The World's Water Vol 8

The Worlds Water
Volume 8
The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources
Peter H. Gleick
Hydraulic Fracturing
Newsha Ajami
Corporate Water Engagement
Juliet Christian-Smith
Water Footprints
Sustainable Water Jobs
Global Water Governance
Mai-Lan Ha
Desalination Financing
Matthew Heberger
Zombie Water Projects
Water and Conict
Heather Cooley
Kristina Donnelly
Julian Fulton
Eli Moore
Jason Morrison
Stewart Orr
Peter Schulte
Veena Srinivasan
About the Pacic Institute for Studies in Development,

Environment, and Security
The Pacic Institute is one of the worlds leading research and policy nonprots working to create a healthier planet and sustainable communities. Based in Oakland, California, we conduct interdisciplinary research and partner with stakeholders to produce
solutions that advance environmental protection, economic development, international
security, and social equitynationally and internationally. Since the Institutes founding
in 1987, we have worked to change policy and nd real-world solutions to problems like
water shortages, habitat destruction, global warming, and environmental injustice, with
the fundamental idea that adequate, safe, clean water is closely connected to every vital
resource issue of our time. We have moved the focus of water thinking away from narrow
approaches and toward more integrated and sustainable water practices and concepts
through rigorous independent research, extensive policy engagement, and intensive
outreach to the public. The Pacic Institute has formulated a new vision for long-term
water planning in California and internationally; developed a new approach for valuing
well-being in local communities; worked on transborder environment and trade issues
in North America and beyond; analyzed standards in global environmental protection;
claried key concepts and criteria for sustainable water use; offered recommendations
for reducing conicts over water in the Middle East, Latin America, and Central Asia;
championed the human right to water; assessed the impacts of global warming on freshwater resources; and created programs to address environmental justice concerns in
low-income communities and communities of color. Our research has reached tens of
millions of people through reports, projects, speeches, testimony, and media; more than
100 research papers, reports, and testimonies are available free on the Pacic Institute
websites at www.pacinst.org and www.worldwater.org.
THE
WORLDS
WATER
Volume 8
The Biennial Report

on Freshwater Resources
Peter H. Gleick
with Newsha Ajami, Juliet Christian-Smith, Heather Cooley,
Kristina Donnelly, Julian Fulton, Mai-Lan Ha, Matthew Heberger,
Eli Moore, Jason Morrison, Stewart Orr, Peter Schulte, and
Veena Srinivasan
Washington | Covelo | London
Copyright 2014 Pacic Institute for Studies in Development, Environment,

and Security
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
permission in writing from the publisher: Island Press, 2000 M Street NW, Suite 650,
Washington, DC 20009.
ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of the Center for Resource Economics.

Library of Congress Card Catalog Number 98024877
ISBN 10: 1-61091-481-3 (cloth)
ISBN 13: 978-1-61091-481-9 (cloth)
ISBN 10: 1-61091-482-1 (paper)
ISBN 13: 978-1-61091-482-6 (paper)
ISSN 15287-7165
Printed on recycled, acid-free paper
Manufactured in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Keywords: water management, water quality, fracking, desalination, virtual water, water
conict, green jobs, the Dead Sea, Syria, corporate water use
Island Press would like to thank the New Mexico Water Initiative, a project of the
Hanuman Foundation, for generously supporting the production of this book.
Contents
Foreword by Ismail Serageldin xi
Introduction
ONE
xiii
Global Water Governance in the Twenty-First Century 1

Heather Cooley, Newsha Ajami, Mai-Lan Ha,
Veena Srinivasan, Jason Morrison, Kristina Donnelly,
and Juliet Christian-Smith
Global Water Challenges 2
The Emergence of Global Water Governance
Conclusions 15
TWO
Shared Risks and Interests: The Case for Private Sector

Engagement in Water Policy and Management 19
Peter Schulte, Stuart Orr, and Jason Morrison
The Business Case for Investing in Sustainable Water
Management 21
Utilizing Corporate Resources While Ensuring Public Interest
Outcomes and Preventing Policy Capture 28
Moving Forward: Unlocking Mutually Benecial Corporate
Action on Water 31
THREE Sustainable Water Jobs
35
Eli Moore, Heather Cooley, Juliet Christian-Smith, and

Kristina Donnelly
Water Challenges in Todays Economy 36
Job Quality and Growth in Sustainable Water
Occupations 54
Conclusions 57
Recommendations 58
FOUR
Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources: What Do We Know

and Need to Know? 63
Heather Cooley and Kristina Donnelly
Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing 64
Concerns Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing
Operations 65
Water Challenges 67
Conclusions 77
vii
viii
FIVE
Contents
Water Footprint 83
Julian Fulton, Heather Cooley, and Peter H. Gleick
The Water Footprint Concept 83
Water, Carbon, and Ecological Footprints and Nexus
Thinking 85
Water Footprint Findings 87
Conclusion 90
SIX
Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California:

Cost and Financing 93
Heather Cooley and Newsha Ajami
How Much Does Seawater Desalination Cost? 93
Desalination Projects and Risk 101
Case Studies 106
Conclusions 117
SEVEN Zombie Water Projects 123

Peter H. Gleick, Matthew Heberger, and Kristina Donnelly
The North American Water and Power Alliance
NAWAPA 124
The Reber Plan 131
Alaskan Water Shipments 133
Las Vegas Valley Pipeline Project 136
Diverting the Missouri River to the West 140
Conclusions 144
WATER BRIEF
One
The Syrian Conict and the Role of Water 147

Peter H. Gleick
Two
The Red SeaDead Sea Project Update 153

Kristina Donnelly
Three
Water and Conict: Events, Trends, and Analysis (2011

2012) 159
Peter H. Gleick and Matthew Heberger
Four
Water Conict Chronology 173

DATA SECTION
Data Table 1:
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply by Country (2013

Update) 221
Data Table 2:
Freshwater Withdrawal by Country and Sector (2013

Update) 227
Data Table 3A:
Access to Improved Drinking Water by Country, 1970

2008 236
Contents
ix
Data Table 3B:

Update 247
Data Table 4A:
Access to Improved Sanitation by Country, 1970

2008 252
Data Table 4B:

Update 263
Data Table 5:
MDG Progress on Access to Safe Drinking Water by

Region 268
Data Table 6:
MDG Progress on Access to Sanitation by Region
Data Table 7:
Monthly Natural Runoff for the Worlds Major River

Basins, by Flow Volume 274
Data Table 8:

Basins, by Basin Name 292
Data Table 9:
Area Equipped for Irrigation Actually Irrigated 310
Data Table 10:
Overseas Development Assistance for Water Supply and

Sanitation, by Donating Country, 20042011 317
Data Table 11:

Sanitation, by Subsector, 20072011 320
Data Table 12:
Per Capita Water Footprint of National Consumption,

by Country, 19962005 323
Data Table 13:

by Sector and Country, 19962005 332
Data Table 14:
Total Water Footprint of National Consumption, by

Country, 19962005 341
Data Table 15:

Sector and Country, 19962005 350
271
Data Table 16A: Global Cholera Cases Reported to the World Health
Organization, by Country, 19491979 359
Data Table 16B: Global Cholera Cases Reported to the World Health
Data Table 17A: Global Cholera Deaths Reported to the World Health
Data Table 17B: Global Cholera Deaths Reported to the World Health
Data Table 18A: Perceived Satisfaction with Water Quality in SubSaharan Africa 387
Data Table 18B: Regional Assessment of Satisfaction with Water (and
Air) Quality 389
Data Table 18C: Countries Most and Least Satised with Water
Quality 392
WATER UNITS, DATA CONVERSIONS, AND CONSTANTS
395
Contents
COMPREHENSIVE TABLE OF CONTENTS
405
Volume 1:
The Worlds Water 19981999: The Biennial Report on

Freshwater Resources 405
Volume 2:

Volume 3:

Volume 4:

Volume 5:

Volume 6:

Volume 7:
The Worlds Water Volume 7: The Biennial Report on

Volume 8:
The Worlds Water Volume 8: The Biennial Report on

COMPREHENSIVE INDEX
435
Foreword
It is a privilege to write a foreword to volume 8 of The Worlds Water, an indispensable
biennial report on the condition of the earths water resource. Water is life. Without water,
there is no life as we know it. Yet humans have abused it and misused it and polluted,
wasted, and destroyed it.
In the 1990s, when I was vice president of environmentally and socially sustainable
development for the World Bank, I was appalled at the lack of international engagement
on the issue of water. In a speech I gave in Stockholm in August 1995, I said: The wars
of this century have been for oil, but the wars of the next century shall be for watera
statement that echoed around the news media of the world. Many accused me of being
an alarmist, but gradually, within a few years, the issue of water and water management
started taking its rightful place among the national, regional, and global priorities of various actors around the planet. What was lacking was a proper global perspective on the
issue of water that would go way beyond chapter 18 of Rios Agenda 21.
And here, like a beacon unto the multitudes, the careful and meticulous scientic
work of the Pacic Institute and its president, Peter Gleick, came to the fore in the form of
The Worlds Water series. It provided the most thoughtful, comprehensive, and interesting coverage of the available knowledge and the insights needed to deal with the myriad
problems that water represents. Sixteen years later, the eighth volume of The Worlds Water continues that distinguished tradition. Although many notable agencies of the United
Nations, the World Water Council, the Global Water Partnership, the World Resources Institute, and others have been producing excellent reports on water issues, The Worlds
Water continues its tradition of excellence, and I heartily recommend it to anyone interested in dispassionate and thoughtful discussion of the complex and important issues
involved.
As we have come to expect, this years report, beyond providing a host of useful data,
also marshals many experts to address important themes of water and water use. Starting
with global water governance, it deals with the issue that most concerned me so many
years ago. Today, as I sit in Egypt and watch the unfolding debates about the management of the Niles waters as Ethiopia proceeds to build its Grand Ethiopian Renaissance
Dam (GERD), and as I watch the agonies of populations in places enduring droughts and
the general mismanagement of our most precious resources in so many countries, I can
think of no more important topic that should elicit an international focus on cooperation rather than conict. We must see that nature does not recognize political boundaries and that, just as water ows in rivers shared by countries, climate change affects all
countries, not only those whose economic conduct plays a major role in causing it.
Beyond global water governance (addressed in chapter 1), the importance of engaging
the private sector in smart water management is addressed in chapter 2. Here, if public
and private partnerships are to thrive, transparency must be the order of the day. Such
collaboration will help us attain the goal of ensuring that all people have access to clean
xi
xii
Foreword
water and proper sanitation and that water is properly managed in agriculture, still the
sector accounting for the largest water withdrawals.
Economic issues are widely discussed in this report. There are great opportunities
to generate employment and jobs by smart investments in water systems (discussed in
chapter 3). The rapidly expanding technique of hydraulic fracturing (or fracking) raises
problems and poses risks to water systems from inappropriately conducted fossil-fuel
extraction, all of which is discussed in chapter 4. The cost and nancing of seawater desalination projects are discussed in chapter 6. And recurrently revived large-scale infrastructure schemes and projectshere named zombie water projectsare discussed in
chapter 7.
Chapter 5 of this report presents background and detail on a tool of enormous value,
the water footprint, and discusses its application worldwide. If only the concerned parties would all listen and make use of the insights generated by this tool.
But why should I take up more of the readers time? Let them delve into the riches between these covers. It is time to read, learn, and reect . . . and to enjoy.
Ismail Serageldin
Librarian of Alexandria
Former Vice President, World Bank
Introduction
When the rst volume of The Worlds Water was published, the United Nations Millennium Development Goals had not yet been established. Today, as we nish volume 8, we
are racing toward the 2015 deadline for those goals, but basic human needs for water and
sanitation remain unsatised. Deadlines aside, if we are ever to achieve the objectives of
global health and sustainability, water security is critical.
In this volume, we continue to provide data on access (by country and by urbanrural split) to water and sanitation. We also provide data on the ongoing, unchecked severe cholera outbreaks that are a direct consequence of our failure to meet basic human
needs for safe water. Human-caused climate changes are also increasingly apparent,
with growing evidence around the world in the form of alterations of natural hydrology
and impacts on our built water infrastructure. Ecosystems that rely on freshwater continue to deteriorate in many parts of the world as human competition for water grows.
And conicts over water allocations and use are growing, not diminishing, as reected in
the Water Conict Chronologya regular feature of these volumes.
The Worlds Water, however, has always been about more than water problems. My
colleagues and I believe strongly that there are successful and expandable solutions out
there, and we try to describe and discuss them in every volume. New thinking about solutions and the soft path for water are both needed and available, if we look around. As
a result, The Worlds Water has always tried to explore new ideas, successful case studies,
and innovative communications efforts.
There is no shortage of topics to address, and as always it is a challenge to try to choose
among them for inclusion in the books. In this latest volume we tackle some new topics
and revisit and update some older ones.
Chapter 1 offers an overview of the complex institutions and ideas that constitute
global water governance and offers some thoughts about how to improve and manage
water systems at local, continental, and global scales while still protecting the critical
needs of communities.
Chapter 2 revisits previous Pacic Institute efforts on how to engage the corporate
sector in more sustainable water management, reporting, and use. Some innovative efforts are under way under the auspices of the United Nations Global Compact ofce and
the United Nations CEO Water Mandate, bringing new voices into the water discussion.
The hope, still to be fully realized, is that responsible and sustainable corporate water
management will play a role alongside the efforts of governments and nongovernmental
organizations in moving toward more sustainable water policy.
The third chapter in this volume summarizes recent work completed at the Pacic
Institute on water-related jobs. Jobs, in different sectors of the economy, are required
to manage, deliver, and treat the freshwater required to satisfy our commercial, institutional, industrial, agricultural, and domestic needs for goods and services. In addition,
growing attention is being given to sustainable measures such as low-impact development, water reuse, watershed restoration, water conservation and efciency, and many
xiii
xiv
Introduction
other proven and promising practices. As the country shifts to more sustainable water
management, new services, occupations, and markets are emerging. Our research suggests that water is a worthy arena for exploring green jobs.
Chapter 4 expands on the work we presented in the previous volume focused on energy and water, especially the increasingly controversial issue of hydraulic fracturing, or
fracking. This practice has been particularly controversial in the United States but is
expanding globally, wherever unconventional natural gas development is under way. To
better identify and understand the key issues, the Pacic Institute conducted extensive
interviews with a diverse group of stakeholders, including representatives from state
and federal agencies, academia, industry, environmental groups, and community-based
organizations from across the United States. This chapter provides a short summary of
the key issues identied in the interviews and an assessment and synthesis of existing
research.
Chapter 5 digs into the useful concept of the water footprint. We use water for many
purposes: drinking, bathing, washing our clothes, watering our gardens, and more. In
addition to these direct uses, however, water is needed to produce nearly everything we
use and consume, from the food we eat and the clothes we wear to the technological
devices that are integral to our modern society. A full measure of the water footprint of
an individual, industrial sector, or society is the combination of direct and indirect water
needed to provide our basket of goods and services. This chapter discusses the tool of
footprinting, how it is related to other footprint indicators, such as the carbon footprint
and the ecological footprint, how it is calculated, and the ndings from some recent
research.
Chapter 6 returns to the issue of desalination. In this chapter, we provide a short summary of the economics of various major desalination projects and the spatial and temporal variability associated with these costs. We also describe project-related risks associated with desalination plants, and we provide two case studies of seawater desalination
projects in the United States to highlight some of the issues around cost and nancing of
these projects.
The nal chapter, chapter 7, tackles the issue of water zombies. As any consumer
of popular culture today knows, a zombie is an undead creature, something that was
killed but came back to life in some form to terrify, entertain, and gross people out.
Zombie books, movies, costumes, makeup, computer games, and more are big business.
But not all zombies are ctional, and some are potentially really dangerousat least to
our pocketbooks and environment. These include zombie water projects, which we dene as large, costly water projects that are proposed, killed off for one reason or another,
and brought back to life, even if the project itself is socially, politically, economically, or
environmentally unjustied. In chapter 7 we offerin an only partly tongue-in-cheek
presentationa description of some major zombie water projects from the past century:
serious proposals for massive projects to use, divert, or transfer water that died only to
come back to life in one form or another. In short, this chapter argues that modern civilization must learn that our ability to do something doesnt mean that we actually should
do it, especially in the eld of large-scale geoengineering.
The chapters are supplemented with shorter In Brief reports on items of interest. The
current volume includes an update on the Red SeaDead Sea proposals, the role of water
in the current Syrian conict, and a detailed update of our popular Water Conict Chronology, with entries through the end of 2012. The chronology offers historical examples
Introduction
xv
of conicts related to water going back millennia, and it is also available in a exible
and useful format online at http://www.worldwater.org, where readers can sort water
conicts by time, location, type of conict, and more and see the results in active maps.
We provide in the back of volume 8 a complete table of contents and integrated index
across all previous volumes, to help readers nd information in the earlier editions that
might be useful or relevant in their research or other efforts.
Finally, The Worlds Water again offers a wide variety of important, useful, and popular
data on water in a series of data tables. In this volume we present updated data on water
supply and use by country, the latest progress (or lack thereof) toward the Millennium
Development Goals for water and sanitation, runoff data for the worlds largest and most
important rivers, irrigation data, estimates of funding for water from overseas development agencies, tables on water footprints of consumption, and more.
If there is any good news, it is that water is receiving more attention from policy makers, scientists, the media, and members of the public. Education and awareness are key
steps in moving toward implementing smart and effective solutions. We are happy to
think we are playing even a small role.
Special thanks to all of my coauthors, both within the Pacic Institute and outside
with partner organizations. This project continues to benet from the support of Island
Press, including Emily Davis, my new(ish) editor. Thank you, Emily, for your help getting
this latest volume out the door!
Peter H. Gleick
Oakland, California, 2013
C H A P T E R
Global Water Governance in the

