly, describing the journey of Siegfried and his companions to Iceland, the narrator of Das Nibelungenlied informs us: An dem
zwelften morgen, so^ wir hren sagen, / heten si die winde verre dan
^
getragen/ gegen Isensteine in Prnhilde lant By the twelfth morning,
so we are told, the winds have carried them far away to Isenstein in
Brunhilds land (Das Nibelungenlied 1948, 49; The Nibelungenlied
1969, 58). As the authenticating power of written sources grows stronger
compared to oral tradition, the author (or scribe) of the Oxford manuscript of La Chanson de Roland, Turoldus, verifies his account by also
referring to written records, charters and letters: Il est escrit es carters e
es brefs (La Chanson de Roland 1942, 49).
45
While in the examples cited above the emphasis is simply either on the
narrators being told or hearing a story, or having read about the events
they recount in certain unidentified historical records, the slendingasgur go a step further. There, instances in which the presence of the
narrator is made known in order to affirm the veracity of an account are,
though by no means common, far more frequent, elaborate and varied.
More surprisingly, narrators do not always come across as unquestioning
transmitters of ancient knowledge, but occasionally reflect on their
material; a rudimentary critical consideration or even outright concern
about the veracity of the story related is put forward. Occasionally they
also supplement their material with contemporary knowledge or a later
state of affairs in order to verify a past event. This greater variety of
authenticating devices in the sagas is to an extent facilitated by their
prose medium: the pressure for economy of expression that leads to
stylisation is certainly stronger in poetry than in prose. At the same time,
their use of prose cannot be the only explanation, since a comparable
range of authenticating devices is also found in Serbian epic poetry. To
my mind this points to an evolutionary trend within epic, but the question
needs further elaboration and falls outside the scope of the present argument (see Rankovic 2005). Here the interest primarily rests with the ways
the sagas create a strong impression of objectivity, or as J. B. Hainsworth
(1991, 143) calls it, that verisimilitude that in poetry passes for truth.
1.1 Affinities with Historiography
The twelfth century marked the beginning, and the thirteenth witnessed
a flowering, of historiographical writing in Iceland, and according to
Vsteinn lason (1998, 49), this development is now widely regarded
as representing the beginnings of saga-writing. As noted earlier, the
medium of the slendingasgur, like that of historiography, is prose,
and objectivity becomes a poetic principle, a feature of style. The selfconscious concern of the sagas with history is, Vsteinn lason continues,
detectable in their secular perspective, . . . inclusion of skaldic stanzas,
and a narrative style easily distinguishable from clerical prose. But the
reverse is also true, and Sturla rarsons version of Landnmabk
bears witness to the influence the sagas exerted on this historical work.
As Judith Jesch (1984, 296) notes:
It is likely that the origins (written as well as traditional) of Ldn go back to
before the first slendingasgur were written. But as the Sagas of Icelanders
became an important aspect of literary activity, the overlap in subject matter
between them and Ldn led to rapprochement between the two genres.
46
Saga-Book
Just how close together sagas and historiographical pieces come in representing past events can be glimpsed from the following excerpts from
Sturlubk and Laxdla saga respectively:
Aur var Katanesi, er hon spuri fall orsteins. Hon lt gera knrr
skgi laun, en er hann var binn, helt hon t Orkneyjar; ar gipti hon Gr,
dttur orsteins raus; hon var mir Grlaar, er orfinnr hausakljfr tti.
(slendingabk. Landnmabk 1986, 13638)
Aud was in Caithness when she learned of Thorsteins death; she had a ship
built secretly in a forest, and when it was ready she sailed away to Orkney.
There she married off Groa, daughter of Thorstein the Red. Groa was
mother of Grelod who married Thorfinn the Skull-Splitter. (The Book of
Settlements 1972, 51)
Unnr djpga var Katanesi, er orsteinn fell, sonr hennar; ok er hon fr
at, at orsteinn var ltinn, en fair hennar andar, ttisk hon ar enga
uppreist f mundu. Eptir at ltr hon gera knrr skgi laun; ok er skipit var
algrt, bj hon skipit ok hafi au fjr. Hon hafi brott me sr allt
frndli sitt, at er lfi var, ok ykkjask menn varla dmi til finna, at einn
kvenmar hafi komizk brott r vlkum frii me jafnmiklu f ok fruneyti;
m af v marka, at hon var mikit afbrag annarra kvenna. Unnr hafi ok
me sr marga menn, er mikils vru verir ok strttair. Mar er nefndr
Kollr, er einna var mest verr af fruneyti Unnar; kom mest til ess tt hans;
hann var hersir at nafni. S mar var ok fer me Unni, er Hrr ht; hann
var enn strttar mar ok mikils verr. Unnr heldr skipinu Orkneyjar,
egar er hon var bin; ar dvalisk hon litla hr. ar gipti hon Gr, dttur
orsteins raus; hon var mir Greilaar, er orfinnr jarl tti, sonr TorfEinars jarls, sonar Rgnvalds Mrajarls. (Laxdla saga 1934, 78)
Unn was at Caithness when her son Thorstein was killed. Upon learning that
her son had been killed, and as her father had died as well, she felt her future
prospects there were rather dim. She had a knorr built secretly in the forest.
When it was finished, she made the ship ready and set out with substantial
wealth. She took along all her kinsmen who were still alive, and people say it
is hard to find another example of a woman managing to escape from such a
hostile situation with as much wealth and as many followers. It shows what
an outstanding woman Unn was.
Unn also took along with her many other people of note and of prominent
families. One of the most respected of them was a man named Koll, not least
because he came from a renowned family and was himself a hersir. Another
man of both rank and distinction making the journey with Unn was named
Hord.
Her preparations complete, Unn sailed to the Orkneys, where she stayed for
a short while. There she arranged the marriage of Groa, Thorstein the Reds
daughter. Groa was the mother of Grelod, who was married to Earl Thorfinn,
the son of Earl Turf-Einar and grandson of Rognvald, Earl of More. (The
Complete Sagas of Icelanders, V 34)
47
The italicised passages are those where the saga is more elaborate than
Sturlubk. The saga includes Aur/Unnrs motivation for leaving Caithness and the people she took along. In terms of the journey and the
chronology of the events that took place as well as in phrasing, however,
the two accounts overlap nearly completely. The question of which sagas
or parts of sagas (oral or written) inspired the sketches we find in Landnmabk, and which developed as literary elaborations of these sketches,
may well amount to the chicken and egg quandary,3 and is not the object
of this inquiry. What is of interest, however, is the ease with which the
two genres seem to be able to flow into one another. Also telling is the
fact that saga authors and historiographers, although hardly unaware of
the formal differences between the two genres (Jesch 1984, 283), still
do not perceive these as being so vast as to prevent them from relying on
each others accounts. Some authors, of course, wrote texts of both kinds.
Indeed, as I shall later argue, saga authors (or perhaps scribes who
noticed the similarities between the accounts) call upon famous historiographers such as Ari orgilsson and Sturla rarson to verify their
claims. And, conversely, historiographers also call upon the authority of
sagas. So, in his version of Landnmabk, Sturla notes: ar var rr
gellir leiddr , r hann tk mannviring, sem segir sgu hans Thord
Gellir was led to the hills before he took over the chieftaincy, as is told
in his saga (slendingabk. Landnmabk 1986, 140; The Book of
Settlements 1972, 52).
It is this close contact with the works which we today perceive as
historiography that gives saga literature its distinct and peculiar documentary quality.
1.2 Genealogies and Ultimate Truths
Unlike most of the epics which tend to concentrate on one or a few
particular events (the battle of Roncevaux in The Song of Roland, or the
clash of Huns and Burgundians in The Nibelungenlied), the slendingasgur are, rather like medieval chronicles, concerned with the larger
picture, with causes, effects and contexts. One of the defining features
of the sagas is the extensive genealogies in the opening chapters, or
chapters which introduce new characters. They trace the descent of heroes
3
Discussing Sturlas version of Landnmabk, Judith Jesch (198285, 8)

notes: Which sagas were used by Sturla is to some extent uncertain, since it is
not always possible to distinguish between a saga which was a source for Ldn,
and one for which Ldn was a source.
48
Saga-Book
and heroines through one or more ancestorskings or nobles in Norway, or prominent Icelandic settlers. Just how elaborate these genealogies
can be, and how far into the past they can reach, becomes apparent in the
following example, taken from the opening of Eirks saga raua:
lfr ht herkonungr, er kallar var lfr hvti. Hann var sonr Ingjalds
konungs Helgasonar, lfssonar, Gurarsonar, Hlfdanarsonar hvtbeins
Upplendinga-konungs. (Eirks saga raua 1935, 195)
There was a warrior king named Oleif who was called Oleif the White. He was
the son of King Ingjald, the son of Helgi, son of Olaf, son of Gudrod, son of
Halfdan White-leg, king of the people of Oppland. (The Complete Sagas of
Icelanders, I 1)
But any reader who thinks the story will be about lfr hvti is greatly
mistaken, for he is killed within the next few sentences. Instead the
journey to Iceland of his widow Aur/Unnr in djpga, who was dttir
Ketils flatnefs, Bjarnarsonar bunu, gts manns r Nregi daughter of
Ketil Flat-nose, son of Bjorn Buna, an excellent man from Norway (Eirks
saga raua 1935, 195; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, I 1), is briefly
recounted. Yet if one thinks the story will dwell on Aurs settlement
one is mistaken once again, since it turns to Aurs bondsman Vfill,
whom she freed upon her arrival in Iceland. Vfill is not the focus of the
saga either; rather, the story settles around the fortunes and adventures
(not least her voyage to America) of his granddaughter, Gurr. What
today to an untrained eye may seem a long and somewhat arbitrary list
of names must once have been full of meaningful references, each
invoking its own exciting stories and thus providing a contextual anchor
for the saga at hand. On the plane of the narrative itself, the genealogy
also provides an important insight into character. If Gurr becomes a
brave pioneer, a woman of faith and a grandmother to a bishop by the end
of the saga, then there needs to be something in her roots to recommend
her and to tie everything together. The saga author finds only an ancestral
slave-grandfather, albeit an exceptional one who comes highly commended by no less a figure than the renowned matriarch, one of the first
Icelandic settlers, Aur in djpga. Celebrated as this woman is, the
saga author may perhaps have thought it appropriate to add a touch of
glamour to this Icelandic connection by reminding the readers of her
noble Norwegian father and her Viking-king husband. Genealogy thus
becomes a powerful authenticating device, both in terms of content and
form: on the one hand, it has its roots firmly set in ancient Scandinavian
tradition, on the other, it is unmistakably evocative of biblical genealogies
and, through both of these connections, of ultimate truths.
49
1.3 at mltu sumir . . . Sv segir Ari/Sturla

After the demise of her husband, the hero Gunnarr, in whose downfall
she has played a part, the hated Hallgerr is mentioned on another
occasion in Njls saga. This time it is in connection with rumours about
her relationship with the Norwegian scoundrel Hrappr. Though the
authors opinion might perhaps be inferred later on, when one of the
characters calls Hallgerr hornkerling ea pta either a cast-off hag or
a whore (Brennu-Njls saga 1954, 228; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, III 109), the author is careful with his direct judgment of the affair.
He leaves the truth as an open question: at mltu sumir, at vingott vri
me eim Hallgeri ok hann [Hrappr] ffldi hana, en sumir mltu v
mti Some say that he [Hrappr] and Hallgerr were friendly and that he
had seduced her, but others denied this (Brennu-Njls saga 1954, 220;
The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, III 105). The affirmation and denial
are left poised in the balance. The syntactic construction some people
say this, while others say that functions, Robert Kellogg notes (1991,
9394), as a stylistic device designed to enhance the impression of a
storys substance, and is a formulaic feature of the sagas.4 An expression,
of course, becomes a formula only if it serves its purpose successfully, and
the fact that this expression is so common in the slendingasgur must
signal a genuine concern. Theodore M. Andersson notes (1966, 14):
It would . . . seem that the saga authors were accustomed to having conflicting
traditions at hand and when they profess a lack of them, they are serious. They
are informing the reader that the tradition goes no further, though it might
reasonably have done so.
Whether or not the author of Njls saga genuinely weighed the truth of
this particular instance (the likelihood of Hallgerrs alleged involvement with Hrappr) is both uncertain and immaterial to this inquiry. What
is important, however, is the fact that he was trying to ensure the
impression of a storys substance, making certain that the audience will
trust him both here, and in other places too, where he might want to be
more assertive.
In the sagas of Icelanders the people whose collective authority is
invoked and relied upon so often occasionally cease to be an anonymous
4
For a comprehensive survey of the appearance of the phrase at mltu
sumir and its variations in the sagas, see Andersson 1966. See also Manhires
criticism (197477, 175) of the premise upon which Anderssons inference of
spurious and genuine usages of this phrase is based: There is no reason why
source-references should not be genuine and rhetorical at the same time.
50
Saga-Book
mass, and a concrete historical or scholarly figure emerges as an arbiter

of truth. Thus, Laxdla saga refers to Ari orgilsson: sv segir Ari orgilsson inn fri um lflt orsteins, at hann felli Katanesi Thorstein
. . . was killed at Caithness, according to Ari Thorgilson the Learned
(Laxdla saga 1934, 7; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, V 3). Or
San andaisk Snorri. Hann hafi sjau vetr ins sjaunda tigar.
at var einum vetri eptir fall lfs konungs ins helga; sv sagi Ari
prestr inn fri Snorri then died, aged three score years and seven, one
year after the fall of King Olaf the Saint, according to the priest Ari the
Learned (Laxdla saga 1934, 226; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders,
V 118). While the present tense of the verb segja in the first example
provides the reference to Ari with the sense of immediacy, the second
one achieves a similar effect by providing a specific time reference: one
year after the fall of King Olaf the Saint. In this last case, the surviving
fragment of vi Snorra goa suggests the possibility of a historiographic source behind the authors remark; as noted earlier, the two
genres of historiography and saga often encroach upon one another.
Similarly, the author of Grettis saga calls upon the authority of another
distinguished historian, Sturla rarson, in order to establish when he
settled on Drangey island, and also when giving a final assessment of
Grettir at the end of the saga (Grettis saga 1936, 226, 289; The Complete
Sagas of Icelanders, II 159, 191). Interestingly enough, the same saga
author occasionally treats his hero as one of the witnesses, reporting
his testimony, rather than offering it as a piece of dialogue, which serves
to promote the documentary effect. In addition, the authority of the saga
author is enhanced, since he places himself in a direct relationship to the
source. Thus, after Grettirs legendary encounter with the bear, we are
informed that Sv hefir Grettir sagt, at hann ttisk aflraun mesta
grt hafa, at halda drinu He [Grettir] said later that holding off that
bear was his greatest feat of strength (Grettis saga 1936, 77; The
Complete Sagas of Icelanders, II 84). After the struggle with the undead
Glmr, the heros testimony is called upon again: sv hefir Grettir
sagt sjlfr, at eina sn hafi hann st sv, at honum brygi vi
Grettir himself has said that this [Glmr glaring up at the moon] was
the only sight that ever unnerved him (Grettis saga 1936, 121; The
Complete Sagas of Icelanders, II 106). Whether or not the audience
believed in the living dead, the form itself is there to give the material a
documentary style.
Yet this does not mean that the author of Grettis saga in any way
neglects the content of the story, or that he in any way counts on the
51
blind trust of his audience. On the contrary, he counts on the shrewdness

of at least some of its members. This becomes apparent when one
considers the way in which the men gathered at the Assembly interpret
young Grettirs verses, just after everybody has learned about the death
of Skeggi, a farmhand with whom Grettir has had a dispute regarding a
missing food-bag. In Grettirs verse, the death of Skeggi is ascribed to a
hamartroll cleft-dwelling troll/ogress (Grettis saga 1936, 47; The
Complete Sagas of Icelanders, II 69). The men seriously consider the
verse but are not inclined to believe it, since they know that trolls do
not attack in daylight. Their leader, orkell, goes a step further in his
interpretation. He knows the language of poetry and he knows that the
ogress in Grettirs verse might equally well be an axe, and that the
verses are actually his declaration of the killing. So he is interested not
so much in the whodunit of the story as in how the whole thing happened.
He dismisses his mens interpretation with the following words: nnur
efni munu vera, ok mun Grettir hafa drepit hann; ea hvat bar til?
There is more to it [the verse] than that; Grettir must have killed him. So,
how did it happen? (Grettis saga 1936, 47; The Complete Sagas of
Icelanders, II 70). But perception and interpretation are not limited to
poetry and those initiated into its secret code; rather, they are exercised
(with more or less success) on any story. Thus, after the burning of some
Icelanders in Norway is ascribed to Grettir by the ill-wishers who only
have circumstantial evidence upon which to build their case, Skapti the
Lawspeaker makes the following comment:
Vst er etta illt verk, ef sv er, sem etta er sagt; en jafnan er hlfsg saga, ef
einn segir, v at fleiri eru ess fsari, at fra angat, sem eigi berr betr, ef
tvennt er til. N mun ek eigi leggja rskur , at Grettir s sekr grr um etta
at sv gru. (Grettis saga 1936, 146)
Certainly this is an evil deed, if the account is correct. But one man only tells
half a tale, and more people prefer the worse side of a story which has two
versions. I shall not declare Grettir an outlaw for this deed under the present
circumstances. (The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, II 119)
Presuming that this is Skaptis clever way of persuading the people

gathered to be more favourably inclined to Grettir (or at least keep an
open mind), one still has to acknowledge that in order for it to work, the
assumptions regarding the credibility of the stories that underlie his
argument have to be widely accepted. In as much as this passage
recommends caution to anyone faced with just a single version of an
account, and who is uneasy with their attraction to the more overt and
lurid side of a story, it reads as a saga-writing manifesto.
52
Saga-Book
Whether some of the references to Ari, Sturla and some people were
made by the original authors or were later additions by diligent scribes
is not crucial to the present study. First, none of the original manuscripts
survive, which means that every saga that we have now went through at
least one redaction (and it is the redactions we mean when we say the
sagas of Icelanders, not the lost originals whose contents forever remain
in the realm of speculation). Therefore, the scribes are not to be discounted
but rather taken to contribute to the whole notion of saga authorship.
Second, in a highly traditional idiom such as that of the sagas, it seems
unlikely that a scribe would introduce a novelty which would jar the
sensibilities of his predecessors and his audience. Rather, it seems more
plausible to imagine that he would have been in tune with established
sensibilities, and that each time he added a reference himself, he would
have striven to reinforce them.
1.4 Facts, Figures and Evidence
Another significant authentication strategy in the slendingasgur is
the authors interest in facts and figures, in places and time-frames. This
is taken even further when the narrator comments on customs, beliefs,
religious or legal practices of the past as perceived. Thus the author of
Grettis saga looks to the time of the Settlement with mild envy: um
rekann var ekki skilit, v at eir vru sv ngir , at hverr hafi at, er
vildi No agreement was reached about harvesting the beach, because so
much drifted in that everyone could take what he wanted (Grettis saga
1936, 23; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, II 58). Describing a feast
that had a soothsayer as part of the entertainment, the author of Vatnsdla
saga informs us that eir Ingjaldr efna ar sei eptir fornum si, til ess
at menn leitai eptir forlgum snum Ingjald and his men prepared a
magic rite in the old heathen fashion, so that men could examine what
the fates had in store for them (Vatnsdla saga 1939, 2829; The
Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 14). On another occasion, concerning
a lawsuit at the Assembly that required a character to crawl under three
arches of raised turf, we are told that this was done sem var sir eptir
strar afgrir as was then the custom after serious offences (Vatnsdla
saga 1939, 87; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 43). At the very
beginning of the same saga, a character lectures his son on the customs
of old chieftains so extensively that we are bound to sense the authors
own impulse to explain them to his audience who must have been (like
the modern reader) in greater need of explanation than Ketills son could
ever have been:
53
at var rkra manna sir, konunga ea jarla, vrra jafningja, at eir lgu
hernai ok fluu sr fjr ok frama, ok skyldi at f eigi til arfs telja n sonr
eptir fur taka, heldr skyldi at f haug leggja hj sjlfum hfingjum. N
tt synir eira tki jarir, mttu eir eigi haldask snum kostum, tt viring
felli til, nema eir legi sik ok sna menn httu ok herskap, aflandi [sr] sv
fjr ok frgar, hverr eptir annan, ok stga sv ftspor frndum snum.
(Vatnsdla saga 1939, 5)
It was once the custom of powerful men, kings or earlsthose who were our
peersthat they went off raiding, and won riches and renown for themselves,
and such wealth did not count as any legacy, nor did a son inherit it from his
father; rather was the money to lie in the tomb alongside the chieftain himself.
And even if the sons inherited the lands, they were unable to sustain their high
status, if honour counted for anything, unless they put themselves and their
men to risk and went into battle, thereby winning for themselves, each in his
turn, wealth and renownand so following in the footsteps of their kinsmen.
(The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 2)
This concern with authenticity achieves sustained antiquarian intensity

via the inclusion of archaeological detail. While Laxdla saga relates
certain place-names to Unnr in djpgas exploration of Iceland in a
manner typical of legends (as with the place where she loses her comb,
which comes to be named Kambsnes), the laconic remark in Grettis
saga about the fate of the spear we have just witnessed Grettir leaving
in the body of one of his enemies sounds more plausible. We are
informed that in Sturla rarsons time this spear was found in the very
field where the clash took place. Richard Perkins (1989, 243) emphasises
the authenticating power of objects like this that are mentioned in a
ritld source as having a history in the sguld and as still existing
in the ritld. In fact, when the story of an object supposed to
have played a part in the sguld cannot be supported by its existence in
the ritld, saga authors go out of their way to supply a detailed
explanation for such a state of affairs. Perkins draws the following
conclusion (254):
This suggests that saga-audiences in the ritld were actively interested in the
whereabouts in their own times of some of the more valuable or lethal objects
mentioned in the sagas. And perhaps they even expected such objects, or
objects purporting to be them, to be available for inspection.
Indeed, the author of Egils saga thoroughly exploits this availability

for inspection of one of his chosen objects, as he actually gives details
of the physical features of the evidence. Describing Skalla-Grmrs
search for a suitable rock on which to forge his iron, the author steps out
of the immediate narrative frame in order to favour us with the following
curiosity:
54
Saga-Book
Liggr s steinn ar enn ok mikit sindr hj, ok sr at steininum, at hann er
barr ofan ok at er brimsorfit grjt ok ekki v grjti glkt ru, er ar er, ok
munu n ekki meira hefja fjrir menn. (Egils saga 1933, 79)
That rock is still there with a pile of slag beside it, and its top is marked from
being hammered upon. It has been worn by the waves and is different from the
other rocks there; four men today could not lift it. (The Complete Sagas of
Icelanders, I 67)
This passion for historical/archaeological detail, as well as the brisk and

matter-of-fact narrative style, provide the reader with a sense of legitimacy
and substance.
In this section I have examined the ways in which this sense of
legitimacy and substance is achieved in the slendingasgur. By affirming, questioning or commenting on the veracity of their material, saga
authors successfully manage to lower the readers own investigative
drive and thus achieve the impression of a disinterested account.
Reassuring the reader/listener in this way is one of the authentication
techniques used in the slendingasgur. Another equally important
technique has less to do with the form and is thus harder to identify
within the main texture of the narrative. It is to do with the way events
are represented and it is the theme of the next section.
2. Realism of Uncertainty and Contradiction
The importance of the untidy, the unpolished and the contradictory to
our sense of authenticity is emphasised by Erich Auerbach whose work,
Mimesis, has become a classic on the representation of reality in Western
literature. Auerbach in fact sees these qualities as factors which, in general,
enable us to differentiate easily between the historical and the legendary
within a narrative. To be sure, Auerbach recognises that the circumstances
of writing a history (its discursive nature, the historians necessary selectiveness, the effect of his/her own historical contingency and such; see
also Hayden White 1978) often demand that a historiographer turn to
legend for structure, and mean that, when it comes to detail, distinguishing
between history and legend is very difficult. He believes, in a reductionist
manner, that even this more detailed differentiation is possible and that
the specialist can achieve it through a careful historical and philological
training (Auerbach 1953, 19). I shall not discuss this proposition, not
simply because our faith in careful historical and philological training
is more limited these days, but more because Auerbach leaves it aside
himself, concentrating instead on what is of interest to the present study
toothe appearance and representation of reality. In this respect the
55
historical (or realistic) and the legendary (or non-realistic) become

aesthetic categories rather than the markers of reliability, and as such,
they are, Auerbach maintains (1953, 19), easily recognised:
Their structure is different. Even where the legendary does not immediately
betray itself by elements of the miraculous, by the repetition of well-known
standard motives, typical patterns and themes, through their neglect of clear
details of time and place, and the like, it is generally recognizable by its
composition. It runs far too smoothly. All cross-currents, all friction, all that is
casual, secondary to the main events and themes, everything unresolved,
truncated, and uncertain, which confuses the clear progress of the action and
the simple orientation of the actors has disappeared.
It is important to emphasise that the historical and the legendary are

treated here as modes of narration, not generic markers, and that legends
and fantasies can be (and in the slendingasgur often are) treated in the
historical mode, and conversely, works intended as histories can be
(and parts of Landnmabk are) treated in the legendary mode. Lars
Lnnroth (2002, 456) finds that dreams in the slendingasgur are
extraordinarily complex and ambiguous compared to those in the Poetic
Edda or the fornaldarsgur, and notes that only in the slendingasgur
are dreams related in skaldic verses. Since they are frequently exploited
for their authenticating power in the sagas of Icelanders (Vsteinn lason
1998, 49) as well as in medieval Icelandic historiography (see Snorris
justification in the Prologue to Heimskringla), skaldic verses seem to
corroborate the prophetic nature of dreams: whatever is related in them
is bound to come to pass. John Lindow (1986, 246 and 280) too speaks
of the fantastic in the slendingasgur in terms of the verisimilitude of
supernatural experience in saga literature and the empirical supernatural, as opposed to the fornaldarsgur and romances where the
marvellous seems taken for granted and the supernatural attaches rather
to it than to reality. In other words, in the way they are represented, the
supernatural and the fantastic in the slendingasgur do not jeopardise,
but rather complement the realism of the sagas.
So, what are the frictions, cross-currents, uncertainties and resistances
to clear progression in the sagas representation of the past that make it
realistic? Let us trace them through the themes that every golden-age
story has: how a community came to be and the setting in which this
becoming is played out (see Smith 1986, in particular the sections entitled Poetic Spaces: the Uses of Landscape and Golden Ages: the Uses
of History). In the context of the Settlement stories, we are exploring
Haraldr hrfagris tyranny as the reason for emigrating to Iceland and the
images of the new land.
56
Saga-Book
2.1 Generous Tyrants: Join, Fight or Flee?

If, with the whole corpus of the slendingasgur in mind, we note that in
Egils saga it is the tyranny of Haraldr that triggers the colonisation of
Iceland, it is for Vatnsdla to problematise the issue of tyranny, for in
this saga a hero moves to Iceland compelled by destiny and most
unwillingly takes leave of his beloved lord. Haraldr is even presented as
a dignified royal figure who, sensing that his retainer is about to leave
him, makes this known and hints, partly aggrieved, partly irritated, that
it is possible to leave with his blessing instead of stealing away, sem n
tekr mjk at tkask which is very much the fashion nowadays (Vatnsdla saga 1939, 34; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 16). On a
more detailed level though, both sagas are more intriguing as regards
their attitudes to Haraldr. If the narrator of Egils saga openly comments
that af essi jn flu margir menn af landi brott many people fled
the country to escape this tyranny (Egils saga 1933, 12; The Complete
Sagas of Icelanders, I 36), he also lets other voices be heard, that
contradict his opinion of the king and deny that fleeing is the optimal
solution. For Slvi klofi and Egills uncle rlfr, with their obdurate
sense of honour, fleeing is a humiliating act and thus not an option.
They differ greatly, however, in the way they see King Haraldr. Slvi,
the son of a defeated king, Hnjfr, comes to seek help from another
minor king and addresses him thus:
Munu r inn sama kost fyrir hndum eiga, sem vr ttum, at verja f yvart
ok frelsi ok kosta ar til allra eira manna, er yr er lis at vn, . . . en at rum
kosti munu r vilja taka upp at r, sem Naumdlir geru, at ganga me
sjlfvilja nau ok gerask rlar Haralds. (Egils saga 1933, 8)
You will face the same choice we had: either to defend your property and
freedom by staking all the men you can hope to muster . . . or to follow the
course taken by the people of Naumdal who voluntarily entered servitude and
became Haralds slaves. (The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, I 35)
That Haraldr is an oppressor is taken for granted here, but not everyone
in the saga sees joining his ranks as servitude and slavery. In fact,
Egills uncle regards it as allfsiligt a very attractive proposition, for
Haraldrs men
eru . . . haldnir miklu betr en allir arir essu landi. Er mr sv fr sagt
konungi, at hann s inn mildasti af fgjfum vi menn sna ok eigi sr ess
rr at gefa eim framgang ok veita rki eim, er honum ykkja til ess fallnir.
En mr spyrsk ann veg til um alla , er bakverpask vilja vi honum ok
ask eigi hann me vinttu, sem allir veri ekki at manna; stkkva sumir af
landi brott, en sumir gerask leigumenn. (Egils saga 1933, 1415)
57
live a much better life than anyone else in this country. And Im told that the
king is very generous to his men and no less liberal in granting advancement
and power to people he thinks worthy of it. Ive also heard about all the people
who turn their backs on him and spurn his friendship, and they never become
great mensome of them are forced to flee the country, and others are made
his tenants. (The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, I 38)
The narrators perspective, which foregrounds those who follow the third
optionfleeing the countryhas the benefit of hindsight and proves
ultimately right, of course. People like Slvi klofi never really stand a
chance, and people like rlfr fall victim to the fickleness of a rulers
favours as well as to their own social ambition. Yet their choices are
presented respectfully, as valid options. In the context of the famous
lapidary saga style, the amount of space allotted to the speeches of
Slvi and rlfr, as well as the fact that their words are quoted, not
merely summarised by the narrator, underlines the importance given to
the stances of these two characters. And they are not just any characters:
rlfr is the hero of the first thirty chapters of Egils saga, and Slvi,
although featuring very briefly in Egils saga, pops up now and again
in Snorris Haralds saga ins hrfagra (Heimskringla 194151, I 104
06, 134, 138), on one occasion delivering a nearly identical speech.5 We
are also told that Slvi var san vkingr mikill langa hr ok geri
optliga mikinn skaa rki Haralds konungs for a long time Solvi
continued as a powerful viking and often inflicted heavy damage in
King Haralds realm (Heimskringla 194151, I 106; Heimskringla 1995,
68). Nor does Slvi ever get caught or killed. None of the kings other
opponents in the saga can boast of such feats. It is tempting to conclude
that a reader of or listener to Egils saga, if not familiar with Snorris
Haralds saga ins hrfagra, would have known about Slvis exploits
from oral tradition.
Rather than being subverted, slighted or patronised by the narrator,
the stances of Slvi and rolfr are treated with some admiration. Slvis
brave words hark back to the concept of honour based on physical
prowess and moral stamina, a theme much used by saga writers (even if
they treated it with conscious archaism), while rlfrs social ambition
5 This is not surprising if Egils saga is indeed the work of Snorri Sturluson,
as some scholars believe (see for example Nordals introduction to Egils saga
1933, or more recently, Torfi H. Tulinius 2002). On its own, however, the
passage in question is not enough to confirm this. On the one hand, Snorri
would, of course, be capable of copying the speech from Egils saga even if he
were not its author, and on the other, oral tradition too is capable of preserving
such a speech.
58
Saga-Book
is not necessarily perceived as negative, but is well established within