Twenty-First Century
Heather Cooley, Newsha Ajami, Mai-Lan Ha, Veena Srinivasan,
Jason Morrison, Kristina Donnelly, and Juliet Christian-Smith
Growing pressure on the worlds water resources is having major impacts on our social
and economic well-being. Even as the planets endowment of water is expected to remain constant, human appropriation of water, already at 50 percent by some measures,
is expected to increase further (Postel et al. 1996). Pressures on water resources are likely
to worsen in response to population growth, shifts toward more meat-based diets, climate change, and other challenges. Moreover, the worlds water is increasingly becoming
degraded in quality, raising the cost of treatment and threatening human and ecosystem
health (Palaniappan et al. 2010). Furthermore, the physical availability of freshwater resources does not guarantee that a safe, affordable water supply is available to all. At least
780 million people do not have access to clean drinking water, some 2.5 billion people
lack access to safe sanitation systems, and 25 million peoplemainly childrendie as
a result of preventable water-related diseases every year (Gleick 2002; UN 2009; WHO
and UNICEF 2012).
There is growing recognition that the scope and complexity of water-related challenges extend beyond national and regional boundaries and therefore cannot be adequately addressed solely by national or regional policies. In a recent report, the United
Nations notes that water has long ceased to be solely a local issue (UN 2012a, 40). In
particular, widespread water scarcity and lack of access to water supply and sanitation
threaten socioeconomic development and national security for countries around the
world. Additionally, people around the world share and exchange water directly and indirectly through natural hydrologic units and systems and through global trade (i.e., virtual water, discussed below). Furthermore, climate change and the growing presence of
multinational companies within the water sector play a role in globalizing water issues
(Hoekstra 2006).
Over the past sixty years, a number of efforts have sought to address the many challenges facing the water sector. Early efforts to address these challenges were almost entirely based on developing large-scale physical infrastructure, such as dams and reservoirs, to produce new water supplies. Amid a growing recognition that technology and
infrastructure alone were not sufcient to address persistent water management concerns, discourse about water governance began to emerge in the early 1990s. In its rst
World Water Development Report, the United Nations strongly stated that the water
P.H. Gleick (ed.), The Worlds Water Volume 8: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources,
DOI 10.5822/978-1-61091-483-3_1, 2014 Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security
The Worlds Water Volume 8
crisis is essentially a crisis of governance and societies are facing a number of social,
economic and political challenges on how to govern water more effectively (UN 2003b,
370). In this chapter, we describe some of the major global water challenges and identify
key deciencies in global water governance in addressing these challenges. We conclude
with several recommendations for improving global water governance in order to better
address major water concerns in the twenty-rst century.
Global Water Challenges

As described below, the scope and complexity of water-related challenges extend beyond
traditional national and regional boundaries. Such challenges require broader thinking
and more comprehensive solutions.
Water Scarcity
Water scarcity is a major challenge, affecting every continent around the world. Water
scarcity occurs when water demand nears (or exceeds) the available water supply. Several groups, including the World Resources Institute and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), have developed tools to promote a better understanding of where
and how water risks are emerging around the world. The IWMI, for example, estimates
that 1.2 billion peoplenearly 20 percent of the worlds populationlive in areas of
physical water scarcity, where water withdrawals for agriculture, industry, and domestic
purposes exceed 75 percent of river ows. An additional 500 million people live in areas
approaching physical scarcity. Another 1.6 billion people live in areas of economic water
scarcity, where water is available but human capacity or nancial resources limit access.
In these areas, adequate infrastructure may not be available or, if water is available, its
distribution may be inequitable (IWMI 2007).
But water scarcity isnt solely a natural phenomenon; its also a human one. Numerous
human activitiessuch as untimely water use, pollution, insufcient or poorly maintained infrastructure, and inadequate management systemscan result in or exacerbate
water scarcity. As noted by the United Nations, there are adequate water resources to
meet our needs, but water is distributed unevenly and too much of it is wasted, polluted
and unsustainably managed (UN 2012b).
Widespread declines in groundwater levels are one symptom of water scarcity.
Groundwater is an important source of freshwater in many parts of the world. Some areas, however, have become overly dependent on groundwater supplies. In the past two
decades, advances in well-drilling techniques have signicantly reduced the cost of extracting groundwater. Driven, in part, by these technological advancements, groundwater withdrawals have tripled over the past fty years (UN 2012a). In some areas, the
rate of groundwater extraction now consistently exceeds natural recharge rates, causing
widespread depletion and declining groundwater levels. A recent analysis of groundwater extraction by hydrologist Yoshihide Wada and colleagues (2010) nds that depletion rates doubled between 1960 and 2000 and are especially high in parts of China, India, and the United States. Much of the groundwater extracted supports agriculture (67
percent), although it is also used for domestic (22 percent) and industrial (11 percent)
purposes.
Global Water Governance in the Twenty-First Century
Water Quality
While most water assessments emphasize water quantity, water quality is also critical
for satisfying basic human and environmental needs. The quality of the worlds water is
under increasing threat as a result of population growth, expanding industrial and agricultural activities, and climate change. Poor water quality threatens human and ecosystem health, increases water treatment costs, and reduces the availability of safe water for
drinking and other uses (Palaniappan et al. 2010). It also limits economic productivity
and development opportunities. Indeed, the United Nations nds that water quality is
a global concern as risks of degradation translate directly into social and economic impacts (UN 2012a, 403).
Water quality concerns are widespread, although the true extent of the problem remains
unknown. In developing countries, an estimated 90 percent of sewage and 70 percent of
industrial waste is discharged into waterways without any treatment at all (UN 2003a).
Asian rivers are the most polluted in the world, and bacteria levels from human waste in
these rivers are three times higher than the global average. Moreover, lead levels in these
rivers are twenty times more than in rivers in industrialized countries (UNESCO 2005).
Drinking Water and Sanitation Access

The failure to provide safe drinking water and adequate sanitation services to all people
is perhaps the greatest development failure of the twentieth century. In an attempt to
remedy this failure, the United Nations established the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), eight targets designed to tackle extreme poverty. At the direction of United Nations member countries, UN organizations and multilateral and bilateral development
agencies have been working to achieve these goals by the year 2015. While many of the
MDGs are widely acknowledged to be associated with water, including those related to
improving gender equality and reducing child mortality, Target 7.C specically aims to
reduce by half the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. Although not without their critics, the MDGs
have served to highlight the importance of water, sanitation, and hygiene in improving
health and economic opportunities (UN 2012a).
By UN measures (which are acknowledged to have important limitations), signicant
progress has been made in improving access to drinking water. In 1990, 76 percent of
the global population had access to an improved drinking water sourcedened as
one that, by nature of its construction or through active intervention, is likely to be protected from outside contamination, in particular from contamination with fecal matterwhereas by 2010, this number had grown to 89 percent (WHO and UNICEF 2012).
The global population as a whole is on track to meet the MDG drinking water target;
however, global aggregates hide large regional disparities. For example, while India and
China have made signicant progress, sub-Saharan Africa, where only 61 percent of
the population has access to an improved water source, is unlikely to achieve the MDG
drinking water target. Additionally, coverage in the least developed countries is worse
than in other developing countries. Finally, even within countries, there are disparities
between urban and rural communities and between the rich and the poor (WHO and
UNICEF 2012).
Despite this progress, access to an improved drinking water source remains out of
reach for many people. An estimated 780 million people do not have access to basic
water service (WHO and UNICEF 2012). Additionally, the MDG drinking water target is
based on access to an improved supply of water with little or no consideration of whether the water is affordable, whether the water is safe for consumption, or whether that
access is being maintained over time. For example, naturally occurring arsenic pollution
in groundwater affects nearly 140 million people in seventy countries on all continents
(UN 2009). In Bangladesh alone, nearly 70 million people are exposed to groundwater
contaminated with arsenic beyond the recommended limits of the World Health Organization (UN 2009).
Far less progress has been made in achieving the MDG sanitation targets. In 1990,
nearly half of the global population had access to improved sanitation. By 2010, the percentage of people with access to improved sanitation had increased to 63 percent. An
estimated 2.5 billion people still lack access to improved sanitation (WHO and UNICEF
2012). The global population is not on track to meet the sanitation target, and coverage is
especially low in sub-Saharan Africa and in southern Asia.
Water and Ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems are among the most extensively altered systems on Earth. Rivers,
streams, and lakes have been subjected to chemical, physical, and biological alteration
as a result of large-scale water diversions, introduction of invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change (Carpenter et al. 2011). An estimated 2035 percent
of freshwater sh are vulnerable or endangered, mostly because of habitat alteration,
although pollution, invasive species, and overharvesting are also to blame (Cosgrove
and Rijsberman 2000). About half of the worlds wetlands have been lost since 1900, and
much of the remaining wetland area is degraded (Zedler and Kercher 2005). Freshwater
ecosystem conditions are likely to continue to decline unless action is taken to address
acute threats and better manage freshwater resources.
Globalization and Virtual Water Flows

Globalization is characterized by the production and movement of goods and services
around the world, and water is a key ingredient, either directly or indirectly, in almost
every good produced. Consequently, the movement of goods effectively results in the
movement of water around the world. Existing patterns of trade, however, are not necessarily water efcient. Many factors are at play when global trade decisions are made, and
water is rarely one of them. The concept of virtual waterthe water embedded in the
production of food and other productshas been introduced as a way to evaluate the
role of trade in distributing water resources. Some have argued that by allowing those
living in water-scarce regions to meet some of their water needs through the import of
water-intensive goods, international trade can provide a mechanism to improve global
water-use efciency (Allan 1993). Others, however, have posited that it simply externalizes the environmental burden of producing a particular product. In any case, the facts
suggest that countries relative water endowments are not dictating global trade patterns.
Indeed, three of the worlds top ten food exporters are considered water scarce, and three
of the top ten food importers are water rich (World Economic Forum Water Initiative
2011). Furthermore, globalization increases dependence on others for essential goods
and increases vulnerability to external water scarcity (Hoekstra and Mekonnen 2012).
Climate Change
Rising concentrations of greenhouse gases resulting from human activities are causing
large-scale changes to Earths climate. These climatic changes will have major implications for global water resources. As temperatures rise, the ows of water in the hydrologic cycle will accelerate. In short, climate change will intensify the water cycle, altering water availability, timing, quality, and demand. Indeed, all of the major international
and national assessments of climate change have concluded that freshwater systems are
among the most vulnerable, presenting risk for all sectors of society (Compagnucci et
al. 2001; SEG 2007; Kundzewicz et al. 2007; Bates et al. 2008; USGCRP 2013). A technical report on freshwater resources released in 2008 by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that water and its availability and quality will be the
main pressures on, and issues for, societies and the environment under climate change
(Bates et al. 2008).
A communitys vulnerability to climate change will depend upon the magnitude
of the impact and the communitys sensitivity and adaptive capacity. As noted by
Kenneth D. Frederick of Resources for the Future and Peter H. Gleick of the Pacic Institute (1999), the socioeconomic impacts of oods, droughts, and climate and nonclimate factors affecting the supply and demand for water will depend in large part on
how society adapts. The poor and those living in developing countries are the most vulnerable because they have fewer social, technological, and nancial resources to enable
them to adapt (UNFCCC 2007).
Water-Energy-Food Nexus
Throughout the twentieth century, the close connections between water, energy, and
food were largely unknown or were ignored in policy decision making. Water, energy, and
food systems, and the governance institutions set up to manage them, were often separated by well-dened silos, and managers rarely communicated with one another. Water
systems were often designed and constructed with the assumption that energy would
be cheap and abundant, and energy systems were designed and constructed with the
assumption that water would be cheap and abundant. Likewise, food systems have been
operated as though neither the cost nor the availability of water and energy would constrain production. We now understand that this is no longer true: these critical resources
are closely interconnected, and a growing interest in the water-energy-food nexus highlights the need to better understand and manage these interdependencies:
Agriculture is a major user of water, accounting for 70 percent of all freshwater withdrawals. Agriculture is also a major user of energy, and food
prices are sensitive to energy prices and policies on fertilizers, pesticides,
and transportation to distribute products. Meeting the food and ber
demands of a growing population that is simultaneously shifting toward a
more water-intensive diet will require a rethinking of how water is used.
Energy is a major user of water. In the United States, for example, thermoelectric power plants account for nearly 50 percent of all freshwater withdrawals (Kenny et al. 2009). Newly proposed energy sources, such as
biofuels, are placing additional strains on local water resources and global
food systems.
Large amounts of energy are required to capture, treat, distribute, and use
water. Population growth and climate change are prompting some to consider importing water over longer distances, accessing groundwater from
greater depths, or developing more marginal, lower-quality supplies that
require extensive treatment.
Failure to consider these linkages in policy and decision making can lead to unintended consequences. Biofuels, for example, have emerged as an alternative to traditional,
fossil-fuel-based energy sources, and many governments have instituted mandates and
incentives to promote biofuel development. The European Union has committed to converting 10 percent of its transportation fuel to biofuels by 2020 (UN 2012a). In 20092010,
nearly 40 percent of domestic corn use in the United States was for fuel (USDA 2010).
However, rst-generation biofuels, which represent the vast majority of biofuels produced today, are water and chemical intensive, and their development increases pollution of and competition for limited water resources. Additionally, biofuels compete
with food crops for land and water resources, contributing to increased food prices and
threats to food security. The impacts of increasing biofuel production make it clear that
national decision making is linked to global agricultural output, food prices, and water
availability.