Viking pragmatism and entrepreneurial ethics. Besides, balanced,
diplomatic people in Egils saga such as rlfrs kinsman, lvir hnfa,
or Egills friend Arinbjrn, seem to flourish in the service of a king, even
when he comes to be called Eirkr Blood-Axe. When such different
perspectives are presented as legitimate, the narrators own bias becomes
modified, even blurred by these other points of view, and thus not
oppressive. Whether the inclusion of these different yet valid perspectives is the result of a self-conscious decision on the part of the saga
writer, or whether he simply left unmoulded and unpolished the accreted
(and occasionally disparate) material from oral tradition, the effect is the
same: the saga is surrounded with the aura of a document.
We encounter a similar array of perceptions of Haraldr and attitudes to
the settlement of Iceland if we start from a text apparently at the opposite
end of the scaleVatnsdla saga. While this saga may project the
kindest view of Haraldr, it also includes the harshest. In the words of the
heros foster-brother, kings (and the plural here is a euphemism because
it is Haraldr whom the character has in mind) are paired with criminals
(illrismenn, evil-doers):
ok tla ek n sumar til slands og vit bir brr, ok lta sr n at margir
sma, tt gfgir s; er mr sagt gott fr landakostum, at ar gangi f sjlfala
vetrum, en fiskr hverju vatni, skgar miklir, en frjlsir af gangi konunga
ok illrismanna. (Vatnsdla saga 1939, 3031)
I am off to Iceland this summer along with my brother, and many consider this
no shame even though they are of noble birth. I have heard good things about
the landthat livestock feed themselves during the winters, that there are fish
in every river and lake, and great forests, and that men are free from the
assaults of kings and criminals. (The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 15)
The hero, Ingimundr, is (we hear at some length) on friendly terms with
the king, but it is important to note that soon after this, he follows his
foster-brothers lead and sets off to Iceland.
With the whole saga corpus in mind, Vatnsdla and Egils saga may
represent two extremes in the spectrum of possible attitudes to Haraldr
hrfagri, yet whatever we learn in either of them about the king and his
impact on the colonisation of Iceland is still very intricate. In each of
these sagas we see a strong figure dominating the Norwegian political
scene: a unifier of the kingdom and an obstinate upstart; a source of
opportunities and social advancement, and a despoiler of freedom and
lives; a dignified ruler, a righteous man, and a paranoid tyrant, a man
prone to flattery and easily manipulated. The opposites I have identified
59
here in what Auerbach would probably regard as legendary mode are,

of course, not presented so starkly in the two sagas. Rather, all these
Haraldrs negotiate with or modulate one another. In addition, the
Norwegian political scene itself is not, as we have seen, represented as
being of a piece and, therefore, the reactions to Haraldrs rise and the
responses to the emigration to Iceland are layered.
The whole notion of tyranny as the reason for emigration is further
cast into relief by the sagas that fall in between the two extremes
discussed. An example is Gsla saga, in which king Haraldr is not even
mentioned, but in which the hero lands himself in trouble for personal
reasons, is outlawed from Norway and has to leave; or Hrafnkels saga,
in which we are only informed in passing that the time when the heros
father came to Iceland was that of Haraldr. In this case the narrator may
have counted on his audiences knowledge of Haraldrs tyranny, but
then again, writing after the end of the Commonwealth, he may have
chosen not to make a big point of it: Iceland could hardly represent a
tyrant-free safe-haven any longer. Laxdla saga may begin with
opposition to Haraldr, but it represents the emigration to Iceland as
happening from the Viking colonies in Britain, with the fall of the Norse
kings of York and Dublin suggesting the crumbling of the Viking
dominions as an all-encompassing problem and thus shifting the focus
from the narrow field of Haraldrs tyranny in Norway.
2.2 Desolate Outcrops or Fields Dripping with Butter?
Hann [Skalla-Grmr] lt gera b lptanesi ok tti ar b annat, lt aan
skja trra ok selveiar ok eggver, er vru gng fng au ll, sv
rekavi at lta at sr flytja. Hvalkvmur vru ok miklar, ok skjta mtti sem
vildi; allt var ar kyrrt veiist, er at var vant manni. It rija b tti
hann vi sjinn vestanverum Mrum; var ar enn betr komit at sitja fyrir
rekum, ok ar lt hann hafa si ok kalla at krum. Eyjar lgu ar t fyrir, er
hvalr fannsk , ok klluu eir Hvalseyjar. Skalla-Grmr hafi ok menn sna
uppi vi laxrnar til veia. (Egils saga 1933, 75)
He [Skallagrim] had a farmstead built on Alftanes and ran another farm there,
and rowed out from it to catch fish and cull seals and gather eggs, all of which
were there in great abundance. There was plenty of driftwood to take back to
his farm. Whales beached there, too, in great numbers, and there was wildlife
there for the taking at this hunting post; the animals were not used to man and
would never flee. He owned a third farm by the sea on the western part of
Myrar. This was an even better place to gather driftwood, and he planted crops
there and named it Akrar (Fields). There were islands offshore called Hvalseyar
(Whale islands), because whales congregated there. Skallagrim also sent his
men upriver to catch salmon. (The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, I 66)
60
Saga-Book
People like Skalla-Grmr go on to build a state of free farmers who meet

as equals at their assemblies to resolve their differences and conflicts. If
this were really all there was to it, then we would perhaps be dealing with
a fairytale or an Arcadian idyll, not a saga. In the slendingasgur, a
conflict (especially over a beached whale, or scarce driftwood) would
indeed eventually be settled, but often not before it escalates into a fullblown disaster and not until lives are lost and the honour and good will
of people heavily tested. Images of Iceland, like the portraits of Haraldr
discussed earlier, are anything but unified. They range from those of an
Edenic land of the kind described in the quoted passage, to those of a
hell-like place of tarnished hopes. Interestingly enough, we can already
glimpse this range in Landnmabk. We encounter it condensed in the
lively story about Flki, the man who, as Landnmabk has it, gave
Iceland its name. After losing (owing to some bad luck and his own
failure to secure winter provisions) all his livestock in Iceland over the
winter, a disappointed Flki and his companions sail back to Norway:
Ok er menn spuru af landinu, lt Flki illa yfir, en Herjlfr sagi kost ok
lst af landinu, en rlfr kva drjpa smjr af hverju stri landinu, v er
eir hfu fundit; v var hann kallar rlfr smjr. (slendingabk.
Landnmabk 1986, 38)
When they were asked about the new country Floki had nothing good to say
of it, but Herjolf described its merits as well as its faults. Thorolf said that in
the land theyd found, butter was dripping from every blade of grass. Thats
why people called him Thorolf Butter. (The Book of Settlements 1972, 18)
What is here anecdotally summed up, forced into three clear-cut attitudes
to the land (two extreme opposites from Flki and rlfr and a moderate
view from Herjlfr) is in the sagas offered as a spectrum of attitudes
which occasionally dissolve into one another.
On his arrival in Iceland, nundr, ancestor of Grettir the Strong, is
offered some land by an already established wealthy man, Eirkr snara,
who tries to impress nundr with the vastness of the land that is still
available. nundrs gaze, however, is fixed upon an imposing snowy
mountain, and the emotion it inspires is immediately transposed into a
verse of lament:
krpp eru kaup, ef hreppik
Kaldbak, en ek lt akra.
(Grettis saga 1936, 22)
I have struck a harsh bargain, swapped
my fields for the cold-backed mountain.
(The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, II 58)
61
nundrs verse curbs Eirkrs enthusiasm and prompts him into a

quiet admission: Margr hefir sv mikils misst Nregi, at menn f ess
ekki btr Many people have lost so much in Norway that will never be
made good (Grettis saga 1936, 22; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders,
II 58). Indeed, the images of Iceland are psychological as much as
geographical. The hero of Vatnsdla saga, Ingimundr, feels forced to sell
ttjarir mnar margar ok gar, en fara eyibyggir r my many
fine ancestral lands and head off to that wilderness (Vatnsdla saga
1939, 29; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 14), which he has
previously described as eyisker etta that desolate outcrop (Vatnsdla saga 1939, 27; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 13). Once
there, however, he resolves to make the best of an unfavourable situation:
N mun eigi vera vistin jafngl sem Nregi, en eigi arf n at minnask
at, v at margir gir drengir eru hr enn saman komnir til gamans, ok
glejumsk enn eptir tilfngum. (Vatnsdla saga 1939, 40)
Our home here may not be as cheery as the one in Norway, but we need not
think about that because there are many good men assembled here for some
fun, and so let us enjoy ourselves as far as our resources allow. (The Complete
Sagas of Icelanders, IV 19)
This acceptance modifies his perspective on the land. The matter is

further complicated by the fact that the narrators perspective, his own
longing perhaps arising in times of depleted resources, becomes
entangled with that of his characters:
ok m af v marka landskosti , er at mund vru, at ft gekk allt sjlfala
ti. ess er enn getit, at svn hurfu fr Ingimundi ok fundusk eigi fyrr en annat
sumar at hausti, ok vru saman hundra, au vru stygg orin . . . Ingimundr
. . . kva sv rtt at mla, at tvau hfu vri hvvetna. (Vatnsdla saga
1939, 4243)
The excellence of the land at this time can be judged from the fact that all the
sheep fed themselves out of doors. It is also said that some pigs went missing
from Ingimunds land and were not found until the autumn of the following
year, and by that time there were a hundred of them in all; they had become
wild . . . Ingimund . . . declared that it could truly be said that there were two
heads on every one of them. (The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 20)
Although this fertility has something uncanny about it, the narrator
points out that Ingimundr festi n yni Vatnsdal by now Ingimund
felt comfortable in Vatnsdal (Vatnsdla saga 1939, 43; The Complete
Sagas of Icelanders, IV 20). In confirmation of this, when Ingimundr
goes back to Norway for some building timber and King Haraldr asks
him about Iceland, we are told that hann lt vel yfir he spoke well of it
62
Saga-Book
(Vatnsdla saga 1939, 44; The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, IV 21).

As Ingimundr becomes more settled and prosperous, so the images of
Iceland change and the extreme feelings recede.
The past in the slendingasgur is alluring and persuasive because of
the open-endedness with which it emerges. The much-admired aura of
the documentary that surrounds them is not achieved because disparate
matter is blended tidily, but precisely because loose ends and contradictions are not resolved. The resulting richness of texture produces a
persuasive account which may not be accurate, but which certainly agrees
with our aesthetic expectations of what real and natural are supposed
to feel like: multidimensional, unpremeditated, complex.
Note: I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Judith Jesch, for having read
and commented upon earlier versions of this article, as well as for her patience and
her unstinting support. I am also grateful to the editors of Saga-Book for their
astute attention to detail and many useful suggestions.
Bibliography
Andersson, Theodore M. 1966. The Textual Evidence for an Oral Family Saga.
Arkiv fr nordisk filologi 81, 123.
Aristotle 1996. Poetics. Trans. Malcolm Heath.
Auerbach, Erich 1953. Mimesis. The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Trans. Willard R. Trask.
Beowulf 1950 = Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg 1950. Ed. F. Klaeber.
Beowulf 2002. Trans. Seamus Heaney.
The Book of Settlements. Landnmabk 1972. Trans. Hermann Plsson and Paul
Edwards.
Brennu-Njls saga 1954. Ed. Einar l. Sveinsson. slenzk fornrit XII.
Byock, Jesse L. 2001. Viking Age Iceland.
La Chanson de Roland 1942. Ed. F. Whitehead.
Clover, Carol J. 1986. The Long Prose Form. Arkiv fr nordisk filologi 10102,
1039.
The Complete Sagas of Icelanders 1997. Ed. Viar Hreinsson et al.
Doane, A. N. 1991. Oral Texts, Intertexts, and Intratexts: Editing Old English. In
Influence and Intertextuality in Literary History. Ed. Jay Clayton and Eric Rothstein, 75108.
Downes, Jeremy M. 1997. Recursive Desire: Rereading Epic Tradition.
Egils saga Skalla-Grmssonar 1933. Ed. Sigurur Nordal. slenzk fornrit II.
Einar l. Sveinsson 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs: Icelandic Civilization in the
Thirteenth Century. Trans. Jhann S. Hannesson.
Eirks saga raua. In Eyrbyggja saga 1935. Ed. Einar l. Sveinsson and Matthas
rarson. slenzk fornrit IV.
Fidjestl, Bjarne 1997. Icelandic Sagas and Poems on Princes. Literature and
Society in Archaic West Norse Culture. In Selected Papers. Ed. Odd
63
Einar Haugen and Else Mundal. Trans. Peter Foote. The Viking Collection 9,
228254.
Foley, John Miles 1991. Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional
Oral Epic.
Glauser, Jrg 2000. Sagas of the Icelanders (slendinga sgur) and ttir as a
Literary Representation of a New Social Space. In Old Icelandic Literature and
Society. Ed. Margaret Clunies Ross, 20320.
Grettis saga smundarsonar 1936. Ed. Guni Jnsson. slenzk fornrit VII.
Gunnar Karlsson 2000. Icelands 1100 years. The History of a Marginal Society.
Hainsworth, J. B. 1991. The Idea of Epic.
Heimskringla 194151, I. Ed. Bjarni Aalbjarnarson. slenzk fornrit XXVI.
Heimskringla 1995 = Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway by Snorri
Sturluson. Trans. Lee M. Hollander.
slendingabk. Landnmabk 1968. Ed. Jakob Benediktsson. slenzk fornrit I.
Jesch, Judith 198285. Two Lost Sagas. Saga-Book XXI, 114.
Jesch, Judith 1984. The Lost Literature of Medieval Iceland: Sagas of Icelanders.
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London.
Karadic , Vuk Stefanovic 1976. Srpske narodne pjesme IIV.
Kellogg, Robert 1979. Varieties of Tradition in Medieval Narrative. In Medieval
Narrative: A Symposium. Ed. Hans Bekker-Nielsen, Peter Foote, Andreas Haarder
and Preben Meulengracht Srensen, 12029.
Kellogg, Robert 1991. Literacy and Orality in the Poetic Edda. In Vox Intexta:
Orality and Textuality in the Middle Ages. Ed. A. N. Doane and C. B. Pasternack,
89101.
Laxdla saga 1934. Ed. Einar l. Sveinsson. slenzk fornrit V.
Lindow, John 1986. orsteins ttr skelks and the Verisimilitude of Supernatural
Experience in Saga Literature. In Structure and Meaning in Old Norse Literature. New Approaches to Textual Analysis and Literary Criticism. Ed. John
Lindow et al., 26480.
Lnnroth, Lars 2002. Dreams in the Sagas. Scandinavian Studies 74 :4, 45563.
Manhire, William 197477. The Narrative Functions of Source-References in the
Sagas of Icelanders. Saga-Book XIX, 17090.
Meulengracht Srensen, Preben 1993. Saga and Society. An Introduction to Old
Norse Literature. Trans. John Tucker.
Das Nibelungenlied 1948. Ed. James Boyd.
The Nibelungenlied 1969. Trans. Arthur T. Hatto.
Ong, Walter J. 1982. Orality and Literacy. The Technologizing of the Word.
Perkins, Richard 1989. Objects and Oral Tradition in Medieval Iceland. In r
Dlum til Dala: Gubrandur Vigfsson Centenary Essays. Ed. Rory McTurk
and Andrew Wawn, 23966.
Peic, Radmila 1990. Vladan Nedic o Vukovim pevacima. Introduction to
Vladan Nedic, Vukovi pevaci, 513.
Rankovic, Slavica 2005. The Distributed Author and the Poetics of Complexity: A
Comparative Study of the Sagas of Icelanders and Serbian Epic Poetry. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Nottingham.
Smith, Anthony D. 1986. The Ethnic Origin of Nations.
64
Saga-Book
Tulinius, Torfi H. 2000. The Matter of the North: Fiction and Uncertain Identities
in Thirteenth-Century Iceland. In Old Icelandic Literature and Society. Ed.
Margaret Clunies Ross, 24265.
Tulinius, Torfi H. 2002. The Matter of the North. The Rise of Literary Fiction in
Thirteenth-Century Iceland. Trans. Randi C. Eldevik.
Vatnsdla saga 1939. Ed. Einar l. Sveinsson. slenzk fornrit VIII.
Vsteinn lason 1998. Dialogues with the Viking Age. Narration and Representation in the Sagas of Icelanders. Trans. Andrew Wawn.
Whaley, Diana 2000. A Useful Past: Historical Writing in Medieval Iceland. In
Old Icelandic Literature and Society. Ed. Margaret Clunies Ross, 161202.
White, Hayden 1978. Tropics of Discourse.
Grettisfrsla
65
GRETTISFRSLA: THE HANDING ON OF GRETTIR

BY KATE HESLOP
INTRODUCTION
HE OLD ICELANDIC POEM Grettisfrsla (The Handing on of

Grettir), a composition of approximately 400 lines centred around a
figure named Grettir, is mentioned in chapter 52 of Grettis saga (Gr).1
The sole surviving text of the poem is appended to the text of that saga
in AM 556 a 4to. Despite the current popularity of Gr, and the fact that a
diplomatic edition of the surviving fragments of Grettisfrsla has existed since the early 1960s when lafur Halldrsson published his
pioneering work on the sole manuscript (H 1960), the poem has attracted no sustained scholarly attention.2
Grettisfrsla is of intrinsic interest, as it deals with topics such as
sexuality which are relatively sparsely represented in the texts that have
come down to us. It is true that sexual matters are alluded to (or more)
elsewhere in Old Icelandic literature: most famous is perhaps Bsa sagas
description of Bsis three sexual encounters (chs 7, 11 and 13: Bsa
saga 2005, 1621, 2932, 3539), but other episodes include the story
of Hrtr and Unnr in Njls saga (ch. 7: F 12, 2326), Grettirs rape of the
servant woman at Reykir (Grettis saga ch. 75: F 7, 23841), the trn
episodes in Gsla saga (ch. 2: F 6, 611) and Bjarnar saga (ch. 17: F 3,
15456), the sexual banter in Sneglu-Halla ttr (F 9, 26395) and the
account of a ritual involving a horses phallus in Vlsa ttr (Faulkes
1 All quotations from Grettisfrsla and references to word-forms in it are
given in the late thirteenth-century standard of spelling used in the Text. The
title of the poem thus appears as Grettisfrsla throughout, including in quotations from F 7 (which spells it Grettisfrsla).
2 The only extensive discussion is in Guvarur Mr Gunnlaugsson 2000
(4346); I have unfortunately been unable to access Helga Kresss unpublished 1997 paper on Grettir and the grotesque (cited in Guvarur Mr
Gunnlaugsson 2000, 44 n. 13). Other scholarly mentions are passing, and
the majority repeat lafurs conclusions (Almqvist 196574, II 52; Hastrup
1986, 306; rnlfur Thorsson 1994, 918; Jn Samsonarson 2002, 8687,
230; Poole 2003, 27). Fittingly for a marginal work, these remarks are often
confined to footnotes (Almqvist 196574, I 201 n. 58; skar Halldrsson
1977, 628 n. 3; Glauser 1996, 124 n. 28; Clunies Ross 1998, 69 n. 28;
Perkins 19982001, 199 n. 5; Faulkes 2004, 181 n. 46).
66
Saga-Book
1980, 4961; see further below). A number of poetic sources also deal
with sexuality, most but not all of them in a n context, for example
Hallfrers verses about Grss (Skj B I, 16061), the exchange of verses
between Bjrn and rr in Bjarnar saga (Skj B I, 20709, 27783), st.
1 of Einar Gilssons Selkolluvsur (Skj B II, 434), much of Lokasenna
(NK 96110) and a handful of verses and fragments preserved in runic
inscriptions from the Scandinavian mainland (Liestl 1963, 2325;
Moltke 1975; lafur Halldrsson 2003). And of course confessional
manuals in Iceland as in other countries specify in some detail which
sexual acts are acceptable for Christians and which are not (see the discussion in Sverrir Tmasson 2005, 5557). But Grettisfrsla differs from
the other extant literary sources in some significant respects. Sex is a
major, rather than a subsidiary theme, and the protagonists indiscriminate sexuality is itself the focus, which sets it apart from n verses, in
which aggressor and victim are particular individuals and sexual domination is merely a means to an end (humiliation). Perhaps most
importantly, Grettisfrsla is resolutely non-euphemistic, compared, for
example, to Bsa saga, whose enthusiasm for euphemism leads Sverrir
Tmasson (2005, 6162) to compare it to the Old French fabliau La
Damoisele qui ne pooit oir parler de foutre; it is also in stark contrast to
the typically skaldic indirectness of n. Grettisfrslas unvarnished
language is one reason why it contains the first attestations of a number
of words and meanings, as well as at least one hapax legomenon
(hrundamuur penises mouth, i.e. vagina, l. 242). 3
The present study aims to bring this interesting poem to a wider audience by supplementing lafurs transcription with a normalised edition
and English translation of the surviving parts of the poem.4 The comments
3 See the notes in the Text to stre[ptun] (l. 41), moga (l. 47), bkhlaup (l.
53), breum (l. 153), ylgja (l. 159) and hrak (l. 241).
4 My indebtedness not only to lafurs transcription, but to his article as a
whole (H), is evident everywhere in my text, and I thank him for his kind
encouragement of the present study. I also thank Margaret Clunies Ross and
Valgerur Erna orvaldsdttir for their help with specific points in the translation. Anthony Faulkes read the entire text and saved me from many errors,
as well as making several valuable suggestions, and I am grateful to him for
his contribution. Any remaining errors are my responsibility. Earlier versions
of parts of the present study were presented to the University College London
Scandinavian Studies Department seminar in 2003 and the University of Bergen/
Cambridge University symposium Creating the Medieval Saga in Bergen in
2005. I am grateful to Richard Perkins and Judy Quinn respectively for
inviting me to speak, and to my audiences for their comments.
Grettisfrsla
67
which follow are intended to provide the reader with orientation on the
crucial issues for understanding this poorly preserved text.5 In particular, the relationship between poem and saga, believed by lafur to
be one of mistaken identity, is revaluated in the light of more recent
research.
Transmission
The copy of Gr in AM 556 a 4to happens to be missing the leaf containing chapter 52, but the other medieval manuscripts of the saga
(AM 152 fol., AM 551 4to and DG 10 fol.) recount in this chapter
how the outlawed Grettir is captured by the disgruntled farmers of safjrur, who want to end his thefts of food and clothing. They ambush
Grettir with thirty men while he is sleeping in the woods and, after a
struggle, tie him up. Having done this, they are at a loss. The local
chieftain, Vermundr inn mjvi, is away at the Alingi, and someone
needs to take charge of (annask) Grettir until Vermundr gets back
and metes out justice. The farmers argue over which of them will do it:
one is too busy with his farm work, another lives alone in an isolated
spot, and a third states that lzk mr heldr vandri en viring vi
honum at taka ea gera nkkut me honum, ok hann kemr aldri mn hs
inn it seems to me rather a trouble than an honour to receive him or to
do anything with him, and he will never come into my house (F 7,
168).6 Eventually all the farmers refuse to take Grettir on, and the saga
adds: Ok eptir essu vitali eira hafa ktir menn sett fri at, er
Grettisfrsla ht, ok aukit ar ktligum orum til gamans mnnum
And on this conversation of theirs convivial people based that lore that
is called Grettisfrsla, and augmented it with jocular words for peoples
enjoyment (F 7, 168).7
5 A forthcoming article (Heslop forthcoming) will address the literaryhistorical and thematic issues lafur raises and discuss the poems place in
medieval Icelandic culture in more depth.
6 Translation mine, as elsewhere unless stated otherwise.
7 The late seventeenth-century paper manuscript Holm papp. 6 4to, whose
text of Gr probably descends from AM 556 a 4to (Guvarur Mr Gunnlaugsson 2000, 43), has a variant wording: og um allt umtal eirra hefur
Grettir innfr kvi a er Grettisfrsla heitir og auki ar ktligum
orum til gamans mnnum and about all their conversation Grettir cited that
poem that is called Grettisfrsla and added to it jocular words for peoples
enjoyment (311v, ll. 2123). Here we are told that Grettir is himself the one
responsible for the jocular words. It is impossible to know how far back in
the chain of transmission this reading arose, and it is suspiciously typical of
68
Saga-Book
It is not clear from this description what kind of composition Grettisfrsla is. Although its title conforms to the commonest pattern for
medieval poem titles (personal name in the genitive case plus a generic
marker, usually describing a speech act, compare lfsdrpa, Buslubn,
Hvaml), the -frsla element is otherwise unknown as a component of
a poem title. -frsla as the second element of a compound has an active
and transitive sense, and refers to the moving of the object denoted by
the head: tafrsla, dung-hauling, beinafrsla, the transfer of human
remains when a church is relocated, magafrsla, the circulation of people
needing support from farm to farm.8 The link between the narrative in ch.
52 and the poem seems to be the farmers passing of the buck, which is
implicitly compared to the moving, or frsla, of dependants, beggars
and other incapable persons around the hreppr. This practice was the
medieval Icelandic solution to the problem of poor-relief (Miller 1990,
1920, 14754), and words connected with it make up over one third of
the noun + frsla compounds in ONP. The structural similarity of the
title Grettisfrsla to those poem titles in which the second element is a
generic marker suggests that -frsla may instead or also denote a heterogeneity or movement in the poem, from metre to metre, subject to
subject or speaker to speaker.
The text of Grettisfrsla survives, barely, only in AM 556 a 4to, the
manuscript which lacks ch. 52 of the saga, and this accident of preservation, resulting in a text without a context in AM 556 a 4to, and a context
without a text in the other medieval manuscripts, has had considerable
consequences for the reception of the poem (see below). AM 556 a 4to is
an Icelandic vellum written by a single hand, probably between 1475 and
1500 (Hast 1960, 3032, 8286). In addition to the poem, which is on
fols 52r53r, AM 556 a 4to contains three sagas about Icelandic outlaws
(Grettis saga, Gsla saga and Harar saga ok Hlmverja) and the oldest,
though incomplete, text of the mid to late fifteenth-century riddarasaga
Sigrgars saga frkna; AM 556 b 4to, originally part of the same codex,
is a collection of fourteenth-century riddarasgur (Klund 188892, I
707). The text of Gr concludes near the top of fol. 52r, and Grettisfrsla
is introduced as follows (AM 556 a 4to, 52r, ll. 811):
the tendency for notable names to be attached to unconventionally-attributed
or anonymous poems, e.g. that of lfr helgi to the so-called Lismannaflokkr
in extracts from Styrmirs saga of St lfr in Flateyjarbk.
8 See CV and OGNS. The fullest listing of -frsla (or, in the earlier spelling,
-frsla) compounds is the ONP online word-list.
Grettisfrsla
69
Lkr hr sgu Grettis smundarsonar fri v er Grettisfrsla heitir, ok

sfiringar geru, er eir hfu handtekit Gretti smundarson, en margir
hafa san vi aukit mrgum ktligum orum <. E>r etta upphaf .
The saga of Grettir smundarson ends here with that lore which is called
Grettisfrsla, and [which] the people of safjrur made when they had captured Grettir smundarson, and many have since augmented with many
jocular words. This is the beginning of it.
The opening words of the poem, Karl nam at ba / beint m v . . . An old

man began to farm, / that can be clearly . . ., can still be made out. The
remaining text on 52r, and everything on 52v and 53r, 99 lines of writing in all (H 50), has been carefully scraped off at some point in the
manuscripts history, no doubt because of the poems obscenity. In more
recent times the text suffered from attempts to make it more, rather than
less, legible. In the mid-nineteenth century, 52r was treated with a liquid
of some kind, perhaps tincture of gall (H 50). The resulting dark stain
is clearly visible in photographs and, as no positive results were reported at the time, it seems that the only effect of this procedure was to
obliterate the few remaining traces of ink on this leaf. Gubrandur Vigfsson, whose 1861 N flagsrit article Um nokkrar slendngasgur
appears to be the first published discussion of Grettisfrsla, managed to
read the seven words quoted above and claimed to be able to make out
three more, but from that point on could only read occasional letters
(1861, 12526). Rescue of some of Grettisfrslas ktlig or for posterity awaited modern technology. In 1960 lafur Halldrsson published
his article Grettisfrsla. With the help of UV photographs, he managed
to read a good deal of the text (though 52r remained almost completely
illegible, meaning that roughly 100 lines of the poem are permanently
lost), and his article includes a diplomatic transcription. The text and
translation presented below are based on this transcription, though digital images of the original UV photographs have also been examined.
Content
About 250 lines of the poem were legible in whole or in part under UV
light. Some are end-rhymed (both masculine and feminine rhymes occur),
some alliterative, some rhythmic alliterative prose, and some appear
simply to be prose. Most lines have two stresses but the syllable count
varies between four and eight or more syllables. There seem not to be
stanza divisions. Rather, there are blocks of text of various lengths, marked
off by changes in rhetoric (e.g. shift from third to first person) and/or
subject matter.
70
Saga-Book
After the formulaic introduction [ll. 13] there is, as mentioned in the
previous section, an illegible passage corresponding to approximately
100 lines of verse. The first block of intelligible text [ll. 454] describes
the practical skills of a being identified as Grettir, with a catalogue of
farming and household tasks which has two occurrences of the refrainlike margt/myklu kann Grettir (fleira) vel at vinna Grettir knows how to
do many (more) things well [ll. 23 and 35]. This modulates via some
more questionable chores (vekja upp pka wake up demons, moga
kellingu sjka bang a sick old lady) into a list of sexual exploits. The
stress in this section [ll. 55106] is less on Grettirs acts, described by
variations on the verbs strea, sera and moga (all meaning to fuck),
than on their objects: an inventory of worthies, male and female, ranging from priests and farmers, through djknir ktir cheery deacons, to
the Pope, patriarchs and aristocrats; nor are animals left unmolested. The
next section [ll. 10726] begins v fri ek r Gretti For this reason I
convey to you Grettir, and consists, as far as we can now tell, of curses
(such as far nktur norur be off naked northwards), addressed by
the speaker (ek) to someone only identified as you, but who seems
likely to be Grettir. The contrast with the third person narration earlier in
the poem is striking, and it is unfortunate that this section is particularly
difficult to read, as it seems likely that it adumbrated a scene of performance which could inform our interpretation of the better-preserved parts
of the poem. The command tak vi you accept (it) (where the
may be some other person) seems to conclude this section.
Next [ll. 12739] comes a catalogue of pairs of beings, mainly animals,
or of a being and an object, which belong together for reasons of
maternity (grs gyltu piglet to sow) or dwelling-place (skarfur skeri
cormorant on skerry). It concludes at s r ok veri may that be
for you and (your) husband. Is the husband here Grettir, who was said in
the previous section to make pregnant both old and young? Or will
Grettir be like a child to this couple, as dear to them as piglet is to sow?
Eight or so lines of which only occasional letters can be read is succeeded by another catalogue [ll. 14970], this time a sequence of
likenesses linked by sem . . . eur like . . . or. The objects likened are
both animate and inanimate, from the natural environment (sem sjr at
sandi like sea to sand, sem kr bsi like cow in stall), the human
world (eur hland kamri or piss in privy, eur eitur at illsku or
poison to malice) and myth (sem r at rvangi like rr to
rvangr). The assertion flest kann guma of (all) men (he) knows/can
do most concludes this section.
Grettisfrsla
71
The name of Grettir is invoked again in an obscure context at the

beginning the final part of the poem [ll. 172247] where, as lafur
observes, it is difficult to see ones way about as so much is missing
(H 58). Indeed, to speak of a final part is perhaps misleading, and it
would be more accurate to say that the extremely fragmentary nature of
the text from here on hampers attempts to make such divisions. lafur
also found the unrhymed sections much more difficult to decipher in the
manuscript (H 56), and the final part seems to lack rhyme completely.
Once again an ek I and a you feature, in contrast to the third-person
catalogues earlier in the poem. Most of this last part of the poem seems
to consist of threats and curses directed at Grettir. A section from
Griaml is quoted [ll. 19095], sexual insults are hurled (rassragur
arse-fucked (or -fucking) one, [meur] ik er ergi lust is in you, s er
missti da which lost valour), and the speaker casts a spell (galdr
gjri I cast a spell). Finally [ll. 24854] there are what appear to be
conventional concluding topoi: the speaker apologises for the poor quality of his verse (hvern er segir [r]ttara, arfleysu skrkvi everyone
when he speaks what is more truthful, is making up idle talk) and
commends vr allra us all to God.
The entire Griaml formula occurs in both principal versions of
Grgs (Konungsbk: Finsen 1852, I 20507; Staarhlsbk (two rather
different texts): Finsen 1879, 40506, 40607), in ch. 33 of Heiarvga
saga (F 3, 31213) and in ch. 72 of Grettis saga (F 7, 23233). Grgs
Staarhlsbk and the Grettis saga manuscripts AM 152 fol. and DG 10
fol. have abbreviated versions of the formula and are most distant from
the Grettisfrsla version. Staarhlsbk and AM 152 fol. have va
rather than superl. vast in l. 190, and all three abbreviate the valur
flgr phrase in ll. 19495: Staarhlsbk omits beinn, while the two
Grettis saga manuscripts omit the entire second clause, ok standi honum
beinn byr undir ba vngi; Konungsbk diverges from other texts in
its treatment of this phrase as well, having stendr and byrr beinn rather
than beinn byr. The other relevant Grettis saga manuscript, AM 551 a
4to (AM 556 a 4to and the fragmentary ms. AM 571 4to do not contain
ch. 72 of the saga), is most like Grettisfrsla, but at one point
Grettisfrsla is closer to Heiarvga saga than to any Grettis saga manuscript (eldar upp brenna in l. 192, rather than eldr brennr). Grettisfrslas
version of Griaml is thus closer to the sagas than to the law-books, but
as the Grettis saga manuscripts suggest, the formula was obviously
susceptible to variation during manuscript transmission. It is also likely
that the composer of Grettisfrsla adapted the formula to his poetic
72
Saga-Book
purposes, as in several places the Grettisfrsla version disagrees with all

other Griaml texts in ways consistent with the rest of the poem. For
example, the addition of eur at the beginning of ll. 19294 makes them
echo the beginnings of many lines in the previous section, and shortening
of ll. 191 and 193 by omission of the word menn makes them a better
match to the short lines elsewhere in the poem. The order of ll. 19193
in Grettisfrsla also differs from that of all other texts of the formula,
which have the sequence Christians: heathens: fire, though it is not
immediately apparent what effect might have been intended by this. It is
therefore difficult to draw any firm conclusions about textual relationships from this evidence.
Relationship between Grettisfrsla and Grettis saga
lafur Halldrsson, the first person to consider the relationship of
Grettisfrsla to Gr, thought there was no evidence of an original link
between the two. In his 1960 article, he argued that nothing in what
remains of the poem recalls the conversation of the farmers as it is quoted
in ch. 52, and that the handing over or conveying of Grettir suggested
in the name Grettisfrsla does not take place; he also claimed that the
poems characterisation of Grettir as an able worker and a sexual athlete
has no counterpart in the saga; and that Grettisfrsla is quite unlike
other poems preserved in connection with saga narratives. He therefore
proposes that the sagas Grettisfrsla is not our poem, and the poems
Grettir, not Grettir smundarson. A much later text, whose main character happened to have the same name as the hero, had been attached to
Gr and the poems name interpolated into the sagas description of unrelated events.
lafurs argument is based on a survival and an analogue. The
survival is a childrens rhyme, or ula, recorded in several variant
forms from rural Iceland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries;
Jnas Kristjnsson was lafurs oral informant for one at that time
unpublished version (see Jnas Kristjnsson 1981). The ula contains several echoes of Grettisfrsla, some exact (both have the phrase
margt kann Grettir vel at vinna), some bowdlerised: Grettir kisses,
buys, or lulls to sleep maidens, cows, and so on. From references
in this childrens rhyme to Grettir being made from the fifth leg of
a sheepmaterial with no counterpart in the surviving part of Grettisfrslalafur concludes that the ulas Grettir, and so also the
hero of Grettisfrsla, is a phallic token rather than a human being.
Grettir also appears in ulur of snake-heiti in some manuscripts of
Grettisfrsla
73
Snorra Edda (SnE 184887, II 487, 570), and the metaphor snake =
phallus is not a very great leap. Having deduced this, the obvious
analogue is Vlsa ttr, another story of the adventures of a phallus.
This narrative, recounted in Flateyjarbk as an example of the missionary successes of lfr helgi, tells how a heathen family in Sweden
worship the magically preserved severed penis of a horse, the vlsi.
They play a game in which the vlsi is passed around the family and
each member has to extemporise a verse before he or she can
pass it on. The folklore antecedents of Vlsa ttr were investigated by Andreas Heusler early last century (1903). Heusler
concluded that the ttr preserved the memory of a pagan fertility
rite associated with harvest-time and involving the veneration, sometimes at a ceremonial meal, of the severed penis of a slaughtered
animal. Other scholars compare this custom to a Faroese weddingritual, in which feasters pass an animals tail, known as a drunnur,
from hand to hand while speaking verses (see Coffey 1989 and references therein). lafur therefore suggests that the original performance
context of Grettisfrsla was a harvest banquet, where the farm-workers
are served sauarsltur, the legs, head and entrails of a sheep, and
pass its severed penis from hand to hand round the table while saying verses. Although none of the analogues state that the phallic
token is driven out or executed at the end of the ceremony (the vlsi
ends up in the jaws of King lfrs dog, but we may reasonably
suspect a Christian agenda here), lafur suggests this happens in
Grettisfrsla on the basis of other medieval carnival practices and
the curses in the last section of the poem. The connection of
Grettisfrsla with Grettis saga is thus, lafur argues, a case of mistaken identity. Someone heard the poems name mentioned without
being familiar with its content, assumed it was about the Grettir of
the saga, and absurd[ly] (H 72) linked the two. Almost everyone
who discusses the poem accepts lafurs theory without comment,
and it does indeed provide a neat and satisfying rationale for several
aspects of Grettisfrsla: its shifts from narrative to dialoguethe
former being the speakers performances, the latter the moments of
passing on; phrases such as haf at en ek agna you have it
(imperative) and Ill be quiet (l. 123) and leyni hvern at sem st
hide from everyone what (is) seen (l. 210); and the curses and threats
in the last section, which are in some details reminiscent of those in
Buslubn (in Bsa saga) and the eddic poem Skrnisml, as well as
of those in Griaml.
74
Saga-Book
The accident of preservation whereby only the poem is preserved in

one manuscript and only the saga context in the others makes it possible
to assume that none of the scribes realised the absurdity of linking
poem and saga. lafurs denial of any connection between poem and
saga (which, it should be noted, is less forceful in his afterword to the
1990 Icelandic reprint of his article) means that either the passage mentioning Grettisfrsla has been interpolated into ch. 52 in all surviving
manuscripts of the saga, which is hardly likely, or all surviving Gr
manuscripts descend from one in which a scribe interpolated the mention of the poem into ch. 52 (H 7172). The latter is not impossible,
especially as the surviving vellums are closely related, but there is no
evidence for it. skar Halldrsson (1977, 628 n. 3) has pointed to the repurposing of the safjrur episode in the Mruvallabk text of
Fstbrra saga (F 6, 122) where the narrative gives orbjrg digra
pride of place instead of Grettir, and argued that Grettisfrslas composition til gamans mnnum for peoples enjoyment signals another
context- and audience-driven reworking of this material. Similarity, rather
than verbatim reproduction, is surely all we are licensed to expect by the
sagas statement that eptir essu vitali eira hafa ktir menn sett fri
at convivial people based that lore on this conversation of theirs.
And there undeniably are similarities. While the sexually explicit passages of the poem have no parallel in Gror in any other medieval
Icelandic text for that matterrecent studies emphasise the sagas occasional obscenity (Vsteinn lason 1993, 69; Glendinning 2002, 107),
and Russell Poole (2003, 27) notes the presence of sexual (and possibly
scatological) themes in its verses in particular. It is true that Gr does not
present Grettir as an eager worker, but his relation to the world of work is
crucial to his characterisation there (Hume 1974; Cook 198285). Grettir
as a worker is typified by excess (baling so fast that eight men are needed
to empty the buckets for him in ch. 17, rowing so hard that the oars snap
in ch. 50) and wilful showing off; as Poole points out (2000, 40406), he
prefers extravagant feats of strength such as lifting rocks and swimming
torrents to unglamorous jobs like blacksmiths work, which he nennti
misjafnt could not always be bothered to do (F 7, 173; Scudder 1997,
133). The chores in Grettisfrsla are certainly menial, but excess and
display have their counterparts in the poem in the long list of tasks
Grettir undertakes and in the (mock-?) adulatory exclamation margt kann
Grettir vel at vinna Grettir knows how to do many things well.
As suggested above, the title of the poem does refer to the scene in ch.
52, albeit obliquely. It draws an analogy, pointed by the word frsla,
Grettisfrsla
75
between the practice of circulating paupers around the farms of the hreppr
and the farmers evasion of their responsibility to annask Grettirhere
annask must mean something like keep an eye on, but it could also be
used of supporting paupers (Sturlunga saga 1946, II 89). Direct verbal
echoes between saga and poem are admittedly few, though it should be
borne in mind that only about two thirds of the poem can now be read. In
addition to the names Kamb[ur] and runn, discussed in the notes to
ll. 11 and 241 of the Text below, the truce formula, Griaml, part of
which is quoted in ll. 19095, is also quoted in full in ch. 72 of the saga,
as part of the trick Grettir plays on the farmers at the Hegranesing, and
the practice of gri is mentioned in ch. 52, though without quotation of
the formula. After rescuing Grettir, orbjrg says to him: skalt vinna
ei . . . at gera engar spekir hr um safjr; engum skaltu hefna, eim
sem atfr hafa verit at taka ik You shall swear an oath . . . to do no
misdeeds here around safjrur; you shall not take revenge on any of
those who were in the expedition to capture you. The quotation from
Griaml in the poem could be a dramatisation of this moment, though
this part is so poorly preserved that it is impossible to be certain.
Orthography
The following brief discussion of the orthography of the manuscript
concentrates on features which potentially have implications for dating.
In general it may be said that the text of Grettisfrsla displays a mixture
of earlier and later forms, as is typical of Icelandic manuscripts from this
period (Hast 1960, 86).
Final -t and -k began to change to the fricatives - and -g in weakly
stressed syllables in the course of the thirteenth century (Stefn Karlsson
2004, 19). This change is not much in evidence, with 22 examples of at
as against seven of ath (i.e. a), and one of p.p.n. sed for st; the later
forms of at, ek, ik and ok are completely absent. The merger of -rl and
-ll, which begins in the thirteenth century but does not become widespread until the fourteenth (Bjrn K. rlfsson 1925, xxx; Stefn
Karlsson 2004, 21), is on the other hand well advanced, with three
examples of -ll (kellingu, ialla and kalla, the last two in rhymes) as
against only one of -rl (iarl). The sound change reflected orthographically
by the replacement of by je or ie first appears around 1200 but is not
common until the fourteenth century (Bjrn K. rlfsson 1925, xiv). In
the Grettisfrsla text the older spellings dominate (se three times and
sed, i.e. st, once, as against a single occurrence each of sie and fie).
Palatalisation of initial g and the replacement of v by v or vo, changes
76
Saga-Book
which took place in the first half of the fourteenth century (Bjrn K.
rlfsson 1925, 6465; Stefn Karlsson 2004, 45, 50, 14; Hreinn
Benediktsson 2002, 231), are both well advanced. There is one example
of sua against five of suo, and single instances of uor (n. spring), uor
(gen. of vr we) and huorke, but none of the corresponding older forms.
The rounding of -ve- to -v- post-consonantally, common by c.1400
(Bjrn K. rlfsson 1925, xiii) is completely absent (huers, huergi and
twice huern).
The distribution of these features is consistent with what Hast (1960,
5979, 8587) reports for the Harar saga portion of AM 556 a 4to (no
palaeographic study of its Gr text exists). He concludes that no conclusion can be drawn from this evidence as to the date of the exemplar, as
the manuscript for the most part exemplifies the stable orthography of
the fifteenth century manuscript-writing industry, and any variations
from this reflect the coexistence of conflicting norms rather than diachronic change (Hast 1960, 86). lafur rightly emphasises the few
instances where later word forms are guaranteed by rhyme (jalla, l. 82,
meur, l. 86, kalla, l. 91), as well as one case where a consonant group
would seem to require an epenthetic u to be pronounceable (bkur
skruma, l. 54). This is rather a scanty harvest, though this may well be
due to the poems loose metre and poor preservation that make the criteria useful in dating skaldic poetry (Kuhn 1983, 26162) difficult to
apply. Few though they are, this type of example does bear on the date of
composition of the poem, rather than that of the writing of the manuscript. However, these linguistic changes are not precisely datable. The
most we can say is that they became widespread in the course of the
fourteenth century (H 6768; Stefn Karlsson 2004). All that can be
concluded from the manuscript orthography, then, is that some at least
of Grettisfrsla probably dates from the fourteenth century; and that
whatever the nature of the scribes exemplar, it did not lead him to deviate from the spelling system he used elsewhere in the manuscript.
Date
These signs of Grettisfrslas being a fourteenth-century composition
are lafurs strongest objection to seeing it as an original part of Gr
(H 67), as the standard dating of the saga is c.1300 (cf. Cook 1993,
242). The terminus ante quem of Grettisfrsla is the date of AM 556 a
4to, c.1500. The poem could therefore be anything up to one hundred
years later than the saga. Gr has long been thought to be one of the latest
slendingasgur, but how late is it exactly? rni Magnsson (cited
Grettisfrsla
77
in Guvarur Mr Gunnlaugsson 2000, 39 n. 2) observed that the

compilers of Flateyjarbk did not insert material about Grettir, as opposed
for example to ormr Kolbrnarskld and Bjrn Htdlakappi, into
their text of lfs saga helga. This suggested to him that Gr could
not have existed in written form when Flateyjarbk was being compiled
c.138795, making Gr a fifteenth-century work. This dating fell out
of fashion in the nineteenth century. Boer (1898) posited that the original
version of the saga dated from the mid-thirteenth century, but had
been revised and interpolated at least twice, by two or possibly three
interpolators working in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries.
Guni Jnsson rejected these arguments (F 7, xiii), and instead dated
the entire saga to very late in the thirteenth century or early in the
fourteenth (F 7, lxviiilxx). This date is supported by the old idea that
Sturla rarson, mentioned several times in Gr, is in fact its author (see
rnlfur Thorsson 1994, 90708). The borrowing of Continental Novelle
motifs in the Spesar ttr has also been seen as characteristic of this
period (Nordland 1953, 38).
But Gr has been steadily getting younger in more recent scholarship.
In 1977 skar Halldrsson expressed a view that it dated from the
mid-fourteenth century, though without enlarging on his reasons for
thinking so (1977, 639 n. 25). rnlfur Thorsson has argued that
the sagas references to Sturla do not indicate his authorship, but are
merely examples of the medieval fondness for auctores (1994, 915).
rnlfur points out that the medieval manuscripts of the saga all
date from the fifteenth century and do not differ greatly from one
another, suggesting a comparatively short period of scribal transmission,
and that Gr contains many late loan-words not known from other sagas
(1994, 91824). Furthermore, he argues, what Kirsten Hastrup (1986)
takes to be evidence of a sudden surge in popularity of the Grettir
materials in the fifteenth century (the composition of the first cycle of
Grettisrmur and occurrence in the historical record of Grettir as a personal
name) is most economically explained by the hypothesis that this
was the time of the composition of the saga. rnlfurs arguments are
rather persuasive and are supported by Guvarur Mr Gunnlaugssons
(2000) exploration of the reception of the Grettir materials in medieval
and post-medieval Iceland. Hubert Seelow (2005) concurs and adds
that apparent borrowings from the later redaction of Tristrams saga in
Spesar ttr probably simply reflect the fact that the Grettis saga author
knew this redaction of Tristrams saga. This would suggest, once again,
a date for Grettis saga sometime in the fifteenth century. If we are
78
Saga-Book
convinced of a fifteenth-century date for Gr, lafurs objection that

Grettisfrsla dates from no earlier than the fourteenth century no longer
carries much weight. Rather, both saga and poem would date from the
late medieval surge of Grettir-related composition described by Hastrup
and Guvarur Mr.
Conventions of the edition
1. The text is normalised to a late thirteenth-century standard.
2. Grettisfrsla has many illegible passages, of greatly varying length.
Each illegible letter, as in lafurs transcription (H 5254), is indicated in the Text with a small nought 0. Illegible passages, whatever
their length, are indicated in the Translation with a suspension . . ..
3. Abbreviations are mostly expanded silently in the Text. The interested reader should refer to lafurs transcription, where they are indicated
with italics.
4. In a few places lafur suggests a possible alternative transcription
to that given in his main text. In the present edition these alternatives are
given in the notes.
5. Letters supplied in the Text for illegible letters in the ms. are indicated by square brackets, e.g. [at]. Unless otherwise stated in the notes,
the additional letters have been supplied by the present editor, and the
number of letters supplied usually corresponds to the number of illegible letters in the ms.
6. Emendations, i.e. changes in the Text to letters which are legible
in the ms., are indicated by italics, e.g. freti. The ms. reading (from
lafurs transcription) is given in the notes.
7. Supplied letters and emendations are signalled in the Translation
by italicisation of the entire word concerned. Thus alerted, the reader
can check the extent of the alteration in the Text. Explanatory words
added in the Translation are enclosed within round brackets.
8. Letters added where nothing is missing in the ms. and editorial
punctuation marks (kept to a minimum), and resulting capital and lowercase letters where these differ from the ms., are enclosed within angled
brackets in the Text. Ms. punctus is sometimes silently taken as a comma,
in line with its use in medieval mss, e.g. to mark line endings. Where
ms. punctuation has been suppressed, this is indicated with an asterisk in
the Text.
Grettisfrsla
79
9. Where it is possible to make line breaks in the poem on the basis e.g.
of end-rhyme or syntactic parallelism, this has been done. In less evidently metrical parts, line-divisions follow the ends of sentences, where
these can be ascertained; very badly damaged sections are simply divided into lines of approximately equal length.
GRETTISFRSLA
Karl nam at ba
beint m v [lsa]
3 . . . [ afdali]9
THE HANDING ON OF GRETTIR

An old man began to farm
that can be clearly proclaimed
in a remote valley . . .
[rest of leaf illegible]

hann ei 000
latti Gretti10 0ala
6 v000000 0ala
ka0000 00fl 0ar000
00 verm11 freyddi12 00
9 er llum trllum 0ley<.>
<F> [at] 00000
undir 00000 00 000 Kamb[ur]14
1 2 00ann hann s00 draugum.
00
9 The
. . . he did not . . .
dissuade Grettir . . .
...
...
. . . warm river frothed . . .
which with/by/to/from all trolls13 . . .
You take that . . .
under . . . Kambur
. . . he . . . with/by/to/from ghosts.
words in brackets are Gubrandur Vigfssons readings (1861, 126).

Gubrandur prints lsa in italics, suggesting that the word was not clear, and
presumably the same is true of afdali.
10 Ms. Gr-.
11 Verm f. warm river is unattested, but cf. verm(s)l n. hot spring, and
the river-name Verm Warm River (O Verma) and lake-name *Vermir
Warmer (Rygh 18971924, IV 97). This warm, frothing river is perhaps
reminiscent of the description of Bsis sexual encounter with the farmers
daughter: allur beurinn lk einu lauri undir henni all the bedding was
awash with foam under her (Bsa saga 2005, 31).
12 Ms. freddi. Spellings in which i/ is written for y/ appear from about
1500, but are uncommon; see Stefn Karlsson (2004, 50).
13 Er could be is/which/when/that. After the finite verb freyddi, which or
when seem most likely. With/by/to/from in the translation renders the dative
case of llum trllum.
14 Ms. Kemb00 . The initial capital suggests this is a proper noun. It could
be the farm Kambr (modern Kambur, a working farm until its abandonment
in 1954), which lies in the Vestfirir between Reykjarfjrur and Veiileysa,
approximately 40 kilometres east of where the action of ch. 52 takes place.
According to ch. 12 of Gr, Kambr belonged to orgrmr hrukollr, Grettirs
paternal grandfather. There is another case of possible confusion between e
and a in line 233.
80
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
<H>ann kann erja,

ok korn 00 000000 at [berja],15
ok 00 0000000i
ok ha00000
ok 00000000
ok haga vel plgi.
<H>ann kann at sl
ok at raka lj,
vera hlaupi
ok bera l00 hrundum.
<M>argt kann Grettir vel at vinna.
<H>ann kann malt mala
meyjum le00 [g]ala
00000 0000 hripspala,17
ok vi [p]kum dala.
<U>pp00 skal 00000 <>su.18
Enn kann [a]t 00ala
st00 00 000k,
<o>k sv mun strk bera,
0a 0 veii 00000 000 00 0000 0000
vi 0000flki19 [s]kjala,
<o>k n 20 bsmala.
Myklu kann <G>rettir fleira* vel at
vinna<:>
hann greiir festum
Saga-Book
He knows how to plough,
and . . . thresh corn,
and . . .
and . . .
and . . .
and manage a plough well.
He knows how to mow
and rake mown grass,
run errands
and bring . . . (to) women.16
Grettir knows how to do many things well.
He knows how to grind malt,
sing . . . (to) maidens
. . . of basket-laths,
and become dented against girls.
up . . . shall . . . sa.
Moreover (he) knows how to . . .
...
and thus will convey the rascal,
. . . hunting/fishing . . .
to boast with . . . folk,
and to catch livestock.
Grettir knows how to do many more
things well:
he gets ready ropes,21
15 Conjecture suggested by lafur (H 55). His transcription notes three

illegible letters: perhaps berja.
16 Hrund appears in a ula of valkyrie-names (Skm 1998, I 115), and is a
common baseword in woman-kennings. In the rmur it is occasionally used on
its own to mean woman, e.g. Bsa rmur VI, 4, VII, 54 (Bsa rmur 1974,
75, 90), and this is probably what is meant here. Hrund is also an islandname (Skm 1998, I 97, II 480), and a variant of obscure meaning in Haustlng
11:2 (Skm 1998, I 32), but neither of these is likely to be relevant.
17 Two words in the ms. This compound is not attested elsewhere, but a
number of similar compounds with second element splr m. lath, bar exist.
18 Ms. sv = su, perhaps an inflected form of the womans name sa.
Another possibility is acc. pl. of ss god.
19 There are many possibilities here: bosflk banquet-guests, kven(n)flk
women, orkuflk working people, landsflk people of the land, etc., though
the context may favour kven(n)flk.
20 The combination n + prep. is not otherwise attested in ON, but is
common in mod. Icel. (Blndal n 2).
21 Or perhaps he serves at betrothals, though greia does not normally take
the dative case. lafur therefore suggests this is a scribal error for hann greiir
fyrir gestum he tends guests (H 58).
Grettisfrsla
39
42
45
48
<o>k gefur hestum<;>

drykk at blanda
ooooo eld kynda,
<o>k 00000 000nda
<o>k stre[ptun] km skynda,23
lsu<m>24 at25 lka,
<o>k at lita dka,
vi eld at hka
<o>k vekja upp pka,
lta freti26 fjka,
<o>k moga27 kellingu sjka,
k00e00i 00unga 00 0000 000
<o>k vi skei at skotta,28
22
81
and feeds horses;

to blend drink,
. . . kindle fire,22
and . . .
and hasten out last drops from cows udders,
to close locks,
and to dye cloths,
to hunker by the fire
and wake up demons,
let fly with a fart,
and bang a sick old lady,
...
and move back and forth against the sheath,
Cf. Helgakvia Hundingsbana II, 39 (NK 158):

scalt, Hundingr, hveriom manni
ftlaug geta ok funa kynda,
hunda binda, hesta gta,
gefa svnom so, r sofa gangir.
You shall, Hundingr, get the foot-bath for every man and light the fire, tie
up the dogs, tend the horses, give the pigs swill, before you go to sleep.
23 lafurs transcription has stre 000 kum skynnda, but Louis-Jensen (2005),
who proposes this conjecture, can see no gap between stre and the following group of letters in the UV photographs. She accordingly suggests reading
streptun. According to Louis-Jensen strept n. and streptun/streftun f. milking
to the last drop, stripping of milk, streftir f. pl. and streftur m. last drops do
not appear in dictionaries prior to Blndal, though a vb. strefta strip is
attested in a word-list from c.1700. If her conjecture is correct, this would be
another example of Grettisfrslas evidence for a word predating the next
instance by several hundred years, thanks to its relatively uncommon subjectmatter and straightforward style. Here, although the overt reference is to farm
work, it seems possible that a sexual innuendo is intended (cf. also l. 49).
24 The ms. has lsu (lss m. lock) (H 54). Dat. lsi or lsum would be
expected, but the final letter is (according to lafur) almost certainly a u;
probably a nasal stroke is missing.
25 lafur comments that in the manuscript this word looks like (H 54).
26 Ms. frede.
27 The meaning of the verb moga is obvious from the context; there is also
a Faroese verb mogga with the same or a similar meaning, which must be the
frequentative form (H 5859). Moga is unknown in mod. Icel. and very
sparsely recorded in ON, though lafur Halldrsson (2003) has suggested it
appears in one of the verses from the Bryggen runic corpus.
28 The verb skotta is perhaps related to skopta and seems to mean to move
back and forth (intransitive) (O 1. skotta). Its other early attestations are in
nautical contexts, where at lta skip skotta vi is taken to mean to make the
Saga-Book
82
<o>k skafa potta,
5 1 brynna
000000 000000 00
00a
54
57
60
63
66
[d]ulku[fl]a[r]
<b>ta bkhlaup29 guma,
ok bkur skruma.
00 000 kendur 00000
0000 000000 flesta,
<o>k at moga presta,
alla senn ok sslumenn,
streur hann 000000000 00000
kvu hann fara eyjar,
<o>k serur meyjar,
gjrir grepprekkjur,30
<o>k serur ekkjur,
hvers manns konu,
ok alla bnda sonu,
til ess er hann sendur<:>
at sera bendur
000000 00000000 000
6 9 at hann strei prfasta,
hirmenn stra,
<o>k gjrvalla hirstjra,
and scrape pots,

give water to . . .
. . . disguises
cure mens diarrhoea,
and prattle into books.
. . . known . . .
. . . most,
and to bang priests,
and bailiffs all at the same time,
he fucks . . .
they said he went to islands,
and fucks maidens,
makes beds for men,
and fucks widows,
every mans wife,
and all farmers sons,
for this he is sent:
to fuck farmers
...
that he may screw provosts,
great courtiers,
and governors entirely,
ship move to and fro (see H 59 for a survey of the dictionary material). A
skei is a kind of warship (Jesch 2001, 12326), so this meaning is possible
here, assuming the presence of a verb like lta in the now illegible previous
line. Given the context, however, it is more likely that skei refers here to a
domestic object: the possibilities are a sley (an implement, often sword-shaped,
used by weavers to compact the weft), a sheath or scabbard, or possibly a
thin piece of wood (O 2. skei). In any case, it seems likely that the phrase
is a metaphor for sexual intercourse, with skei signifying either vagina
(sheath) or penis (sley, stick).
29 lafur discusses this words cognates in other Gmc languages (H 59). Its
earliest attestation other than the present instance seems to be the late sixteenthto early seventeenth-century Lkningabk of Oddur Oddsson Reynivllum;
see the online corpus of H at http://lexis.hi.is.
30 Lit. man-beds. The ms. has grepp Reckur, but it is difficult to make
sense of acc. sg. grepp (rather than dat. pl. greppum for men or gen. sg./pl.
grepps/greppa a mans/mens) if these words do not form a compound. For
the sexual implications of gjrir rekkju, cf. the description of rll and r,
who rekkiu gru made a bed, i.e. were married (Rgsula 11: Dronke
1997, 164, 221; also H 60), and the hap. leg. hrrekkja (v.ll. horkona,
hor ekkia) in Borgarthings-Christenret, glossed kona su er liggr med manni
a launungu that woman who lies with a man secretly (possibly merely a
word-division error?) (NGL II 305).
Grettisfrsla
72
75
78
81
84
87
90
93
96
000ngir 0000000
en mogar alla byskupa,

nir hann snjta,
en serur bta,
alla k000 0000 00000
32 gjrir hann unga,
hann streur konunga,
v er hann vanur at moga*
barna ok hertoga,
streur hann greifa alla,
bi riddara ok jalla,33
en er sl er austri,
serur hann abbads at klaustri <>
strt er hans reur <>
ok allar systurnar meur,
streur hann kr ok klfa,
<o>k k000 vel000sra34 sjlfa,
at ikkir honum smi,
at sera pfann at Rmi,
bi konur ok kalla,35
<o>k patrarka alla.
Serur hann djkna kta,
<o>k 000 00000
streur hann at er kvikt er flest,
<o>k sofend[ur] 000 000ptur hann gaua
83
...
and bangs all bishops,
he rubs knobs,31
and fucks abbots,
all . . .
he gets them pregnant,
he screws kings,
and so hes used to banging
barons and dukes,
he screws all counts
both knights and earls,
and when the suns in the east,
he fucks abbess in cloister
his dick is big
and all the sisters too,
he screws cows and calves,
and . . . well . . . reverends themselves,
it seems to him an honour,
to fuck the pope at Rome,
both women and men,
and all patriarchs.
He fucks cheery deacons,
and . . .
he screws most things that are alive,
and sleepers . . . him of yelps36
31 Snjtr, a rare word only otherwise attested in the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries, means snout, but here, as lafur suggests, presumably
means penis (H 60).
32 Ms. eim. eim gjrir hann unga could mean for them he gets (a
woman) pregnant, taking unga as f. acc. sg. of adj. ungr heavy, i.e.
pregnant. This meaning is not listed in dictionaries, but is conceivable in the
light of lttur, lit. un-light, and (mod. Icel. only) ungaur, both of which
mean pregnant. However, the repetition of this phrase in l. 100 with
them m. acc. pl. in place of eim makes it more likely that eim in the present
line is a mistake for (m. acc. pl.); cf. the note to l. 100.
33 The rhyme alla: jalla (i.e. jarla) reflects the merging of rl and ll, a
process which began in the fourteenth century (Stefn Karlsson 2004, 21, 46).
Cf. kalla, l. 91.
34 Ms. sna; for the spelling with , cf. Gumundur Andrssons Lexicon Islandicum (1683) s.v. sra. Sra (here normalised to sra) is a minor
emendation of an otherwise puzzling word, and is contextually appropriate.
35 I.e. karla; once again rl and ll rhyme with one another (see note to l. 82 above).
36 The inf. of the verb gaua scold (or perhaps gen. pl. of gau f./n.
coward) would fit better in the context, but both appear to be very late: the
84
hinn37 000
stendur hann vi s[inn]38
<o>k streur 0000 s00000.
39 gjrir hann unga,
bi gamla ok unga,
alla senn ok sslumenn,
at m kalla,
at hann strei alla
0000000 snjalla,
<o>k 0000 000 sem 00 0000.
v fri ek r <G>retti,
at hann 00000 gla000 fresskettir,
fra41 honum at r,
at hann er r skyldur
00 r000 00 000 0 000000
brn er43 mir 00 000000
mun s eiga ok a0000
ok ver[a] 00000 000000
f00000 enn st0g00000
far nktur norur
meur nings orum
000000 000000.
Ok vsa44 00000 s ykkur at fast,
en 00agnand00 lauss falli
v 000 ekur 000gi kau000
0eig00000000 000 stroin,
haf at en ek agna 0000
00000 00all0
99
102
105
108
111
114
117
120
123
Saga-Book
. . . that one . . .
he stands by the sea . . .
and screws . . .
He gets them pregnant,
both old and young,
and bailiffs all at the same time,
it can be said,
that he screws all
valiant40 . . .
and . . . as . . .
For this reason I convey to you Grettir,
because he . . . tomcats,
I deliver (him/it) from him into your hands,
because hes related to you42
...
children when mother . . .
she will possess and . . .
and become . . .
...
be off naked northwards
with the reputation of a scoundrel
...
And (this) verse . . . let it be attached to you,
and . . . let it get free
because . . . drives . . .
. . . fucked,
you have it (imperative) and Ill be quiet . . .
verb is eighteenth-century, and this meaning of the noun gau seems first to
appear in the seventeenth century (O, OH). Gau f. bark, yelp, on the other
hand, is medievally attested, albeit sparsely (ONP).
37 Or possibly honum to him (H 54).
38 This line is particularly difficult to read in the ms. Possible alternative
readings are: for stendur, steykur/-ar/-er; for vi, vm; for s[inn], sgenn
(H 54).
39 could be read eim them dat. pl. (H 54), but it would have to be
taken to mean for them; but unga here presumably agrees with the m. acc. pl.
adjs gamla and unga in l. 101, indicating that the pregnant persons are male.
40 The missing noun presumably agrees with snjalla valiant (m. acc. pl.).
41 Fra could alternatively be the infinitive, to deliver . . ..
42 Skyldur, here translated related, could alternatively mean under an obligation to.
43 Er could alternatively be the relative which.
44 Vsa, here translated verse, could alternatively be the imperative sg. of
vsa to show.
Grettisfrsla
126
129
132
135
138
141
144
Ok <F>reyr 0000000000
en fretir 000 00 fyrir<,>
tak vi e0 s00000ki
Ok re000000li hann<,>45
ek skal [s]v 00000yr sem 000000
eur 000 brur sem <K>ristur
000 0000pp00 lamb ,
eur 00000 kr klf
kngur eur k000 k00000
grs gyltu,
eur grai hestur,46
<F>reyr at forneskju,
eur fjndann 000 0000
skarfur skeri,
eur fyl meri:
at s r ok veri.
S sv hvr ykkar
sgu 000 00000 0000
brenni flekk47 b000
eur b000000 0ll00 0000
0000000 00000000
eur sel000 kam0 0048

0uk000 fresti
147 eur 000000 00 ba 000kit
eur boi 0ei er at g0a00
sem sjr at sandi
150 eur 0000000 hfi,
sem l0000 00 0000i
85
And Freyr . . .
than that you should fart . . . because of it
accept (imperative) . . .
And . . . on him,
I shall . . . like . . .
or . . . to a monk as Christ
. . . lamb to ewe,
or . . . cow to calf
king or . . .,
piglet to sow,
or gelding to foal,
Freyr to heathendom,
or . . . the devil
cormorant on skerry,
or foal to mare:
may that be for you and (your) husband.
Thus may each of you (two) be
(in) story . . .
would burn raked-out hay . . .
or . . .
...
or . . .
. . . (to) delay
or . . . to dwell . . .
or breaker . . . is to . . .
like sea to sand
or . . . (to) head,49
like . . .
45 A comma or full stop is needed here because the order of the words ek
skal shows they begin a new clause. hann could also mean he/it possesses
or (I/he/it) possess(es) him/it.
46 Although graur is not recorded as a noun elsewhere, cf. graddi and
graungur (both meaning bull), and graur adj. uncastrated. The context
suggests that both nouns refer to the same species of animal, making (ungelded)
foal the most likely translation of grai. Cf. O graur.
47 This meaning of flekkr seems not to appear elsewhere before the seventeenth century (OH, O flekkur 1.). In O. Icel. it normally means fleck,
spot, stain.
48 Possibly sel[r at] kam[pi] seal to whiskers, cf. mod. Icel. kampselur
m. bearded seal.
49 The context might suggest hfi headland, but the second noun in
these lines is usually dat., here of hfu head. Possibly [hr at] hfi hair
to head, or [hrit at] hfi, since according to lafurs transcription seven
illegible letters precede hfi.
86
Saga-Book
eur lax at straumi,

153 sem frost breum,50
156
159
162
165
eur fjk yfir heium,

sem rn 51 bjrgum
eur lft at dni,
sem kr bsi
eur 0y0t00 at 0000
sem ylgja52 hfum
eur e00 d00 00 0k000000a
sem 00000000
eur 000 0000000000
sem 0000 00 0000000
eur hland kamri,
eur eitur at illsku
00000000000000
sem draugur 00000000

168 eur kgur at ri
sem <>r at <>rvangi,53

eur 0000000
171 flest kann guma.
G000000 eptir <G>retti,
sem gras eptir at 000
174 sem 000i 000000 000000000 um 00um
sv [ok] rassragur sefi.
Ra56 0000000000000
177
000000000000000
llum 000
sem glp 000 rum,
180 stikna <,> innan vertu
000
or salmon to stream,
like frost on glaciers,
or drifting snow(-storm) over heaths,
like eagle on sea-cliffs
or swan to down,
like cow in stall
or . . . to . . .
like swell on seas
or . . .
like . . .
or . . .
like . . . in . . .
or piss in privy,
or poison to malice
...
like ghost . . .
or fringe to thread
like rr to rvangr,
or . . .
of (all) men (he) knows/can do most.54
. . . after Grettir,
like grass after . . .
like . . . about . . .
so too an arse-fucked (-fucking) one might
soothe (him).55
...
...
on all . . .
like crime . . . with/by/to/from another,
may you be roasted, may you be inside
50 The first attestation of the simplex brei as a common noun in ON

(ONP). It occurs as the name of a slave in ch. 1 of Vlsunga saga (1965, 1),
possibly as a back-formation from breafnn (Bjrn K. rlfsson 1934,
301). The common noun brei is frequent in mod. Icel. (OH).
51 This word could also be read as at (H 54).
52 The first attestation of ylgja f. in ON (ONP). It is fairly frequent in mod.
Icel. (OH).
53 Unparalleled sg. form, cf. rvangar in Skm (1998, I 22) and rheimr
in Gyl (1988, 5) and Grmnisml 4 (NK 58).
54 Cf. margt/myklu kann Grettir (fleira) vel at vinna, ll. 23 and 35.
55 The line could alternatively mean so too arse-fucked (-fucking) kinsman, taking sefi as the masc. noun relation, relative.
56 A number of possible homographs: nom. sg. of ra f. speech, talk;
indeclinable adj. ra on heat, of a sow; nom. sg. of ra f. rod; gen. pl.
of ri n. oar; inf. of ra to speak.
Grettisfrsla
0000000000000000000
en ola hvergi.
183 0000a 00 ofan,
en r00000000 0000000
sendu hann upp
186 00000000000000g0
vit0000akn000ra0 klpi58
00 h00000000ni
189
00000000000 0000000
sem vast menn varga reka,

eur heinir hof blta,
192 eur eldar upp brenna,
eur kristnir kirkjur skja,

eur valur flgur vrlangan dag,
195 ok standi honum beinn byr undir
ba vngi.
<H> f 0al00 000 fr
kem[ur] 0gin ar at gi auga
198
201
204
207
210
213
elfur fjllum.
Ok f0000000 0 00m00 fagurgrena,60
duga 000 draum0
ok sa00 0000afir61
landi 00000000000000000g
r hungri ok kvlum
b000 ok [v]lum
ok 0000000000000000000000000 00000
haf eyjar hvrki e000ni 000
ok s00 hann 00000 00
hr00 00000000gilig00 y000 kroppnir,
ell0 0fndi er ka0 kend00 00tli
en leyni hvern at sem st
0000000000ur 0si,
e000 r[a]g[ur] 00000 hla0i
000 kom gra00 fyndir 00000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000
57
87
...
but be at peace nowhere.
. . . from above,
but . . .
send (imperative) him up57
...
. . . may (they) pinch
...
...
as far and wide as men ever drive outlaws off,59
or heathens sacrifice in temples,
or fires blaze up,
or Christians attend churches,
or falcon flies a spring-long day,
if a fair wind blow under both
his wings.
Seas . . . from
comes . . . where (everything) would
look fearful to (his) eye
. . . river (in) mountains.
And . . . of bright firs,
suffice . . . dream . . .
and . . .
on land . . .
to you with hunger and torments
. . . and (with) tricks
and . . .
sea islands neither . . .
and . . . he . . .
. . . crooked,
...
but hide from everyone what (is) seen
...
. . . always effeminate . . .
. . . came into . . . (you) might have
found . . .
sendu could also be 3rd pers. pl. past: (they) sent him up.
In mod. Icel. klpa also means to taunt or ridicule (rni Bvarsson
1963, klpa vb. 2), but this figurative usage is not attested before the midnineteenth century (OH).
59 This line and the five following are from Tryggaml/Griaml.
60 Two words in the ms., but cf. the numerous poetic compounds in fagr(LP). Another possibility is fagrgrna bright green.
61 Perhaps a past participle (m. nom. pl.), such as krafir not demanded.
58
88
216
219
222
225
228
231
Saga-Book
le0n k00sir sem ldum jarl62