The importance of governance as a key factor in addressing water-related challenges began to emerge in the late twentieth century amid a growing recognition that technology
and infrastructure alone were not sufcient to address persistent water management
concerns. Indeed, in its rst World Water Development Report, the United Nations issued
a strongly worded statement that the water crisis is essentially a crisis of governance
and societies are facing a number of social, economic and political challenges on how to
govern water more effectively (UN 2003b). Early water governance efforts emphasized
the local and regional scales, in part because water challenges were largely perceived as
local issues. But the scope and complexity of water challenges, as described above, highlight the need for a more comprehensive and coordinated global effort.
Despite the need, discussions about global water governance have been limited. One
of the few denitions of global water governance comes from a 2008 study that denes
it as the development and implementation of norms, principles, rules, incentives, informative tools, and infrastructure to promote a change in the behavior of actors at the
global level in the area of water governance (Pahl-Wostl et al. 2008, 422). Thus, global
water governance focuses on the processes of international cooperation and multilateralism. It comprises formal and informal instrumentsincluding global governmental
and nongovernmental organizations, regimes, actors, frameworks, and agreements
created to balance interests and meet global water challenges that span national and
regional boundaries. It informs the way challenges are tackled (or not) at the regional
and international levels by various players (from governmental bodies to civil society
organizations) and suggests opportunities for, and barriers to, meeting global objectives.
Global water governance also facilitates interaction and dialogue among key players to
inform the development of solutions to problems at local, national, and regional levels
to ease global pressures.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Global Water Governance Today

Current global water governance systems were established during a time when approaches to water resource development and management differed from those encountered today (Jury and Vaux 2007). Persistent and emerging water challenges suggest that
an assessment is needed to determine how global water governance efforts can be improved to more effectively address twenty-rst-century water challenges and to leverage
opportunities afforded by new thinking and innovative technologies. We describe below
some key deciencies and recommend ways in which governance can be improved to
better address major freshwater concerns.
Intergovernmental Organizations Lack Clear Leadership and Coordination

A large number of organizations exist to address water challenges at various scalesparticularly the United Nations system, multilateral lending institutions, and regional basin
organizationsall working on different aspects of water management and service delivery. While global summits and forums have helped to identify major challenges and
issue areas, implementation of coherent action is hampered by differing agendas among
organizations and agencies that overlap in some areas but not in others.
At the international level, leadership and coordinated action within the water sector
could emerge from the United Nations system of agencies and programs. UN-Water
was created in 2003 to serve as the interagency coordinating mechanism to promote
coherence and coordination of UN system actions and other nontraditional partners
and stakeholders (e.g., public and private sectors and civil society) related to the implementation of the international agenda dened by the Millennium Declaration and the
World Summit on Sustainable Development. UN-Water, however, has several deciencies. In particular, it does not have a strong mandate, nor does it make centralized policies (Pahl-Wostl et al. 2008, 427). UN-Water also has its own areas of focus (water and
climate change, water quality, water supply and sanitation, and transboundary water),
which fail to address the full range of water-related challenges. Additionally, inadequate
personnel and funding hamper UN-Waters goal of promoting collaboration among the
various agencies and programs that focus on different water-related issues and challenges, among them the United Nations Educational, Scientic, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations
Childrens Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
The lack of clear leadership manifests itself in several ways. In particular, bilateral
funding agencies are more likely to focus their efforts on their own priorities. For example, the German development agency GIZ has spent considerable resources on addressing the food-water-energy nexus, climate change, and access to water and sanitation.
The US Agency for International Development (USAID), on the other hand, is focused
on biodiversity, food security, climate change, and water access and sanitation. While all
of these efforts are aligned with global priorities, lack of coordination can hinder their
effectiveness.
Recommendation: Secure a Sustainable Funding Source and a Stronger

Mandate for Coordinating Intergovernmental Organizations
The global nature of water-related challenges requires clear leadership and coordination.
Intergovernmental agreements produced at world summits and forums require effective intergovernmental organizations to play the leading role in coordinating action. The
United Nations system, as the sole global governance organization with the legitimacy
and authority of member governments, must lead. UN-Water offers a potential starting
point, given its existing mandate to coordinate action. To fulll its mission, however, it
(or any other intergovernmental mechanism established to coordinate action) must be
given the resources and an empowered mandate to do so. This requires governments to
fulll pledges made at previous UN summits (such as the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, or Johannesburg Summit) to ensure that nancial resources are
made available. It also requires political will from the United Nations to provide a stronger mandate for the organization and the ability to overcome traditional interagency rivalry that hampers cooperation.
Recommendation: Promote Greater Collaboration to Build Understanding and

Coordinate Action
To effectively address the interlinked nature of the problems, it is imperative that waterrelated action be led not from within a silo but rather with a deep understanding of the
cross-sector issuesfor example, taking into consideration development, energy, biodiversity, climate change, food security, and more. Building this understanding requires
close, continuous collaboration among the different organizations and individuals involved. UN-Waters 2013 theme of international cooperation is a positive step in that
direction. Government-led efforts to encourage participation by actors through multistakeholder processes (such as the parallel meetings at Rio+20, the 2012 United Nations
Conference on Sustainable Development) are key to promoting this collaboration. Likewise, the United Nations current approach to developing the new Sustainable Development Goals is an encouraging development. By instituting a process that brings together
development agencies, civil society groups, and the private sector to dene water-related
goals and potential actions, the UN approach promotes better understanding, which can
lead to more coordinated action and better outcomes.
The Role of Nongovernmental Actors Is Expanding

Today, a study of global governance cannot be limited to merely governmental or intergovernmental processes. The rise and inuence of a broad range of new actors, with their
own sources of authority and power, are indicative of a more complicated global governance structure. These actors, who come from the private, nongovernmental, academic,
and media sectors, act independently or, increasingly, in networks to bring about new
thinking and solutions. These new global actors have fostered innovation and performed
important functions, such as serving as watchdogs of governmental and private sector
activities within the water sector. However, concerns have been raised about some who
are engaged in public policy, particularly regarding their legitimacy, accountability, and
relationship with existing public governance structures. For example, some of these new
initiatives may be undermining government-led efforts, operating outside of local priorities, or, in the case of some privately led initiatives, engaging in policy capture (see, e.g.,
the discussion of corporate actions regarding water in chapter 2 of this volume). Their
centers of authority or the constituencies for whom they speak has also been a subject
of debate. Although it is clear that these actors will continue to play an important role in
global water governance, efforts should be made to understand what their role should be
and their relationship with government-led efforts.
Recommendation: Explore and Develop Guidelines and Principles to Help

Govern Nongovernmental Processes
As more parties become involved, effort is needed to better understand and dene the
roles and responsibilities of each in order to leverage unique capabilities. For entities
that are actively engaging in areas that are in the traditional realm of governments, clear
guidance as to how these new processes should interact with existing processes is needed. Realizing that these processes can potentially undermine one another, some organizations, such as the United Nations CEO Water Mandate, have developed guidelines and
principles to govern how the private sector engages in water policy (see, e.g., Morrison et
al. 2010). More efforts like these are needed to ensure that civil society and private sector
efforts and initiatives complement existing government-led processes where possible.
Some potential overarching principles developed for sustainability standards systems
(many of which are global action networks, or GANs) that could serve as starting points
for further exploration include the following (Ward and Ha 2012):
Respect the unique roles of governments and states.
Engage public sector actors.
Support sharing of information and resources with public sector actors.
Build on existing public sector and international norms.
Assess and review the range of public sector implications and relationships.
Water Sector Funding Is Inadequate and Too Narrowly Focused

The international community, including the major economies and international organizations, has played a signicant role in funding water sector improvements, especially
in developing countries. Yet funding remains limited and too narrowly focused. Funding
commitments made by major economies at the 2002 Johannesburg Summit and among
the Group of Eight countries have thus far not materialized. Additionally, a recent survey
conducted by the World Health Organization (2012) nds that overall funding for the water sector is lowand is skewed toward capital expenditures for drinking water systems
in urban areas. Expenditures for sanitation, operation and maintenance costs, and rural
systems are much lower.
Recommendation: Develop Financing Mechanisms to Support Ongoing

Operation and Maintenance Costs
Funding is needed to support ongoing operation and maintenance costs of water infrastructure. Available funding is insufcient to operate and maintain the existing infrastructure or to support the people and institutions needed to manage it effectively. As a
result, systems are poorly managed or fall into disrepair, increasing the long-term costs.
Additional funding is needed to support the ongoing operation and maintenance of new
and existing water-related infrastructure.
10
New Funders Often Fail to Abide by Environmental and Social

Lending Standards
For much of the twentieth century, the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, intergovernmental agencies, and bilateral donors were the main funders of large-scale infrastructure in the developing world. In recent years, new economic realities and players
have emerged. Commercial banks and energy and construction companies in the global
South are playing an increasingly important role and are fundamentally changing water resource management. For instance, Pacic Environments China program director,
Kristen McDonald, and her colleagues reported in 2009 that Chinese nancial institutions, state-owned enterprises, and private rms were involved in at least ninety-three
major dam projects overseas. These and other new playerspredominantly energy and
construction companies from Thailand, Vietnam, China, Russia, and Malaysiahad
not adopted internationally accepted environmental and social lending standards and
norms. Furthermore, these new funders forced the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank to recongure their own lending practices to further dilute their environmental and social safeguards (Molle et al. 2009).
Recommendation: Establish New Lending Standards and

Compliance Strategies
Commercial banks and energy and construction companies play an increasingly important role in nancing water resource development projects. In the case of dam construction, for example, these new players do not meet even the World Banks standardswhich
are already weaker than the recommendations of the World Commission on Dams. The
failure to abide by social and environmental lending standards poses a threat to local
environmental and social systems. New environmental and social lending standards are
needed to ensure that lending promotes sustainable development objectives. The new
players, along with civil society organizations, should be included in crafting and designing these new standards in order to ensure compliance.
Knowledge and Technology Transfer Efforts Remain Largely Top-Down

Over the past several decades, water-related knowledge and technological innovation
have grown tremendously, with new techniques and ideas emerging from governmental
bodies, independent research institutions, and academic bodies around the world. The
challenge lies in getting this knowledge and technology to places that can implement
them. Intergovernmental processes to foster technology and knowledge transfers
mainly through forums such as the annual Water Environment Federation Technical
Exhibition and Conference (WEFTEC) and the likehave predominantly been in a topdown manner. There is growing recognition, however, that even innovative technologies
that are thought to be highly effective may not be appropriate everywhere. Each technology is developed and crafted according to local circumstances, which can differ dramatically from one region to another. As a result, an off-the-shelf approach to technology and
knowledge transfers may not lead to the desired outcome or may lead to unintended consequences. Implementation of Green Revolution concepts to industrialize agriculture in
the Punjab region of India provides an example of a top-down, single-focus transfer of
knowledge and technology that has led to several unintended consequences, including
groundwater overdraft in some areas. Today, the state of Punjab is trying to manage these
problems by revisiting and reforming state agricultural policy and regulations using a
more bottom-up technology and knowledge transfer approach (Tiwana et al. 2007).
11
Recommendation: Promote Open-Access Knowledge Transfer

Over the past few decades, there has been tremendous growth in the technologies available for transferring knowledge and information. Geospatial technologies, the Internet,
and mobile devices are just a few of the technologies available to improve communication. Although reliance on such technologies must be carefully considered, given the
global variations in their application and use, they can provide tremendous opportunity
for new ways of getting information to water users and of connecting water stakeholders and researchers with one another and with decision makers. Global institutions can
play an important role in facilitating the use and distribution of these new technologies.
Extending access to new and emerging scientic ndings can enable and empower the
local research community to better understand and identify local problems and design
or demand specic solutions to improve local water governance (Jury and Vaux 2005;
Hutchings et al. 2012). There is also a need for better communication of complicated scientic knowledge to policy makers and decision makers in order to inuence development of comprehensive management strategies and inform the policy-making process.
Recommendation: Facilitate Effective Technology Transfer by Engaging Local

Communities in the Decision-Making Process
Empowering local communities to identify their water issues and solutions allows them
to select an approach that more closely aligns with their social and cultural realities. Onsite education and capacity building play a major role in facilitating successful and effective bottom-up or horizontal technology and knowledge transfer. Especially in regions
with very limited access to and understanding of state-of-the-art technological solutions, or with limited institutional capacity to provide local technological training, international institutions such as the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education can foster
capacity building and educational efforts to facilitate implementation and operational
learning of imported technologies. Also, continuous monitoring and performance assessment of a transferred technology can provide an opportunity to adjust and calibrate
implementation and operational processes to prevent undesirable outcomes. Global institutions can also facilitate focused research and development investment, especially
by those in the developed world with nancial resources, to advance technologies and
make them more accessible to the developing world.
Recommendation: Improve Understanding and Communication of Risk and

Uncertainty
Some uncertainty inherent in hydrologic and water resource management systems is
unavoidable. Yet the development of management practices and strategies relies heavily on future supply and demand predictions, which are fraught with uncertainty. Water resource managers around the world use various supply and demand predictions in
their decision-making processes. A better understanding of the uncertainties and risks
associated with them can lead to the development of more effective planning and management strategies that reect these limitations. New decision support tools should include an uncertainty assessment component, which would offer an array of decisions
and the uncertainties and risks associated with them in order to provide an opportunity
for adaptive and exible management approaches. Effective communication of these
uncertainties and risks to policy makers and the general public is also an important element of adaptive and exible water resource management practice (UN 2012a).
12
Data Collection Efforts Are Inadequate

Good data and ongoing monitoring activities are the cornerstones of effective water
management and governance. We live in an information era, and vast amounts of water
data are collected in different ways and at a variety of temporal and spatial scales, from
local stream gauges to global satellites. Current attempts at information sharing, such as
UN-Waters Activity Information System, Documentation Center, and Key Water Indicator Portal, provide key data necessary to tackle the water challenges identied earlier.
Despite these improvements, there are still regions lacking basic water data and information. Even when the data are collected, they are often not widely available or their
quality is poor. Efforts are needed to improve the collection, compilation, and reporting
of comprehensive water-related data.
Recommendation: Develop a Centralized Global Water Data Portal

The rational management of water is predicated on the availability of comprehensive
data. Capacity needs to be developed in all countries to collect, manage, and analyze
water information. Some of the key data needed include precipitation, runoff, virtual
water ows, groundwater levels, and overall water demand and supply. Where resources
are inadequate to collect and compile these data, they should be provided through international aid or other mechanisms. Also, as developing countries undergo economic
transitions, monitoring and reporting need to be integrated into new laws. These efforts
would benet from a centralized global water portal in which to assemble the reported
data, especially where local governments lack the nancial or technological capacity to
provide such services. Finally, international data protocols, standard data formats, and
sharing arrangements are needed in order to increase comparability of data worldwide.
Recommendation: Leverage New Data Collection Technologies

New local data collection and monitoring efforts are emerging that engage stakeholders
through crowdsourcing, or reporting of information through electronic devices. Mobile
connectivity is outpacing xed landline phones and access to computers, especially in
many developing countries that lack telephone network infrastructures. New monitoring
efforts that use cell phones and other RSS technologies, such as the WASH SMS Project,
capitalize on the widespread and rapidly growing use of mobile devices throughout the
world to facilitate the ow of information between communities, governmental entities,
and service providers (Hutchings et al. 2012). These data can provide timely information
on local water systems, including the availability and quality of water. Small-scale, local
data collection and reporting efforts such as these should be encouraged.
Lack of Transparency and Accountability Limits the Effectiveness of Water Sector

Investments and Fosters Corruption
The water sector lacks transparency and adequate participation from key stakeholders,
especially in marginalized communities, and this in turn leads to an accountability decit and can result in ineffective or inefcient management strategies and investments.
A 2008 report by Transparency International and the Water Integrity Network nds that
a lack of transparency and participation contributes to rampant corruption across the
water sector, including in water management, drinking water and sanitation service provision, irrigation, and hydropower development. The water sector is especially prone to
corruption because of the complex system of agencies responsible for its management
13
and delivery; the growing presence of private actors and informal providers that operate
in legal gray zones (where the actors are the de facto water service providers allowed to
operate by governments but who may not have ofcial license); and the large sums of
money required for infrastructure investments. Addressing the issue is especially challenging because of the general focus within the sector on technological solutions rather
than governance. The report further nds that the poor and most vulnerable are the most
likely victims because they are more exposed to the informal sector (where corruption is
more prevalent) and have limited resources and avenues to voice their concerns. This,
in turn, exacerbates corruption because those most affected by it are unable to call for
greater accountability (Transparency International and Water Integrity Network 2008).
Recommendation: Adopt New Standards, Codes, and Best Practices for Water
Resource Development and Management to Promote Greater Transparency
and Participation
Water resource development and management are guided by a series of standards, codes,
and best practices. These standards, codes, and practices, which include both mandatory and voluntary initiatives, must provide a regulatory framework that brings about
greater transparency, promotes participation and oversight to tackle corrupt practices,
and develops best-practice guidance where regulatory frameworks are weak or poorly
implemented. Both governments and GANs can play a key role in their formulation. For
example, Kenya has adopted a human rightsbased approach to the water sector that
places an emphasis on transparency and participation. Likewise, the United Nations
CEO Water Mandate released its Corporate Water Disclosure Guidelines: Public Exposure
Draft in an effort to promote greater transparency in the private sectors water use and
allow stakeholders to better evaluate this use. These efforts are encouraging; however,
more can and should be done.
Recommendation: Promote Capacity Building and Increase Participation in

Water Management
To bring about greater participation in water management and better implementation of
frameworks that promote transparency, serious effort is needed to build the capacity of
governmental ofcials and civil society groups, especially community-based organizations. Governments and GANs can provide technical know-how and nancial resources
to ensure that local governmental ofcials and community-based organizations, two
groups with an intimate knowledge of local problems, can be key advocates for change.
For example, the Freshwater Action Network focuses much of its effort on providing capacity building to its civil society members in order for them to engage in decision-making
processes, call for greater transparency, and hold governmental and private sector actors
accountable.
Recommendation: Empower Communities through Long-Term and

Short-Term Education and Outreach Efforts
Education and outreach promote greater understanding about a particular issue and can
help facilitate change by redening acceptable behaviors and social norms. Knowledge
is power; hence, it can empower communities, especially the poor and most vulnerable,
to demand change and accountability. While education and outreach efforts often occur
at the local level, global efforts can provide educational tools, platforms, and strategies
14
for planning effective educational programs. For example, the UNESCO-IHE Institute
for Water Education, established in the Netherlands in 2003, was developed to educate
and train professionals and build the capacity of sector organizations, knowledge centers, and other institutions in developing countries and countries in transition. These
efforts are needed at every scale. Household- and community-scale efforts can promote
behavioral changes, facilitate grassroots support and demand for better regulations and
enforcement, and bring about transparency and accountability. Education and capacity
building at larger scales can promote effective interventions at the watershed, national,
and international levels to develop better standards, regulation, and enforcement.
There Has Been a Failure to Adopt Broad-Based Agreements on

Transboundary Watercourses
Many rivers, lakes, and groundwater aquifers are shared by two or more nations, and
most of the planets available freshwater crosses political borders, ensuring that politics
inevitably intrude on water policy. Indeed, international river basins cover about half
of Earths land surface, and about 40 percent of the worlds population relies on these
shared water sources. Since transboundary watersheds traverse political and jurisdictional lines, heterogeneous and sometimes conicting national laws and regulatory
frameworks make management a major challenge, particularly when no single national
government has authority over another. As such, transboundary water management often requires the creation of international guidelines or specic agreements between riparian states.
While the value of transboundary watershed treaties has regularly been demonstrated, there are political and nancial constraints that make their adoption difcult in
many parts of the world. In 1997, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted
the Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses.
This UN convention sets forth principles for equitable and reasonable utilization of international watercourses and for equitable participation. More than a decade after its
adoption by the vast majority of the General Assembly, however, the convention has not
yet obtained enough signatures to enable it to enter into force and effect. As of February
22, 2013, thirty countries had ratied or acceded to the convention; thirty-ve signatures
are needed for the convention to enter into force.1
Recommendation: Bring into Force the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses
As much as we hope that treaties will be developed in all transboundary watersheds to
foster cooperation and collaboration among all riparian states, political and nancial
constraints make this difcult in many areas of the world. Therefore, adopting an effective international legal framework is a critical step in addressing future challenges. The
1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses represents an important contribution to the strengthening of the
rule of law regarding the protection and preservation of international watercourses, and
it should be brought into force.
1. See International Water Law Project, Status of the Watercourse Convention as of 22 February 2013, http://
www.internationalwaterlaw.org/documents/intldocs/watercourse_status.html.
15
Existing Interbasin Agreements Lack Flexibility

Global climate change will pose a wide range of challenges to freshwater resources, altering water quantity, water quality, and system operations and imposing new governance
complications. For countries whose watersheds and river basins lie wholly within their
own political boundaries, adapting to increasingly severe climatic variability and changes will be difcult enough. When those water resources cross borders and implicate multiple political entities and actors, sustainable management of shared water resources
in a changing climate will be especially difcult and will require active coordination,
engagement, and participation of all the actors sharing the basin. In particular, most
transboundary water agreements are based on the assumption that future water supply
and quality will not change. Moreover, most treaties and international agreements fail
to include adequate mechanisms for addressing changing social, economic, or climate
conditions (for an early analysis of this problem, see Goldenman 1990 and Gleick 2000).
Recommendation: Improve Flexibility of Existing Interbasin Agreements

No two water treaties are the same. Each is developed under unique circumstances, addresses different concerns, and has a particular set of constraints. Additionally, climate
change will affect each basin differently. As a result, each treaty must be evaluated to
determine what exibility mechanisms currently exist and where signicant vulnerabilities remain. This process should be started before a problem arises so as to improve the
atmosphere for cooperation and negotiation. Additionally, transboundary watershed
countries should consider incorporating provisions into existing treaties to allow for
greater exibility in the face of change, including (1) creation of exible allocation strategies and water quality criteria; (2) agreement on response strategies for extreme events,
such as oods and drought; (3) development of clear amendment and review procedures
to allow for changing hydrologic, social, and climatic conditions or in response to new
scientic knowledge; and (4) establishment of joint management institutions that can,
for example, facilitate a climate vulnerability and adaptation assessment (Cooley and
Gleick 2011).
Conclusions
Throughout the twentieth century, water governance efforts emphasized the local and
regional scales, in part because water challenges were largely perceived as local issues.
However, there is growing recognition that the scope and complexity of water-related
challenges extend beyond national and regional boundaries and therefore cannot be adequately addressed solely by national or regional policies. Discussions about global water governance, however, have been limited. Water governance studies that have taken
a broader perspective have largely focused on transboundary water resources. Global
water governance has also been discussed within the context of other, more prominent
global governance challenges (notably climate change and energy) and within discussions of global development objectives. However, there has been little to no discussion
about global water governance that looks more holistically at global water challenges
and the structures and approaches needed to meet these challenges.
16
In this chapter, we have dened global water governance, identied key deciencies
in global water governance, and offered recommendations for how it can be improved to
better address major water concerns in the twenty-rst century. We noted that the global
dimensions of water governance are difcult and complex issues. Such governance and
the institutional structures that accompany it are complicated by local, regional, and
national factors. Indeed, there is no single practice or policy that will solve the water
challenges facing the world today. This chapter, however, provides several paths forward
to more efcient and effective water governance in an effort to promote a more robust
and sustainable approach to solving water problems in the twenty-rst century.
References
Allan, J. A. 1993. Fortunately there are substitutes for water: Otherwise our hydro-political futures
would be impossible. In Priorities for Water Resources Allocation and Management, 1326.
London: Overseas Development Administration.
Bates, B. C., Z. W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu, and J. P. Palutikof, eds. 2008. Climate Change and Water. IPCC
Technical Paper VI of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland:
IPCC Secretariat.
Carpenter, S. R., E. H. Stanley, and M. J. Vander Zanden. 2011. State of the worlds freshwater ecosystems: Physical, chemical, and biological changes. Annual Review of Environment and
Resources 36:7599. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-021810-094524.
Compagnucci, R., L. da Cunha, K. Hanaki, C. Howe, G. Mailu, I. Shiklomanov, E. Stakhiv, and
P. Dll. 2001. Hydrology and water resources. In Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation,
and Vulnerability, edited by J. J. McCarthy, O. F. Canziani, N. A. Leary, D. J. Dokken, and
K. S. White, 191233. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press. http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/.
Cooley, H., and P. H. Gleick. 2011. Climate-proong transboundary water agreements. Hydrological
Sciences Journal 56 (4): 711718.
Cosgrove, W. J., and F. R. Rijsberman. 2000. World Water Vision: Making Water Everybodys Business.
World Water Council. London: Earthscan.
Frederick, K. D., and P. H. Gleick. 1999. Water and Global Climate Change: Potential Impacts on
U.S. Water Resources. Washington, DC: Pew Center on Global Climate Change. http://www
.c2es.org/docUploads/clim_change.pdf.
Gleick, P. H. 2000. How much water is there and whose is it? The worlds stocks and ows of water
and international river basins. In The Worlds Water 20002001: The Biennial Report on
Freshwater Resources, 1938. Washington, DC: Island Press.
. 2002. Dirty Water: Estimated Deaths from Water-Related Diseases 20002020. Pacic
Institute Research Report. Oakland, CA: Pacic Institute.
Goldenman, G. 1990. Adapting to climate change: A study of international rivers and their legal
arrangements. Ecology Law Quarterly 17 (4): 741802.
Hoekstra, A. Y. 2006. The Global Dimension of Water Governance: Nine Reasons for Global
Arrangements in Order to Cope with Local Water Problems. Value of Water Research Report
Series No. 20. Delft, Netherlands: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.
Hoekstra, A. Y., and M. M. Mekonnen. 2012. The water footprint of humanity. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 109 (9): 32323237. doi:10.1073/pnas.1109936109.
Hutchings, M. T., A. Dev, M. Palaniappan, V. Srinivasan, N. Ramanathan, and J. Taylor. 2012.
mWASH: Mobile Phone Applications for the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Sector. Oakland,
CA: Pacific Institute and Nexleaf Analytics. http://www.pacinst.org/wp-content
/uploads/2013/02/full_report36.pdf.
International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 2007. Water for Food, Water for Life: A
Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. London: Earthscan; Colombo,
Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.
Jury, W. A., and H. Vaux. 2005. The role of science in solving the worlds emerging water problems.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (44): 1571515720.
17
. 2007. The emerging global water crisis: Managing scarcity and conict between water
users. Advances in Agronomy 95:176.
Kenny, J. F., N. L. Barber, S. S. Hutson, K. S. Linsey, J. K. Lovelace, and M. A. Maupin. 2009. Estimated
Use of Water in the United States in 2005. US Geological Survey Circular 1344. Reston, VA: US
Geological Survey. http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1344/pdf/c1344.pdf.
Kundzewicz, Z. W., L. J. Mata, N. W. Arnell, P. Dll, P. Kabat, B. Jimnez, K. A. Miller, T. Oki, Z. Sen,
and I. A. Shiklomanov. 2007. Freshwater resources and their management. In Climate Change
2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, edited by M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani,
J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson, 173210. Contribution of Working Group
II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment
-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter3.pdf.
McDonald, K., P. Bosshard, and N. Brewer. 2009. Exporting dams: Chinas hydropower industry
goes global. Journal of Environmental Management 90:S294S302.
Molle, F., T. Foran, and M. Kknen. 2009. Contested Waterscapes in the Mekong Region: Hydropower,
Livelihoods, and Governance. London: Earthscan.
Morrison, J., P. Schulte, J. Christian-Smith, S. Orr, N. Hepworth, and G. Pegram. 2010. The CEO
Water Mandate Guide to Responsible Business Engagement with Water Policy. United Nations
Global Compact and Pacic Institute. http://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/issues _doc
/Environment/ceo_water_mandate/Guide_Responsible_Business_Engagement_Water
_Policy.pdf.
Pahl-Wostl, C., J. Gupta, and D. Petry. 2008. Governance and the global water system: Towards a
theoretical exploration. Global Governance 14:419436.
Palaniappan, M., P. H. Gleick, L. Allen, M. J. Cohen, J. Christian-Smith, and C. Smith. 2010. Clearing
the Waters: A Focus on Water Quality Solutions. Report prepared for the United Nations
Environment Programme. Oakland, CA: Pacic Institute.
Postel, S. L., G. C. Daily, and P. R. Ehrlich. 1996. Human appropriation of renewable fresh water.
Science 271 (5250): 785788. doi:10.1126/science.271.5250.785.
Scientic Expert Group on Climate Change (SEG). 2007. Confronting Climate Change: Avoiding
the Unmanageable and Managing the Unavoidable, edited by R. M. Bierbaum, J. P. Holdren,
M. C. MacCracken, R. H. Moss, and P. H. Raven. Report prepared for the United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development. Research Triangle Park, NC: Sigma Xi; Washington,
DC: United Nations Foundation.
Tiwana, N. S., N. Jerath, S. S. Ladhar, G. Singh, R. Paul, D. K. Dua, and H. K. Parwana. 2007. State of
Environment: Punjab2007. Chandigarh, Punjab: Punjab State Council for Science and
Technology. http://www.soeatlas.org/PDF_Map%20Gallery/SoE%20report%20of%20Punjab
.pdf.
Transparency International and Water Integrity Network. 2008. Global Corruption Report 2008:
Corruption in the Water Sector. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. http://www
.transparency.org/whatwedo/pub/global_corruption_report_2008_corruption_in_the
_water_sector.
United Nations (UN). 2003a. Water: A Matter of Life and Death. Fact Sheet. International Year of
Freshwater 2003. http://www.un.org/events/water/factsheet.pdf.
. 2003b. Water for People, Water for Life. World Water Development Report 1. Paris: UNESCO
Publishing; New York: Berghahn Books. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297
/129726e.pdf.
. 2009. Water in a Changing World. World Water Development Report 3. Paris: UNESCO
Publishing; London: Earthscan. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001819/181993e
.pdf.
. 2012a. Managing Water under Uncertainty and Risk. World Water Development Report 4.
Paris: UNESCO Publishing. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002156/215644e.pdf.
. 2012b. Water Scarcity. http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml (accessed
May 5).
United Nations Educational, Scientic, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2005. Sound of Our
Water: Water Problems. http://unesco.uiah./water/material/05_water_problem_html.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2007. Climate Change:
Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation in Developing Countries. Bonn, Germany: United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs
/publications/impacts.pdf.
18
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2010. USDA Agricultural Projections to 2019.
Long-Term Projections Report OCE-2010-1. Washington, DC: United States Department of
Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
United States Global Change Research Program (USGCRP). 2013. Draft National Climate
Assessment Report. Washington, DC: United States Global Change Research Program.
Wada, Y., L. P. H. van Beek, C. M. van Kempen, J. W. T. M. Reckman, S. Vasak, and M. F. P. Bierkens.
2010. Global depletion of groundwater resources. Geophysical Research Letters 37 (20): 15.
doi:10.1029/2010GL044571.
Ward, H., and M. Ha. 2012. Voluntary Social and Environmental Standards and Public Governance:
Reviewing the Evidence and Setting Principles for Standards-Setters. London: Foundation for
Democracy and Sustainable Development; Oakland, CA: Pacic Institute. http://www.sus
tainabilitystandards101.org/report/project/public-governance/.
World Economic Forum Water Initiative. 2011. Water Security: The Water-Food-Energy-Climate
Nexus, edited by Dominic Waughray. Washington, DC: Island Press.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2012. UN-Water Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation
and Drinking-Water: The Challenge of Extending and Sustaining Services. GLAAS 2012 Report.
http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/glaas_report_2012_eng.pdf (accessed May 11,
2012).
World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). 2012. Progress
on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update. New York: United Nations Childrens Fund;
Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications
/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf.
Zedler, J. B., and S. Kercher. 2005. Wetland resources: Status, trends, ecosystem services, and restorability. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30:3974.
C H A P T E R
Shared Risks and Interests