00000000000000000000nda0000ui
0al00 sem 0000000
flim ok forneskja,
ok flest g[r]ski,63
ald[ar] annmarkar,
ok gran[di]
all000 00000 ok arfleysa,
s[em] gekk vi ol[i] 0000 000
ok duga ok 0k0aga
ok djfl[i] le[sa Bus]lub[n]65
ok bl k000000i
vanur alla lkams 000000000 ella,
lok[s meur]66 dmi [ok] daua<.>
00000000 [ek] s pka ok anda,
er ek [ma]gnda
ok 0000000 ar er 00000000
at 00000 vegum ti,
<o>k s andvana alls er urfim.
<S>v at heml067 000 00000 dmsdegi.
62
. . . like jarl (to) men

...
. . . like . . .
libel and heathen spells,
and most malice,
mens faults,
and (with) injury 64
. . . and needlessness,
who/which went on with patience
. . . and to help and . . .
and to read Buslubn to the devil
and misfortune . . .
lacking all bodily . . . otherwise,
finally with judgment and death.
. . . I saw demons and spirits,
whom I made strong with spells
and . . . where . . .
that you . . . out on the roads,
and would be lacking in everything we
would need.
So to . . . (on) doomsday.
Bsi calls his penis jarl minn in ch. 7 of Bsa saga (2005, 17). Jarl can
mean turd in mod. Icel. (O 2. jarl). Almqvist (196574, I 201 n. 58)
suggests this could be a reference to rleifrs n against Hkon jarl Sigurarson
(cf. flm ok forneskja in the next legible line).
63 Ms. g00 eski. The word proposed here, grski, is an otherwise unattested
f. or n. form of grska/grzka f. malice, spite, < *gra isko.
64 Or possibly part of the vb. granda to harm?
65 This bold conjecture is lafurs (H 54), though his transcription shows
an illegible letter before le0000. He suggests lese, i.e. lesi 3rd pers. sg. (or
possibly 1st pers. sg. subj., see Stefn Karlsson 2004, 2930), but the infinitive form lesa seems more likely in view of duga inf. in the preceding line.
Nine verses of Buslubn Buslas prayer, a poem in eddic measures, are
cited in ch. 5 of Bsa saga (2005, 1215; Heusler and Ranisch 1903, 126
28 gives manuscript variants). King Hringr has taken Bsi and Herraur
prisoner. Busla, Bsis fostermother, visits King Hringr in his bedroom after
nightfall and addresses Buslubn to him. The poem curses Hringr with various misfortunes (some of a sexual nature) if he does not release the captives.
It magically paralyses the king, who grants her request.
66 lafurs transcription gives only four illegible letters between lok and
dmi (lok0 000 dom); the -ur in meur would have been expressed as a
superscript abbreviation.
67 Hemlir occurs in the ulur, as a sea-king and a ship-name, and seems
likely to derive from hamla f. oar-loop (LP). It is not at all clear how this
Grettisfrsla
234 [At] r galdur gjri sv sterk0000
at veslisk at viti
00rengu 0000000000000
237 aldri heimtir essi f []68 fl[naa]
stekki,
<o>k leysir ik af 0000000
[meur] ik er ergi<,>
240 fyrr k[v]nir kyssti[r]<,>
[en ] <>runni70 hrak71 sk[al]
matinn72 h[afa]
b00 00 fyrir hrundamuur,73
89
On you I cast a spell so strong . . .

that you may grow weak in wit
...
(so that you) may never get those flocks
back into bare sheepfolds,69
and free yourself from . . .
lust is in you,
previously (you) kissed wives,
but when to runn a coward has to put
the food
. . . before (it) the mouth of penises,
would fit here, and it is tempting to read haml[a] to hinder, maim, cripple
(cf. l. 11 and note).
68 lafurs transcription marks two illegible letters between f and fl[naa].
69 Lit. into ruined sheepfolds, taken here as sheepfolds in which
the grass is dead and withered (flnat; thanks to Valgerur Erna orvaldsdttir for this suggestion). This is rather reminiscent of the double
entendre of Hallfrers lausavsa 17: tt orfgir, frr, eigi stul
van (hirandi ntr hjarar hjrvangs) ok kv langa though the scytheshover, unlovely, has a wide milking-shed (the sword-plains keeper enjoys
his livestock) and a long sheep-pen (text from Skj B I 161, translation from
Whaley 1997, 245).
70 Acc. or dat. of the womans name runn, probably lover of rr
(Gurn Kvaran and Sigurur Jnsson 1991, 544, 599). Its similarity to
orbjrg (lit. rescuer of rr), the name of Grettirs rescuer in ch. 52 of Gr,
is unlikely to be accidental, considering the play on this name in the other
verses associated with this episode (Grettirs vikvia 57: F 7, 17172, Skj
B I 28788).
71 Hrak n. rubbish; coward; worthless thing; difficulty, lack (Blndal) is
not attested elsewhere in ON, but Oddur Gottsklkssons 1540 translation of
the New Testament uses it to mean refuse, rubbish: hrak essarar veralldar
1 Cor. IV:13 (purgamenta huius mundi). In Oddurs translation of Antonius
Corvinus (1546), hrak occurs in a doublet with forsmn shame. The earliest
citation in OH where hrak denotes a person would appear to be from Runlfur
Jnssons Grammatic Islandic rudimenta (1651), where Neutra, viros
significantia, ut hrak glosses gerpi.
72 Ms. mten. The most likely candidate in the context is acc. sg. of
matr m. food, with suffixed definite article. Confusion between long and
short vowels, and between single and double final consonants, is very common
in mss.
73 According to lafurs transcription there is a line break after havr and
an illegible letter before vnnda at the start of the next line. ONP nonetheless
lists this as the sole instance of hrundamur, lit. mouth of fleshes. As
hrund means penis in at least one ON source (see Njls saga ch. 7: F 12,
90
Saga-Book
243 s er missti da,
muni74 00 0000s00t
ok 000000 er 0000 00000
246 eyraskeggi ferligu bringu bra
slg75
gr00rn 000000skefl000000
ek geri 000 hvern
249 er segir [r]ttara<,> arfleysu76 skrkvi
eur hlji lesi fyr [sik] ok heyri
[os]s.
Ok at fr ley00 b00ga sk00.
252 Ok bii ess at 000 heim vi ndu
or0000
kngum krist[num] num 0000
at 000000 geymi sv gu vr allra.
which lost valour,

may . . .
and . . . is . . .
sandbanks-dweller (struck) blows monstrously on little brothers chest
...
I make . . . everyone
when he speaks what is more truthful, is
making up idle talk
or let him read it over silently77 and let
him hear us.
And gets that . . .
And let him pray for this, that . . . world
with soul . . .
(with) Christian kings . . .
that . . . God may also keep us all.
24; Mundal and Steinsland 1989; O hrund), the likeliest meaning of

hrundamuur mouth of penises is vagina.
74 Ms. munne.
75 Ms. eyra skegge ferlegu bringu broda slaug. As separate words eyra and
skeggi could be ear and beard (dat.) respectively, but this makes little sense.
Eyraskeggi sandbanks-dweller can be compared to eyja(r)skeggi islanddweller, hraunskeggi lava-dweller, Mostrarskegg(i) person from Moster.
Ferligu is n. dat. sg. of the adj. ferligr monstrous, here perhaps used adverbially.
Bringu is acc./dat. sg. of bringa f. chest. Broa could be gen. pl. of bro n.
broth, fat, common in mod. Icel., but only attested medievally in the poetic
compound broggr broth-ogress (CV); gen. sg. of bri, dim. of brir
brother, is perhaps more likely in the context. Slg is taken here as pl. of
slag n. blow, though ms. slaug could also be slaug f. mockery, or
possibly a spelling of slg, 3rd pers. sg. past tense of sl to strike. It seems
that some kind of physical activity is being described, though its relationship
either to Grettirs sexual adventures or to the curses earlier in the poem is
unclear. The kvilingar in chapter 2 of Gsla saga (F 6, 1011; Skj B I 93,
96) have some similar features: the word skeggi (which Falk (2005) suggests
means pubic hair), fighting as a metaphor for sex, and location near water,
albeit in Gsla saga a hlmr rather than an eyrr, and probably the result of
the saga authors misunderstanding of the verse. However, despite this being
one of the longer runs of clearly decipherable text in Grettisfrsla, it remains
frustratingly difficult to get any really acceptable meaning out of it.
76 Two words in ms.
77 Or perhaps: in secret.
Grettisfrsla
91
Bibliography and abbreviations

Almqvist, Bo 196574. Norrn niddiktning. Traditionshistoriska studier i
versmagi. 2 vols.
rni Bvarsson 1963. slensk orabk handa sklum og almenningi.
Bjrn K. rlfsson 1925. Um slenzkar ormyndir 14. og 15. ld og breytingar
eirra r fornmlinu.
Bjrn K. rlfsson 1934. Rmur fyrir 1600. Safn frafjelagsins um sland og
slendinga IX.
Blndal = Sigfs Blndal 192024. Islandsk-Dansk Ordbog.
Boer, R. C. 1898. Zur Grettissaga. Zeitschrift fr deutsche Philologie 30,
171.
Bsa rmur 1974. Ed. lafur Halldrsson. slenzkar mialdarmur 3.
Bsa saga 2005. Ed. Sverrir Tmasson.
Clunies Ross, Margaret 1998. Prolonged echoes. Old Norse myths in medieval
Northern society. 2 The reception of Norse myths in medieval Iceland.
Coffey, Jerome 1989. The drunnur: a Faroese wedding custom. Arv 45, 716.
Cook, Robert 198285. The reader in Grettis saga. Saga-Book 21, 13354.
Cook, Robert 1993. Grettis saga. In Medieval Scandinavia. An encyclopedia.
Ed. P. Pulsiano and K. Wolf, 24143.
CV = R. Cleasby and Gudbrand Vigfusson 1874. An IcelandicEnglish Dictionary.
Dronke, Ursula, ed., 1997. The Poetic Edda II: Mythological Poems.
Falk, Oren 2005. Beardless wonders: Gaman vas sxu (the sex was great).
In Verbal encounters. Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse studies for Roberta
Frank. Ed. A. Harbus and R. Poole, 22346.
Faulkes, Anthony, ed., 1980. Stories from the sagas of the kings.
Faulkes, Anthony, trans., 2004. The saga of Grettir. In Three Icelandic
Outlaw Sagas, 69264.
Finsen, Vilhjlmur, ed., 1852. Grgs . . . udgivet efter det kongelige Bibliotheks
Haandskrift. 2 parts.
Finsen, Vilhjlmur, ed., 1879. Grgs efter det Arnamagnanske Haandskrift
Nr. 334 fol.
Glauser, Jrg 1996. Tendenzen der Vermndlichung islndischer Sagastoffe.
In (Re)Oralisierung. Ed. H. L. C. Tristram, 11125.
Glendinning, Robert 2002. Luck and the problem of justice in Grettis saga. In
Germanisches Altertum und christliches Mittelalter. Festschrift fr Heinz
Klingenberg zum 65. Geburtstag. Ed. B. Brogyanyi. Schriften zur Medivistik
1, 91112.
Gr = Grettis saga, F 7.
Gubrandur Vigfsson 1861. Um nokkrar slendingasgur. N flagsrit, 11827.
Gumundur Andrsson 1683. Lexicon Islandicum sive Gothicae runae vel Linguae septentrionalis dictionarium.
Gurn Kvaran and Sigurur Jnsson fr Arnarvatni 1991. slensk mannanfn.
Guvarur Mr Gunnlaugsson 2000. Grettir vondum vttum, veitti hel og
reytti: Grettir smundarson og vinsldir Grettis sgu. Gripla 11, 3778.
Gyl = Snorri Sturluson 1988. Edda: Prologue and Gylfaginning. Ed. A. Faulkes.
Hast, Sture, ed., 1960. Harar saga. Editiones Arnamagnan A6.
92
Saga-Book
Hastrup, Kirsten 1986. Tracing traditionan anthropological perspective on

Grettis saga smundarsonar. In Structure and meaning in Old Norse literature:
new approaches to textual analysis and literary criticism. Ed. J. Lindow et
al., 281313.
Heslop, Kate, forthcoming. Grettisfrsla and Grettis saga. In Creating the
Medieval Saga. Ed. Judy Quinn.
Heusler, Andreas 1903. Die Geschichte vom Vlsi, eine altnordische Bekehrungsanekdote. Zeitschrift des Vereins fr Volkskunde 13, 2439.
Heusler, Andreas and Wilhelm Ranisch, eds, 1903. Eddica minora: Dichtungen
eddischer Art aus den Fornaldarsgur und anderen Prosawerken.
Hreinn Benediktsson 2002. Relational sound change: v > vo in Icelandic. In
Linguistic studies: historical and comparative. Ed. Gurn rhallsdttir et
al., 22742.
Hume, K. 1974. The thematic design of Grettis saga. Journal of English and
Germanic Philology 73, 46986.
F 3 = Borgfiringa sgur 1938. Ed. Sigurur Nordal and Guni Jnsson.
F 6 = Vestfiringa sgur 1943. Ed. Bjrn K. rlfsson and Guni Jnsson.
F 7 = Grettis saga 1936. Ed. Guni Jnsson.
F 9 = Eyfiringa sgur 1956. Ed. Jnas Kristjnsson.
F 12 = Brennu-Njls saga 1954. Ed. Einar l. Sveinsson.
O = sgeir Blndal Magnsson 1989. slensk orsifjabk.
Jesch, Judith 2001. Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of
Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse.
Jn Samsonarson 2002. Ljml: fornir jlfsttir. Safn ritgera gefi t
tilefni sjtugsafmlis hfundar 24. janar 2001. Ed. Einar G. Ptursson et al.
Jnas Kristjnsson 1981. Poki fr til Hnausa. In Jansbolli frur Jni Samsonarsyni fimmtugum, Reykjavk 24. jan. 1981, 2327.
Klund, Kristian 188892. Katalog over den Arnamagnanske Hndskriftsamling,
udgivet af Kommissionen for det Arnamagnanske Legat.
Kuhn, Hans 1983. Das Drttkvtt.
Liestl, Aslak 1963. Runer fr Bryggen. Viking 27, 553.
Louis-Jensen, Jonna 2005. En konjektur til Grettisfrsla. Bibliotheca Arnamagnana 44. Opuscula 12, 30406.
LP = Sveinbjrn Egilsson and Finnur Jnsson 1931. Lexicon poeticum antiqu
lingu Septentrionalis = Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog.
Miller, William 1990. Bloodtaking and peacemaking. Feud, law and society in
saga Iceland.
Moltke, Erik 1975. Runeninschriften aus der Stadt Schleswig. Beitrge zur
Schleswiger Stadtgeschichte 20, 7688.
Mundal, Else and Gro Steinsland 1989. Kvinner og medicinsk magi. In
Kvinnors rosengrd. Medeltidens liv och hsa, lust och barnafdande. Ed.
Hedda Gunneng et al., 97121.
NGL = Norges gamle Love indtil 1387. Ed. J. R. Keyser and P. A. Munch,
184695.
NK = Gustav Neckel and Hans Kuhn, eds, 1962. Edda: Die Lieder des Codex
Regius nebst verwandten Denkmlern I: Text. 4th ed.
Grettisfrsla
93
Nordland, Odd 1953. Norrne og europeiske litterre ln i Grettis saga. Maal

og Minne, 3248.
OGNS = J. Fritzner 188696. Ordbog over det gamle norske sprog. 3 vols. Finn
Hdneb 1972. Vol. 4: Rettelser og tillegg.
OH = Gurn Kvaran, Eirkur Rgnvaldsson, Guvarur Mr Gunnlaugsson and
Margrt Jnsdttir 1995. Orabk Hsklans: Ritmlsskr. [Searchable corpus
of citations online at http://lexis.hi.is/cgi-bin/ritmal/leitord.cgi? adg=innsl].
H = lafur Halldrsson 1960. Grettisfrsla. Opuscula 1 (BA 20), 4977.
[Repr. 1990 in Icelandic with additional material in Grettisfrsla: Safn ritgera
eftir laf Halldrsson gefi t sjtugsafmli hans 18. aprl 1990. Ed. Sigurgeir
Steingrmsson et al., 1950.]
lafur Halldrsson 2003. Sgnin moga rnaristu fr Bjrgvin. Gripla 14,
23942.
ONP = H. Degnbol, B. C. Jacobsen, E. Rode, C. Sanders et al., 1989. Ordbog
over det norrne prosasprog / A Dictionary of Old Norse Prose. [Registre, 1:
abam, 2: banda, 3: deem published to date. Complete searchable word-list
online at http://www.onp.hum.ku.dk/webmenue.htm].
skar Halldrsson 1977. Gosgnin um Gretti: nokkrar athuganir. In Sjtu
ritgerir helgaar Jakobi Benediktssyni 20. Juli 1977. Ed. Einar G. Ptursson
and Jnas Kristjnsson.
Perkins, Richard 19982001. The Gateway to Trondheim: Two Icelanders at
Agdenes. Saga-Book 25, 179213.
Poole, Russell 2000. Old Norse/Icelandic Myth in Relation to Grettis saga. In
Old Norse Myths, Literature and Society: Proceedings of the 11th International
Saga Conference, 27 July 2000, University of Sydney. Ed. M. Clunies Ross
and G. Barnes, 398409.
Poole, Russell 2003. Lof en eigi h? The riddle of Grettis saga verse 14. SagaBook 27, 2547.
Rygh, O. 18971924. Norske gaardnavne: oplysninger samlede til brug ved
matrikelens revision.
Scudder, Bernard, trans., 1997. The Saga of Grettir the Strong. In The complete
sagas of Icelanders. Ed. Viar Hreinsson, II 49191.
Seelow, Hubert 2005. Noch einmal: Grettis saga smundarsonar. In Neue
Anstze in der Mittelalterphilologie / Nye veier i middelalderfilologien. Ed. S.
Kramarz-Bein, 197206.
Skj A III, B III = Finnur Jnsson, ed., 191215. Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning.
Skm = Snorri Sturluson 1998. Edda: Skldskaparml. I: Introduction, Text and
Notes. II: Glossary and Index of Names. Ed. A. Faulkes.
SnE 184887 = Snorri Sturluson 184887. Edda Snorra Sturlusonar: Edda
Snorronis Sturli. Ed. Finnur Jnsson and Jn Sigursson. 3 vols.
Stefn Karlsson 2004. The Icelandic Language. Trans. Rory McTurk. [Originally published in Icelandic as Tungan in slensk jmenning VI, 154
(1989)].
Sturlunga saga 1946. Ed. Jn Jhannesson, Magns Finnbogason and Kristjn
Eldjrn. 2 vols.
94
Saga-Book
Sverrir Tmasson 2005. Bsa saga og Herraus: skemmtun allra tma. In Bsa
saga 2005, 4779.
Vsteinn lason 1993. slendingasgur og ttir. In slensk bkmenntasaga.
Ed. Bvar Gumundsson et al., II 25161.
Vlsunga saga 1965 = R. G. Finch, ed. and trans., 1965. The Saga of the
Volsungs.
Whaley, Diana, trans., 1997. The Saga of Hallfred the Troublesome Poet. In The
complete sagas of Icelanders. Ed. Viar Hreinsson, I 22553.
rnlfur Thorsson 1994. Grettir sterki og Sturla lgmaur. In Samtarsgur/
The contemporary sagas. Nunda aljlega fornsagnaingi/Ninth international saga conference, Akureyri 31.76.8 1994: Forprent/Pre-prints, II
90733.
STEFN KARLSSON
19282006
Stefn Karlsson was born at Belgs in Fnjskadalur in northern Iceland
on 2nd December 1928. He was educated at the Grammar School in
Akureyri and Copenhagen University, where he studied, among other
things, Old Norse language and literature under Jn Helgason. He took
his masters degree in 1961 with a thesis on the palaeography and language of medieval Icelandic documents. He also studied at the
Universities in Reykjavk, Uppsala and Oslo, and from 1957 he worked
at the Arnamagnan Institute in Copenhagen where Jn Helgason was
director, and edited Islandske originaldiplomer indtil 1450 (1963). One
outcome of this work was that he came to recognise the handwriting of
many medieval Icelandic scribes and discovered that many of the hands
in early documents could be recognised in manuscripts of the sagas, and
the palaeography of Icelandic manuscripts and the history of the Icelandic language became the central themes of his lifes work. Though he
published important studies on the dating and provenance of various
Old Icelandic manuscripts, much of his work remains unpublished and
much of his extraordinary knowledge of early scribes and their work will
now be irrecoverable. But his very valuable survey of the history of the
Icelandic language was published in his article Tungan in 1989, and
issued in English by the Viking Society as The Icelandic Language in
2004.
Stefns principal work from the 1960s onwards has been on the four
sagas of Bishop Gumundr the Good, in which he became interested
after working on an almost illegible document which turned out to be a
palimpsest, the original text having been part of a manuscript from about
1400 of a saga of Gumundr by Arngrmr Brandsson. The first volume
was published in 1983, the second was nearly completed at the time of
his death. Other important publications have been the introductions to
Sagas of Icelandic Bishops: Fragments of Eight Manuscripts (1967)
and the facsimile edition of Nikuls saga (1982).
In 1970 he returned to Iceland and took up a position at the Icelandic
Manuscript Institute (later Stofnun rna Magnssonar slandi, now a
part of Stofnun rna Magnssonar slenskum frum), and in the following years he also taught courses in palaeography and history of the
language at the University. He was deputy director of the Institute for a
number of short periods, and then in 1994 became director on the retirement of Jnas Kristjnsson and at the same time Professor at the University.
96
Saga-Book
He was awarded honorary doctorates at the University of Copenhagen

in 1999 and at the University of Iceland in 2000.
One side of Stefns work at the institutes in Copenhagen and
Reykjavk was to help and guide other people engaged in editing texts
or other kinds of research, reading and commenting on papers and theses
or odd chapters from works in progress. He was a remarkably helpful
person, unstintingly generous with his time. He was a mainstay at
rnastofnun, ever helpful in the deciphering of difficult readings in
manuscripts. Helpfulness was natural to him, and colleagues and visitors
to the Institute from all over the world have been the grateful beneficiaries
of his encyclopaedic knowledge on a wide variety of problems
concerning the study of manuscripts; he was ready at all times to respond
to queries both verbal and by letter. Moreover, when asked or when he
felt it necessary he often spent long periods of time, sometimes year on
year, collaborating on editions of medieval Icelandic texts, notably rna
saga (published in 1972), Elucidarius (1989), The Icelandic Homily
Book (1993) and slenska teiknibkin (still not yet published). On the
other hand he always insisted on the highest standards in conducting
such research and could be quite harsh in criticising what he regarded as
silly ideas. He always insisted that those who looked to him for
guidance should in all cases pay attention to what the sources actually
say. But his unstinting readiness to help won him many friends, not
only in Iceland and Denmark, but all over Europe and even further
afield.
Stefn had so many of the qualities that make for fine scholarship: he
was accurate, clear-minded and with a phenomenal memory, especially
for styles of handwriting and the characteristics of individual scribes,
and hardly anyone would dare to publish conclusions about Icelandic
scribes before the Reformation without asking his opinion. He was a
meticulous scholar, a specialist in the best sense of the word in his field,
but lived in no ivory tower.
Stefn spent a good deal of time in Copenhagen, and also visited the
Faeroes, Cornell University in the USA, and lectured in many Scandinavian Universities and some in other places and attended many
conferences. He spoke all the Scandinavian languages, and was particularly fond of Faroese.
It would be wrong to say that Stefn put scholarship higher than everything else in life, for he never neglected human intercourse. He was
always the life and soul of parties and gatherings of all kinds, always
eager to take part in any celebration and drink his share. He was a very
Saga-Book
97
generous host, and somehow he always managed to create a happy,

civilised and warm atmosphere around himself, both at home and at
work. He published many scholarly articles early on, but in the last
twenty years confined his contributions almost entirely to Festschrifts
(apart from conference papers), since he had so many acquaintances and
was always ready to pay honour wherever possible, often taking the
initiative in proposing the presentation of Festschrifts to scholars at
some threshold in life. Many of his friends and relations were of a later
generation than himself, and he remained always young in spirit, and
often recalled his own childhood, returning in vacations to spend long
periods in the haunts of his youth, sometimes camping in the woods
near Akureyri.
Stefn died suddenly in Copenhagen on 2nd May 2006, where he was
working at the Institute on the final stages of the second volume of
Gumundar sgur. His loss will be deeply felt, particularly by the innumerable friends and acquaintances whose research he has aided and
contributed to in so many ways throughout the years.
G. M. G.
JOAN TURVILLE-PETRE (NE BLOMFIELD)

10 May 19119 March 2006
Joan Blomfield was a most determined woman. It was that determination
that took her, as a student, to Somerville College, Oxford in 1929, from
a family in Colchester who had no experience of university education,
and at a time when not everyone saw the point of a girl going to university. She studied English, taking a particular interest in the early period
of language and literature, together with Old Icelandic.
She was always a committed scholar, determined to gain a precise and
accurate knowledge of these languages, and equally committed to pass
on that love of precision and accuracy to her many students when she
later became a Tutor and Fellow at Somerville. It was therefore appropriate, perhaps inevitable, that she met the man she was to marry quite
literally over books. Gabriel Turville-Petre was already a leading Icelandic scholar at Christ Church, and they met while Joan was cataloguing
the Icelandic library at Oxford. They married in 1943. With their identity of interests, the marriage was a close one; both of them were devoted
to researching and teaching, travelling together all over Scandinavia
and as far afield as Australia for two visits where they taught for a term.
Joan had begun to establish an academic reputation for herself before
she married, and in 1938 published a study of the Old English epic
Beowulf. Its still valuable today, as are quite a number of her later
studies of Old and Middle English and Old Icelandic, among which are
five contributions to Saga-Book and a translation (with introduction)
of Raulfs ttr in the Payne Memorial Series. She had a gift for
the penetrating insight, the accurate analysis. She continued to research
in the midst of the other demanding duties of a College Fellow,
the teaching, marking exams, the endless committee meetings to run
the college. She did all this while looking after her husband Gabriel, as
well as her first children, Thorlac and Merlin, but it took a lot of juggling. (It has been said that she was one of the pioneers in combining an
academic career with marriage and a family.) One applicant for a teaching post recalled her astonishment at being confronted at her interview
by two pregnant dons, Joan and her good friend Dorothy Hodgkin;
students remember coming to her class and seeing a baby asleep in the
open drawer of a cupboard. Soon after the birth of her third son, Brendan,
Joan decided reluctantly to resign her Fellowship, though she carried on
teaching generations of students from many colleges, and she continued
Saga-Book
99
her writing. She served as President of the Viking Society in 197678,

and remained an active member throughout her life.
She nursed her husband devotedly through his long final illness but
his death in 1978 was a terrible blow which knocked her sideways. She
took some comfort from her teaching, and in order to occupy her mind
she put together an edition of the Old English biblical poem Exodus,
based on lecture notes left by her former teacher, J. R. R. Tolkien. She
had no affection for this book, published in 1981, which was always
associated with a miserable period in her life. How ironic that this little
book is now so sought after by Tolkien fans!
Three years after Gabriels death, Joan left the city where she had
spent her entire adult life to begin again in the Norfolk town of Aylsham.
Just days after she arrived, her youngest son, Brendan, died tragically in
Oxford. The first years in Aylsham were inevitably very hard for her, but
before long her determination started to show itself once again and she
began to build a new life for herself. She developed a passion for Norfolk churches and visited many of them on her bikecycling, perhaps
not altogether safely, well into her 80s. She took up photography (something she hadnt done since she was a teenager), delivering excellent
pictures of the Norfolk countryside to family and friends at Christmas
and birthdays.
She never gave up her researches, and soon began examining medieval Norfolk documents, a frequent visitor to the Norfolk Record Office
in Norwich until it inconveniently burnt down and she had to take the
bus to Lowestoft. She published a number of studies on the origins of
Norfolk place-names and personal names. Even in the last year of her
life, when shed lost the stamina and concentration to work, she hadnt
lost the will, and was still planning to write up the research shed done
on the medieval village of Bradfield, a few miles from Aylsham.
Although she was not a gregarious woman, she took part in her local
community without inviting intimacy. Few people at the Local History
Society, where she was an active and respected member, had any idea of
her background but valued her knowledge and learned input to their
meetings greatly. She became a formidable contestant in the Womens
Institute market; always coming away with the best produce. She took
in washing for Aylsham Carers Trust and held Labour Party Meetings in
her kitchen. Every day, until the last months, of her life she would walk
to her favourite pub and to meet her friends for a pint of real ale.
In these years, she became a stalwart influence in the lives of her four
grandchildren, and later, her two great-grandchildren. Though never a
100
Saga-Book
typical homely mother or grandmother, and singularly unimpressed by

passing fads, she cared deeply about integrity and showed to her family
the same dedication to honesty and consistency as to her work. She
leaves a great gap in the lives of many colleagues, students, friends and
the people she saw each day in the town that grew to love her, but most
of all in the lives of her two sons and their families.
T.T.-P. and D.T.-P.
REVIEWS
ATLANTIC CONNECTIONS AND ADAPTATIONS. ECONOMIES, ENVIRONMENTS AND SUBSIST ENCE IN LANDS BORDERING THE NORTH ATLANTIC.
Edited by RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

and GERAINT COLES. Oxbow Books. Oxford, 2004. 271 pp. ISBN 1 84217 106 2.
This volume contains twenty-four papers, most of which were presented at
the first joint meeting of the Association for Environmental Archaeology (AEA)
and the North Atlantic Biocultural Organisation (NABO) held, under the
same title as the volume, at Glasgow University in the spring of 2001. The
contribution of environmental work to archaeological investigations in the
North Atlantic has increased steadily over the past twenty years, not least as
a result of the establishment of NABOan umbrella organisation for researchers working in this areawhich was, at the time of the conference,
celebrating its tenth anniversary. The topics covered a wide range, the common theme being evidence of human impact. The volume is not a comprehensive
whole, but rather a showcase of (for the most part) work in progress, with
some areas better represented than others. Some papers are linked, in that they
deal with different aspects of the same site or area.
The volume is divided into four sections which are also to some
extent geographically arranged. The first, entitled Atlantic Mainland
Scotland, contains seven papers. Davies et al. and Housley et al. apply a
combination of palynological and palaeoclimatic data to challenge previous
notions of land-use and the effect of climate at two sites in the northern
Scottish highlands. Sharples et al. and Smith et al. deal with settlement in the
Outer Hebrides. The first paper claims to give a complete survey of settlement
in South Uist until c.1500 but, as it turns out, only covers the western side of
the island, because of difficulty of access to the east. There is some indication
that settlement of the island began in the east, which is now covered by peat,
then moved to the machair in the west, where all the late Iron Age and early
medieval settlements are located, until that area was abandoned in favour of
the blacklands further inland at some time during the fourteenth century.
The reason for the move is not pinned down, but climate or politics is suggested. This is a very thorough survey of settlement in the western half of
the island, including plans, maps and a useful chart of radiocarbon dates
showing the chronological span of the sites, but it remains to be put into
a wider context. In their paper Smith et al. assess resource management in
the whole of the Outer Hebrides from the Neolithic period onwards, on
the basis of faunal and floral evidence from different archaeological
investigations. This shows intensification and innovation in fishing and
farming during the Norse period. These changes are well laid out in tables
showing numbers of animal bones and plant species at different sites
through time. A location map to go with the list of site names would
have made the link with the previous paper more effective. The remaining
three papers in this section are somewhat technical tests of methodologies.
Peters et al. and Church et al. apply mineral magnetism, on the one hand to
identify fuel source, on the other to test a model of site formation
102
Saga-Book
processes. Campbell et al. present new methods of dating pottery on the basis
of the charred contents, a welcome refinement on dating by archaeological
context. They also demonstrate that content remains do not mirror diet: marine food, known from palaeoenvironmental material, was not prepared in or
eaten from pots.
These results are corroborated by the negative results of analysis of the
survival of fish oils on pottery sherds from Scatness in Shetland (Brown et
al.)possible explanations being poor survival of fish oils or a more general
use of white rather than oily fish. An attempt to analyse the remains of butter
on pottery from the same site was also inconclusive (Challinor).
These are two of eight papers which address the volumes second theme,
The Scottish Northern Isles, seven of which deal with different aspects of
Old Scatness and its environment, under investigation since 1995. The site
lies close to Jarlshof in southern Shetland and is thought to be similar in
nature. In view of the many questions about Norse settlement in the Northern
Isles left unanswered or unclear after the Jarlshof investigations, much hope
has been invested in Scatness. We get an overview of the project, the nature
of the site and its chronological sequence (Dockrill et al.), and the results of
a study of faunal and botanical remains which indicate agricultural intensification in the mid- to late Iron Age (Bond et al.). Work on fishbones is
shedding new light on this resource, suggesting that a storable surplus of
dried fish and/or oil was collected as early as the Iron Age (Nicholson). Until
now fishing has been assumed to have begun in earnest during the Norse
period. A study of field systems will differentiate between Bronze Age,
Norse, medieval and post-medieval fields by exploring the relationship between field form and function (Turner et al.). This involves a study of size,
shape, association with structural remains, and soil-based investigations. The
final paper on Scatness describes the building of a wheelhousea Pictish
multi-cellular buildingbased on one of those excavated, a project which
produced information valuable from both an academic and a practical point of
view (Malcolmsen et al.). Scatness has not produced much Norse material.
The floor of a Norse building might suggest that this phase of the occupation
has been largely destroyed by later developments. A final publication of this
site is awaited with interest.
The only paper in this section not concerned with Scatness deals with the
origin of settlement in Orkney, and suggests that it can be traced to France or
Northern Spain through the genetic makeup of the vole, introduced to the
area by humans (Thaw et al.).
The third theme, entitled Iceland, is addressed in four papers. Caseldine
et al. review past work on the Holocene development of the Icelandic biota
and assess its potential contribution for understanding the evolution of the
Icelandic landscape. The conclusion is that all methods applied are problematic, and that more research is needed if they are to be used for palaeoclimatic
reconstructions. The Hofstair site in northern Iceland and the surrounding
area has been the subject of wide-ranging interdisciplinary investigations
since 1992, which are reviewed here (Fririksson et al.). Hofstair was first
Reviews
103
investigated early in the twentieth century. It was originally of interest because of its name (hof = pagan temple), and then because of the size of its
longhouse, and the fact that it is not one of the earliest settled farms in
Iceland. By putting the site into a wider context and using a variety of written
sources of different dates, the authors suggest that Hofstair was created in
an area where leadership was needed among many even-sized holdings. The
site is clearly specialthe hall is exceptionally large although there are no
other signs of wealth, and horned cattle skulls seem to have decorated the
outside of the long-wallsbut it is acknowledged that there are too many
unknowns for any theories to be proved, and that more comparative material
is needed. A study of animal bones (Tinsley) from the site shows half domestic fauna and half fish species during the earliest period. By the mid tenth
century there is a noticeable increase in the number of fish and birds, whereas
by the early eleventh century domestic mammals dominate and wild species
(including fish) become less prominent. No conclusions are drawn from this.
The last section, entitled North Atlantic networks, contains three papers.
A study of steatite objects attempts to throw light on trade networks (Foster
et al.). Lack of homogeneity within a single quarry produces problems for
scientific provenance studies, but morphological indicators look promising
for distinguishing between goods from Norway and Shetland. While a thorough study of the material from Shetland and Iceland has been carried out,
this has not yet been done in Norway, which means that a provenance study,
for example for the Icelandic material, is not yet possible.
The papers in this volume give a good insight into the variety of research
being carried out around the North Atlantic, though work presented as in
progress in 2001 is likely to have seemed somewhat out of date by the time
of its publication in 2004.
GURN SVEINBJARNARDTTIR
LAND , SEA AND HOME . Edited by J OHN H INES, A LAN L ANE and MARK REDKNAP .
Society for Medieval Archaeology Monographs 20. Maney. Leeds, 2004. 482
pp. 156 black and white illustrations. ISBN 1 904350 25 9.
This book is a substantial volume about the Viking-Age world that derives
from the proceedings of a conferenceand is none the worse for that!
The editors, from Cardiff University (Hines and Lane) and the National
Museum of Wales (Redknap), in organising the Conference and then the
ensuing volume, have put the needs of the subject first by bringing together
twenty-seven articles from thirty-seven authors (including one of the editors),
together with a short Introduction by Hines. Regrettably, in an RAEdominated academic world, there will not be many Brownie points to be
gained for this selfless task, and one worries for the future health of the
constituent disciplines if the production of conference proceedings such as
this is to be relegated to an also-ran activity. However, the three should
receive the considerable thanks of their professional colleagues, as this is
104
Saga-Book
both a major undertaking and overall a considerable contribution in the field