The Case for Private Sector Engagement in Water Policy
and Management
Some practitioners have suggested there is a strong business case for companies to advance sustainable water management in their operations, supply chain, and society more
broadly. The concept of shared risk articulates that the conditions that drive water risks
for industry also create risk for other segments of society and that there is a shared interest across sectors in more sustainable water management and robust water governance processes. Others have challenged the legitimacy of this concept, citing inherent
conicts between corporate and other societal uses of water and a history of corporate
policies that prioritize prot over the public interest. This chapter explores this debate.
In doing so, it strives to demonstrate shared interest among sectors and an opportunity
for companies to contribute to sustainable water management, but it also acknowledges
that there are indeed conicting interests that pose real threats to the public interest.
Though there is signicant potential for a more progressive and enlightened corporate
stance in the ways companies view and advance public interest goals, we are surely only
at the beginning of this paradigm shift. Ultimately, this chapter aims to foster a nuanced
debate of how the private sector can meaningfully support and facilitate strong water
governance in ways that simultaneously improve business viability and advance the
public interest.
Industry relies on freshwater both directly, to manufacture goods, and indirectly, in
the production of supplies that feed industrial processes. Water is used as a solvent; to
cool industrial processes, dilute contaminants, irrigate crops, and extract fossil fuels;
and as a key ingredient in many products, among other uses. In response to water scarcity and pollution, inadequate management systems, and associated challenges in a
growing number of regions around the world, businesses are increasingly making the
strategic decision to promote and invest in sustainable water management (CDP 2012;
Ceres 2009). Their decisions are based on their growing understanding that water risks
are caused not only by a companys own water use and pollution but also by the watershed context in which the company operates.
Many water-intensive companies seek to improve water-use efciency and ensure adequate wastewater treatment in their operations, while others are going beyond their
factory fence lines to encourage and facilitate more sustainable water management
throughout their supply chain and to engage with the watersheds in which they operate
19
20
(Pegram et al. 2009; Newborne and Mason 2012; Morrison et al. 2010). They do so through
a variety of means, including but not limited to the following (Morrison et al. 2010):
Facilitating water-use efciency and pollution reduction measures of
other actors in their watersheds
Advocating for efcient, equitable, and ecologically sustainable water
policies and practices at the local, national, and international scales
Sharing data and information to improve public water management
Investing in public water infrastructure expansions or upgrades
Using internal facilities to meet local water supply and treatment needs
Using nancial and technical resources to support local water institutions
in catchment planning and management
Supplementing infrastructure to ensure local supply to communities and
industry
The stated objective of these beyond the fence line engagement strategies, often
collectively referred to as policy engagement (Morrison et al. 2010), is to reduce business risk by supporting a stable business environment and ensuring consistent access
to water supplies, thereby strengthening a companys license to operate and building a
companys standing among its stakeholders. These efforts also seek to identify and reduce the companys adverse impacts on a regions water-related challenges. Such strategies are grounded in the premise that they advance the public interest and are mutually
benecial to companies, their stakeholders, and other actors in the watershed. This, in
turn, stems from the idea that many water-related risks, such as scarcity, pollution, inadequate infrastructure, insufcient management capacity, and climate change, affect a
wide range of actors and are shared among companies, governments, civil society, communities, and other actors (Pegram et al. 2009).
While many companies are beginning to engage in water policy as a key element of
their water management strategies, some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and
academics are calling into question whether such strategies truly advance the public interest. Some, such as the Public Services International Research Unit (PSIRU), as detailed
in its article Conicts, Companies, Human Rights, and WaterA Critical Review of Local Corporate Practices and Global Corporate Initiatives, argue that such strategies in
reality perpetuate a history of undue corporate inuence on public policy that subverts
the public interest in favor of corporate prot (Hall and Lobina 2012). This argument is
based largely on the following interrelated notions:
Companies do not have an economic incentive to promote sustainable
conditions beyond their fence lines (apart from public relations gains).
Companies have an interest in weak water-related governance, which
allows them to continue socially and environmentally harmful, yet protable, practices and as such strive to undermine democratic processes.
Water risks are not shared; many issues that companies consider risks,
namely regulation, are actually a boon to communities and ecosystems.
This chapter sets out to explore, and in some instances challenge, these notions. It
acknowledges the real threat of corporate policy capture and greenwashing as well as the
21
inherent asymmetries in conceptions of water riskyet raises the notion that current
conditions offer a much greater incentive for companies to align their water-related policies and practices with the public interest than has been the case in the past. This position is nuanced and requires careful consideration of numerous aspects of water policy,
among them inclusiveness, transparency, and collaboration. We argue, however, that
there is a great opportunity for companies, governments, civil society groups, communities, and others to collaborate to achieve shared water-related objectives and that this
is a worthy endeavor if done in a way that advances the public interest and aligns with
global sustainable development goals. This potential lies at the heart of the shared risk
proposition and the prospect of better aligning water challenges as shared objectives
with mutually benecial outcomes, as opposed to each stakeholder ghting its corner
to the detriment of the others.
It is important to note that the debate on shared risk is separate and distinct from critiques of the privatization of water service provision. The privatization debate focuses on
the legitimacy of private sector companies (as opposed to public agencies) being tasked
with the delivery of water services (Gleick et al. 2002). The debate being explored here,
in contrast, focuses on the role of private companies that use large volumes of water or
cause water pollution, or both, and as a result can either exacerbate or potentially solve
local water-related challenges.
The Business Case for Investing in Sustainable

Water Management
Is there an economic and strategic business case for developing sustainable water
management strategies? There is growing evidence supporting such a case, as we discuss here. This evidence includes both direct economic advantages that can accrue to
forward-looking companies and social and community advantages that come from proactively identifying and reducing water-related risks.
Questioning the Business Incentive for Action

One critique against a private sector role in advancing sustainable water management
suggests that companies do not have an economic incentive to do so and therefore cannot be relied upon to fulll this role (Hall and Lobina 2012). This argument suggests that
company efforts to mitigate adverse impacts caused by their operations or to advance
sustainable water management more generallyby, for example, investing in improving the water-use efciency of other actors or facilitating aquifer recharge schemesare
simply greenwash; that is, they are pursued to create the appearance of a responsible
business for public relations gains without a good faith effort to advance the public interest. The PSIRU article cited earlier (Hall and Lobina 2012), referring to a Coca-Cola
project aimed at recharging aquifers in India, states:
Although increasing recharge of aquifers is a genuine way of reducing local water stress,
these initiatives are not sustainable ways of delivering it. The companies do not have any
direct economic incentive to fund such rechargesthe economic return is a public relations
gain from being seen to act responsibly. In effect, the incentive for water efciency is created
22

entirely by public campaigns against the abstractions, and by general public and political
pressure for greater environmental responsibility.
This argument rightly implies that corporate initiatives driven purely by altruistic motives cannot be relied upon as a long-term solution to water sustainability challenges.
There is no evidence to suggest that companies will behave in this manner consistently
and reliably over the long term. However, this argument also suggests that corporate water sustainability efforts are driven solely by a companys desire to be perceived as responsible despite growing evidence to the contrary (see CDP 2012). It overlooks the wide
range of water-related business risks that create strong economic incentives for companies to invest in sustainable water management throughout their supply chains and
in the watersheds in which they operate as a means of promoting long-term business
viability (Pegram et al. 2009; Hepworth 2012; Ceres 2009; Larson et al. 2012). Moreover,
it has also been shown that there can be real economic advantages to improving wateruse efciency or reducing the volume of wastewater produced that must then be treated
(Ceres 2009).
Unsustainable Water Conditions and Business Risk

Water-related business risks are driven as much, if not more, by unsustainable watershed conditions beyond a companys fence lines, such as water scarcity or pollution, as
they are by the companys water-related performance (Pegram et al. 2009; Larson et al.
2012; Morrison et al. 2010). As a case in point, an ultra-water-efcient factory located
in a region of severe water stress or facing other water-related challenges can still face
signicant water risk. In 2012, 53 percent of Fortune Global 500 companies responding
to a CDP questionnaire1 reported that they had experienced detrimental water-related
impacts during the previous ve years, while 68 percent identied water as a risk to their
business (CDP 2012). This reects trends and real incidents that are moving the goalposts for the way companies view their internal efforts to drive operational efciencies
no longer as an endgame of sustainability performance. The external basin conditions
and contexts, where water risk ultimately resides, necessitate a broader endgame. This
new awareness, and the reality that a businesss water-related challenges can be fully addressed only through external engagement beyond the factory fence line, are being captured under the emerging paradigm of water stewardship (Hepworth and Orr 2013).
A lack of water in the most basic sense limits the amount of water a company can use
and therefore the amount of goods it can produce. For example, in 2011, Gap Inc. cut its
annual prot forecast by 22 percent as a result of production limitations driven by water
shortages in Texas, India, Pakistan, and Brazil (Larson et al. 2012). Water scarcity also
has secondary adverse impacts on business, with signicant implications, for example,
on the production of energy on which industry relies. In 2001, energy production in So
Paulo, Brazil, was highly constrained as a result of both severe drought and governmental energy tariff policies (CLSA 2006). In order to prevent blackouts, the government imposed quotas aimed at reducing energy consumption by 1035 percent. Many industries
1. CDP (formerly called the Carbon Disclosure Project) is an NGO based in the United Kingdom that leverages
market forces such as investors, customers, and governments to incentivize companies and cities across the
world to measure and disclose information about their environmental and sustainability performance,
including that related to water management.
23
based in Brazils southeast were plagued by reductions in operational capacity, production delays, or increased production costs (CLSA 2006). Additionally, for many industries,
degraded ambient water quality increases the level of treatment, and therefore cost, required to purify water to appropriate levels for industrial production (JPMorgan 2008).
Societal expectations for corporate sustainability, including efcient and responsible
water-related policies and practices, are also on the rise. Companies perceived to mismanage scarce water resources are likely to suffer damaged reputations, especially when
company operations negatively affect basic human and environmental needs or contravene legal requirements. Effective advocacy campaigns in India have already forced the
Coca-Cola Company to close its plant in the village of Plachimada, Kerala, and pay $48
million in damages because of the belief that Coca-Colas groundwater pumping hindered communities ability to extract the water needed to maintain their livelihoods (India Resource Center 2010). The loss of such goodwill can be a real economic loss.
Furthermore, consumers increasingly choose products on the basis of the perceived
sustainability and social responsibility of companies practices and policies. In the United
Kingdom, expenditure on ethical goods and services has tripled in the past decade (The
Co-Operative Bank 2009). Eighty-one percent of Koreans, 70 percent of Singaporeans,
and nearly half of British consumers are willing to pay a premium for environmentally
friendly products (Czarnowski 2009). Companies perceived to have better water-related practices may thus see improved brand value and a subsequent expansion in sales.
The Alliance for Water Stewardships March 2013 release of its beta standard for water
stewardship suggests that stakeholders ability to assess companies with respect to the
adequacy of their water-related activities is arriving quickly (Alliance for Water Stewardship 2013). Furthermore, the nancial community is increasingly seeking to invest
in companies that are managing short- and long-term water-related risks and that are
striving to meet stakeholders expectations regarding water. Shareholder resolutions on
watermostly focused on the food, beverage, oil, and chemical industriesmore than
quadrupled over the past ten years (Ceres 2009).
Ensuing water-related development challenges, along with the changing landscape
of stakeholder expectations, are creating very real economic incentives for companies
to behave in a manner that is deemed responsible. It would be shortsighted to dismiss
these potentially paradigm-shifting levers toward corporate sustainability because they
diverge from previous corporate actions. In the past, the pressures and the companies
responses to water differed from those being pursued in todays highly branded, globalized, and increasingly water-stressed world (Hepworth and Orr 2013). Instead, we should
ask how these new levers can drive changes that benet businesses, communities, and
ecosystems alike and how we can avoid one-sided outcomes and greenwashing that undermine such opportunities.
Do Businesses and Other Watershed Actors Have a Shared Interest