of Viking studies.
Divided into three sections, the book covers Scandinavia and Northern
Europe (Denmark, Norway, the Baltic region, Russia, northern Germany
and Frisia), The Atlantic Provinces (not, as one might imagine, the region
across to Greenland and Canada, but Ireland, Scotland and Wales, together
with a singleton on Iceland) and England (but including papers which look
at wider aspects of Viking-Age Britain and Ireland as well as looking back to
Denmark). Apart from the twenty-seven articles (totalling 466 pages), there
is a comprehensive index spreading over fifteen pages and an introductory
five-page section by Hines entitled At Home in the Viking Period. The
latteras one might expectattempts to bring the collection into a coherent
whole with, firstly, a semantic discussion of the concept of home, and then
reflections more generally on settlement archaeologyby far the most significant sub-group of papers in the volume, essentially sixteen in all. The latter
is hardly surprising since the Conference theme was Viking-period Settlement in Britain and Ireland and it was organised under the auspices of the
Society for Medieval Archaeology.
Those papers not on the settlement archaeology theme per se cover particular aspects of numismatics and hoards (three papers), artefact studies (four),
and one each on place-names, history, law and sagas. Although Hines offers
a half-apology for the lack of comprehensiveness, he is quite right to observe
that that is the job for a text-book or a quite different style of synthetic
overview. However, this reviewer shares his regret at lacunae, not least a
report on the important recent discoveries in Dublin: indeed, for a conference with Ireland in the title, there is remarkably little about that island
(essentially only two specialist papers by Sheehan and Swift).
Immediately after the Introduction is a short appreciation of Denis Coggins,
who died as the volume was about to go to press, and whose contribution
was to revisit the site of Simy Folds: Twenty Years On. Similarly, Alan
King has provided an invaluable short update and wider context on PostRoman Architecture in the Craven Dales and the Dating Evidence for his
earlier work in the 1970s at Ribblehead. But these old friends, together with
Richard Halls latest overview of Jorvik, are joined in this volume by several
newer discoveries and younger scholars in England: for instance, Cabot,
Davies and Hoggett on Sedgeford: Excavations of a Rural Settlement in
Norfolk and Rippon on . . . The Development of a Coastal Landscape in
North-West Somerset During the Late 1 st Millennium A.D..
The most substantial paper (52 pages long) is an overview by Abrams and
Parsons on Place-names and the History of Scandinavian Settlement in England, surely destined to be one of the most cited articles in the volume, along
with the equally weighty, if somewhat shorter (36 pp.), overview by one of
the editors (Redknap) on Viking-age Settlement in Wales and the Evidence
from Llanbedrgoch. The two papers on Russia (Pushkina on Viking-age
Pre-Urban Settlements in Russia and Finds of Artefacts of Scandinavian
Character, and Makarov on Rural Settlement and Landscape Transformations
Reviews
105
in Northern Russia A.D. 9001300) will undoubtedly add significantly

to the limited material in accessible outlets for scholars to use. Other papers
which will also clearly feature on student reading lists for some time will
be those by Risvaag and Christophersen on Early Medieval Coinage and
Urban Development: A Norwegian Experience (essentially a Trondheimbased study) and Viking Relations with Frisia in an Archaeological Perspective
tacked on to a study by Besteman of Two Viking Hoards from . . . the
Netherlands.
Other papers are clearly shorter versions, or detailed aspects, of larger
studies produced as postgraduate theses, or published elsewhere. Ulriksen on
Danish Coastal Landing Places . . . , Armbruster on Goldsmiths Tools at
Hedeby, Griffiths on Settlement and Acculturation in the Irish Sea Province, Barrett on . . . Culture Contact in Viking-age Scotland, Wyatt on
Narrative Functions of Landscape in the Old Icelandic Family Sagas, Hoff
on Law and Landscape and Cameron and Mould on Saxon Shoes, Viking
Sheaths? Cultural Identity in Anglo-Scandinavian York all fall into this category and give a wider audience summaries of their more substantial studies.
Similarly, in time-honoured fashion, there are interim statements of current or
recently completed archaeological projects on major sites of the period by
Forster, Thomas and Dockrill on Old Scatness, Parker Pearson, Smith, Mulville
and Brennand on Cille Pheadair and Sharples on Bornais. Each of these has
a distinct value while more definitive studies are undertaken, but will inevitably
have a limited shelf life.
Papers that build on, or extend, earlier published work include MllerWille and Tummuscheit on Viking-age Proto-Urban Centres and their
Hinterlands . . . from the Baltic Area, Sheehan on Social and Economic
Integration in Viking-age Ireland: The Evidence of the Hoards and
Higham on Viking-age Settlement in the North-western Countryside . . . .
Again, as statements of ongoing research directions, they are useful in
supplementing the earlier work. However, works which appear to be
written specifically for this volume include the analysis of Royal fleets in
Viking Ireland: The Evidence of Lebor na Cert A.D. 10501150 by Swift,
a survey of Timber Buildings without Earth-fast Footings in Viking-age
Britain by Gardner, and an overview from Britain and Ireland of Changing
Weaving Styles and Fabric Types: the Scandinavian Influence by Henry. It
will be interesting to see if these will develop into major research directions
in the future.
Overall, this volume, if somewhat unbalanced in terms of both geographical
coverage and disciplinary scope, and inevitably showing the unevenness
of treatment that necessarily accompanies a conference-derived publication,
nevertheless does offer, as Hines claims, a picture of the diversity and dynamism that exists in this field of study at present. It certainly contains several
papers of enduring value, and in being produced within three years of the
conference, is not necessarily too dated in a fast-moving world of archaeological discoveries. It is a valuable addition to the Monograph series of the
Society for Medieval Archaeology and there will be many in the Viking
106
Saga-Book
Society for Northern Research who will find it a valuable addition to their
library.
CHRISTOPHER D. MORRIS
NORWEGIAN RUNES AND RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS.
By TERJE SPURKLAND. Translated by

BETSY VAN DER HOEK. The Boydell Press. Woodbridge, 2005. x + 206 pp. 42
black and white illustrations, 3 line illustrations. ISBN 1 84383 186 4.
This volume is a translation of the authors I begynnelse var fuark (Cappelen
Akademisk Forlag, 2001). It is intended not for runology specialists, but for
students of Norse language and culture and interested amateurs in general; it
would therefore be unfair to judge the work in any other light (and since the
present writer is not a runologist, it would be presumptuous to attempt to do
so here anyway). The fundamental point is to consider whether the book
offers such readers an interesting and informative account of Norwegian
runes, presented at a suitable level. Overall the answer is yes; the book fills
a gap, and is worthy to stand beside, for example, Sven B. F. Janssons The
Runes of Sweden (itself now somewhat dated, of course, but a useful semipopular work nonetheless).
Although the book is for non-specialists, the author manages to present an
impressive array of Norwegian runic inscriptions from all periods. A great
deal of attention has gone into producing accurate versions of these inscriptions, which are nearly always given in the runic original, in transliteration,
in standardised Old Norse and in translation. There are many hundreds of
runic inscriptions from Norway, of course, and those that appear in this book
represent only a sample of them. The sample is well chosen, however, and
rich: the texts are nearly always of great intrinsic interest. Moreover, many
are presented in their original form in the fine selection of photographs included, so the reader can gain a good sense of the material culture of runes.
Taken together, the inscriptions form a useful and attractive corpus covering
all periods of Norwegian runic history.
The more general discussion of each runic inscription succeeds on the
whole in observing a good balance between excitement and narrative drive on the
one hand and the details of interpretation on the other (the latter being naturally
more curtailed than would be appropriate in a full scholarly treatment). The
reader is left with a sense both of the fascination of interpreting these often
lively statements from so long ago and of the frustration of never coming to
a firm conclusion about their meaning (and the more tantalisingly interesting
an inscription appears to be, the less likely is it that any firm interpretation
will be possible: a point brought home graphically in the presentation of the
history of interpretation of the Eggja stone). This would appear to be a fair
reflection of runological studies in general, as they seem to an outsider, at least.
Although the book presents the inscriptions in chronological order, each
chapter appears thematically distinct, thus avoiding the sense of offering
Reviews
107
more of the same each time. For example, the culture that produced the Eggja
stone was very different from that of Bergen in the high Middle Ages, which
of course produced a plethora of short and startling inscriptions. The author
illuminates these cultural differences and the variety of concerns the
original carvers may have had very well; from a purely scholarly point of
view, some of the discussion is perhaps a little over-imaginative, but it is not
out of place in the present context. The authors treatment seems to improve
in tandem with the chronological development; the discussion of the origin of
runes, for example, is weak, but the later material, which includes the most
colourful examples, is more skilfully presented. For those unfamiliar with
these inscriptionsas the intended readership largely will bethe book is
worth reading just to see the vivid picture of medieval Norwegian life they
afford, where a man bewails the fact that he cannot spend longer in the pub,
and another is summoned by his wife to hurry back from the ale-house;
where a woman is proposed to on the way to church (and then discards the
slip with the inscription on in the church); and where the first documented
homosexual act takes placeagain, in a church. All this is presented in a
lively fashion, and the discussion is firmly focused upon the runic inscriptions themselves.
The book does have its faults, however. The most off-putting aspect to
meand I accept this may be a matter of tasteis the tone used throughout.
The author appears to believe that readers will not be attracted unless the
book is couched in a chatty, colloquial style, replete with weak puns such as
stonography (clearer in the original Norwegian ste(i)nografi), and is sometimes
burdened with rather laboured discussions; the translator has certainly done a
good job of representing the original Norwegian in these respects, but I feel
insufficient notice has been taken of potential differences in the English readerships expectations. Whatever one feels about this matter, a more significant
problem lurks behind it: a condescending attitude. Instead of having the sense
of sharing in a scholars excitement as he recounts the details of his specialism,
the reader is rather made to feel like a benighted school pupil being instructed
by a teacher, who has decided what should and should not be revealed. Why,
for example, is it necessary to gloss everyday terms such as mnemonic (10)
or transliterate (17) (but not others, such as preterite)? Doing so is likely
rather to underline the readers ignorance, actual or assumed. Or again, do
readers capable of dealing with these complex runic texts really need the
laboured explanation (187) that Hafgrmi is a dative?
In his determination not to overcomplicate matters for this imagined readership the author sometimes verges on the inaccurate. For example, in his rather
unmeasured enthusiasm for the early form of the fuark he writes, In ProtoScandinavian, every symbol was unambiguous in that there was one symbol
for every sound (p. 78), and Each rune in the fuark represented one sound
and each sound was represented by only one rune. In that sense the writing
system in Proto-Scandinavian was very functional, more functional than is
the case of most modern languages based on alphabetic script (p. 150). This
is misleading: in terms of segmental phonology, the system was arguably as
108
Saga-Book
Spurkland states, but given that, for example, long and short vowels were
not distinguished, the fuark was far from offering an accurate representation
of the languages phonemic structure. At another point (pp. 8283),
Spurkland presents a simplified version of the vowel system of Old Norse
one which omits some of the various mutations and nasalisations we know
to have existed, and he fails moreover to hint at the greater complexity we
know to have existed. Here, as elsewhere, the author speaks down to the
reader, taking upon himself the right to preclude what we are to be allowed to
know.
There are many small annoyances in the volume. inn is said, without
comment (albeit in a citation of others interpretations), to take the dead
with him to Hel (which text is this based on, one wonders?). In attempting
to demonstrate that nd in pre-Christian times meant breath and not
soul, Spurkland shows little awareness of work on religious vocabulary,
and falls into the trap of citing Vlusp 18, where inn gave nd to the
first human couple (p. 136)a passage whose precise meaning cannot
be determined from the context, and which is therefore useless as evidence
in any semantic argument. The overall effect of these dubious points may
be to undermine the readers sense of the books authority, at least in its
discussion of areas outside the immediate interpretation of the runes themselves.
Each chapter concludes with a short section suggesting further reading.
These have been revised from the Norwegian version to reflect the English
readership (some more obscure works, mostly in Norwegian, are mentioned
in footnotes). A few works that one might have expected to see, such as R.
W. V. Elliotts Runes, are absent, but in general the lists form a sensibly
limited selection of works for this level of presentation.
There are two indexes, one listing the runic inscriptions discussed, and the
other topical index including everything else; illustrations are indicated in
italic numerals. Unlike in the Norwegian version, the indexes are at least in
alphabetical order, though they still contain some odd entries, such as Kilroy
an imaginary catch-all characterisation of the ubiquitous rune-carver, a creation
of the author that surely no one is going to look up. Over all, the entries
could have been better thought out, but they perhaps manage to serve their
purpose.
In sum, the book will probably be found useful and attractive by anyone
interested in Old Norse or Norwegian history; specialist runologists may
well wish to look elsewhere, however. Some weaknesses of the Norwegian
version have been tidied up, though perhaps the opportunity could have been
taken to do more. The remaining problems are generally more annoyances
than serious defects, and the authors ability to present the subject in an
interesting manner, while still providing many precisely presented examples
of the source material he is discussing, certainly justifies the publication of
this English version.
CLIVE TOLLEY
Reviews
HE
DROWNED IN HOLMR S SEA
109
HIS CARGO- SHIP DRIFTED TO THE SEA -BOTTOM , ONLY
THREE CAME OUT ALIVE . RECORDS AND REPRESENTATIONS OF BALTIC TRAFFIC IN THE
VIKING AGE AND THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES IN EARLY NORDIC SOURCES .
By KRISTEL
ZILMER. Dissertationes Philologiae Scandinavicae Universitatis Tartuensis 1,
Nordistica Tartuensia 12. Tartu University Press. Tartu, 2005. 404 pp., 36
figs, 3 tabs. ISBN 9949 11 089 0, ISSN 1736 2865.
At the centre of Kristel Zilmers doctoral thesis is a survey and analysis of
the Scandinavian runic inscriptions, dating from the period c.9001150, which
refer to traffic and travel around the Baltic. The area thus covered includes, of
course, the Danish and Swedish coasts as well as the non-Scandinavian eastern and southern shores of the Sea. The introductory chapters on theory,
methods and research history (pp. 1373) are very careful and rather slow,
but it is important here not to miss Zilmers characterisation of her own
approach, which she labels an adapted hermeneutic method. After a neat
image of each new perspective in a multidisciplinary historical analysis constituting a further and progressive full turn of the hermeneutic spiral, she
succeeds in making a convincing caseto be truthful, a more convincing case
than I would previously have thought possiblethat the minute dissection of
individual runic inscriptions, along with their monumental situations and contexts, can give real substance and vitality to the mini-narratives each element
implies. A recurrent theme, which cumulatively develops into a powerful
general insight, is that what we look at in these texts and their contexts is
consistently anchored in particular realities. Like the example quoted in the
title, from a stone in Vallentuna church, Uppland, what these inscriptions
record and commemorate for us were often dramatic and tragic realities of the
Viking Age and the conversion period.
It comes as no surprise that the earliest, tenth-century, inscriptions in question are found in Denmark. After that, with a couple of outliers in Norway,
the majority of the relevant runestones are concentrated in the central Swedish
landskap around Mlaren. More striking is the strong west-east axis of
connexions and interest these inscriptions show, looking across the Baltic to
what are now the Baltic states and Russia, with only a couple of references to
Finland and none to the Slavonic lands along the southern Baltic. Many
geographical terms occur more than once. Zilmer describes the geographical
knowledge involved here as general, but it is surely also right to understand
the use of familiar terms to have been practical and meaningful in a way that
the use of exotic, esoteric place-names could never be. From an association in
a saga source of what appear to be phonologically Baltic personal names with
Eistland, she notes that this name cannot be assumed to refer solely to an
early Estonian territory, although it does seem to remain clearly distinct from
Krland further south.
Overall, though, the comparison of the inscriptional evidence with references in skaldic poetry and sagas is much more positive and constructive than
is suggested by that one corrective warning. These other categories of text
derive from different, if overlapping, periods of time, and from very different
social and geographical milieux. They also differ in the reflections they give
110
Saga-Book
of Baltic travel, albeit in a generally complementary manner. In the Norse

Icelandic skaldic corpus, only Arnrr jarlasklds Hrynhenda (Magnssdrpa)
shows any real interest in and understanding of the details of an expedition in
the Baltic. In Marks Skeggjasons Eirksdrpa, and in Kntlinga saga,
however, we pick up literary reflexes of the significant and persistent concern of the kings of Denmark with the Slavonic Wends in the early Christian
Middle Ages. Again confirming the underlying reality of the sources concerned with the Baltic, Zilmer notes the prominent link between the Viken
area of south-eastern Norway and sailing routes into the Baltic. Something
that also seems particularly noteworthy is the fact that the eastern Baltic lands
are generally not used as a setting for the fantastic: only the single episode of
orkell hkrs marvellous encounters and battles with a mysterious finnglkn
and a flying dragon, which is effectively interpolated into Chapter 119 of
Njls saga, falls into that category.
It is, of course, a matter of predisposition and ones own scholarly alignment, but I was genuinely surprised that the authors final conclusions and
reflections on the material collected, reviewed and analysed were literary and
methodological (hermeneutic) rather than historical. She proposes the narrative tradition of travelogue as the framework within which their broader
cultural-historical meaning is to be found, and offers a very subtly nuanced
distinction between the genres: runic inscriptions as commemorative; skaldic
poetry celebrating famous leaders; sagas as stories that revolve around fame
and honour. From my viewpoint, the concrete historical differences between
the sources give reliable cultural-historical insights no less interesting and
significant than these extremely fine semiotic distinctions. Putting this conclusion together with the words that open her final paragraphIt lies in
human nature to travel, and it also lies in human nature to speak or write about
travelsthe author risks giving the impression that the travelogue was in the
end not only the most interesting and durable product of the events and
experiences in question but even their goal. I am sure she thinks no such thing,
but in light of the rhetoric of New Historicism and its textuality of the past
one needs to be guarded. It is important for us all to realise what an important
and informative source has been laid out and examined here, in a thoroughly
scholarly and accessible way. Dr Zilmer looks for multidisciplinary perspectives, and archaeologists and historians will find much of value in her book,
as well as being able to contribute much to support and extend her insights.
JOHN HINES
VIKING EMPIRES .
By ANGELO FORTE, RICHARD ORAM and FREDERIK PEDERSEN.

Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 2005. 486 pp., 60 half-tones, 10
figures, 3 maps. ISBN 0 521 82992 5 (hardback), 9780 521 829922 (paperback).
As the authors of Viking Empires admit at the beginning of their book, it is
an ambitious enterprise to cover thirteen centuries (starting from 1 BC) of the
Reviews
111
history of the Scandinavian diaspora and its impact on western mainland

Europe, the British Isles and the other North Atlantic islands. Underpinning
their work is the idea that Scandinavian interaction and integration with
Europe can be traced back to the first centuries of the Christian era, when
the Roman Empire was at its height, and that from the earliest times
the Scandinavians were a part of the larger European community (p. 393).
The Viking Age, they argue, is to be viewed as part of this process of
interaction and integration, ending in the thirteenth century with an apparent
whimper, when a number of factors combined to change the Scandinavian
outlook to one that was more in line with the rest of Europe (p. 171).
More ambitious (and less desirable) is the idea that placing the Viking
Age firmly into its wider historical context will enable us to see its origins
and development as part of a single process (p. 2). This macroscopic
approach has a confusing effect; zooming out to survey thirteen centuries of
Scandinavian activity in the West might give a general idea of space and
location, but the sense of scale and important details are lost. It is also
difficult to think of a single process of expansion and integration within
Scandinavia, where geographical and material conditions, as well as political
development, were so diverse. On the other hand, the sacrifice of the small
scale may prove beneficial if it can lead students to look at the years before
and after the so-called Viking Age. This is not exactly new, as other scholars
have already argued for the importance of the Viking Ages formative centuries
(to use Bjrn Myhres expression) between AD 600 and 800. But as even
the post-Roman period is frequently left out of studies of the Viking Age, the
authors are clearly offering a fresh approach by taking the discussion of the
origins of the Scandinavian states back to the first century AD (p. 1).
The authors reject a view of Scandinavian raids and subsequent colonisation
as a compartmentalised series of geographically isolated events, and emphasise
the common dimensions [of these events] within this traumatic episode in
European history (p. 54); however, this welcome approach is sometimes lost
amid summaries of military conflicts, with very little reflection upon, or
dialogue with, recent scholarship. This is also aggravated by an odd imbalance
in the distribution of chapters: some sections seem to have been rushed through,
such as First contact: England and the continent (chapter 3), which mostly
summarises the traditional narratives for the period, while chapter 5, A
water world, perhaps relies disproportionately upon technical detail relating to
ship building. Scotland is given more attention than any other country (chapters 4, 9, 10), but this particular imbalance does have the benefit of filling the
gap that exists in many previous books on the Viking Age. The greatest gap in
Viking Empires, though, is Scandinavia itself (which sometimes seems to
mean little more than Denmark, and perhaps Norway), and Russia, although the
authors state early on that the book is westward looking in its orientation (p. 5).
Sometimes sources are used without an awareness of the problems
they might raise. The theory about the transfer of Gorm and Thyres remains
to the wooden church in Jelling, for example, is presented as an uncontroversial fact (pp. 17879). One feels that the whole discussion of
112
Saga-Book
Jellingwithin a section entitled The birth of Scandinaviadeserved more

space and that the authors did not need to suppress the academic debate on
the possible interpretations of the Jelling site and monuments and of their
meanings. Such problems are much less prominent in the chapters on ships
and navigation (chapters 5, 11, 12), on Ireland (chapter 8) and the previously
mentioned chapters on Scotland. Sometimes, though, the use of sources is a
problem in itself. The use of Icelandic sagas as a source for the Viking Age
does not receive the attention that it deserves; the general warning on p. 6,
that the sagas value as historical reporting has now been thoroughly undermined, is not enough, especially when, here and there, subsequent information
from the sagas is quoted without any caveats (for instance on p. 174; the
exception is chapter 5, which discusses the use of Icelandic sagas as evidence
for ships, ship-building and navigation). As other reviewers have also pointed
out (Lesley Abrams, Times Literary Supplement, July 8, 2005); Eric Christiansen,
English Historical Review 490, 2006), there are serious errors: for instance,
Heimskringla is placed in the twelfth century (p. 6) and the sagas are said to
depict King Harald fairhairs militant Christianity (p. 180).
It would have been impossible to write a book that could have answered all
the different demands for a book about the Viking Age, and it cannot be
expected that the authors of Viking Empires could ever have pleased everybody. The book could have been more reflective, it could have offered more
discussion of recent scholarly debate, and it could have achieved a better
balance of subject matter, to reflect its authors ambitions for it. The word
empires should also have been avoided, as it is defined so broadly as to
become meaningless. And Scandinavia itself is the greatest absentee in a
book which struggles to offer a more Scandinavian perspective on the Viking
Age. But the book does have something to offer; despite its occasional errors,
especially lamentable in view of its student audience, it certainly provides a
wider perspective of Scandinavian activity in the West.
PATRICIA PIRES BOULHOSA
SKANDINAVISCH-SCHOTTISCHE SPRACHBEZIEHUNGEN IM MITTELALTER: DER ALTNORDISCHE
LEHNEINFLU .
By SUSANNE KRIES. North-Western European Language Evolution (NOWELE) Supplement 20. University Press of Southern Denmark. Odense,
2003. 498 pages. ISBN 87 7838 873 2.
The Lowlands of Scotland have been exposed to Scandinavian influence over
two quite distinct periods. An early Viking contact period in the late ninth and
early tenth centuries saw Scandinavians attacking Strathclyde from Dublin as
well as setting up alliances with the Scottish seat of power, possibly in an
attempt to establish lines of communication between the two Scandinavian
strongholds Dublin and York via the Clyde-Forth Valley. The Lowland settlement
names with -br have been associated with this period, as have the earliest
so-called hog-back monuments, a distinct, roof-shaped type of gravestone
found in northern England and Scotland. A second period of influence belongs
Reviews
113
to the eleventh and twelfth centuries when people from Northumbria and
Yorkshire, some fleeing the terror of William of Normandy, found a welcome haven in the Scotland of the MacMalcoluim dynasty. This people, who
spoke a kind of pidginised Scandinavian English, became very influential in
the establishment of the Scottish burghs and thus left a legacy of Scandinavian
loan-words in Scots. Or so we were told to believe.
Susanne Kriess study of the medieval Scandinavian loans into Scots challenges the established view that the Scandinavian words in Scots are the result
of an indirect Scandinavian influence from the Anglo-Scandinavians migrating from the north-east of England. Kries argues that if this were the case we
would expect to find a common inventory of vocabulary in north-eastern England
and in Scotland. However, her study shows that a substantial number of the
Scandinavian loans in Middle Scots have no equivalent in Middle English.
One could have wished Kries had considered more than one explanation
for the fact that there are more Scandinavian loan-words in Scots than in
northern English. One possibility that could have been scrutinised is that a
normalisation process within English might have eliminated many of the
northern English loans. Already from William Is reign there was just such a
pressure from the dialect of the south-westwhere there was minimal
Scandinavian influenceon the more Scandinavianised dialect of the north.
However, Kries does not only rely on a difference in the number of words.
In many cases where there are equivalent forms, the variations between the
English and Scots forms point to a difference of linguistic and cultural influence from Scandinavia. All in all, Kries finds that the differences are too
great to support the theory that the move of influential people from the northwest of England helping to set up the burghs of Scotland during the reign of
David I gave Scots its Scandinavian component.
Kries convincingly identifies a Scandinavian influence on Scots that is
much stronger than previously estimated. She suggests that the reason for
this is that Scots had a longer period of exposure to Scandinavian than had
English. She estimates that the period of contact or influence could have
started as early as the ninth century and that it could have lasted until the
beginning of the thirteenth century. Kries argues for such an early date by
claiming that the focal area of Scandinavian influence was not the south-east
but rather the south-west of Scotland. During the ninth and tenth centuries
there was a node of direct contact between Scandinavians and Angles in the
area around the Solway Firth. Geographically this is an extension of the
Scandinavian belt of strong cultural influence stretching all the way from
Cumberland to Lincolnshire, and it is in this contact area that most of the
Scandinavian loans in Scots are found, including the oldest ones.
This reader feels that Kriess ideas, although interesting, are sometimes
based on rather shaky foundations, notably the scarce early source material,
both for Scots and Northern English. The theory of a south-western path of
influence on Scots is the most controversial, and clearly the author should
have put more effort into explaining how linguistic borrowings which took
place in what would have been a Scottish periphery actually managed to win
114
Saga-Book
general acceptance in Scots. Kries does point to the hog-back monuments

which might be evidence for a Scandinavian aristocracy in the south-west of
Scotland. However, the evidence for such an aristocracy is not very strong,
and even if it did exist, it still would not be enough to explain how borrowings that first occurred in the south-west managed to spread to, say, Lothian
and Aberdeenshire. The very strength of the hypothesis that Kries seeks to
debunk is the fact that it made socio-linguistic sense for Scandinavian words
to be accepted into Scots because they arrived with merchants and traders
with whom Scots by necessity had to communicate. This would be similar to
the situation in Scandinavia in the late Middle Ages when influential Hanseatic
merchants left a very large corpus of Low German loans. It is therefore
somewhat surprising that Kries does not touch upon the lively recent theoretical and methodological discussion around the Middle Low German loans into
Scandinavian.
Since we are considering omissions, a modern work of this sort ought to
have made use of the newest Norwegian dictionary Norsk ordbok, for although only half of it is yet in print, the unedited word-base is available on
the Web. Kriess discussions of words sometimes gives the impression that
Swedish must have played an important role when it comes to influencing
Scots, as several words are listed with Swedish dialect parallels, when a
simple check could have established similar Norwegian dialect words.
This criticism notwithstanding, it is important to recognise that this study is
an important piece of work. For the first time the complete inventory of
Scandinavian loans in Old and Middle Scots is analysed. About seven hundred words are thoroughly discussed as they appear in the recently completed
Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue. The author points to several interesting features in the corpus of Scandinavian loanwords in Scots, for example
the difference from north-east English. She is also able to show that the
inventory of Scandinavian loans is larger than that accepted by traditional
scholarly consensus, that there is a clear Norwegian or west Scandinavian
presence in the Scots material, and that the period of influence is likely to
have taken place over a much longer period than formerly thought. These are
all interesting findings, which greatly advance research in this field, and one
can only hope that some of Kriess suggested explanations are found controversial enough to be challenged in future.
ARNE KRUSE
PAPERS ON SCANDINAVIAN AND GERMANIC CULTURE , PUBLISHED IN HONOUR OF
MICHAEL BARNES ON HIS SIXTY- FIFTH BIRTHDAY
28 JUNE 2005 . Edited by H. F.

NIELSEN. NOWELE 46/47. University Press of Southern Denmark. Odense,
2005. 273 pp. ISBN 87 7674 037 4.
Nineteen scholars have contributed to this wide-ranging volume in honour
of Michael Barnes, though they do not succeed in matching its honorands
own range of interest and expertise. Articles include bonnes bouches such as
Reviews
115
Anders Ahlqvists amusing discussion of an apparent place-name MacElliot

in Finland, and Peter Footes characteristically witty and incisive dismissal of
an Odins stone in Orkney. Other toponymic pieces are provided by LarsErik Edlund and Eivind Weyhe, who similarly debunk some other place-names.
Phonological and morphological features are discussed in three papers.
Gillis Kristensson discusses place-name forms containing /sk/ in Devon,
attributing them mostly to Cornish influence, though as Richard Dance and
others have shown, there is also strong evidence for early Norse linguistic
influence in regions of England not usually associated with Scandinavian
conquest and settlement. Gotthard Lerchner discusses a possible substrate
relationship between Germanic and Finno-Ugrian in terms of word-initial
accent, though he rather simplifies this complex matter. Although he uses the
term Stammbetonung for Germanic, there is no discussion of the important
point that Germanic root-accent only became word-initial through loss of
(virtually) all IE proclitic syllables. There is little discussion of the possibly
even more fundamental Germanic shifts between dynamic and tonal accentuation. Robert Nedoma gives a densely-argued and rather too compressed
discussion of the unaccented vowel or vowels sometimes represented by A in
proto-Norse runic inscriptions. This is a difficult problem, with major morphological implications; it has been much masticated and remains indigestible,
but this article is an important contribution to its understanding.
Lexical problems are considered in two papers. Rolf Bremmer discusses
the Old Frisian forms fule/ felo much, many: a lexicographical problem with
phonological and lexical, even semantic, implications that could have been
analysed further. Anatoly Liberman also explores a lexical item, English slowworm and its cognates, which also have complex phonological, lexical and
semantic implications. This is an interesting and enjoyable piece, if not perhaps entirely persuasive.
Several papers discuss problems of categorisation: Jan Terje Faarlund discusses whether the -sk element of the Norse middle voice should be considered
either a clitic or an affix, both or neither. Tom Lundskr-Nielsen discusses
the categorisation of possessives, in a piece that oddly lacks any diachronic
dimension. Likewise, Kurt Braunmller considers word-order in early runic
inscriptions, looking for typological similarities with Latin. His sample is
necessarily too small for statistical methods to be applicable, and no distinction between marked and unmarked word-order can safely be established for
this corpus: similarities (and dissimilarities) may therefore be random.
Other papers discussing runes are provided by Jan Ragnar Hagland, who
interestingly but inconclusively discusses their possible use by skaldic poets,
and two elegant and subtle pieces, by Ray Page and Karin Fjellhammer Seim,
on reading or not reading runic inscriptions. Odd Einar Haugen discusses the
representation of runes in Unicode computer-fonts: an apparently narrow,
technical topic which in fact raises a number of important, interesting and farreaching linguistic points.
Grammatical features are discussed in two papers. That by Helge Sandy
deals with the dying dative in Norwegian and Faroese, giving rather inadequate
116
Saga-Book
reference to its use in Old Norse. The discussion unhappily lacks significant
reference to modern Icelandic, with its gufallssjkdmur, let alone more
widely to other Germanic languages. Matsuji Tajima gives an important survey of the development of the English compound gerund (forms such as
having done and being doing) in the seventeenth century.
Finally, one textual piece, by Gudlaug Nedrelid, discusses possible readings and interpretation of a verse attributed to Haraldr inn harri Sigursson.
Everything in this volume is interesting, most of it enjoyable, some of it
important. It is reasonably accurately presented, and typographical errors are
only trivial. I hope that Michael found it as worthwhile a tribute to his own
achievements as I did.
P AUL BIBIRE
ICELANDERS AND THE KINGS OF NORWAY . MEDIEVAL SAGAS AND LEGAL TEXTS .
By
P ATRICIA PIRES BOULHOSA. The Northern World 17. Brill. Leiden and Boston,
2005. 256 pp. ISBN 90 04 14516 8.
Icelanders and the Kings of Norway is one of the most significant books
on Icelandic medieval history to appear for decades. It is characterised
in equal measure by sound textual scholarship and a thoroughly novel
vision of the history of the Icelandic Commonwealth (a term which, incidentally, will be hard to use in serious scholarly works after the appearance
of this book). Although the book has attracted some attention in Old
NorseIcelandic scholarly circles, it can be safely predicted that its main
value lies in the effect it will have on works on Icelandic history for decades
to come. It would take a very foolhardy scholar to ignore its findings,
even though the so-called Icelandic school of saga criticism has often
been surprisingly successful in ignoring some of the main tenets of
established textual scholarship. Boulhosas analysis is frequently bold and
innovative, and sometimes of unique value. In this book there is hardly a
wasted page.
In articulating its bold and innovative vision of Icelandic history, the work
opens up several avenues of debate. In this review, I shall only be able to
explore a few of them.
The first chapter deals with some methodological problems concerning
medieval Icelandic texts, notably questions of authorship, and whether texts
can be considered to be history or fiction. It is demonstrated concisely and
lucidly that it is a hazardous exercise to name the author of any particular
Icelandic medieval text, and that it would be more fruitful to look at the
multiplicity of extant texts and views and recognise these texts as products of
a manuscript culture. This flies in the face of a very lively tradition of Old
NorseIcelandic scholarship, and should challenge many scholars to reconsider their basic methodological approach. The question of whether the texts
are fiction or history is then discussed and found to be irrelevant, which to
my mind is hardly surprising.
Reviews
117
The most revolutionary of the authors findings is in chapter 3, where the

documents relating to the submission of the Icelanders to the Norwegian king
are thoroughly analysed. Following her analysis, it would be very hard to
maintain that the documents, the oldest of them from the sixteenth century,
which have been taken to represent a covenant made in 1262 between the
Norwegian king and farmers from the North and South of Iceland, generally
known as Gizurarsttmli, are in fact genuine representations of the letter
drawn up at the time, which is mentioned in the Frssbk redaction of Hkonar
saga Hkonarsonar.
Boulhosa also manages to raise some doubts about later versions of this
covenant, known as Gamli sttmli, usually held to be composed in 1302,
although they are in fact only found in documents from the fifteenth century.
She makes a convincing case, based on internal evidence, that some of the
clauses which have been thought to originate in 1262 or 1302, concerning the
position of lgmenn and sslumenn, summonses to go abroad, and the six
ships to be sent annually between Norway and Iceland, seem more in tune
with the concerns and language of the early fifteenth century. Although this
anachronism is not equally marked in all cases, one can agree with the author
that there is considerable room for doubt concerning claims made for the
early provenance of these documents.
One clause of the Gamli sttmli which gets surprisingly little attention is
the stipulation that Icelanders want to retain the office of jarl. To my mind the
inclusion of this clause merits more thorough discussion, as it can hardly
said to be of any contemporary relevance when the documents were written
down in the fifteenth century. On the other hand, the title of jarl still existed
in Norway in the early fourteenth century, even if there had been no jarl in
Iceland for some decades. On this issue, I find it very hard to agree with the
author that this clause weakens the case for dating the texts to 1302 (p.
142). On the contrary, it is the one clause of the covenant that seems to lack
any relevance to the concerns of the Icelanders in the early fifteenth century.
In chapter 4 the author discusses the significance of settlement narratives
in the fourteenth-century Mruvallabk, and ties this discussion convincingly in with the debate about hldsrttr in the lafslg discussed in chapter
2. The author raises many important issues relating to the depiction of King
Haraldr hrfagri in Mruvallabk, which she rightly connects with sentiments existing among the Icelandic literary lite in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. It would, however, have been interesting to offer some discussion
of the origins of this representation in the eleventh century, and it might have
strengthened the connection identified by the author between lafslg and
Mruvallabk. I have argued before (in, for example, ekkti konungurinn.
Sagnir um Harald hrfagra. N saga 11 (1999), 3853, and Erindringen
om en mgtig Personlighed. Den norsk-islandske historiske tradisjon om
Harald Hrfagre i et kildekritisk perspektiv. Historisk tidsskrift 81 (2002),
21330) that the image of Haraldr hrfagri must have undergone significant
modification sometime between 1066, when the nickname is applied to the
king also known as Haraldr harri in Anglo-Saxon sources, and c.1130,
118
Saga-Book
when Ari fri is the oldest known author to use this nickname for the
putative first monarch of Norway. The synchronicity between the development of this tradition and the first known document where the term hldsrttr
appears, written sometime between 1082 and 1107 (the arguments of Jn
Sigursson for dating it in 1083 are tenuous at best), is interesting and could
have raised further issues concerning the attitudes of Icelanders towards Haraldr
hrfagri and his role in the settlement of Iceland.
In the final analysis, however, one has nothing but praise for a book
that offers so many fresh insights into Icelandic medieval historiography.
It cannot fail to provide an impetus for Icelandic historians thoroughly to
revise established facts about the nature of Icelandic government in the
Middle Ages.
SVERRIR JAKOBSSON
LITERACY IN MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN SCANDINAVIA .
Edited by PERNILLE
HERMANN. The Viking Collection 16. University Press of Southern Denmark.
Odense, 2005. 355 pp. ISBN 87 7674 040 4.
In the last thirty years the subject of literacy has come to assume an important
position in medieval studies. At least in the Anglophone world, however,
medieval Scandinavia has featured little in these three decades of literacy
studies. The landmark works on the theory and history of literacy tend to
focus on ancient Greece, or medieval England, or contemporary Africa, and
Scandinavia does not feature even in such a standard survey as Rosamund
McKittericks edited volume The Uses of Literacy in Early Medieval Europe
(Cambridge University Press, 1990), just missing both the geographical and
the chronological cut-off points. Yet one might have thought that medieval
Scandinavia, with its extensive record of runic culture and, post-Conversion,
its rapid acquisition of Roman literacy, would be an obvious and fertile field
for literacy studies. It is very good to report, therefore, that this collection of
essays, arising from a conference at Aarhus in 2002, goes a long way towards rectifying this situation of neglect. While it is inevitably uneven in
places, this volume should immediately become the standard English-language survey of the history of literacy in medieval Scandinavia.
Following a brief but helpful Introduction by the editor, the book is
subdivided into five sections. The first section, Literacy and Vision, contains two essays. In the first of these, not in fact on a Scandinavian topic,
Leslie Webster examines the Anglo-Saxons skills in what she terms visual
literacy, and argues that this long-established facility in the interpretation of
visual objects served them well when they came to engage with literacy; this
argument is advanced by the close reading of a number of objects, some
familiar (such as the Franks Casket), others less so (such as the Ludlow
sword pommel). In the second essay Michael Clanchyone of the giants of
literacy studiesconsiders the fifteenth-century wall paintings in the church
at Tuse in Zealand. These depict the Virgin Mary taking the young Jesus to
Reviews
119
school, to learn to read (and write?), and the essay shows Clanchy at his
generous best: erudite, incisive, wise and illuminating. Clanchy argues against
the assumption that an image, or a text, had one single meaning or interpretation in the Middle Ages; it may have conveyed different messages to different
viewers. What the range of meanings of the Tuse paintings might have been
is drawn out with exemplary elegance and insight.
The next section, containing three essays, is headed Literacy, Orality and
Runacy , and the first essay is another of the highlights of the volume.
This is Stefan Brinks wide-ranging overview of oral culture in Viking-Age
Scandinavia, and of the interaction of the old oral culture with aspects of
literacy. Brink examines, inter alia, poetry and runic inscriptions, and he is
especially interesting on the oral/written dimensions of early Scandinavian
laws. This is a must-read survey, with an extremely useful sixteen-page
bibliography attached. The other two essays in this section are somewhat
briefer: Terje Spurkland engages with Aslak Liestls old claims about literate Vikings, and suggests that we might use the term runacy to refer to their
literacy, while Jakob Hovl Holck offers a short review of possible foreign
influences on the use of runes in Denmark between the third and the thirteenth centuries.
The third section, Literacy and Poetry, contains three essays. Karl G.
Johansson considers Eddic poetry, taking Skrnisml as a test-case for the
processes by which originally oral poetry came to be written down, and
exploring how far the two main manuscripts of Skrnisml might reflect
possible public performance or private reading. Judith Jesch queries the common claim that the introduction of literacy leads to changes in the function of
texts, by exploring the ways in which skaldic verse aspires to (and often
attains) the type of function and permanence one might normally associate
with written records (for example, chronicle, peace treaty, charter, letter).
Finally, Gurn Nordal offers a fascinating account of the prosimetrum of
Njls saga, examining how the editor-scribes of different manuscripts of the
saga included or omitted the available verses; Nordals essay raises important
questions about saga reception and the perceived roles of skaldic verse in
fourteenth-century Iceland.
The fourth section, Literacy and Communication, also contains three essays. Wolfert S. van Egmond asks what might be learned about literacy from
Latin hagiographical texts, and focuses on the Burgundian diocese of Auxerre
in the Merovingian period, with a brief excursus on Rimberts Life of Anskar.
Marco Mostert offers an overview of the history and historiography of literacy studies, and of the theory and development of literacy in the Middle
Ages (though he does not discuss Scandinavia specifically). Arnved Nedkvitne
complements this with a stimulating survey of administrative, especially judicial, literacy in Scandinavia; Nedkvitne views literacy primarily as a technology
to be employed according to particular cultural needs, rather than as a mentality-transforming process that has similar effects in all cultures.
The fifth and final section, Literacy, Peasants and Maids, contains two
essays and takes us into the early modern period. Klaus-J. Lorenzen-Schmidt
120
Saga-Book
examines the evidence for literacy among the Schleswig-Holstein peasantry,

and suggests that peasant literacy was more likely to be found among free
peasants, with their potential for market-related activity, than among manorial
serfs. Finally, Charlotte Appel, in a superb essay drawn from her own extensive research, supplies an authoritative account of literacy in seventeenth-century
Denmark, and in so doing shows how the discipline of literacy studies connects with those of publishing history and the history of the book.
This collection of essays, then, has many strengths and will form an invaluable guide and starting-point for future investigations. Inevitably, there are
aspects one might quibble about: a number of essays perhaps do not strike
quite the right balance between general theory and discussion of particular
evidence, and the index, oddly, is only of secondary scholars, and not of
concepts or primary sources. But these are only quibbles; the editor has done
a very good job in bringing these essays together, and an extremely useful
volume is the result.
MATTHEW TOWNEND
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FLATEYJARBK . ICELAND AND THE NORWEGIAN DYNASTIC CRISIS
1389. By ELIZABETH ASHMAN ROWE. The Viking Collection 15. The University
Press of Southern Denmark. Odense, 2005. 486 pp. ISBN 87 7838 927 5.
Flateyjarbk is big. It is the Pacific Ocean, the Sahara Desert, the Amazon
River of Old Icelandic literary production. It is not merely its size that makes
it somewhat daunting: Flateyjarbk is also an intricate web of stories, as
complex as it is large. It is bound to attract every serious Old Norse scholar.
Finnur Jnsson, fearless as ever, took it on in 1927. Most others have been
too timid or too prudent to get entangled in its complexities. The present
reviewer found the task too formidable a decade ago and now hails his foresight since it seems unlikely that he would have produced anything as impressive
as Elizabeth Ashman Rowes massive book on this massive subject.
Its very size and complexity make Flateyjarbk a hard subject to write
about. Few have read all of its contents and a book-length study of it runs the
risk of becoming unintelligible, but Rowe manages to avoid this, through
her systematic approach and a lucid introductory chapter (pp. 1132) in
which she provides a framework for her study, not only introducing Flateyjarbk
succinctly but also setting out her overall position. Not one to get immersed
in theory, she is nevertheless well aware of it. A somewhat apologetic note
that Derrida and other contemporary philosophers are absent from her book
(p. 30) seems superfluous.
Even though Flateyjarbk has always impressed as a manuscript and an
object of value, its greatness has been qualified by its historical place as a late
fourteenth-century text. As Rowe observes (p. 18), the fourteenth century
was in the past seen as a period of decline for Icelandic literature. This was
certainly the view of Sigurur Nordal and Einar lafur Sveinsson, but it
has been somewhat modified in the last forty years and now needs to be
OF
Reviews
121
revaluated and perhaps discarded. The fourteenth century was certainly an

age of increased book production and the old notion that much of it was of
less literary value than that of the thirteenth century is somewhat undermined
by this study.
Flateyjarbk had two fathers, in the past often referred to as scribes, but
Rowe establishes them as redactorsalthough the shadowy figure of their
patron Jn Hkonarson lurks in the background, and Rowe does note the
possiblity that he was the mastermind behind the whole work (pp. 397402).
Jn rarson and Magns rhallsson come across as very different people
with different tasks. Jn was responsible for the sagas of the missionary and
holy kings lfr and lfr, while it fell upon Magnss shoulders to finish
the work, adding Sverris saga and Hkonar saga and illuminating the manuscript. The one may perhaps be considered a theologian, the other was a
chronicler as well as a visual artistfor all that they also had a lot in common, as Rowe duly notes (p. 395). In the case of Jn rarson, Rowe
shows how he drew on the pre-existing lfs saga Tryggvasonar, adding
new material to which she rightly pays special attention. She demonstrates
how for him expansion was a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. I
am not quite sure about her reading of huorki efld ne aukin in the introduction to sbjarnar ttr (p. 44) as neither augmented nor exaggeratedpossibly
it is just a florid way of saying not at all exaggeratedbut on the other
hand, Rowe argues convincingly that all Jns additions had a purpose. She
is nevertheless cautious; her conclusion is that he did not quite succeed in
putting his mark on the work overall and that his attitudes are perhaps more
evident in the parts than the whole (pp. 20304).
One of Rowes main projects is to demonstrate how Flateyjarbk developed from its original conception into a somewhat different project. Her
argumentation is painstaking and convincing. Allowing for the speculative
nature of some of her findings, their intelligent presentation cannot fail to
convince, at least in part. Rowe argues that Magns rhallsson did more
than add his own part to Flateyjarbk, also revising the work of Jn rarson
with the addition of a new beginning and end. Thus he sought to redirect the
readers approach to Jns texts (p. 297). In this interpretation, Flateyjarbk
becomes a strangely heteroglossic text, Magns supplementing Jns work
in order to deconstruct it (p. 350). Rowe is also concerned with the relationship between Flateyjarbk and the extinction of the Norwegian royal dynasty
in 1387, but does not reduce the large project of producing this great book to
a mere commentary on contemporary events. Her discussion is subtle and,
given the length of her book, one wonders whether Rowe might have done
well to add a chapter where she distills her thoughts on how to characterise
the relationship between Flateyjarbk and the dynastic crisis of 1389.
The book ends with a brief history of Flateyjarbk after Jn Hkonarsons
death: the late-fifteenth-century augmentation of the manuscript, its use by
Arngrmur Jnsson and Torfus, the trip to Chicago it never took in the
1890s, bringing the narrative to an end in the cafeteria at the Landsbkasafn,
where the author discusses Flateyjarbk with Finnbogi Gumundsson, one
122
Saga-Book
of those responsible for the 1944 edition. This particular cafeteria is only a
few blocks away from where the present reviewer lives, driving home the
point Rowe makes in this epilogue: Flateyjarbk (and perhaps this can be
extended to medieval studies in general) does not just exist in the past; its fate
has relevance to the present as well. Elizabeth Ashman Rowe is to be congratulated for having presented us with this thought-provoking study.
Flateyjarbk studies have just taken a dramatic leap into an exciting future.
RMANN JAKOBSSON
SKLDI SKRIFTINNI . SNORRI STURLUSON OG EGILS SAGA . By T ORFI H. TULINIUS .
Hi slenska bkmenntaflag and ReykjavkurAkademan. Reykjavk, 2004.
292 pp. ISBN 9979 66 155 0.
This book argues for a hidden meaning to the saga of Egill Skallagrmsson on
two levels; on the one hand, as a Christian allegory, and on the other as a
roman clef in which the events of the saga reflect those of the life of Snorri
Sturluson, supposed by many to have been the author of Egils saga. The
book is thus divided into two parts, the first, Gripurinn greindur, the object
analysed, about the allegorical structure and meaning of the saga, and the
second, Forngripurinn og samhengi hans, The ancient relic and his/its context, about the social context that shaped the saga at its presumed time of
writing, the early thirteenth century, and the events of its presumed authors
life.
The titles and sub-titles of each part refer back to the imaginative reconstruction of the books introduction, where Tulinius recreates a scenario that
could have taken place at Mosfell c.1130, when the dead in the churchyard of
the neighbouring church of Hrsbr are moved to the new church at Mosfell.
In the process, the bones of a very large man are discovered beneath the altar
at Hrsbr and, yes, people say they must be those of Egill Skallagrmsson!
Speculation then follows as to why the bones of a pagan who, at best, was
primesigned during his time in England, and at worst was a ruthless killer,
should have been buried below the altar, a location usually reserved for saints
in the early Church. This is the paradox Tulinius sets out to investigate, a
paradox reflected in the books punning title, Skldi skriftinni, The poet in
the writing or The poet in the saints resting place (= Latin confessio).
Part I begins with the sagas skeleton, by which Tulinius means its external
structure. He defends this against the strictures of scholars who have found
its latter part (after the deaths of the two rlfrs) dull and long-winded. He
demonstrates the undoubted patterns of repetition which bind the text into a
coherent whole, though I am not sure that I can go all the way with him on
the deep significance he assigns to the four characters named Ketill in the
saga. He then looks inward to the significance of the sagas action. Here
again, I find myself unconvinced by many of the inner meanings he suggests
lie hidden there. It is possible that Egills marriage to his brothers widow,
sgerr, should be understood in the light of the Christian interdiction of the
Reviews
123
levirate, given Egills primesigning, but Tuliniuss contention that this is the
reason why he is reluctant to tell Arinbjrn and sgerr herself about his
love for her does not convince, especially as at least one of Egills verses
indicates that his reluctance is brought about because she is still grieving at
rlfrs death.
Generally speaking, the parallels Tulinius adduces in Part I seem a little
far-fetched and are not signalled in any way in the text, as far as I can see,
unlike the situation in other sagas where we find conventional indicators that
the pre-Christian protagonists are noble heathens. The suggested parallels
include an improbable comparison between Egills killing of Rgnvaldr, the
young son of Eirkr Bloodaxe, and the death of Christ, a parallel between the
Biblical figures of Cain and Judas and Egill, and a proposal that the wife and
daughter of rmr, who help Egill on his Vermaland expedition, should be
compared to the Virgin Mary in her role as intercessor. Considerably greater
credibility attaches to the suggested parallel between Egill and the Old Testament figure of the king and psalmist David, but, although the general comparison
seems apt, the specific points of comparison are sometimes strained: both
figures desire their brothers wives; both are antagonists of kings (Saul,
Eirkr), both lose sons, both are supreme poets and both compose laments
about close male friends (Jonathan, Arinbjrn). Towards the end of this
section, Tulinius presents Sonatorrek as the possible planctus of an Old
Testament David-like Egill whose poem prefigures Christian elegy.
Part II comprises two long chapters and two short concluding ones. In
nearly 100 pages, Tulinius provides a thorough, almost blow-by-blow account of the lives, ambitions and kinship relations of the Sturlung family
during the first half of the thirteenth century. Chapter 4 uses some of Pierre
Bourdieus key ideas very effectively to demonstrate how powerful Icelandic
men of this period needed to control a number of interrelated fields: politics, marriage, religious life, poetry and the law. Chapter 5 shows how Snorri
Sturluson and his family had both successes and failures at this game. Tulinius
provides a useful digest here (parts of which he has published elsewhere),
and summarises the views of several recent Icelandic historians, but most of
the material treated in Chapters 4 and 5 comes directly from Sturlunga saga
and hardly justifies the disproportionate number of pages devoted to it. Some
parallels between these events and events in Egils saga are drawn, but they
are rather sporadic and not always well argued.
To give one example, on pages 17778 Tulinius states that conflict between brothers is a major theme of Egils saga (he has argued in Part I that
there is enmity as well as difference between Egill and his brother rlfr,
though in my opinion the evidence for this is dubious). This enmity is paralleled, in his view, by the real life hostility between Snorri and Sighvatr
Sturluson and Sighvatrs son Sturla. In the saga the sons of Haraldr hrfagri
are also at odds, and Eirkr Bloodaxe is represented as a fratricide. Tulinius
quotes Egills lausavsa 20 (according to Finnur Jnssons numbering in
Skjaldedigtning) to support this point. So far, so good, but the next step in
the argument is shaky. Because the verse mentions both Eirkrs fratricide
124
Saga-Book
and his wife Gunnhildr in the one clause, brfang blekkir skkva brra,
the bride-catch [Gunnhildr] deceives the destroyer of brothers [Eirkr] (lines
34), this conjunction is used to suggest that whoever read or heard this
stanza would be reminded of the conflicts between the Sturlung brothers
precipitated by differences over women. The parallel is inexact and ignores
the context of the verse, namely Gunnhildrs supposed hostility to Egill and
his attempts to retaliate. Such imprecise arguments are unfortunately rather
common in the book.
It is a pity that Chapters 6 and 7 are so short, because they raise a number
of interesting possible lines of interpretation of Egils saga which, in my
opinion, are likely to be more productive than the drawing of parallels between the life of Snorri Sturluson and his family and the saga of Egill
Skallagrmsson. In Chapter 6 Tulinius briefly adopts a Freudian perspective
on the subject, but does not develop it. He also mentions several other approaches, but again there is no development. I found Skldi skriftinni a
disappointing book; Part I does not really produce a coherent set of inner
meanings for the saga, while Part II spends far too much time telling the
Sturlung story. There is promise of a more sustained and satisfying analysis
in the final chapters, but they really do not get off the ground. Thus the poet
remains in the grave, but maybe the author can resuscitate him on another
occasion.
MARGARET CLUNIES ROSS
ANGLO -SAXON ENGLAND IN ICELANDIC MEDIEVAL TEXTS .
By MAGNS FJALLDAL.
University of Toronto Press. Toronto, Buffalo, London, 2005. xi + 162 pp.
ISBN 0 8020 3837 9.
The purpose of this book, writes Magns Fjalldal in his introduction, is to
survey and assess information about Anglo-Saxon Englandits language,
history, geography, and culturethat appears in medieval Icelandic texts
(p. vii). This is a much-trodden arena and, as Fjalldal advises, anything approaching a thorough treatment of the subject would have made for a rather
more ambitious effort than the study presented here (potentially consisting of
a huge anthology of relevant texts); he has therefore settled by and large
for simply retelling the stories in the sagas, and assessing the accuracy
of their presentation of Anglo-Saxon people and events. His book accordingly offers a whistle-stop tour through the major relevant texts, summarising
and paraphrasing their narratives as he goes, quoting in Modern English
translation, with the Icelandic in endnotes. This survey provides plenty of
interesting material, and along the way offers the opportunity to address
ancillary questions of no little significance to the linguist, the historian and
the literary critic.
The book consists of nine chapters, plus Introduction and Conclusion,
several of which (chapters 1, 2, 6 and 7) represent reworkings of earlier
articles by Fjalldal. Chapters 1 and 2 investigate the anecdotal evidence in the
Reviews
125
sagas for the mutual intelligibility of Old English and Old Norse in the
Viking Age: 1 focusses on the famous episode in Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu,
and the evidence of the First Grammatical Treatise and Hauksbk; 2 broadly
surveys other relevant references in the sagas, including the diverting story
of the comeuppance meted out to the profaner of a statue in Jarteinabk
orlks byskups nnur and Laurentus saga byskups, and Sneglu-Hallis
nonsense skaldic stanza, with a glance at diverse other materials including
the works of Snorri, Bede and William of Malmesbury, before a (brief)
engagement with historical linguistic scholarship. Chapter 3 covers general
knowledge about Anglo-Saxon England and its customs in a range of material (notably Heimskringla, Orkneyinga saga and Egils saga), with Fjalldal
remarking that Old Icelandic texts seem best informed about Anglo-Saxon
royal genealogies and regnal lengths, though even here they contain plenty
that is erroneous, and much that appears simply to have been invented; the
perennial stereotype is of an England that is wealthy and that offers good
opportunities for trade.
Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 all deal with particular groups of sagas and the
quality of their information on Anglo-Saxon England. Chapters 4 and 5
between them describe and compare events in Anglo-Saxon history related in
Heimskringla, grip af Nregskonunga sgum, Fagrskinna, Kntlinga saga
and Morkinskinna. In these sections, Fjalldal tries to get a handle (albeit
generally rather briefly and sketchily) on what may be motivating these
accounts, with some comparative recourse to other things, including The
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and attempts to determine whether the Icelandic texts
drew on any Anglo-Saxon sources where this has been previously suggested; he concludes once again that Icelandic historians knew little of
Anglo-Saxon events beyond the regnal lists known to have circulated in
Iceland. Chapter 6 focusses on Egils saga, presenting a detailed look at the
Vnheir episode and a review of scholarship about it; Fjalldal finds the
historicity of the episode largely unconvincing, and looks instead to what he
calls literary patterns (p. 79), finding in it various contrasts and oppositions
of significance to the saga as a whole, with the relationship between Egill and
rlfr especially being foregrounded. Chapter 7 moves briskly over Breta
sgur, Saga svalds konngs hins helga, Dunstanus saga, and Jtvarar
saga, with the conclusion once again being that there cannot have been much
first-hand knowledge about Anglo-Saxon England in Iceland in the later
Middle Ages.
Chapters 8 and 9 turn to a more broadly thematic focus. Chapter 8 treats
the Icelandic love/hate relationship with the idea of kingship and royal
courts via an analysis of such texts as Hemings ttr and Hrlfs saga Gautrekssonar, Fjalldal suggesting that Icelandic authors have clear agendas in
contrasting ideal and generous Anglo-Saxon monarchs with scheming
and sometimes murderous Norwegian kings. Chapter 9 focuses on
the proposition that Icelandic heroes adventures in England follow a distinctive pattern, which recurs regularly, especially as regards their relationship
with the king. Via an analysis of Gunnlaugs saga, Illuga saga and various
126
Saga-Book
fornaldarsgur, Fjalldal concludes that Anglo-Saxon England provided an

ideal setting for saga writers: it was perceived to be within the Scandinavian
orbit of influence, but equally was long enough ago and far enough away to
be the scene of incredible adventures (in the sagas, England is more a stage
than a country (p. 120)). The books conclusion emphasises these findings
further: Fjalldal remarks upon Icelandic writers tendency to substitute relevant cultural and political circumstances in the history of Norway for those
of Anglo-Saxon England when they were ignorant of the latter, and in general, in the presentation of England in the sagas one often senses a desire on
part [sic] of the Icelandic author, either conscious or unconscious, to create
another, perfect Norway in England (p. 122). In other words the version of
Anglo-Saxon England offered up in the sagas represents a form of escapism, having more to do with painful contemporary Icelandic relations with
Norway, and the desire to throw these into sharp relief, than with what the
England of the time was itself really like. Contrary to some previous attempts
to account for the enthusiasm of medieval Icelandic engagements with the
history of Anglo-Saxon England (e.g. that Icelanders had a particular fondness for England, or that these treatments simply represent a facet of a general
love of knowledge in medieval Iceland), Fjalldal concludes that the depiction
of England in sagas of all sorts is fundamentally the same, as a never-never
land, and that no medieval Icelandic authors had much real familiarity with
Anglo-Saxon history.
There is a great deal of interesting material in this book, and those concerned to probe the use of specified historical events and locales in medieval
Icelandic prose writings will no doubt find it of use. It surfs the crest of a
multitude of Icelandic engagements with Anglo-Saxon (or putatively AngloSaxon) settings and personages, including material from sagas both well-known
and less familiar, and provides some fascinating diversions along the way
(often just in terms of how wildly inaccurate these stories could be in historical terms). Fjalldal has several noteworthy opinions to contribute, and his
final conclusion has much to recommend it. As a whole the book is not
consistently much more than a survey of what medieval Icelanders seem to
have known about Anglo-Saxon England and, since this is the stall that the
author sets out in his introduction, it would arguably be unfair to find too
much fault with the volume for thiswere it not for the sense that it does
sporadically try to be more ambitious, but can only bring off these laudable
extensions of its remit in frustratingly thin patches. Sometimes, for instance,
it takes an interest in the literary sources that might have been available to and
used by Icelandic authors; sometimes it delves into the linguistic situation in
Viking-Age England, and how exactly information about England might have
been transmitted; sometimes it ponders the broader facets of how medieval
Icelandic literature treats adventures in foreign realms other than England;
and, and most crucially, sometimes it tries to offer answers to the big
literary-critical questions that the whole study begs about what (if not a concern for historical accuracy) did motivate Icelandic authors when they told
their stories. But such questions are just as often left unasked altogether,
Reviews
127
leading to a tantalisingly uneven engagement, and hence the book as a whole

does not provide enough to bring any of these glimpsed subsidiary (but
altogether worthwhile) ambitions to fruition. Fjalldal often seems to offer the
most detailed discussions in those cases where previous scholarship has
tackled the texts in depth, notably the case with the treatment of Egils saga in
chapter 6, which has an extended engagement with scholarly debate as well
as some valuable focus on literary themes. But in many instances he has little
comment of his own to add when scholarly interest has not formerly been
much excited: hence in Chapter 7 he is keen to address the issues of the
sources of Jtvarar saga where he is able to draw on the extensive work by
Christine Fell, but he hardly touches such matters when it comes to the other
sagas addressed in the same chapter, and his engagement with recent scholarly work on Anglo-Saxon England itself and on medieval Insular textual
culture is in general a touch wanting (the reference on p. viii to Middle
English writers such as Giraldus Cambrensis is perhaps symptomatic).
There are some more specific niggles. In the first two chapters, the book
takes pains to stress the importance of trying to understand how speakers
of Old English and Old Norse might have communicated, and concludes
(p. 21) that
Not being able to determine the answer to this problem is exceptionally
frustrating, because virtually everything else concerning the issue of what
Icelanders knew about Anglo-Saxon England boils down to the question
of communication between the English and the Norse.
Such being the case, however, it must be said that important aspects of this
major subject are really rather sidelined: in particular, the compelling (and
complex) linguistic evidence recently treated in such depth by Matthew
Townends book Language and History in Viking Age England (2002; reviewed in Saga-Book XXVIII 2004, 12934) gets only a cursory, tacked-on
mention at the end of Chapter 2 (pp. 1921), where Townends conclusions,
based on a survey of a variety of different sorts of material that go well
beyond the anecdotal evidence of the sagas, are very briefly summarised and
(it seemed to me) deliberately downplayed.
Perhaps more importantly still, the potentially very rich evidence of skaldic
verse is hardly treated in the book at all. There are some interesting asides
about poetic material in Chapter 3 (the fascinating Waltheof stanzas), but
otherwise Fjalldal is remarkably dismissive of the corpus: it has been much
examined already, he tells us, and it is generally concluded that it is too
traditional, artificial, and hyperbolic to be considered a reliable source of
historical information (p. 33). Quite apart from the subtleties of scholarly
argument steam-rollered by this comment, the attitude that it espouses strikes
one as unhelpful at best in the context of a study such as this: even if skaldic
stanzas contain historical information that is demonstrably erroneous (which
is what, after all, Fjalldal argues for most of the prose corpus), these verses
surely have a great deal to tell us about how particular takes on and ideas
about Anglo-Saxon events were transmitted to Scandinavian posterity, and
128
Saga-Book
how that posterity preserved and engaged with them (an object lesson is
provided by Townend in Whatever Happened to York Viking Poetry? SagaBook XXVII (2003), 4890). Presumably there would have been little argument
if Fjalldal had simply (and legitimately) appealed to the size of a study that
took into account verse as well as prose, and had for that reason elected to
confine himself to the latter; but to dismiss the skaldic material outright is
somewhat perversely to draw attention to what in some lights looks like
another of his books missed opportunities.
In sum, then, this is an interesting and worthwhile volume able at times to
muster both breadth and depth, but one is left with the impression that it
could (and perhaps should) have gone somewhat further.
RICHARD DANCE
FORNALDARSAGORNAS STRUKTUR OCH IDEOLOGI. HANDLINGAR FRN ETT SYMPOSIUM I
31.82.9 2001. Edited by RMANN JAKOBSSON, ANNETTE LASSEN and