in Robust Governance and Sustainable Water Management?
Businesses, communities, ecosystems, governments, and others may face common waterrelated challenges, but they may not share an interest in the same solutions to such challenges. Indeed, this is another core argument of those skeptical of a meaningful private
sector role in driving more sustainable water management. Considering the notion of
24
regulatory water-related business risks, for instance, the PSIRU (Hall and Lobina 2012,
15) contends that
for communities and ecosystems, regulation is not a risk but a positive opportunity for democratic and peaceful limitation of competing (including corporate) behavior. By contrast, the
[work of the United Nations CEO Water Mandate] has the anti-democratic implication that
companies would be subject to less risks if there was no democratic government and no civil
society.
This is, at least in part, a valid argument. Companies can be negatively affected by
strict regulations that limit their activities, and thus they often consider them a business
risk (as would, for that matter, a local smallholder farmer facing limited water allocations). The 2012 CDP Global Water Report states that 51 percent of companies consider
tightening withdrawal limits a risk, while 30 percent consider restricted water operational permits a risk (CDP 2012). However, water-intensive companies are also negatively affected by a lack of regulation on other actors in their watershed that eventually
leads to the depletion or degradation of a shared resource. This creates a not uncommon
scenario in which a wide range of actors using a common pool resource are threatened
both by the possibility of their own resource use being regulated and by the unregulated
resource use of other actors.
Regulation that is coherent and consistently applied is positive for society and reduces risk to business. We live in a world where ecosystems and communities do face regulatory risks when government fails to regulate polluters, allocations, permits, nes, fees,
and use, or to oversee and manage the socioeconomic trade-offs inherent in particularly
stressed basins. Water-using companies are similarly negatively affected by such poor
public management and oversight. The same CDP report found that 54 percent of companies responding consider regulatory uncertainty a risk (CDP 2012). Nonetheless, for
detractors to suggest that risks would be lower for companies if government and civil
society were silent or absent truly misses the point. We recognize that some companies
have a long history of polluting waterways, have failed to meet minimum legal requirements, or have operated where the rules of the game are poorly enforcedand that companies in turn have beneted from these situations. Such companies should be exposed
and duly penalized. Yet in even those parts of the world where the rules are most lax or
where the issue of water pollution, for example, is most acute, things are changing. Companies increasingly see higher risk where water challenges are great and effective water
governance is not in place. Water is the one resource for which some companies actually
seek clear and consistent regulatory signals and policies and in which coherence allows
them to plan, protect, and avoid negative impacts (Pegram et al. 2009). As expressed in
the 2012 CDP report, companies may indeed complain when they do not have enough
water to operate their facilities, yet the alternative is to be exposed to wide criticism and
fear of regulatory response, which can be draconian and reactive.
In Beilun District in the city of Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China, the local government is trying to balance the need for both industrial development and ecological protection. Local authorities have literally shut down more than seventy-two factories, large
to small, that were failing to adhere to local water regulations (Shanghai Daily 2013). A
similar picture is emerging all over the developing world, where, because of the scale of
the issue and lack of capacity, governments are closing down facilities that breach pollu-
25
tion controls. On the one hand, this solves an immediate problem, but it also creates the
space for more engaged dialogue with companies seeking to adhere to rules and comply
with local standards. This is especially true as corporate awareness of water-related risks
is strengthened by information from emerging risks tools (see WRI 2013 and WWF 2013).
It also appears that a companys ability to ensure a license to operatesocial and legal
is increasingly predicated on its playing by formal rules and, where these are not in place,
on adhering to the best practices dened internationally.
A Coca-Cola plant in the Indian village of Kaladera, Rajasthan, is located in a watershed where groundwater levels dropped from 9 to 38 meters below ground level between
1986 and 2006, reportedly leading to increased costs for irrigation for local farmers, reduced availability of drinking water, and reduced milk yield (Karnani 2012). The CocaCola plant, established in 1999, undoubtedly contributed to this phenomenon during
its tenure in the watershed. However, between 1984 and 1996 the rate of decline already
averaged 0.5 meter per year, and in 1998 the Central Ground Water Board had already
deemed the area overexploited, before the Coca-Cola plant was operational (Karnani
2012). Thus, groundwater depletion in Kaladera has coincided not only with Coca-Colas
presence but also with rising water demand due to population growth, urbanization, and
more water-intensive lifestyles (Karnani 2012). The plant employs up to 250 people and
accounts for less than 2.7 percent of local water extraction for 70 percent of the time and
less than 0.9 percent for 40 percent of the time (Karnani 2012). In May 2004, at its highest levels, the plant accounted for 8 percent of local water extraction (Karnani 2012). As a
well-resourced and well-known actor that clearly contributes to groundwater depletion,
Coca-Cola is deemed largely responsible for this problem by local stakeholders, who are
calling for closure of the plant.
Arguably, the core problem to be resolved in Kaladera, and in many other places
around the world, is not just the exploitation of water resources by one industrial water
user but widespread overexploitation enabled by the lack of a functioning management
regime to regulate the utilization of a limited shared resource. A robust water governance
system (with direct regulatory oversight) would incentivize widespread water-use efciency while also denying permits to those unable to demonstrate responsible use. Coca-Cola
has the nancial and technical resources to facilitate and support such water governance.
By contrast, shutting down the Coca-Cola plant may or may not slow the rate of groundwater depletion. The company has also been rolling out implementation of its water
neutrality policy, which includes investing in watershed projects (e.g., rainwater harvesting) geared toward offsetting the amount of water use in the companys direct operation. It can be argued that closing the plant by itself would do little to solve the regions
systemic long-term groundwater overdraft problem as long as governmental authorities
do not have the resources, capacity, and will to effectively manage the watershed.
Do Companies, Communities, Ecosystems, and Others Have a Shared

Risk Driven by Water Challenges?
The belief that companies have an incentive to invest in sustainable water management
beyond their fence lines is grounded in the concept of shared risk. Though water risks
are often distributed unevenly, the idea that companies share a need with the public for
reliable water services and sustainable water management is getting traction (Hepworth
and Orr 2013; Newborne and Mason 2012). In Colombia, for example, the indigenous
26
vegetation of mountainous upland ecosystems is being cleared to make room for agriculture and cattle grazing. Without this vegetation, which traps water and protects soil,
there is greater sedimentation in local waterways, on which the downstream city of Bogot relies for its water supply. In recent years, this sedimentation has severely degraded
water quality in the area, raising treatment costs for the local water utility, residential
users, and businesses in the area, such as SABMillers Bavaria. In order to address this
shared risk, Bavaria has teamed up with The Nature Conservancy, other local NGOs, the
Bogot water company, and governmental agencies to remove sedimentation (Water Futures Partnership 2013).
Today in Kenya, integrated approaches to water, energy, and land are being undertaken by a range of actors living and working in the region, including small landholders,
major horticultural businesses, the tourism sector, and local, national, and international
authorities. Lake Naivasha, Kenya, has experienced declines in water supply and quality
attributed to a variety of causes. The multiple water challenges have created risks for all
water users who rely on healthy ecosystems for their livelihoods and future. Even though
the export farmers have improved agricultural water-use efciency to reach record levels, the cumulative effect of multiple water users had driven the lake to record low inows. The consumer markets and retail companies purchasing Lake Naivashas produce
faced high reputational risks because of their poor understanding of the water demands
of their suppliers and the perceptions of their customers (ERD 2012). The concept of
shared risk was used to bring users together to work closely on joint action plans, funding local water-user associations, promoting and setting up reallocation plans, and creating incentives for government to better protect and manage the lake. These outcomes,
supported and largely driven by the private sector, have been integral in advancing more
sustainable management of the region. The underlying shared need for effective governance of the lake has united the stakeholders (WWF 2012). The Lake Naivasha example
illustrates that while the criticism of shared risk has focused mainly on multinational
companies with visible brands, the private sector in Kenya was largely represented by
small and medium enterprises (SMEs). These companies, Kenyan and international, saw
a clear business case based on economic incentives and opportunities to engage proactively with other water users. The focus on stewardship and shared risk should not negate
the fact that most implementation of projects on the ground will be negotiated through
SMEseither through supply chain pressures around buyer protocol for stewardship or
because these companies are embedded in their local communities and understand the
water situation and business case from multiple perspectives.
Shared risk does not imply that water challenges create an equal and similar burden
or sense of urgency for all stakeholders. There are specic challenges in facilitating this
shift, resulting from the generally differing languages and expectations of various stakeholders regarding needs, time frames, and modes of communication. It is necessary to
ask: Risk of what and risk to whom? The risk to an individual differs from societal or business risks, and certain groups will be more vulnerable than others. Water scarcity and
pollution can be subjective in this sense. For a farmer, the danger may be back-to-back
years of below-average rainfall. For the owner of a processing plant, the risk might be a
sudden, temporary cessation of stream ow during peak operation time. For a government, risks might include the increasing costs of accessing water for utilities and the implications of higher energy costs, or failure to deliver on economic growth and development pathways because of poor water management (Orr and Cartwright 2010).
27
Rather, the concept of shared risk elevates local water challenges as a shared problem
and in doing so suggests that we address these challenges in proactive and collaborative
ways. Consider the alternative to this, which is the proposition that stakeholders facing similar challenges need not (or should not) speak or engage with one another over
shared resources and should be ruled only by governmental policy, regulation, and nes,
a premise that leaves those operating in geographies absent of good water governance
to instead ght over resources. Critiques against shared risk, knowingly or not, indirectly
(or directly) appear to advocate this position, yet collaboration and inclusion of all water
users, including corporate and industrial actors, lies at the heart of sustainable water resource management and particularly integrated water resource management (IWRM)
the chief paradigm of reconciling water management challenges among shared users.
Collaboration and integrated management also lie at the heart of the soft path for water approach (Gleick 2002; Wolff and Gleick 2002). IWRM is a process that involves identifying the multiple adverse impacts and trade-offs associated with current or proposed
sectoral policies so that they can be subjected to a political process of informed decision
making (Rama Mohan Rao et al. 2003). IWRM evolved as a response to the perception
that this identication of trade-offs had historically been bypassedthat water management had been unintegrated, with various governmental ministries managing and using water independently and the voices of multiple users not being heard.
How Do Other Water Users Benet from Private Sector

Involvement?
Regardless of whether companies benet from robust water governance, for the shared
risk concept to function, water managers and those advocating for the public interest
must themselves benet from companies operating in a stressed watershed. Companies
can provide vital employment and tax revenues for local communities, contribute to
gross domestic product and foreign exchange, and help governments deliver on poverty,
growth, and development challenges. The example of Lake Naivasha showed that 10 percent of foreign exchange to Kenya could be linked to the output of the lakes produce and
horticulture trade (WWF 2012). Government for the rst time saw how water-related risk
not only could drive businesses to relocate elsewhere but also could feed the perception
that Kenya was an unstable place to do business, which could undermine much-needed
foreign investment over the long term.
Companies can begin to contribute to sustainable water management in simple yet
benecial ways. For example, they can provide sorely needed nancial resources to augment water supply, especially in places where water governance is weak and capital is
limited. Sasol, a global integrated energy and chemical company with its main production facilities in South Africa, has recognized water security as a material challenge to its
operations, some of which are highly reliant on the Vaal River system. Sasol uses about
4 percent of the catchment yield; municipalities use approximately 30 percent, of which
water losses can be as high as 45 percent of urban use because of the aging infrastructure (Greenwood et al. 2012). Sasol has approached a number of municipalities to implement water conservation initiatives (Greenwood et al. 2012). One such project used Sasol funds to adjust the pressure management system within a township, reducing water
leakage in off-peak hours and boosting water supply. This project saves 28 megaliters per
day at a modest capital cost of $500,000, funded by Sasol with an operation and mainte-
28
nance (O&M) cost of US$0.02 per cubic meter (Sasol 2010). By comparison, a project to
improve internal water-use efciency at a Sasol plant, which was also being undertaken
at the time, required $50 million in capital expenditures and saved only 18 megaliters a
day, with an O&M cost of US$2.00 per cubic meter (Sasol 2010). Sasols implementation
of this beyond the fence line water strategy has created systemwide water savings and
supported local water security to the benet of all while reducing water management
costs for both local government and the business itself. This is a salient example of a winwin scenario, where the company was able to invest in the most cost-effective savings
and where private and public interests were fully aligned.
Financial resources are just one of the tools industry can bring to the table. Companies can also help introduce new technology to improve water-use efciency and water
quality, collection of water-related data that supports informed water management decisions, and privileged access to national decision-making processes that NGOs and small
communities may lack. For example, Intel teamed up with the City of Chandler, Arizona,
to devise a collaborative approach to water management that includes building an advanced reverse osmosis facility to treat rinse water from Intels manufacturing facility to
drinking water standards before being returned to the municipal groundwater source
and nearby farmlands (Morrison et al. 2010).
The lack of nancial, technological, and informational resources in many watersheds
underscores the reality that current governmental expenditures and investments in sustainable water resource management are low in many places across the globe (Ginneken
et al. 2011; WaterAid 2011). In many cases, this may be due to corruption or a lack of
awareness of the importance of sustainable water management. In other cases, it is because many governments face many competing demands for resources and policy attention and may lack the resources needed to manage water in a sustainable and equitable
manner (WaterAid 2011). The private sector can play a critical role in bridging this resource and capacity decit, especially in the context of partnerships and collaborative
projects that harness the expertise, knowledge, and legitimacy of NGOs, academia, and
governmental agencies. Playing this role, however, also requires that serious and careful
attention be paid to protecting the public interest, addressing equity concerns, and preventing policy capture.
Utilizing Corporate Resources While Ensuring Public

Interest Outcomes and Preventing Policy Capture
Critical to this debate is the question of how to use corporate resources toward mutually
benecial outcomes while ensuring that companies act in a manner that aligns with the
public interest and that avoids undue corporate inuence. Though we see emerging levers that incentivize companies to act in a responsible manner, there are also important
and powerful conicting interests and competing incentives that may lead to perverse
and unbalanced outcomes (Morrison et al. 2010; Hepworth et al. 2010). Below is a list of
some of the most salient tensions and barriers to benecial private sector involvement in
water policy and management that must be navigated.
Many companies will not actively promote stringent regulatory frameworks
that increase operational costs, limit production, or signicantly undermine
company inuence in water decision making. There is a tension between a

companys desire for a governance system that effectively manages others
water use (and therefore prevents challenges related to water scarcity and
pollution) and its desire to prevent limitations to its own water use or stringent guidelines on water quality that drive up its own operational costs.
These conicting interests may not disincentivize company investment in
or promotion of water-use efciency among other water users in a particular basin, but they do call into question a companys incentive to meaningfully facilitate development of a governance scheme that could potentially
limit its own production or increase operational costs. Similarly, while
many companies may seek to implement projects that have public interest
outcomes (e.g., addressing municipal nonrevenue water losses or riparian
restoration or source water protection) and build their reputation among
local stakeholders in doing so, only the rare company will choose to promote water governance processes such that their own inuence on water
decision making is signicantly lessened.
Companies are unlikely to be the leading advocates for the prioritization of
domestic water uses (i.e., human right to water and sanitation) over their
own water use. In light of the recently afrmed human right to water and
sanitation (United Nations 2010), water governance systems and legal
frameworks in the twenty-rst century are increasingly likely to include
provisions that prioritize domestic and other water uses above those for
industry. For example, the state water policy in Rajasthan (where Kaladera
is located) stipulates that water allocations should be prioritized to drinking water, irrigation, power generation, and industry, in that order (Department of Water Resources 2000). While water uses to meet basic human
needs are a clear societal priority (and in fact typically represent only a
small proportion of water use in a basin), companies may be not be inclined to proactively advocate for water management regimes that deprioritize their own water use, and thus champions of such causes will
typically need to come from other segments of society, including explicit
governmental commitment.
There exists the potential for greenwashing of company claims and for industry initiatives that create the perception of responsible practice without
tangible water sustainability and public interest outcomes. As demonstrated
in this chapter, there are economic drivers for companies to invest in and
promote sustainable water management inside and outside of their fence
lines such that watershed challenges and associated business risks are better managed. However, history also shows that some of these drivers, especially those regarding license to operate and brand value, can hinge on the
perception of action rather than genuine action itself. This leaves open the
potential for greenwashing initiatives that foster a perception of good practice without any tangible benets to the public interest. As the issue of
water is tackled by a growing number of companies, the likelihood increases that claims regarding stewardship and industry-led initiatives,
which perhaps serve the corporate social responsibility agenda far more
29
30
than a strategic one, will proliferate. The onus will be on many of the practitioners and NGOs that support the corporate water stewardship paradigm, as well as academics and peer businesses, to differentiate between
spurious claims and substantive efforts. While many critics will use these
examples as straw men to criticize all corporate action on water, the case
for validating claims and auditing performance should create stronger accountability and monitoring toward genuine shared outcomes.
Some investors and corporate executives may be prone to react to short-term
pressures that do not enhance sustainable water management rather than
to tackle long-term sustainability drivers. Much of the rationale regarding
shared risk and collective action implicitly hinges on companies assessing
and managing risk on a long-term time horizon. For instance, companies
considering long-term business viability will be much more likely to invest
in water-use efciency measures and sustainable water supply than will
companies seeking to maximize prot in the near term. Likewise, many
investors who have a short-term perspective and continue to orient around
quarterly earnings statements may nd it difcult to fathom the justication for long-term engagement in water governance in a particular region
that will garner positive results only over a ve- to ten-year time horizon.
Even within a company, corporate social responsibility and sustainability
departments may seek approval for programs and corollary expenditures
based on long-term considerations and planning only to be confronted by
unsupportive senior executives and legal departments who require shorterterm, more guaranteed returns on such company investments. This creates
another tension. Though water-intensive companies certainly have incentives to support sustainable water management over the long term, such
investments may be derailed or undermined by those seeking more immediate returns.
Some business models and operational contexts may not offer strong drivers
for action. A signicant number of companies have strong incentives to
ensure sustainable access to water in a single location over the long term.
These businesses, such as geographically bound mining or oil and gas
companies, typically must operate in particular locations to be economically viable. Furthermore, SMEs may not have the economic means to simply move away from water-stressed settings. Others, however, have greater
exibility in the location of their facilities and supply chain and may not
intend to remain in one watershed for an extended period of time. Such
enterprises might be inclined to shift operations and supply chains away
from water-challenged areas, thus leading to less dependence on those
specic regions and perhaps even improving their perception among some
key stakeholders when doing so. This move away from the problem alternative undermines incentives for companies to make substantial longterm investments in improving water governance in water-stressed areas.
31
Moving Forward: Unlocking Mutually Benecial

Corporate Action on Water
The existence of competing economic incentives for long-term sustainable thinking and
short-term prot motives reveals a number of complex and difcult questions, such as
the following:
Multinational companies in many cases are a great boon to local economies, in both developed and emerging economic contexts. What is the
appropriate balance between high economic value water uses and
public interest water uses?
How can companies already driving action on water be encouraged to offer a
louder voice within their value chains and the wider business community?
Should industry avoid water-stressed regions or instead focus its investment in these areas?
In many parts of the world, businesses and governments alike are complicit in a system that often results in unbalanced corporate representation in water policy. What role can and should companies play in
facilitating more democratic processes (especially in areas of weak governance)?
What can companies that are genuinely interested in facilitating sustainable water management do to ease the skepticism of potential partners?
How can companies be encouraged to consider more long-term prot
drivers in the face of more immediate short-term prot motives and
shareholder pressure that may incentivize unsustainable practices?
How can companies and others encourage increased investment in areas
experiencing water stress and weak governance when these areas are
identied as high-risk locations?
These are difcult questions, and the conicts inherent within them will certainly
invite some to argue that companies should not play a meaningful role in public water management. It must be recognized, however, that companies have always engaged
in water policy, and given the very signicant challenges facing global water security,
dogmatic stances for or against corporate engagement not only fail to reect reality but
also are likely to be counterproductive (Hepworth and Orr 2013). Instead, these tensions
and questions should underscore the need to strengthen positive incentives for responsible and sustainable private sector action and to begin a meaningful discussion on what
that can and should look like. Such a discussion can shed light on unsustainable practices where they exist, highlight examples of benecial corporate action, and ultimately
help determine the most appropriate role for the private sector in addressing our shared
twenty-rst-century water challenges. There is compelling evidence to suggest that businesses role should not be limited to simply implementing operational efciencies and
being accountable for direct water-related adverse impacts on ecosystems and communities; it should be expanded such that companies are encouraged, if not expected, to
make a positive contribution to broader watershed challenges that affect a wide range of
stakeholders and actors.
32
References
Alliance for Water Stewardship. 2013. The AWS International Water Stewardship Standard: Beta
Version for Stakeholder Input and Field Testing. http://www.allianceforwaterstewardship.org
/Beta%20AWS%20Standard%2004_03_2013.pdf?utm_content=nicole.tanner@wwfus
.org&utm_source=Ver ticalResponse&utm_medium=Email&utm_ter m=Beta%20
Standard%26nbsp%3Bhere&utm_campaign=Update%20from%20the%20Alliance%20for%20
Water%20Stewardshipcontent (accessed March 26, 2013).
CDP. 2012. Collective Responses to Rising Water Challenges. CDP Global Water Report 2012.
Authored by Deloitte. https://www.cdproject.net/CDPResults/CDP-Water-Disclosure
-Global-Report-2012.pdf (accessed March 26, 2013).
Ceres. 2009. Water Scarcity and Climate Change: Growing Risks for Businesses and Investors.
Authored by Pacic Institute. http://www.pacinst.org/reports/business_water_climate/full
_report.pdf (accessed October 14, 2010).
CLSA. 2006. Remaining Drops: Freshwater Resources, A Global Issue. Hong Kong: CLSA Blue Books.
Co-Operative Bank. 2009. Ten Years of Ethical Consumerism: 19992008. http://www.goodwith
money.co.uk/assets/Ethical-Consumerism-Report-2009.pdf (accessed October 14, 2010).
Czarnowski, A. 2009. Ethical purchasing: Ethics still strong in a cold climate. Brand Strategy, 5253.
http://www.allbusiness.com/trends-events/investigations/11914169-1.html (accessed October
14, 2010).
Department of Water Resources. 2000. Water Allocation Priorities. Government of Rajasthan, India.
http://waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in/5allocation.htm (accessed March 26, 2013).
European Report on Development (ERD). 2012. Confronting Scarcity: Managing Water, Energy,
and Land for Inclusive and Sustainable Growth. Brussels: European Report on Development.
http://erd-report.eu/erd/report_2011/documents/erd_report%202011_en_lowdef.pdf
(accessed March 27, 2012).
Ginneken, M., U. Netterstrom, and A. Bennett. 2011. More, Better, or Different Spending? Trends in
Public Expenditure on Water and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Water Papers 67321-AFR.
Washington, DC: World Bank. http://water.worldbank.org/sites/water.worldbank.org
/les/publication/Water-Report-Dec-11.pdf (accessed March 26, 2013).
Gleick, P. H. 2002. Soft water paths. Nature 418:373. http://www.pacinst.org/topics/water_and
_sustainability/soft_path/nature_07252002.pdf (accessed April 8, 2013).
Gleick, P. H., G. Wolff, E. L. Chalecki, and R. Reyes. 2002. The New Economy of Water: The Risks and
Benets of Globalization and Privatization of Fresh Water. Pacic Institute. http://www
.pacinst.org/reports/new_economy_of_water/new_economy_of_water.pdf (accessed April 8,
2013).
Greenwood, R., R. Willis, M. Hoenig, G. Pegram, H. Baleta, J. Morrison, P. Schulte, and
R. Farrington. 2012. The CEO Water Mandate Guide to Water-Related Collective Action.
Authored by Ross Strategic. http://ceowatermandate.org/les/guide_to_collective_action
.pdf (accessed March 26, 2013).
Hall, D., and E. Lobina. 2012. Conicts, Companies, Human Rights, and WaterA Critical Review
of Local Corporate Practices and Global Corporate Initiatives. London: University of Greenwich,
Public Services International Research Unit. http://www.psiru.org/reports/conicts-compa
nies-human-rights-and-water-critical-review-local-corporate-practices-and-glo (accessed
March 26, 2013).
Hepworth, N. 2012. Open for business or opening Pandoras box? A constructive critique of corporate engagement in water policy: An introduction. Water Alternatives 5 (3): 543562. http://
waterwitness.org/wwwp/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/An-introduction-to-corporate
-engagement-on-water-policy.pdf (accessed August 5, 2013).
Hepworth, N., and S. Orr. 2013. Corporate water stewardship: New paradigms in private sector
water engagement. In Water Security: Principles, Perspectives, and Practices, edited by
B. A. Lankford, K. Bakker, M. Zeitoun, and D. Conway. London: Earthscan.
Hepworth, N., J. C. Postigo, and B. Gemes Delgado. 2010. Drop by Drop: Understanding the
Impacts of the UKs Water Footprint through a Case Study of Peruvian Asparagus. London:
Progressio, CEPES, and Water Witness International. http://www.progressio.org.uk/sites
/default/les/Drop-by-drop_Progressio_Sept-2010.pdf.
India Resource Center. 2010. Coca-Cola Liable for US$ 48 Million for DamagesGovernment
Committee. http://www.indiaresource.org/news/2010/1003.html (accessed March 26, 2013).
33
JPMorgan. 2008. Watching Water: A Guide to Evaluating Corporate Risks in a Thirsty World. Global
Equity Research. http://pdf.wri.org/jpmorgan_watching_water.pdf (accessed October 15,
2010).
Karnani, A. G. 2012. Corporate Social Responsibility Does Not Avert the Tragedy of the Commons
Case Study: Coca-Cola India. University of Michigan Ross School of Business Paper No. 1173.
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2030268 (accessed March 28, 2013).
Larson, W. M., P. L. Freedman, V. Passinsky, E. Grubb, and P. Adriaens. 2012. Mitigating corporate
water risk: Financial market tools and supply management. Water Alternatives 5 (3): 582603.
http://www.water-alternatives.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=224&Ite
mid=1 (accessed March 26, 2013).
Morrison, J., P. Schulte, J. Christian-Smith, S. Orr, N. Hepworth, and G. Pegram. 2010. The CEO
Water Mandate Guide to Responsible Business Engagement with Water Policy. United Nations
Global Compact and Pacic Institute. http://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/issues_doc
/Environment/ceo_water_mandate/Guide_Responsible_Business_Engagement_Water
_Policy.pdf (accessed February 16, 2011).
Newborne, P., and N. Mason. 2012. The private sectors contribution to water management:
Re-examining corporate purposes and company roles. Water Alternatives 5 (3): 604619.
http://www.water-alternatives.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=224&Ite
mid=1 (accessed March 26, 2013).
Orr, S., and A. Cartwright. 2010. Water scarcity risks: Experience of the private sector. In Re-thinking
Water and Food Security: Fourth Botn Foundation Water Workshop, edited by
L. Martinez-Cortina, A. Garrido, and E. Lopez-Gunn. London: CRC Press.
Pegram, G., S. Orr, and C. Williams. 2009. Investigating Shared Risk in Water: Corporate Engagement
with the Public Policy Process. Report prepared by Pegasys Consulting for World Wide Fund
for Nature. http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/investigating_shared_risk.pdf (accessed
March 26, 2013).
Rama Mohan Rao, M. S., C. H. Batchelor, A. J. James, R. Nagaraja, J. Seeley, and J. A. Butterworth,
eds. 2003. Andhra Pradesh Rural Livelihoods Programme Water Audit Report. Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad 500030, India. http://www.nri.org/projects/wss-iwrm/Reports/APRLPwra
/APRLPwra_fullA4.pdf (accessed March 27, 2013).
Sasol. 2010. Managing the Challenge of Water Scarcity. Sasol Sustainability Report 2009. http://
www.sasolsdr.investoreports.com/sasol_sdr_2009/material-challenges/managing-the-chal
lenge-of-water-scarcity/ (accessed October 15, 2010).
Shanghai Daily. 2013. After 7-year battle, a village enjoys its fruits. March 27. http://www.shang
haidaily.com/nsp/National/2013/03/27/After%2B7year%2Bbattle%2Ba%2Bvillage%2Ben
joys%2Bits%2Bfruits/ (accessed March 27, 2013).
United Nations. 2010. General Assembly, Human Rights Council Texts Declaring Water, Sanitation
Human Right. UN GA/SHC/3987. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/gashc3987
.doc.htm (accessed April 8, 2013).
WaterAid. 2011. Off-Track, Off-Target: Why Investment in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Is Not
Reaching Those Who Need It Most. http://www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/water
-sanitation-hygiene-investment.pdf (accessed March 26, 2013).
Water Futures Partnership. 2013. Colombia. http://www.water-futures.org/countries/colombia
.html (accessed March 26, 2013).
Wolff, G., and P. H. Gleick. 2002. The soft path for water. In The Worlds Water 20022003: The
Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, edited by P. H. Gleick, 132. Washington, DC: Island
Press. http://www.pacinst.org/publications/worlds_water/worlds_water_2002_chapter1.pdf
(accessed April 8, 2013).
World Resources Institute (WRI). 2013. Aqueduct: Measuring, Mapping, and Understanding Water
Risks around the Globe. http://aqueduct.wri.org/ (accessed March 28, 2013).
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). 2012. Shared Risk and Opportunity in Water Resources:
Seeking a Sustainable Future for Lake Naivasha. Report prepared by PegasysStrategy and
Development. http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/navaisha_nal_08_12_lr.pdf (accessed
March 26, 2013).
. 2013. The Water Risk Filter. http://waterrisklter.panda.org/ (accessed March 28, 2013).
C H A P T E R

Eli Moore, Heather Cooley, Juliet Christian-Smith, and Kristina Donnelly
Many jobs, in different sectors of the economy, are required to manage, deliver, and treat
the freshwater required to satisfy our commercial, institutional, industrial, agricultural,
and domestic needs for goods and services. A range of sustainable water strategies to address twenty-rst-century water challenges have emerged that reach far beyond the conventional water sector. Growing attention is being given to sustainable measures such as
low-impact development, water reuse, watershed restoration, water conservation and
efciency, and many other proven and promising practices. As the country shifts to more
sustainable water management, new services, occupations, and markets are emerging.
In addition, over the next decade there will be a need for major investments in the nations aging infrastructure for wastewater, stormwater, and drinking water along with ongoing operation and maintenance jobs to sustain that infrastructure. Many of these jobs
are eligible for public funding and have been the focus of increased funding through the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) and other federal and state
policies. However, information is needed to help local, state, and federal agencies; utilities; companies; unions; and nonprot entities adopt strategies that maximize job creation and other potential benets of these practices.1
The need to take advantage of any opportunities for increased quantity and quality of
employment opportunities is acute: 12 million workers in the United States who are interested in working and available to work are unemployed (US BLS 2012a). Millions more
are working but remain in nancial distress, with basic needs, such as health care, unmet. Some 10.5 million US workers were employed for more than half of the past year yet
still have an income below the ofcial poverty level (US BLS 2012b). For working parents
in poverty, constraints on their ability to provide stable and appropriate child care can
pass their hardship onto their children. Research now shows that these forms of inequality are harmful to economic growth and that regions and countries with greater equality
experienced more vigorous economic growth (Treuhaft et al. 2011).
The jobs generated by sustainable water strategies have rarely been analyzed or
tracked, yet a growing body of research points to signicant numbers of jobs in certain
sectors and in certain places. The types of jobs involved in implementing sustainable
water strategies cover a broad range of occupations. In a recent study conducted by the
Pacic Institute (Moore et al. 2013), 136 water-related occupations were identied in agriculture, urban residential and commercial settings, restoration and remediation, alter1. This chapter is modied and updated from a recent study by the Pacic Institute titled Sustainable Water
Jobs: A National Assessment of Water-Related Green Job Opportunities, available at http://www
.pacinst.org/reports/sustainable_water_jobs/.
35
36
native water sources, and stormwater management. The number of employment opportunities created by sustainable water practices can be very high. The data available point
to the creation of 1015 jobs for every $1 million invested in alternative water supplies;
520 in stormwater management; 1222 in urban conservation and efciency; around 15
in agricultural efciency and quality; and 1072 jobs per $1 million invested in restoration and remediation.
This research suggests that water is a worthy arena for exploring green jobs and that
if we continue to separate our efforts in water sustainability and economic opportunity,
we may miss opportunities to strengthen both through integration. There is now greater
awareness of the promise of green jobsthe potential for crafting economic strategies
that reduce environmental impacts while creating high-quality work opportunities. But
these efforts have largely focused on energy efciency and renewable energy. This chapter summarizes the conclusion that the growing efforts to develop green jobs by investing in sustainable water systems are merited.
At the conclusion of this chapter, we also evaluate some of the challenges of developing these water jobs, including the need for better information for various stakeholders,
such as workforce development and community-based organizations, labor unions, utilities and public water agencies, and businesses. The comprehensive assessment (Moore
et al. 2013) looks in more detail at the full spectrum of sustainable water strategies and
provides foundational information regarding the following questions:
What are the best practices across sectors for sustainable water management and use?
What activities and occupations are involved when these practices are
adopted?
What data are available to quantify the jobs generated by these practices?
What is the quality of these sustainable water occupations, what is their
growth in the overall economy, and what are the demographics of the
workforce in these professions?
How can disadvantaged communities be linked to job opportunities in
the water sector?
Water Challenges in Todays Economy