AGNETE NEY. Nordiska texter och underskningar 28. Uppsala Universitet,
Institutionen fr nordiska sprk. Uppsala, 2003. 270 pp. ISBN 91 506 1726 5.
Six years ago rmann Jakobsson, Annette Lassen and Agnete Ney set in
train a series of three conferences about the medieval Icelandic fornaldarsgur
(literally sagas of ancient times, but known to Anglophone scholars as
mythic-heroic sagas or legendary sagas). The first conference was held in
Sweden in 2001, the second (at which this reviewer gave a paper) was held
in Denmark in 2005, and the third will be held in Iceland in 2008. This
volume contains seventeen of the papers presented at the first conference. It
opens with an introduction by the editors that describes the genre and
contextualises the contributors papers by reviewing some of the long-standing issues in the scholarship.
The essays are arranged thematically, the first essays dealing with general
aspects of the genre. In Fornaldarsogenevurderinga og vurderingskriteria,
Else Mundal surveys the critical reception of the fornaldarsgur from the
Middle Ages to the present day. She suggests that although these works may
not be sources of genuine pagan mythology or historical facts, they are valuable for the study of past mentalities, as shown by the example of Frijfs
saga, with its unusual perspectives on women and social mobility. In Fornldarsagans genremssiga metamorfoser: mellan Edda-myt och riddarroman,
Lars Lnnroth returns to the question whether the diverse fornaldarsgur can
truly be said to constitute a homogenous literary genre. After looking at
Gngu-Hrlfs saga, which contains chapters strongly influenced by romance
as well as chapters in the traditional heroic style, he proposes that instead of
being divided into three groups (heroic tales, adventure tales and Viking
tales), all fornaldarsgur should be considered mixed or hybrid works that,
depending on the specific scenes being narrated, are influenced to varying
degrees by Eddic myths, the Germanic heroic tradition, folk stories and courtly
romance. In Krleken i fornaldarsagornahviskt eller heroiskt?, Daniel
UPPSALA
Reviews
129
Svborg reports on fornaldarsgur-related results from a much larger study

of medieval Icelandic literature, finding that, as regards descriptions of love,
the fornaldarsgur stand much closer to the slendingasgur than to the
medieval Icelandic imitations of continental romance. Given the importance
of the theme of love for the latter, Svborg sees this difference as indicating
that the native romances and the fornaldarsgur are separate categories. In
Fornaldarsaga och ideologi. Tillbaka till The Matter of the North, Torfi
Tulinius reiterates his analysis of Vlsunga saga and other fornaldarsgur in
order to argue that their social themes, which also appear in the contemporary
sagas, were relevant to thirteenth-century Iceland.
The second set of essays deal with specific sagas. In Trust in words.
Verse quotation and dialogue in Vlsunga saga, Judy Quinn analyses Vlsunga
saga as a narrative of dynastic misfortune, broken vows and failure to consult with daughters regarding the marriages proposed for them. Quinn argues
that the narrators interest in individual motivation and reaction to events is
articulated by the detailed reporting of dialogue and the choice of substantial
verse quotations focussing on the efficacy of speech. In The Rhetoric of
Vlsunga saga, Stefanie Wrth asks whether the passages in Vlsunga saga
that are reminiscent of oral style are actual remnants of an oral tradition, or
whether they are conscious imitations of oral style. In her view, Vlsunga
saga is a self-conscious product of textuality, and its references to oral tradition are superficial at best. In Genus och ideologi i Vlsunga saga, Agneta
Ney looks at the nouns used for various kinds of men and women and finds
that their distribution supports the division of this saga into a mythological
first half and a courtly second half. The resulting contrast is also seen in the
two scenes of the waking of Brynhildr, first in the mythological context of
the shield-wall, and then in the courtly context of the castle. Rory McTurks
Recent and projected work on Ragnars saga lobrkar forms a postscript
to his Studies in Ragnars saga lobrkar and its major Scandinavian analogues (Oxford, 1991). After discussing hitherto-unconsidered scholarship
on the saga, he argues that the Raknarr episode of Brar saga Snfellsss
may have been derived from the Miracula Sancti Germani, which describes
the death of Ragenarius, a viking who plundered the monastery of St. Germain
in Paris. McTurk hypothesises the existence of a story in which Raknarr
appears supernaturally after his death to the poet Bragi and gives him his
shield, thus inspiring him to compose Ragnarsdrpa. In A valiant king or a
coward? The changing image of king Hrlfr kraki from the oldest sources to
Hrlfs saga kraka, Valgerur Brynjlfsdttir finds Hrlfs saga kraka to be
influenced thematically as well as structurally by Karlamagns saga. Hrlfs
saga seems to be a parody of courtly literature, with Hrlfr himself an example of unkingly qualities. In Transgression in Hrlfs saga kraka, Marianne
Kalinke similarly argues that this saga contains overwhelming evidence that
its protagonist is not an ideal king but rather one whose downfall is brought
about by his lack of wisdom, prudence and justice. In Queens of terror.
Perilous women in Hlfs saga and Hrlfs saga kraka, rmann Jakobsson
reflects on the negative depiction of women in these sagas, which show that
130
Saga-Book
even virtuous women are dangerous, and evil women are more terrible than
evil men. In Hvat lr n grautnum, genta?Greek Story-telling in
Jtunheimar, Gottsklk . Jensson argues that the characteristics of the frame
narrative in Egils saga einhenda ok smundar berserkjabana resemble those
in the Milesian tales of ancient Rome, such as the Asinus Aureus, which
Icelanders may have encountered in Avignon.
The third set of essays deal with the social function of the fornaldarsgur.
In Den prosaiske Odin. Fortidssagaerne som mytografi, Annette Lassen
surveys the use of inn as a character in the fornaldarsgur. Noting that
the earliest of these works were written not too long after Snorri composed
his Edda, Lassen sees these works as a kind of mythography. In Den eksotiske
fortid. Fornaldarsagernes sociale funktion, Sverrir Jakobsson argues that the
fornaldarsgur are best thought of as a kind of history, rather than a kind of
literature. After suggesting that these texts created regional or local identities
with which Icelanders could identify, he then considers whether they were a
means of reconciling an exotic, magical, half-human past with a more mundane Christian present. In Fornaldarsagorna och den hviska bilden i Norden,
Hermann Bengtsson turns to art history to show that the fornaldarsgur
were constituted from elements of an internationally oriented courtly culture
that was also influential in the illuminations of Flateyjarbk.
The last essays treat the fornaldarsgur from a post-medieval perspective.
In The fornaldarsgur and Nordic Balladry: The Smsey Episode across
Genres, Stephen Mitchell argues that the version of the Smsey story attested to by the Swedish ballad Kung Speleman and a related Swedish ballad
fragment preserve some elements known only from Saxos version of the
story, as well as other elements known only from the Icelandic fornaldarsgur.
Rather than adducing a complicated process of borrowing, omission and conflation at work in the Swedish version, Mitchell supposes that it is an independent
version of the fuller original tradition from which both Saxo and the Icelanders drew. In Fornaldarsgur norurlanda: The stories that wouldnt die,
Matthew James Driscoll assesses the popularity of the fornaldarsgur in late
medieval and early modern Iceland via the sheer number of copies that have
survived, estimating that between ten and twenty thousand handwritten copies
of these works may have been produced in all. Remarkably, this figure is far
from the ultimate total, as it omits printed editions, copies of rmur based on
fornaldarsgur, copies of sagas based on rmur that were based on
fornaldarsgur and copies of reconstituted fornaldarsgur retelling myths
and legends. A list of the contributors rounds off the volume.
Although many of these essays are quite interesting in themselves, a substantial part of this volumes worth comes from the larger picture of consensus
that emerges. The heterogeneity of the fornaldarsgur has presented fundamental difficulties to the scholar, who cannot begin to work with these texts
without making some assumptions about their genre (or lack of it). Because
there is little agreement about how or whether genre as a theoretical construct
is applicable to the sagas at all, fornaldarsaga studies very often become
bogged down in sterile repetition of problems and positions. By focusing on
Reviews
131
the contemporary context of the fornaldarsgur, using more sophisticated

comparisons with courtly and Latinate culture and taking genre analysis to
the level of scene or chapter, the contributors to Fornaldarsagornas struktur
och ideologi have succeeded in making real progress in a difficult field.
ELIZABETH ASHMAN ROWE
KOMMENTAR ZU DEN LIEDERN DER EDDA 4 : HELDENLIEDER . By KLAUS VON SEE ,
B EATRICE L A F ARGE , W OLFGANG GERHOLD , DEBORA DUSSE , E VE P ICARD
and KATJA SCHULZ. Universittsverlag Winter. Heidelberg, 2004. 810 pp.
ISBN 3 8253 5007 X.
The latest in the Kommentar series from the team in Frankfurt, Kommentar4, is another triumph of inclusiveness, clarity and wide-ranging scholarship.
It treats the three Helgi poems, considering them both collectively and in
turn. Additionally, it provides an enormous general and focussed bibliography, including both Goscinny and Uderzos Asterix und die Normannen and
the short stories of Gabriel Garca Mrquez. It is almost exhaustive and
relatively easy to use, though it was hard to locate bibliographical information
for the Griplur, which are frequently referred to, but do not appear in the list
of primary texts. The introduction to Helgakvia Hundingsbana I (hereafter
the poems will be referred to as HHI, HHII and HHv), contains most of the
general discussion pertaining to the origins of Helgi as a figure, exploring the
arguments for Helgi as a sacral and semi-divine being, a sacrificial victim
offered up to inn to ensure fertility, or as a sovereignty-figure, and thus
identical with Helgi Hirvarsson. Alternatively, Helgi and his tribe the Ylfingar
have been considered to be a historical reality, which may perhaps be localised among the Migration-Age Lombards, or to seventh-century Sweden,
shortly after the events chronicled in Beowulf. The authors summarise these
arguments rather than adjudicating between them, though Bugges summary
of the possible origins of the Helgi poems is rightly described as too complicated to be plausible. The authors affiliations seem clearly to lie with later
scholars such as Klingenberg and Haimerl who sensibly insisted on working
with the texts as preserved in the Codex Regius. Thus in HHI, the senna is
regarded as integral to the poem, since it is more important than the battle
itself; HHII is clearly more of a patchwork of Helgi material.
Like its predecessors, the Kommentar is, of course, a volume of reference
rather than a book which many will wish to read from cover to cover.
Thus there is a degree of necessary repetition. A very clear distinction is
maintained between what the Prosa-ist (identified with the Redaktor of the
Codex Regius) was able to gather from the strophes which are preserved,
and new information that has been fed into the prose links. Thus it is demonstrable that HHII is highly dependent on the prose to link together what are
likely to be Helgi stories from disparate sources, and that HHv also needs a
considerable amount of prose explanation to articulate its plot, to such an
extent that Theodore Andersson has characterised the text as a prosimetric
132
Saga-Book
fornaldarsaga. The textual relations between the poems are helpfully anatomised:
the HHII Prose author used HHI; the poet of HHI drew on an earlier poem,
not preserved, parts of which are separately reflected in HHII. Other lost poems
such as Vlsungakvia in forna and Kroliare all accommodated within
HHIIs account of itself.
Some broadly generalised readings which link all three poems together
begin to emerge, noting the strong emphasis on lineage and heroic prowess.
HHI marks the beginning of the sequence of heroic poems in the Codex
Regius: conscious of its initiating status it begins with a deliberate echo of
Vlusp, situating the action in the Uranfang of legendary history. The Helgi
of HHI is vividly imagined as a Viking prince, whose victories largely depend on sea-power. The authors comment on the unusual emotionalism of
HHII with its focus on the feelings of Sigrn, and note the complex implications of the different stories which are assembled in HHv: the warrior-in-disguise,
the contrast between the warlike Helgi who avenges his maternal grandfather
and his father Hirvarr who neglects that duty, and the curious encounter
between Helgis brother Heinn and the troll-woman, Helgis fylgja, who
dooms him to vowing to marry his brothers intended, the valkyrie Svva.
There is thorough discussion of the interconnections between the poemsthe
suggestion that Helgi Hundingsbani is Helgi Hirvarsson reborn, and that
the second Helgi is reborn as Helgi Haddingjaskati, who appears in Hrmundar
saga. The unusual prevalence of speaking names is discussed: place-names
which have a cosmic significance, or which evoke a generalised heroic context, through, for example, the frequent deployment of the heroic name Sigarr
in compound place-names.
Useful tablesoutlining the relations of Helgi, Hundingr and his sons,
and Sigurr, across the different texts, or the views of various critics about
the possible sources of the piecemeal poem that is HHIIprovide a clear
overview of some complex arguments. Connections with other texts are traced;
it is concluded that the link with the Vlsung material is probably original,
since the recurrence of names such as Hundingr and Eylimi (the father of
Svva), and the reappearance of the sons of Hundingr in the Sigurr material,
point in that direction. Thematic links with the Hildr story (the Hjaningavg),
the Vlsung cycle, the stories of Hagbarr and Hrmundar saga Gripsson,
and the international Lenore folktale are demonstrated; linguistic connections
noticed, with skaldic poetry (especially in the kenning-heavy HHI), and also
with Skrnisml in the Hrmgerarml, which go beyond the general features
of threat as speech act. ireks saga is a clear intertext for HHv and other
fornaldarsgur which include bridal-quest narratives.
Not the least of the volumes features are the incidental bibliographies.
There are judicious notes with excellent introductory bibliographies on such
topics as sennur/flytings, beasts of battle, talking birds, Vikings, norns and
Rn. The latter is put into a context which includes Hrmgerr and her dangerous mother, showing how both Helgis are menaced by female sea-powers,
against whom the valkyrie offers protection. There is useful material on valkyries,
paradoxically elicited by Sinfjtlis insulting description of Gumundr as a
Reviews
133
valkyrie and a witch, rather than as an explanation of the status of the poems
heroine. Later notes discuss the etymology of Yule, and give exemplary
summaries of what is known about both fylgjur and norns.
This volume of the Kommentar series matches its predecessors for learning, for usefulness and authority. There is a revival of interest in the heroic
poetry of the Edda at present, and though the Helgi poems trail behind the
Vlsung and Gjkung material, it seems likely that this volume will be the
.
stimulus
to interesting new work on these neglected poems.
CAROLYNE LARRINGTON
GESCHICHTE DER ALTNORDISCHEN LITERATUR. By HEIKO UECKER. Universal-Bibliothek
17647. Reclam. Stuttgart, 2004. 308 pp. ISBN 3150176476.

Famous for their pocket-sized, yellow Universal-Bibliothek of German and
world literature, over the last ten years Reclam have published new translations of both Eddas and new paraphrased collections of Germanic myths and
legends (some in a larger, cloth-bound format), so Heiko Ueckers history of
Old Norse literature is a logical addition to the catalogue; it is paper-bound in
spring green, the colour reserved in the Universal-Bibliothek for literary history and criticism, and costs (in Germany) a mere 7.80 Euros. Students of
modern literature know Uecker as the author of the handbook Die Klassiker
der skandinavischen Literatur (1990, 2nd edition 2002), but Old Norse scholars
are aware that he also possesses impeccable qualifications as a medievalist.
Over thirty years ago, coincidentally, he contributed to another resurgence of
Old Norse publishing activity, the almost simultaneous appearance of the
four Sammlung Metzler handbooks: Germanische Verskunst by Klaus von
See, Einfhrung in die Runenkunde by Klaus Dwel, Sagaliteratur by Kurt
Schier, and his own Germanische Heldensage.
In size and scope, there is no comparable book on the market. (Readers of
Russian, to be sure, have access to M. I. Steblin-Kamenskijs Drevneskandinavskaja literatura, 1979.) The books strongest competitor in a compact
format will probably be Rudolf Simek and Hermann Plssons Lexikon der
altnordischen Literatur (1987), which, despite its greater detail (and higher
price), can also serve beginning students well, since it provides articles for
text groups and genres as well as individual titles. Other compact handbooks,
such as those in the Sammlung Metzler mentioned above, address particular
genres only. In fact, as far as I can establish, Ueckers is the first Germanlanguage introduction to Old Norse literature in a pocket format to appear
since that of Gustav Neckel in 1923, though Neckels was reprinted as late
as 1963.
The book under review bears a strong resemblance to a college lecture
course. After an introductory chapter sketching the history of Scandinavia
and its literary productivity in the Middle Ages, each chapter presents one
genre: religious literature, learned prose, historiography, historical fiction
(slendingasgur and fornaldarsgur), chivalrous literature, poetry. Despite
134
Saga-Book
the title, literary history in the narrow sense is not prominent (there is a quasiapology for this in the afterword on page 269)as indeed it should not be in
an introductory survey; rather, the impression made is that of a catalogue in
which exemplary items are singled out for description or quotation, though
Uecker does provide at least a rough chronology of works, text types and
characteristics within each genre/chapter and occasionally refers to dating
controversies. No Scandinavian language skills on the part of the reader are
presumed, no documentation is given (though there is a bibliography), and
references to the history of scholarship are made without naming names.
Among the books virtues is one that it has in common with Die Klassiker:
Uecker not only knows his material, but is also an accomplished raconteur,
and neat and unexpected turns of phrase make every page interesting reading,
without the style seeming forced. (Some close calls: unik und einzigartig on
page 7, das wars on page 68, Baldr und Vali e tutti quanti on page 241.)
A further virtue of the book is its thematic and chronological integration of
important East Norse texts into the presentation: the page on Sturlunga saga,
for example, is followed by one on Erikskrnikan. This policy, rare even in
the most compendious literary histories, is all the more remarkable in that it is
essentially denied in the preface, which seems to offer an apology for the fact
that the other Scandinavian countries have nothing comparable to the literature of medieval Iceland (p. 7, cf. p. 269), and absolutely denied in the back
cover blurb, which refers only to Iceland (someone at Reclam evidently took
the apology too literally)! A sister virtue of Ueckers approach is his conviction that it is necessary to view Old Norse literature in a European context
(pp. 7, 19); this credo emerges clearly in his granting of equal space to Latin
texts of Scandinavian origin, his fair and full consideration of influences and
parallels from other European literatures, and his agnostic position on certain
questions of dating dear to generations of Altertumskundler. On the latter
point, a few characteristic statements: Of the ancient Germanic lore that older
scholarship imagined it had found [in Hvaml], there is no trace (p. 205);
We are not going to call Vlusp to the witness stand to give evidence for
reconstructing the pagan religion, but consider it as a poetic monument (p.
200); This time frame of half a millennium [from Common Scandinavian
syncope to the date of the Codex Regius] still offers more than enough room
for speculation about the age of the individual Eddic poems. A debate on
which can lay claim to greater age, Eddic or skaldic poetry, is completely
pointless, however, since we lack the criteria for resolving it (p. 198); Egil
lived in the tenth century. Whether the events in the saga took place as presented, we are unable to determineand we dont have to, any more than we
have to answer the question whether all the verses are really by Egil (pp.
12324).
Ueckers history is a reliable guide for anyone beginning to read Old Norse
texts and desiring to put them in historical and typological perspective; my
checks revealed incongruities but no substantial errors in the information
provided. On page 25, familiarity with the Legenda Aurea is assumed, though
this work and its compiler are not formally introduced until page 30; Sven
Reviews
135
Aggesns name is dropped enigmatically on page 15, never to reappear. The

term Renaissance of the Twelfth Century is introduced and defined on page
19 and then again with a different, though not contradictory, definition on
page 64. A translation error has crept into the first version of the Theophilus
legend cited on page 27: da sah ihn der Hebrer mit Ungemach (glei) an
should read da sah der Hebrer eine groe Traurigkeit in ihm (Maru saga,
ed. Unger, p. XXXI: a sa enn ebrski mar a honom mickla vglei). The
sentence cited on page 118 as an example of saga objectivity (Flosis skin
changing colour, Njla ch. 116) is hardly suitable as such, because historians
of saga style regard it rather as atypically purple prose; a description without
similes and without an accompanying verbal outburst, such as that of Egill
sitting in full armour at thelstans court (Egla ch. 55, partially quoted by
Uecker in another context on page 122), might have served the purpose
better. The statement that verbal duels are often called senna in the scholarly
literature on the model of Lokasenna (p. 213) is misleading in two ways:
verbal duels are not generally called senna, and when they are, it is not
because of Lokasenna. The senna paragraph, incidentally, may have suffered
from last-minute changes without sufficient editing, since its closing sentence
blatantly violates two principles followed throughout the book: it cites an Old
Norse sentence without translation (the norm is a translation without the
original) and with the parenthetical documentation 1336DN VIII,99,11
(documentation is otherwise never given, abbreviated or not; moreover, the
Diplomatarium Norvegicum appears nowhere in the bibliography). Ironically, the only paragraph in the book in which modern scholars are actually
named, the discussion of the controversy between Finnur Jnsson and E. A.
Kock (pp. 24546), misrepresents Kocks position on the example chosen to
illustrate the controversy, Harmsl 41, ll. 14. The interpretation and emendation presented here as Kocks were in fact proposed by Jn Helgason;
Kock accepted Jns syntactic grouping but argued that no emendation of
blakk- was necessary, since one could read rimu tjalda blakk- shield-horse,
i.e. ship (Notationes Norrn, 2933).
Like the author of any survey, Uecker had to omit a great deal, and disagreement on the chosen emphasis is inevitable. In a few cases, I found the
initial treatment of a topic too brief, but discovered on reading further that
more information and examples were given in the discussions of individual
texts; these topics include saga style, open and formulaic composition, topoi
and the fluidity of genre distinctions. Other omissions are more complete.
The Old Norse language itself is one; I suspect many readers would fare
better with some kind of definition of this language and notes on at least
three details: the special characters, the meaning of the word saga (which is
translated in every saga title as Geschichte but not mapped out as a notion
or distinguished from the German word Sage) and the fact that Snorra in
Snorra Edda (never directly translated) is a genitive. Nor does Uecker define
the corpus of Old Norse literature. An overview of all text types would have
been helpful, especially since ttir, rmur, ballads and legal texts receive
only the briefest of passing references and the runic corpus is missing
136
Saga-Book
entirely. The policy of not referring to post-medieval scholars by name may

be understandable from a logistical point of view, but the anonymity seems
forced. (Exceptions to the rule are made: nods are given to Shakespeare,
Tegnr, Andreas Munch, Bjrnson, Ibsen, Wagner and Thomas Mann on the
one hand, to Arngrmur Jnsson, Brynjlfur Sveinsson, King Frederik III,
Olof Verelius, Laurents Hanssn, Peder Claussn Friis, Mattis Strssn and
C. C. Rafn on the otherwhere is rni Magnsson?and among modern
scholars only to Kock and Finnur Jnsson.) And it is galling to see the
famous comment on the sagas of Jn lafsson r Grunnavk (bndur flugust
) presented as if Uecker had thought of it himself (p. 114). Emphasis placed
on European connections at the expense of the Germanic heritage gives some
topics an unaccustomed slantnecessary though this slant may be as a backswing
of the ideological pendulum. The fact that Old Norse literature is by far our
most important source of information on Old Germanic religion never emerges,
for Uecker remains firmly agnostic on such matters. In the section on Eddic
poetry, the emphasis is on Scandinavian innovation and European parallels;
Uecker does mention in passing that the Eddic long line is rooted in older
Germanic epic (pp. 19394) but does not explain this genre designation, and
it is not until halfway through the section that the reader encounters the titles
Beowulf, Hildebrandslied and Nibelungenliednamed in passing alongside
the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Kalevala (p. 218). In
the chapter on religious texts, the translated Duggals leisla is placed in the
context of European visionary literature (Dante) and compared with Draumkvdet
(pp. 3334), and in the poetry chapter there is a similar comment on Vlusp
(p. 201), but nothing is saidanywhere in the bookabout the well-known
abundance of dreams and visions in dozens of other Old Norse texts from
Darraarlj to Ska rma; Uecker does mention individual dreams in his
discussions of Sverris saga and Gsla saga, so why not at least cross-refer to
these? On each of the above points, I support Ueckers intellectual agenda but
still cannot help wishing he had put more meat and potatoes on his undergraduates plates.
The bibliography (pp. 27193) includes a list of general titles followed by
lists for each chapter/genre, and its balance mirrors that of the text. Thus, for
example, one finds no textbooks or dictionaries (since the language is not
discussed), and nothing on the pagan religion as such (since Uecker is sceptical of reconstructions). Within these limits, the bibliography is surprisingly
full, listing editions and translations as well as secondary sources. Here,
Uecker clearly has advanced university students in mind, since it is doubtful
whether many general readers will tackle the original texts, to say nothing of
monographs in modern Icelandic. Serious general omissions are Hans BekkerNielsen et al., Norrn fortllekunst (1965) and Phillip Pulsiano (ed.), Medieval
Scandinavia (1993); under historiography some will miss Anne Heinrichs,
Der lfs ttr Geirstaalfs (1989), under slendingasgur Theodore M.
Andersson, The Problem of Icelandic Saga Origins (1964), Peter Hallberg,
Die islndische Saga (1965), Preben Meulengracht Srensen, Fortlling og
re (1993), Baldur Hafsta, Die Egils saga und ihr Verhltnis zu anderen
Reviews
137
Werken des nordischen Mittelalters (1995), under fornaldarsgursince so

few exist in German translationHermann Plsson and Paul Edwards (trans.),
Seven Viking Romances (1985), under poetry Klaus von See, Germanische
Verskunst (1967). Hermann Plssons Sagnaskemmtun slendinga (1962) is
listed twice, but his later books in Icelandic as well as his Oral Tradition and
Saga Writing (1999) are all missing. Space could have been made for missing titles by deleting, for example, unhelpful anthologies of essays (I count
ten candidates); though often included in bibliographies, anthologies rarely
offer beginners reliable orientation unless they are compiled expressly to
document the history of research. Apart from typographical errors, which are
addressed at the close of this review, the bibliographical entries suffer from
occasional inconsistency: the entry for Jan de Vriess Altnordische Literaturgeschichte of 196466, a complete reworking of the first edition, does not
identify it as the second edition, and the series name Islandica is omitted in
the entry for Einar l. Sveinssons Age of the Sturlungs (1953), though
provided in other entries.
The book closes with an index of work titles (pp. 295304) and an index
of personal names (pp. 30508). Both are useful, but the reader soon observes that they must have been prepared by having a word processing
programme search for titles and names. This is of little consequence for the
index of names, but it means that the index of works registers only those
pages on which the title actually appears, and if the discussion continues on
the following pages without a second mention of the title, such pages are not
registered. For Gsla saga, for example, 138 should read 13841, for
Grmnisml, 205 should read 20507, for Edda, 191f., 198, 209, 231
should read 191233 (the chapter on the Edda), and so on. On the other
hand, the coexistence in the text of German and Old Norse forms for some
titles and names (Grimnir-Lied / Grmnisml) and the numerous spelling
inconsistencies (Grmnisml / Grimnisml, lfs saga / lafs saga / Olafs
saga / Olafssaga / Olafsaga), though annoying, did not produce any noticeable indexing errors. In the index of names, page 74 should be added to the
entry for Beda Venerabilis, C. C. Rafn should have an entry listing page 151,
and Finnur Jnsson and E. A. Kock should each have an entry listing page
245f. The index of works wrongly conflates two law codes named Grgs:
the Icelandic codex named on page 13 is not identical with the Norwegian
one (a lost precursor of the Frostaing Law) named on page 85.
Reclam will not have had an easy typesetting job: Old Norse forms
are used for names and work titles (alongside German forms), and several
text passages are printed in the original in order to illustrate stylistic
points. Normalisation was evidently attempted, at least sometimes, with
generally being substituted for (though not always: the poetic examples
on pages 19394 have , on 198201 there is only , on 20304
again, from 237 on only ); the result, however, cannot be labelled
satisfactory. Surely, in a book of this nature, consistent normalisation would
have been both possible and desirable (making necessary exceptions for titles
of published editions and East Norse forms). Furthermore, apart from the
138
Saga-Book
onoff attitude towards normalisation, the rate of typographical error is

disappointingly high.
It is instructive to compare the treatment of the two prose excerpts presented in Old Norse. The first of them (p. 44), a translation of two lines of
Prosper, has been normalised, but with an erroneous long in the participle
lifanda and the misleading hellsk for helzk (ms hellzc). Furthermore, although
Ueckers point is to show how skilful the translation is, the end of it has been
cut off (orvaldur Bjarnarson, Leifar fornra kristinna fra slenzkra, 1878,
p. 2: at it fvlla ei at vera sem hann ei er). One feels compelled to ask what
sort of reader Uecker had in mind for this page, a reader who could breeze
through a Latin couplet and judge the merits of a (very free) Old Norse
rendering of it without the benefit of any translations into German. The second passage (p. 175), a lengthier excerpt from Tristrams saga chosen to
illustrate the untranslatable features of the florid style, looks at first glance
like a normalisation attempt gone awry, with modern Icelandic and -st but
half a dozen accent errors and a wrong gender (gaman mn for gaman mitt);
it has nothing in common with the text in the edition of this saga cited in the
bibliography, which has been expertly normalised to a medieval standard.
Instead, Uecker must have taken his text from Eugen Klbings diplomatic
edition, which is listed in the bibliography only under translations (it also
contains a translation). The gender error, however, is Ueckers, not Klbings.
Why did Uecker not draw on the excellent normalised edition listed in his
own bibliography?
The typographical errors, which number well over one hundred, fall into
several groups. One small but dismaying group is made up of what might be
called pseudo-Old Norse forms: Sveinn tveskeggr (p. 307) for tjguskegg,
tfersdrpa (pp. 83, 303) for tfarardrpa and Vnland sgur (p. 114) for
Vnlendinga sgur seem to have been translatedsuperficially and unsuccessfullyback into Old Norse/Icelandic from other languages. A similar
fate befell the Old Norse word norrnn, which appears in the bibliography
in the bastardised forms Norrne fornkvi for Norrn in the entry for
Sophus Bugges edition of the Edda (p. 291) and Notationes norrn for
Kocks Latinised Norse norrn (p. 293). A second, much larger, group
consists of misplaced, confused ( / / oe, / / ), missing or disproportionately sized accents and special characters of Old Norse and modern Icelandic, as
well as confused allomorphs (-a / -ar, etc.). For example, the bibliographical
entry for slenzk fornrit XI (p. 283) lists the titles of five texts contained in
the volume (ignoring nine others), but commits five typographical errors in
the process. Group three, also large, contains the typographical errors familiar
in all languages. A dozen English and Scandinavian book titles are mangled,
Menippos becomes Mennippos (p. 212) and Ulrike Sprenger is renamed
Ursula in one of her bibliographical entries (p. 292). There are errors in the
German text, too, one with a tragicomical result: the omission of a comma
makes the sentence at the bottom of page 112 say that at the Reykjahlar
wedding in 1119 sagas were recited about the murder of Snorri Sturluson!
Curious is also the missing comma in the famous Deyr f line (p. 204),
Reviews
139
contrary to Neckel-Kuhn; even the translation leaves it out: Es stirbt Besitz

Verwandte sterben. A fourth group, smaller and less serious, I reserve for
the syllable division of Old Norse forms in violation of the Icelandic standardsometimes the German standard as well. Certain examples are relatively
harmless (Hko-narkvia, Sm-undr), but irritating are Stren-gleikar (p. 172,
twice), Hymisk-via (p. 195) and Sigrd-rifa (p. 224), and the Norwegian
fris-tatstiden (p. 273) is hardly better.
Having spoken my piece on the mechanics of the book, let me reiterate that
I find it in substance an absolutely trustworthy contribution to Old Norse
studies; for its size and price, the book is excellent. Uecker is a conscientious,
intelligent and engaging epitomiser who dares to make difficult decisions,
and he deserves our admiration for undertaking what was certainly in some
respects a thankless job. For the first time in decades, readers of German
have a paperback introduction to Old Norse literature, and congratulations
are in order.
MARVIN TAYLOR
CHAUCER AND THE NORSE AND CELTIC WORLDS .
By RORY MCTURK. Ashgate. Aldershot, 2005. x + 218 pp. ISBN 0754603911.

After Schildgens Pagans, Tartars, Moslems and Jews in Chaucers Canterbury Tales (2001) and Heffernans consideration of a more general Orient
(2003), we now look North and West, to the Norse and Celtic worlds, but
less for authorial treatment of alien populations than for affinities among a
narrow range of literary works. Rory McTurks entertaining and lucidly written book often borrows both image and effect from its subject texts: here the
reflection of an illusory Norse throne room, there a breath from a windy
English House of Fame, even the echo of a contentious Irish hostel. What
comes perilously close to being a house of cards is erected on the constructional principles of analogy and analogue, with some buttressing from the
old-fashioned study of recognised sources.
In five chapters McTurk addresses Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Snorri
Sturlusons Edda, in particular the treatise on poetics, Skldskaparml; Chaucer,
Gerald of Wales and Ireland; the English author and the Irish saga tradition;
the Wife of Bath and analogues, both Celtic and Germanic; and, lastly, Chaucer
and Irish poetry. In each section McTurk deftly isolates, then treats in detail,
key points of comparison. For the Tales and Edda, these are framed narrative, literary anthology and pilgrimage. On the first count, the author employs
the conventional two-dimensional spatial image of levels of narrative (turning subsequently to their various functions), but this proves less than
illuminating when medieval authors create a multi-dimensionality that more
resembles the wormholes of advanced physics. The elusive narrative voice
replicates some of the allusiveness of puns, kennings, and other paraphrase.
The limitations of McTurks interrogative model may contribute to his assessment of the imperfect structure and unfinished qualities of the two works
140
Saga-Book
(20). Yet narrator positions and stances are convincingly shown to be very
conscious sitings, displaying great sophistication, even in their instability and
impermanence. Chaucers Geoffrey and Snorris Gylfi make a fine pair, wry
but sly. The points of correspondence subsumed in literary anthology and
pilgrimage call for a less full discussion and will be readily agreed to. The
discussion of the poetic eagles in the Norse account of the theft of the mead
of poetry and in Chaucers House of Fame might be completed by associating
that portion of mead expelled behind the air-borne inn and intended for
poetasters with Geoffrey the rhymester as the other eagles passenger. Indian parallels are also adduced. McTurk concludes this tone-setting first chapter
by stating that the two stories descend, independently of one another, from a
common source and are thus analogues, according to the earlier definition of
heuristic instruments in the scholars conceptual toolbox.
In the second chapter McTurk argues for Chaucers greater familiarity with
the works of Gerald of Wales than has earlier been assumed, his reading now
expanded to include Topographia Hibernie. Eagles are again at the focal
point of the comparison, and the argument of the preceding chapter is now, a
tad repetitively, expanded. This entails some less than full correspondences,
such as that between the elixir of poetic creation and the fire at St. Brigids
shrine at Kildare. Pagan affinities (extended to include the rotating fortresses
of Irish saga tradition), more than Christian theology, make for intriguing
points of contact with the aerial House of Fame. This discussion introduces
two central arguments of the book: the possibility of Chaucers having spent
his lost years (136166) in Ireland, and the related but very distinct issue of
his exposure to, and influence from, Irish story-telling, poetry and poetics.
McTurk offers a fresh and thorough review of a now considerable body of
admittedly circumstantial evidence to build a case for Chaucer accompanying
Prince Lionel, son of Edward III, to Ireland. Lionel would oversee the estates
of his wife, Elizabeth, Countess of Ulster, in whose household was counted
Philippa Chaucer, and more importantly he would stem the tide of gaelicisation
among the population of British origin (English, Anglo-Norman, Anglo-Breton,
Welsh, Pembrokeshire Fleming, etc.) that had resulted from minority demographic status, long-term, largely rural residence, intermarriage with Irish
magnates, native Irish estate and household staff (not least entertainers), and
so on. On the point of greatest relevance to Chaucer, these efforts were
encoded in the Statutes of Kilkenny (February, 1366), one stipulation of
which in part read as follows (p. 63):
it is agreed and forbidden that any Irish minstrels, that is to say, tympanours,
pipers, story tellers, babblers, rhymers, harpers, or any other Irish minstrels shall come amongst the English, and that no English shall receive or
make gift to such.
Even the use of the Irish language was banned among the English. Notwithstanding this injunction, whose premises would have been familiar to all in
Lionels household even before their passage into law, McTurk argues that
Chaucer so assiduously frequented Irish-speaking circles (if such could be
Reviews
141
clearly drawn) that he not only needed to be sent on his 1366 Spanish
mission to avoid falling within the ambit of the statutes when passed, but
also acquired sufficient familiarity with Irish story-telling matter and poetics
to affect his subsequent writings. We can only speculate on Lionels likely
laxity in this regard or Chaucers recklessness, but this reviewer finds the
overall proposition implausible, even admitting that the statutes were by and
large ineffectual. To jump, momentarily, ahead to McTurks penultimate chapter
on Chaucer and Irish Poetry, the conclusions of which posit Chaucers
intimate familiarity with Irish syllabic poetry, one may wonder whether six
years or less of covert contact with the Irish language, and most importantly
with its phonemics, on which the entire structure of metrics is erected, would
be sufficient to grasp all the intricacy of a poetics in which syllable length,
syllable count, consonance, assonance, alliteration, partial and full rhyme
(internal and final), patterns of stress, permissible elision, stanzaic structure,
and more, formed the basis for further stylistic elaboration through paronomasia,
learned allusion, inverted parallelisms, opening and closure effects, and other
tropes. Even without adducing the notoriously long apprenticeship ascribed
to Irish poets, we may suspect that more than six years of evenings in the
hall under the conditions of Chaucers service in Lionels household would
have been needed to achieve such mastery. Had Chaucer been as familiar
with Irish culture as McTurk suggests, how could he have resisted the occasional lexical Hibernicism in his own work, or a set piece on the wild Irish,
or a Paddy-figure like Shakespeares ethnic captains in Henry V? And for
Harry Bailey to have condemned the rymyng of Sir Topas for its Irish
affinities (McTurk, 187) would have required him, as well as Chaucer, to
have spent many a night before the turf fire.
This major reservation does not diminish the pleasure of reading McTurks
account and does not invalidate his thoughtful discussion of the loathly
lady motif in Ch. 4, where one can scarcely deny some affiliation between
the various reflexes of the Irish goddess of territorial sovereignty (e.g. Queen
Medb of Connaught, the Old Woman of Beare) and the Wife of Bath
and puella senilis of her tale. The darker, as distinct from simply repulsive,
faces of the goddess are not explored. As concerns Acallam na Senrach
(now authoritatively translated by Dooley and Roe as Tales of the Elders
of Ireland, 1999) and Togail Bruidne Da Derga (The Destruction of Da
Dergas Hostel), even the presence of such comparanda as framed narrative,
ambulatory narration on an itinerary of (semi-)sacred sites (my terms),
and the literary anthology would be more prudently examined under
the authors rubrics of analogy and analogue than as direct influences on
Chaucer.
Chaucer and Irish Poetry (Ch. 5) contains what to my knowledge is the
best current introduction to a difficult subject and contested history, one that
hardly offers a convenient point of access to any reader who does not have
oral and auditory proficiency in the Irish language. The historical and highly
technical discussion would bulk very large (pp. 15481) in McTurks book
even if we could accept the likelihood that, mutatis mutandis, it would have
142
Saga-Book
been comprehensible to Geoffrey Chaucer. As it is, it exerts considerable

drag on an otherwise lively book.
The several analogies and analogues adduced in Chaucer and the Norse
and Celtic Worlds make for compelling and informative reading, even if we
cannot find a rigorously researched and rigidly structuring linear causality
to give them a sounder interior framework and sharper external contours. It is
undeniable that many motif clusters in medieval European literature exhibit
startling geographical range, and historical depth and longevity, at the
same time as they are not always exploited to the same authorial ends nor
always bear the same ideological charge. The depth of scholarship (very upto-date as concerns secondary literature) and breadth of vision that inform
McTurks book recommend it to all readers, even those who may not be
willing to follow the author through to some of his more speculative conclusions, in particular those related to the central issue of Chaucers willed or
casual exposure to an Irish culture shortly to come under English ban. But
studying literary cultures so allusive and elusive as the Norse and Irish, and
an author at once both overt and covert, so self-referential and self-questioning as Chaucer, a scholar may be forgiven his airier flightseagle-mounted
or otherwise.
WILLIAM SAYERS
ANDERS SRENSEN VEDELS FILOLOGISKE ARBEJDER. By MARITA AKHJ N IELSEN .
Universitets-Jubilets danske Samfunds Skriftserie 562. C. A. Reitzels Forlag.
Copenhagen, 2004. 820 pp. (2 vols). ISBN 87 7876 378 9.
Anders Srensen Vedel is not a name that crops up a great deal in conversation. Indeed, it is probably safe to assume that many toilers in the field of
Scandinavian Studies have only the scantiest acquaintance with this notable
figure of Danish Renaissance humanism. With the appearance of Nielsens
new study, however (her doctoral thesis), such ignorance will be harder to
justify. Although primarily concerned with Vedel the philologist, the book
offers a comprehensive account of the man himself, his extraordinarily
wide range of interests, his achievements and failures, and the times in which
he lived.
Vedel was born in Vejle, Jutland, in 1542 and died in Ribe in 1616. He
received a solid education and mixed in learned circles and with the nobility.
As a young man he became tutor to the Danish nobleman, Tyge Brahe (later
to achieve fame as one of the pioneers of modern astronomy), and in the
years 156881 was a clergyman at the Danish court. As befits a Renaissance
humanist, Vedel was something of a polymath. His published works include
a translation into Danish of Saxos history of Denmark (1575), an edition
with commentary of the first three (of four) books of Adam of Bremens
chronicle of the archbishops of the Hamburg-Bremen see (1579), a tract on
the origin of the name Denmark (1584), and a pioneering edition of Danish
medieval ballads (1591). His greatest contribution was, however, to have
Reviews
143
been a history of Denmark, written in Danish, and running perhaps to as

many as 2000 pages. Unfortunately this work never materialised, although
Vedel made a fair number of preparatory studies, and wrote an introduction
and one or two sections on the late Viking Age that have survived. The
reasons for his failure to bring the project to completion were many, but chief
among them seem to have been half-hearted official support and a tendency
to get side-tracked. In his travails with this monumental undertaking
Vedel bears something of a resemblance to the modern academic. The painstaking handwritten account of his aims and objectives and how he intended
to achieve them (Om den danske Krnike at beskrive, 1581) reminds one
uncomfortably of the early twenty-first-century grant application, while the
repeated assurances he gave that completion was just around the corner carry
more than faint echoes of the bluster and prevarication that regularly precede
British Research Assessment Exercises. And all the while Vedel was failing
to deliver, he was busying himself with things that caught his fancy.
Nemesis finally overtook him, however, in the shape of the redundancy that
also stalks the unproductive British academic. In 1594, having exhausted
the patience of the Danish authorities who had extracted from him a pledge to
write the History, he was relieved of his duties as (unofficial) historiographer. Worse than that: he was compelled to hand over most of the materials
he had amassed while working on the project. These eventually found
their way to Copenhagen University Library, where they perished in the great
fire of 1728. Fortunately Vedel seems to have kept a certain amount back,
and to have made a number of copies. Thus it is that the philological contributions edited by Nielsen in the present work have survived.
Anders Srensen Vedels filologiske arbejder is in fact much more than a
critical editionas indicated above. The major part comprises twelve discursive chapters. These deal with the following: (1) the aims and background of
the study; (2) Vedels printed and handwritten works; (3) his working methods; (4) his thoughts on language and language research and their importance
for understanding historical sources; (5) his conception of the term Gothic
(which he equated with Old Norse and other manifestations of earlier Germanic); (6) his etymological musings, including a dissertation on the origin
of the word jul; (7) his collections of Danish words and phrases; (8) his
dictionary of barbarismsLatinised words of non-Latin origin, or neologisms derived from classical roots (taken principally from Danish sources);
(9) his onomastic notes, with their unusual emphasis on contemporary naming practices; (10) Vedel and runes (not a very illuminating chapter, either on
Vedel or on runes); (11) the reception of Vedels works and their influence
on later writers; (12) Vedel the philologisthis merits, shortcomings and
achievements.
The manuscripts edited, each of which is given detailed presentation,
are Rostgaard 219, 4to; Ny kongelig Samling 642 b, 4to, 212; Additamenta
121, 4to, 1920 and 2627; and Additamenta 58, 8vo, 3746. Together
these represent the most important of Vedels hitherto unpublished
philological works. His sixteenth-century Danish is unglossed, but where he
144
Saga-Book
writes in Latin a modern Danish translation is appended. Rounding off

Nielsens study is a list of manuscripts consulted in its preparation and three
bibliographiesone comprising all of Vedels known works, one listing the
source materials used, and one secondary literature. Finally there are
three indexes devoted to (1) Danish, Norse, Low German, High German
and Latin words Vedel treats in his philological works; (2) proper names; and
(3) authors and works that appear in the bibliography of source materials.
As a scholar whose knowledge of Vedel is only a little above average, I am
neither in a position to lavish well-considered praise on Nielsens study nor
to subject it to searching and detailed criticism. What I have been able to
observe is that it is clearly written and well structured. Further, the author
seems very much in command of her subject. And given the care that has
been taken over presentation and proof-reading, I would assume that Vedels
manuscripts have been accurately transcribed in most, perhaps all, of their
detail.
This book will be of particular importance to students of early post-Reformation
Denmark and of the history of linguistics. It should also appeal more generally to those with an interest in sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Danish
language and culture.
MICHAEL BARNES
3: RMUR . By HALLGRMUR PTURSSON . Edited by MARGRT E GGERTSKRISTJN EIRKSSON and SVANHILDUR SKARSDTTIR. Rit 64. Stofnun rna
Magnssonar slandi. Reykjavk 2005. xiv + 292 pp. ISBN 9979 819 71 5.
LJMLI
DTTIR,
BAROKKMEISTARINN . LIST OG LRDMUR VERKUM HALLGRMS PTURSSONAR.
By
MARGRT EGGERTSDTTIR. Rit 63. Stofnun rna Magnssonar slandi. Reykjavk
2005. 474 pp. ISBN 9979 54 663 8.
Margrt Eggertsdttir has devoted much of her academic career to Hallgrmur
Ptursson (161474), a commanding figure in post-medieval Icelandic
literary life. Her fastidious editorial work has done much to reveal the multifaceted literary priorities and personality of this much-loved poet. She has
now placed scholars interested in post-medieval Icelandic literary culture still
further in her debt by the appearance of the third volume of the on-going
major critical edition of Hallgrmurs poetry (Ljmli 3), and also by producing a wide-ranging and stimulating monograph in which Hallgrmurs
works are discussed in their many intellectual and literary contexts (Barokkmeistarinn).
Ljmli 3 is the third volume of five that will form the first part, dedicated
to poetry, of the complete edition of Hallgrmur Pturssons works. The
project divides Hallgrmurs works into four main parts: poetry, groups of
psalms, rmur and prose works. The first volume appeared in 2000, the
second in 2002. As noted in my review of Ljmli 2, the poetic material in
each volume is grouped according to content, with the first volume devoted to
Reviews
145
poems about the evanescence of life, and the second primarily to occasional
verse. Although Hallgrmur Ptursson is best known as a religious poet and
psalmist, his other spiritual poems are less familiar, and constitute the primary focus of the present (third) volume. Overall, the editors clearly wish to
draw attention to less familiar aspects of Hallgrmur Pturssons literary
production, and challenge the stereotypical notion of Hallgrmur as mainly a
psalmist and religious writer.
The present volume contains forty-three psalms and occasional verses (groups
of psalms, slmaflokkar, will be treated in Part II of the critical edition),
among which are psalms based on Biblical texts, psalms of penitence and
solace, including the celebrated one ( einum gui er allt mitt traust) that
Hallgrmur must have written during his last illness. Many of these psalms
are acrostics, a popular seventeenth-century poetic device. Among the spiritual poems traditionally attributed to Hallgrmur Ptursson, some are considered
spurious by Margrt Eggertsdttir and her editorial colleagues, Kristjn Eirksson
and Svanhildur skarsdttir, and therefore relegated to a separate volume,
along with all other poems of doubtful attribution.
The arrangement of material in the edition follows that of the previous
volumes: each text is prefaced by an introductionwhere perhaps some sort
of graphic device to identify titles more easily would have been a good
ideaexplaining the textual history and tradition of each item, where the
readers will enjoy following the intriguing conjectures offered in the attempt
to reconstruct the origins and affiliations of the manuscripts. The text of each
poem is then reproduced, accompanied by full critical apparatus. The volume
also includes an extensive bibliography and codicological description of all
the relevant manuscripts.
Along with this welcome third edited volume, Margrt Eggertsdttir has
also published Barokkmeistarinn, a reworking of her doctoral dissertation.
This monograph, with its handsome cover featuring an ornate title page from
AM 148 8vo, examines the literary art and intellectual background to the
works of Hallgrmur Ptursson, placing him securely within a broad European literary context, as well as within the context of what remains (for many
readers) an unfamiliar period in Icelandic literary history. The study begins
with a detailed evaluation of the concept of baroque literature in seventeenthcentury Europe (chapters 2 and 3), before focusing on post-Reformation
Iceland (chapters 47), and concluding with a detailed analysis of Hallgrmurs
poetry, in which his works are read for the first time in the light of current
understandings of baroque modes (chapters 818). After a concluding chapter, readers are provided with a summary in English, an extensive bibliography,
and appropriate indexes.
It is not long ago that the term baroque was applied primarily to art, and
thus the concept of baroque literature is a fairly new one. In her opening
chapters Margrt traces back the history of the term baroque, not least in
the context of its having often been used to describe literature considered
excessively elaborate and (even) tasteless. We have to wait until the end of
World War Oneor even as late as the second half of the last centuryfor
146
Saga-Book
a more sympathetic revaluation of a baroque sensibility that is neither of the

Renaissance nor of the Romantic period, but which may be said to have many
affinities with Modernism and Expressionism. Margrts discussion of the
parallels between baroque literature and Modernism are particularly illuminating. The author then attempts to delineate this multifaceted literary style, with
its emphasis on the importance of the harmonisation of all contrasts and
tensions between lay and spiritual, evanescent and infinite; with its sense of
poets being part of an international brotherhood of learned men, founding
their ars poetica on classical and Christian traditions; with its tendency to
prioritise form over content; and with its valorisation of classical Latin rhetoric as the key to this new poetic approach.
Seventeenth-century Iceland has long been considered the age of sorcery, a
black hole in Icelandic literary history, dominated by superstition and the
supernatural, deprived of learning, and devoted to the sterile repetition of old
literary materials and traditions. Margrt argues that the notion of post-Reformation Icelandic literature as an isolated phenomenon unconnected with
contemporary foreign literature is unsustainable. It has been claimed that Iceland lacked the necessary conditions for a flourishing baroque literary culture
because it had no monarch and therefore no court which could support literary or artistic production. But Margrts discussion shows that baroque literature
does not consist solely of court poetry; other themes and topics flourished
that were well suited to other members of an agrarian society. The fourth
chapter (An Isolated Island in the Danish Kingdom) is particularly interesting, with its illuminating picture of the social and economic condition of
Iceland at the time. Iceland society emerges as much less uniform than is
often suggestedthere was a strong sense of social class, and indeed part of
society needed baroque literature, even though only a small proportion of the
literary production found its way into print, and the only available press, at
the Sklholt bishopric, was in the service of the Church.
Margrt draws attention to two other poets among Hallgrmur Pturssons
forerunners and contemporaries who may be considered representative of
Icelandic baroque literature. The analysis of such texts reveals significant
contacts with foreign contemporary literature, and the steady circulation of
texts to and from Europe, as writers sought to elevate the status of the
Icelandic language by contact with Latin and classical traditions, and by the
resurrection of old metres and lore. All the literary genres deployed by Icelandic baroque writers are shown to have their counterparts in contemporary
European writing.
The chapters dedicated to Hallgrmur Ptursson show in detail how the
poet was influenced by dominant concepts of his dayon the world, on
poetry, on the role of the poet, and on contemporary aesthetic values. The
image of Hallgrmur Ptursson constructed in the Romantic perioda sick,
destitute and isolated figureis thus shown to be only part of the truth.
Hallgrmur was also knowledgeable, open to new foreign influences, and
well respected. In this sense, the microcosm of the poet perfectly mirrors the
macrocosm of Iceland at the time.
Reviews
147
In its range, methodology and insights Margrt Eggertsdttirs monograph

represents a major achievement in the analysis of baroque Icelandic literature.
The image of seventeenth-century Iceland that emerges is of a land and culture richer and more colourful, less isolated and self-referential, more
cosmopolitan than is usually thought. At the end of her Foreword in Barokkmeistarinn, Margrt Eggertsdttir describes Hallgrmur Pturssons poetry
as gefandi, giving. The same may be said of Margrts work. This is a
scholarly monograph that can be read almost as a novel, and can engage its
readers on many levels. It is a most praiseworthy volume.
SILVIA C OSIMINI
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS TO SAGA-BOOK
1. Saga-Book is published annually in the autumn. Submissions are welcomed

from scholars, whether members of the Viking Society or not, on topics related
to the history, literature, language and archaeology of Scandinavia in the Middle
Ages. Articles offered will be assessed by all five editors, and where appropriate
submitted to referees of international standing external to the Society. Contributions that are accepted will normally be printed within two years.
2. Contributions should be submitted in two copies printed on one side only of
A4 paper with double spacing and ample margins, and also, preferably, on
computer disk. They should be prepared in accordance with the MHRA Style Book
(sixth edition, 2002) with the exceptions noted below.
3. Footnotes should be kept to a minimum. Whenever possible the material should
be incorporated in the text instead, if necessary in parentheses. Footnotes should
be on separate sheets, also with double spacing, and arranged in one continuous
numbered sequence indicated by superior arabic numerals.
4. References should be incorporated in the text unless they relate specifically to
subject-matter dealt with in a note. A strictly corresponding bibliographical list
should be included at the end of the article. The accuracy of both the references
and the list is the authors responsibility.
5. References should be given in the form illustrated by the following examples:
Other death omens of ill-luck are shared by Scandinavian, Orcadian and Gaelic
tradition (cf. Almqvist 197476, 24, 2930, 3233). Anne Holtsmark (1939,
78) and others have already drawn attention to this fact. Ninth-century Irish
brooches have recently been the subject of two studies by the present author
(1972; 197374), and the bossed penannular brooches have been fully catalogued
by O. S. Johansen (1973). This is clear from the following sentence: iraist
Bolli egar verksins ok lsti vgi hendi sr (Laxdla saga 1934, 154). It is
stated quite plainly in Flateyjarbk (186068, I 419): hann tok land j Syrlkiarosi. There is every reason to think that this interpretation is correct (cf. Heilagra
manna sgur, II 10708). The terms op. cit., ed. cit., loc. cit., ibid. should not
be used. Avoid, too, the use of f. and ff.; give precise page references.
6. The bibliographical list should be in strictly alphabetical order by the surname(s) (except in the case of Icelanders with patronymics) of the author(s) or
editor(s), or, where the authorship is unknown, by the title of the work or some
suitable abbreviation. Neither the name of the publisher nor the place of publication is required; nor, generally, is the name of a series.
7. Foreign words or phrases cited in the paper should be italicised and any gloss
enclosed in single quotation marks, e.g. Srdlir men from Surnadal. Longer
quotations should be enclosed in single quotation marks, with quotations within
quotations enclosed in double quotation marks. Quotations of more than three
lines, quotations in prose of more than one paragraph, whatever their length (two
lines of dialogue, for example), and all verse quotations, should be indented.
Such quotations should not be enclosed in quotation marks, and they should not
be italicised.
PUBLICATIONS LIST 2006

All in card covers unless noted as bound; Members/Non-Members prices quoted
in .p. Orders from outside North America should be sent to Gazelle Book Services Limited, High Town, Lancaster, LA1 4XS; email: sales@gazellebooks.co.uk.
Viking Society members can claim members reduced price.
The Societys agent in North America is Roy Rukkila, Managing Editor,
ACMRS, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 874402, Tempe, AZ 85287-4402, USA;
email: mrts@asu.edu. Prices at http://asu.edu/clas/acmrs/publications/mrts/vsnr.html
EDITIONS
grip af Nregskonungasgum: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the
Kings of Norway. Edited and translated by M. J. Driscoll. Text Series X. 1995.
ISBN 978 0 903521 27 7. 6/12.
Bandamanna saga. Edited by H. Magery. 1981. (Published jointly with Dreyers
forlag, Oslo.) ISBN 978 0 903521 15 4. 6/12.
Clemens saga. The Life of St Clement of Rome. Edited and translated by H.
Carron. Text Series XVII. 2005. ISBN 978 0 903521 67 3. 4/8.
Egils saga. Edited by Bjarni Einarsson. With notes and glossary. 2003. ISBN 978
0 903521 60 4 (bound) 12/24; ISBN 978 0 903521 54 3 (card) 7/14.
Fourteenth-Century Icelandic Verse on the Virgin Mary. Drpa af Marugrt.
Vitnisvsur af Maru. Maruvsur IIII. Edited and translated by K. Wrightson.
Text Series XIV. 2001. ISBN 978 0 903521 46 8. 2.50/5.
Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu. With introduction, notes and glossary by P. Foote and R.
Quirk. Text Series I. 1953, repr. 1974. ISBN 978 0 903521 31 4. 3 (Students 1).
Guta saga: The History of the Gotlanders. Edited and translated by C. Peel. Text
Series XII. 1999. ISBN 978 0 903521 44 4. 4/8.
Hvaml. Edited by D. A. H. Evans. Text Series VII (i). 1986, repr. 2000. ISBN
978 0 903521 19 2. 4/8.
Hvaml. Glossary and Index. Compiled by A. Faulkes. Text Series VII (ii).
1987. ISBN 978 0 903521 20 8. 2/4.
Hervarar saga ok Heireks. With notes and glossary by G. Turville-Petre. Introduction
by C. Tolkien. Text Series II. 1956, repr. 1997. ISBN 978 0 903521 11 6. 5/10.
Snorri Sturluson: Edda. Prologue and Gylfaginning. Edited by A. Faulkes.
Clarendon Press 1982, repr. 1988, 2000. ISBN 978 0 903521 21 5. 6/12.
Snorri Sturluson: Edda. Skldskaparml. Edited by A. Faulkes. 2 vols. 1998.
ISBN 978 0 903521 34 5. 12/24.
Snorri Sturluson: Edda. Httatal. Edited by A. Faulkes. Clarendon Press 1991,
repr. with addenda and corrigenda 1999. ISBN 978 0 903521 41 3. 6/12.
Stories from the Sagas of the Kings: Halldrs ttr Snorrasonar inn fyrri, Halldrs
ttr Snorrasonar inn sari, Stfs ttr inn skemmri, Stfs ttr inn meiri,
Vlsa ttr, Brands ttr rva. With introduction, notes and glossary by A.
Faulkes. 1980. ISBN 978 0 903521 18 5. 2/4.
Two Icelandic Stories: Hreiars ttr, Orms ttr. Edited by A. Faulkes. Text
Series IV. 1967, repr. 1978. ISBN 978 0 903521 00 0. 2/4.
TRANSLATIONS
A History of Norway and the Passion and Miracles of the Blessed lfr. Translated by D. Kunin. Edited with introduction and notes by C. Phelpstead.Text
Series XIII. 2001. ISBN 978 0 903521 48 2. 5/10.
slendingabk, Kristni Saga. The Book of the Icelanders, The Story of the Conversion. Translated with introduction and notes by Sin Grnlie. Text Series
XVIII. ISBN 978 0 903521 71 0. 5/10.
Theodoricus Monachus: Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium. An
Account of the Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings. Translated and annotated by D. and I. McDougall, with introduction by P. Foote. Text Series XI.
1998. ISBN 978 0 903521 40 6. 6/12.
Three Icelandic Outlaw Sagas. The Saga of Gisli, The Saga of Grettir, The Saga
of Hord. Translated by G. Johnston and A. Faulkes. Edited and Introduced by
A. Faulkes. 2004. ISBN 978 0 903521 66 6. 6/12.
The Works of Sven Aggesen, Twelfth-Century Danish Historian. Translated with
introduction and notes by E. Christiansen. Text Series IX. 1992. ISBN
978 0 903521 24 6. 6/12.
TEXTBOOKS
A New Introduction to Old Norse. Part I. Grammar. By M. Barnes. Second
edition. 2004. ISBN 978 0 903521 65 9. 6/12.
A New Introduction to Old Norse. Part II. Reader. Edited by A. Faulkes. Third
edition. 2005. ISBN 978 0 903521 62 8. 5/10.
A New Introduction to Old Norse. Part III. Glossary and Index of Names. Compiled by A. Faulkes. Third Edition. 2005. ISBN 0903521 63 5. 5/10.
STUDIES
rni Bjrnsson: Wagner and the Volsungs. Icelandic Sources of der Ring des
Nibelungen. 2003. ISBN 978 0 903521 55 0. 6/12.
Einar lafur Sveinsson: The Folk-Stories of Iceland. Revised by Einar G. Ptursson. Translated by Benedikt Benedikz. Edited by Anthony Faulkes. Text
Series XVI. 2003. ISBN 978 0 903521 53 6. 6/12.
R. T. Farrell: Beowulf, Swedes and Geats. 1972 [Saga-Book XVIII:3]. ISBN
978 0 903521 06 2. 10.
Introductory Essays on Egils saga and Njls saga. Edited by J. Hines and D. Slay.
1992. ISBN 978 0 903521 25 3. 1.50.
lafur Halldrsson: Danish Kings and the Jomsvikings in the Greatest Saga of
lfr Tryggvason. 2000. ISBN 978 0 903521 47 5. 2.50/5.
lafur Halldrsson: Text by Snorri Sturluson in lfs Saga Tryggvasonar en
mesta. 2001. ISBN 978 0 903521 49 9. 5/10.
R. Perkins: Thor the Wind-Raiser and the Eyrarland Image. Text Series XV.
2001. ISBN 978 0 903521 52 9. 6/12.
N. S. Price: The Vikings in Brittany. 1989. ISBN 978 0 903521 22 2 [Saga-Book
XXII:6]. 3.
A. S. C. Ross: The Terfinnas and Beormas of Ohthere. Leeds 1940, repr. with an
additional note by the author and an afterword by Michael Chesnutt. 1981.
ISBN 978 0 903521 14 7. 1/2.
Stefn Karlsson: The Icelandic Language. Translated by Rory McTurk. 2004.
ISBN 978 0 903521 61 1. 1/2.
D. Strmbck: The Conversion of Iceland. Text Series VI. 1975, repr. 1997.
ISBN 978 0 903521 07 9. 3/6.
Viking Revaluations. Viking Society Centenary Symposium 1415 May 1992.
Edited by A. Faulkes and R. Perkins. 1993. ISBN 978 0 903521 28 4. 3.50/7.
D. Whaley: Heimskringla. An Introduction. Text Series VIII. 1991. ISBN 978 0
903521 23 9. 5/10.
DOROTHEA COKE MEMORIAL LECTURES. 2/4.
A. Faulkes: Poetical Inspiration in Old Norse and Old English Poetry. 1997.
ISBN 978 0 903521 32 1.
G. Fellows-Jensen: The Vikings and their Victims. The Verdict of the Names.
1995, repr. 1998. ISBN 978 0 903521 39 0.
P. Foote: 1117 in Iceland and England. 2003. 978 0 903521 59 8.
B. Malmer: King Canutes Coinage in the Northern Countries. 1974. ISBN 0
903521 03 1.
G. Nordal: Skaldic Versifying and Social Discrimination in Medieval Iceland.
2003. ISBN 978 0 903521 58 1.
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
Icelandic Journal. By Alice Selby. Edited by A. R. Taylor. 1974. ISBN 978 0
903521 04 8 [Saga-Book XIX:1]. 3.
Index to Old-Lore Miscellany. By J. A. B. Townsend. 1992. ISBN 978 0 903521
26 0. 1/2.
Proceedings of the Seventh Viking Congress, Dublin, 1973. Edited by B. Almqvist
and D. Greene. 1976. ISBN 978 0 903521 09 3. 4.
PUBLICATIONS DISTRIBUTED BY THE VIKING SOCIETY
At fortlle historien telling history: studier i den gamle nordiske litteratur
studies in norse literature. By P. Meulengracht Srensen. Edizioni Parnaso,
2001. ISBN 978 0 88864 743 6. 18.50.
Biskupa sgur I. Kristni saga; Kristni ttir: orvalds ttr vfrla I, orvalds
ttr vfrla II, Stefnis ttr orgilssonar, Af angbrandi, Af iranda ok
dsunum, Kristnibo angbrands, rr ttir, Kristnitakan; Jns saga helga;
Gsls ttr Illugasonar; Smundar ttr. Edited by Sigurgeir Steingrmsson,

lafur Halldrsson and P. Foote. slenzk fornrit XV. 2 volumes. Hi slenzka
fornritaflag, 2003. ISBN 978 9979 893 15 8. 43.
Fagrskinna, A Chronicle of the Kings of Norway. A Translation with Introduction
and Notes. By A. Finlay. Brill, 2004. ISBN 978 90 04 13172 9. 35.
Kreddur. Select Studies in Early Icelandic Law and Literature. By Peter Foote.
Edited by A. Finlay, Orri Vsteinsson, Svanhildur skarsdttir and Sverrir
Tmasson. Hi slenska bkmenntaflag, 2004. ISBN 978 9979 66 156 6.
27.50.
Laws of Early Iceland. Grgs. The Codex Regius of Grgs with Material from
Other Manuscripts. Translated by A. Dennis, P. Foote and R. Perkins.
Volume II. University of Manitoba Press, 2000. ISBN 978 0 88755 158 1.
Bound. 30.
Letters from Iceland 1936. By Jean Young. University of Birmingham School of
English, 1992. ISBN 978 0 7044 1247 7. 2.
The Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle in Iceland. By P. G. Foote. London Medieval
Studies, UCL, 1959. 1.
Runes, Magic and Religion. A Sourcebook. By J. McKinnell and R. Simek with
K. Dwel. Fassbaender, 2004. ISBN 978 3 900538 81 1. 11.
The Runic Inscriptions of Maeshowe, Orkney. By M. P. Barnes. Institution fr
nordiska sprk, Uppsala Universitetet, 1994. ISBN 978 91 506 1042 0. 13.50/
27.
The Scandinavian Runic Inscriptions of Britain. By M. P. Barnes and R. I. Page.
Institutionen fr nordiska sprk, Uppsala Universitetet, 2006. ISBN 91 506
1853 9. 30.
Selected Readings from A New Introduction to Old Norse. CD. Produced by A.
Finlay. The Chaucer Studio, 2004. 6.
The Schemers and Vga-Glm. Bandamanna Saga and Vga-Glms Saga. Translated with introduction and notes by G. Johnston. Porcupines Quill, 1999.
ISBN 978 0 88984 189 5. 5.

Saga Book XXXDGDGDGDGD

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Saga Book XXXDGDGDGDGD

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Saga Book XXXDGDGDGDGD

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH

VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH

Hon. Assistant Secretary

SMYRJA KONUNG TIL VELDIS : R OYAL LEGITIMATION IN S NORRI

GOLDEN AGES AND FISHING GROUNDS: THE EMERGENT PAST IN THE

GRETTISFRSLA: THE HANDING ON OF GRETTIR. Kate Heslop ................

STEFN KARLSSON ......................................................................................

JOAN TURVILLE-PETRE ..............................................................................

Edited by John Hines, Alan Lane and Mark

LAND, SEA AND HOME.

NORWEGIAN RUNES AND RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS.

HE DROWNED IN HOLMRS SEA HIS CARGO-SHIP DRIFTED TO THE SEA-BOTTOM,

By Angelo Forte, Richard Oram and Frederik

SKANDINAVISCH-SCHOTTISCHE SPRACHBEZIEHUNGEN IM MITTELALTER: DER

ICELANDERS AND THE KINGS OF NORWAY. MEDIEVAL SAGAS AND LEGAL

LITERACY IN MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN SCANDINAVIA.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF FLATEYJARBK. ICELAND AND THE NORWEGIAN DY-

1389. By Elizabeth Ashman Rowe. (rmann

SKLDI SKRIFTINNI. SNORRI STURLUSON OG EGILS SAGA.

ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND IN ICELANDIC MEDIEVAL TEXTS.

FORNALDARSAGORNAS STRUKTUR OCH IDEOLOGI. HANDLINGAR FRN ETT

KOMMENTAR ZU DEN LIEDERN DER EDDA 4: HELDENLIEDER. By Klaus Von

See, Beatrice La Farge, Wolfgang Gerhold, Debora Dusse, Eve

GESCHICHTE DER ALTNORDISCHEN LITERATUR .

CHAUCER AND THE NORSE AND CELTIC WORLDS.

ANDERS SRENSEN VEDELS FILOLOGISKE ARBEJDER.

3: RMUR. By HALLGRMUR PTURSSON. Edited by Margrt

Royal Legitimation in Magnss saga Erlingssonar

AT SMYRJA KONUNG TIL VELDIS: ROYAL LEGITIMATION

EW EVENTS OF THE NORWEGIAN MIDDLE AGES have

of Norways kings, Fagrskinna (c.122025), a more extensive collection

Conversely, Odd Sandaaker finds that Fagrskinna and Heimskringla,

Royal Legitimation in Magnss saga Erlingssonar

Alt m mynna ut i den konklusjonen at omtalen av kroninga og det som gjekk

cultural actor in the joint Norwegian/Icelandic social sphere of the early

Royal Legitimation in Magnss saga Erlingssonar

Royal Legitimation in Magnss saga Erlingssonar

Magns then received royal consecration from Archbishop Eysteinn, and at

Among Snorris notable additions are mention of the oaths, thought

Heimskringla (Magnss saga

ES: Lord, you must be knowledgeable

6 EE: His laws will not be broken by an

increase in his rights . . .

ES: Is that the law, lord, of King lfr

EE: You have already increased

28283) and Lee M. Hollanders translation of Heimskringla (1964, 80507).

Royal Legitimation in Magnss saga Erlingssonar

your will when Magns was chosen

ES: When Magns was chosen as king

EE: I do not want to oppose Magns

not seem to the people of Trndelag that

. . . and if it was with the consent of you

chosen as king over all the land, you can

ES: I accept that I have promised to keep

Both conversations end with the Archbishop assenting to Erlingrs

While to extend this observation to Heimskringla would contradict her

Royal Legitimation in Magnss saga Erlingssonar