As we enter the second decade of the twenty-rst century, the United States faces a complex and evolving set of freshwater challenges (Christian-Smith and Gleick 2012). Despite
the fact that the nation is, on average, a comparatively water-rich country, we are reaching absolute limits on our ability to take more water from many river systems, such as
the Colorado, SacramentoSan Joaquin, and Chattahoochee River systems. We are also
overpumping groundwater aquifers, including those in the Great Plains and Californias
Central Valley. Wetlands and aquatic ecosystems and sheries are in decline. Continued
population and economic growth are adding new demands for water, in competition
with other uses. Many of the nations water bodies are contaminated, and 42 percent of
the nations total stream length is considered to be in poor condition (US EPA 2006).
Much of our water infrastructure has not been adequately maintained, and condence
in our tap water system is falling. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) pro-
37
jects that if we maintain current levels of investment in water systems through 2020, the
percentage of the nations water pipes considered poor, very poor, or life elapsed
will reach 44 percent (US EPA 2002). Unresolved public health threats from contaminated drinking water exist in a growing number of communities, and the affordability of
water for low-income users is a growing concern. Climate changes compound many of
these challenges by altering water availability and quality and increasing the risk of both
oods and droughts. A nationwide study analyzing water demand and supply under future climate change scenarios found that 70 percent of US counties may be at moderate
to extreme risk of their water demand surpassing water supply by 2050 (NRDC 2010).
In the past, the traditional approach to meeting these challenges has relied on building massive, centralized, capital-intensive infrastructure, such as large dams and reservoirs. This approach has brought many benets, but it has also come at great social,
economic, and environmental costs, many of which were either ignored, undervalued,
or unknown at the time (Gleick 2002). Currently, nearly 40 percent of North American
freshwater and diadromous sh species are imperiled because of physical modications
to rivers and lakes (Jelks et al. 2008). Other consequences of traditional water development include loss of valuable ecological services that aquatic ecosystems provide, such
as water ltration and retention, as well as massive energy demands to move and treat
water and substantial and heavily subsidized costs.
The water challenges our nation faces must be addressed with strategies that avoid
the negative outcomes of the past. To develop these strategies, water managers and others are rethinking approaches to ensure that sufcient water resources are available
to meet anticipated needs in ways that improve, rather than ignore, social equity, ecological conditions, and long-term sustainability of human-ecological systems. Many of
these approaches reect soft-path principles, which include taking advantage of the
potential for decentralized facilities, efcient technologies, exible public and private
institutions, innovative economic instruments, and human capital (Gleick 2002). We dene sustainable water strategies as those that reduce or eliminate water contamination,
restore watershed systems, and increase efcient use of natural, societal, and nancial
resources. We group the diverse range of techniques that meet these criteria into ve
overarching strategies:
1. Urban water conservation and efciency
2. Stormwater management
3. Restoration and remediation
4. Alternative water sources
5. Agricultural water efciency and quality
For each of these strategies, we review the technical and economic processes involved,
identify the occupations of workers carrying out these activities, and assess the numbers
of jobs created for each $1 million invested.
Improving the Efciency of Urban Water Use

Techniques to improve urban water conservation and efciency allow for the increased
production of goods and services while maintaining or even reducing overall water use
in urban areas. These efforts are also referred to as demand management or water productivity improvements. Urban water conservation and efciency measures include in-
38
stalling efcient appliances and xtures, improving water-use metering, improving landscape efciency, xeriscaping, and replacing or repairing pipes to reduce water loss within
the water conveyance and distribution system (see table 3.1) (Gleick et al. 2003). Water
treated and reused on-site at a smaller scale is often referred to as grey water, which includes water from clothes washers, showers, and faucets for use on outdoor landscapes,
for ushing toilets, and for other nonpotable uses.
Despite efciency gains over the past twenty-ve years, current urban water use in
the United States remains wasteful. Inefcient xtures and appliances are still commonplace, particularly in homes built prior to 1994,2 in a range of commercial, institutional,
and industrial settings. Even in a relatively dry and densely populated state such as California, where many water agencies have taken the concerns about water supply constraints seriously, far more can be done. A 2003 analysis by the Pacic Institute found
that existing, cost-effective technologies and policies can reduce Californias urban water
demand by more than 30 percent (Gleick et al. 2003), and a follow-up study done in 2005
found continued room for improvement (Gleick et al. 2005). These ndings have been
echoed by studies and programs in other regions. For example, a Seattle study found
that installing new, water-efcient xtures and appliances reduced single-family indoor
use by nearly 40 percent (Mayer et al. 2000). Experiences from other countries, such as
Australia, offer insights into the levels of urban efciency that can be achieved under difcult circumstances. For example, in South East Queensland, Australia, during a severe,
long-term drought, total urban demand dropped to only 67 gallons per capita per day,
and residential demand, including both indoor and outdoor uses, reached 43 gallons per
capita per day (Queensland Water Commission 2010; Heberger 2012).
In addition to saving water, water conservation and efciency measures provide a
number of other benets. Conservation and efciency techniques can reduce costs for
drinking water and wastewater treatment systems by reducing overall water delivery requirements. Reductions in demand can also reduce energy use and associated greenhouse gas emissions for water systems. Landscape efciency improvements reduce
chemical and fertilizer needs and subsequent runoff into local streams and waterways.
High-efciency appliances can also reduce detergent requirements for dishwashers and
washing machines.
T A B L E 3.1 Urban Water Conservation and Efciency Techniques
Appliances and xtures
Landscaping
Reduction of water loss

Grey water
Installing water-efcient appliances and xtures in residences and

in commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) settings.
Utilizing landscape efciency improvements, including advanced
irrigation technologies and controllers, mulching, and low-wateruse plants.
Replacing or repairing pipes to reduce water loss within the water
conveyance and distribution system.
Collecting, treating, and using water from clothes washers,
showers, and faucets on-site for outdoor irrigation, toilet ushing,
or other nonpotable uses.
Source: Gleick et al. (2003).
2. National water efciency standards for some xtures were signed into law in 1992; implementation began
in 1994.
39
The economic process of implementing urban conservation and efciency measures

involves a range of research, manufacturing, installation, and maintenance activities.
Research and development, for example, generates new water-efcient technologies and
practices, including mobile applications, soil moisture sensors, weather-based irrigation
controllers, appliances and xtures, and sensors (e.g., for cooling towers). Manufacturing activity produces these new tools and products, which are then distributed through
wholesale and retail sales to businesses, utilities, and home owners. Design and planning programs at water agencies can help provide information to consumers or develop
pricing strategies that encourage investment or more careful water use.
Figure 3.1 provides a summary of the occupations associated with urban water efciency projects. Workers in these categories range from scientists developing new technologies to surveyors and landscape architects measuring water use and planning for
improvements. Plumbers, construction laborers, and landscaping workers install and
often maintain water-efcient technologies and vegetation, while public relations specialists raise awareness among community members and consumers.
Urban water efciency projects create jobs, although limited data are available to
develop accurate estimates (table 3.2). Early efforts to quantify the number of jobs created by urban water efciency projects include the 1992 Madres del Este de Los Angeles
Santa Isabel partnership, which estimated that a community-based program to install
low-ush toilets created twenty-ve full-time and three part-time jobs (Lerner 1997). In a
more comprehensive analysis, the Alliance for Water Efciency modeled the jobs created
by investments in seven types of water conservation and efciency programs, nding
that 14.6 to 21.6 jobs in total employment were generated per $1 million invested (Alliance for Water Efciency 2008). A similar study in Los Angeles by the Economic Roundtable gathered information on eleven urban water efciency projects, ranging from
bathroom retrots to a green garden program, and found that the projects generated
11.8 jobs per $1 million invested, including 6 direct, 2.6 indirect, and 3.3 induced jobs.
Managing Stormwater
Stormwater runoff is a major cause of water pollution in the United States. Ten millimeters (a little more than three-eighths of an inch) of rain over a one-hectare (approximately two-acre) parking lot produces 100 cubic meters (over 26,000 gallons) of stormwater runoff and can carry a noxious mixture of soils, sediments, oils, chemicals, and
other substances into local waterways. In some areas, combined sewers transport both
stormwater and wastewater to treatment systems, which can be overwhelmed during
high ows and release untreated wastewater into local waterways. For many years, water
agencies have been trying to improve stormwater management, redesign and rebuild
sewers, and reduce these untreated releases.
Upgrading existing conventional infrastructure to manage stormwater comes at considerable nancial cost, which has encouraged urban areas to look for alternative ways to
address stormwater runoff. According to the EPAs 2008 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey,
approximately $189 billion is needed for pipe repair, new pipes, combined sewer overow corrections, and stormwater management programs (US EPA 2008). Low-impact
development (LID), or green infrastructure, consists of alternative approaches that include systems and techniques intended to inltrate, evaporate, and reuse stormwater on
FIGURE 3.1 OCCUPATIONS IN URBAN WATER CONSERVATION AND EFFICIENCY
41
T A B L E 3.2 Jobs per $1 Million Invested in Urban Conservation and Efciency Projects
Total Employment
(Jobs per $1
Project Type
Million Invested)
Units and Methods
Source
Eleven water
conservation projects in
Los Angeles County
11.8
Total employment, includ- Burns and Flaming

(2011)
ing direct employment
from expense reports and
modeled indirect and
induced employment
Evapotranspiration
irrigation controller
rebate/direct install
programs
20.4
Total employment modeled using categorized

program expenses as
inputs
Alliance for Water

Efciency (2008)
Water system loss

control
21.6
(same as previous)
Alliance for Water

Efciency (2008)
High-efciency toilet
rebate program
18
(same as previous)
Alliance for Water

Efciency (2008)
High-efciency toilet
direct install program
17.2
(same as previous)
Alliance for Water

Efciency (2008)
Industrial water/energy
survey and retrot
program
15.6
(same as previous)
Alliance for Water

Efciency (2008)
Retrot cooling towers

with conductivity and
pH controllers
15.4
(same as previous)
Alliance for Water

Efciency (2008)
Restaurant surveys and

direct install equipment
retrots
14.6
(same as previous)
Alliance for Water

Efciency (2008)
Installation of 5,439 grey

water systems in new
residential properties in
Los Angeles County
5.3
Modeled total jobs (direct/ Burns and Flaming

(2011)
indirect/induced) using
IMPLAN system 2009 data
and 2011 software
the site where it is generated.3 Of the $189 billion funding gap identied by the survey,
$17.4 billion is related to green infrastructure projects (US EPA 2008).
Sustainable stormwater management practices and techniques include rainwater
harvesting, bioswales and other forms of stormwater retention, permeable pavement,
green roofs, and other efforts to reduce impervious areas (see table 3.3). Portland, Oregon, and other cities have programs to disconnect downspouts, rerouting rooftop drainage pipes to rain barrels, cisterns, or permeable areas instead of the storm sewer.
3. According to the EPA, low-impact development is an approach to land development (or redevelopment) that works with nature to manage stormwater as close to its source as possible (US EPA
2012b). In this chapter we use the terms low-impact development and green infrastructure interchangeably.
42
T A B L E 3.3 Stormwater Management Techniques

Downspout disconnection
Rainwater harvesting
Rain gardens
Planter boxes
Bioswales
Permeable pavements
Green roofs
Urban forestry
Land conservation
Downspouts are disconnected and rooftop drainage pipes are

rerouted to drain rainwater into rain barrels, cisterns, or
permeable areas instead of the storm sewer.
Rainwater is harvested and stored for later use.
Rain gardens (also known as bioretention or bioinltration
cells) collect runoff from rooftops, sidewalks, and streets into
shallow, vegetated basins.
Planter boxes are urban rain gardens with vertical walls and
open or closed bottoms that collect and absorb runoff from
sidewalks, parking lots, and streets.
Bioswales retain and lter stormwater as it moves through
vegetated, mulched, or xeriscaped channels.
Permeable pavements inltrate, treat, or store rainwater where
it falls.
Green roofs are covered with growing media and vegetation and
enable rainfall inltration and evapotranspiration of stored
water.
Trees in urban areas reduce and slow stormwater runoff by
intercepting precipitation in their leaves and branches.
Land conservation protects open spaces and sensitive natural
areas within and adjacent to cities.
Source: US EPA (2012a).
The environmental benets of these approaches include minimizing the impacts of

urban runoff on local streams and the marine environment, reducing local ooding, recharging local groundwater supplies, and improving the reliability and exibility of water supplies.
These approaches are typically less costly than conventional stormwater management techniques, with capital savings ranging from 15 percent to 80 percent (US EPA
2007). A recent report showed that 75 percent of 479 green infrastructure projects either
kept costs the same or reduced costs, compared with the same projects that used more
traditional infrastructure (American Rivers et al. 2012). Additionally, research has consistently shown a positive correlation between proximity to green spaces and home and
property values (Crompton 2005).
It is difcult to determine how much green infrastructure has already been installed.
According to the Greenroof & Greenwall Projects Database, more than 970 projects
have resulted in the installation of more than 14 million square feet of green roofs in
the United States (Greenroofs.com 2012), though these gures likely underestimate the
true extent of this practice. Other practices, such as changes in landscaping and drainage
systems, construction of rain gardens, and urban tree planting, have not yet been comprehensively quantied.
Figure 3.2 shows occupations involved in stormwater management. The range of occupations includes broad construction professions, septic tank servicers, sewer pipe
cleaners, welders, cutters, and tters for manufacturing, and more. Most of the occupations listed are traditionally within the landscaping and engineering sector and utilize
similar techniques to address stormwater issues, though more sustainable water strate-
43
FIGURE 3.2 OCCUPATIONS IN STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
gies are designed to prevent and control stormwater runoff rather than simply diverting
it to stormwater drains. New skills for these traditional occupations include knowledge
of green roof design and installation, experience in working with new building materials
(e.g., permeable pavement), and familiarity with land-use planning, site design, slope,
and drainage.
Several studies have sought to quantify the jobs created through sustainable stormwater management projects (see table 3.4). A recent analysis found that four stormwater
44
projects in Los Angeles generated 13.8 jobs per $1 million invested, with average wages
of $52,800. An estimated 73 percent of workers involved in these projects lived within
the county, an indication of the local economic activity that these projects can generate. Likewise, stormwater projects in the District of Columbias green roofs initiative
produced 19.7 jobs for every $1 million invested. A prospective analysis of proposed investments in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, nds that committing $1.6 billion over the next
twenty years will create over 8,600 jobs, or about 5.3 jobs per $1 million invested (BUCIP
2010).
However, there is one caveat to mention in these economic and job impacts. Estimates
show promising overall workforce growth, but the anticipated demand for entry-level
work in stormwater projects is lower than in other sectors. Professional services such as
architectural and engineering services, nancial institutions, and scientic and technical consulting tend to benet from these economic impacts, while the construction services experience disproportionately low growth (Burns and Flaming 2011; BUCIP 2010).
Restoring and Remediating Ecosystems

Ecological restoration is the process of returning the chemical, physical, and biological
components of a degraded ecosystem to a close approximation of predisturbance conditions. Environmental remediationa subset of restorationis the process of targeted
removal of specic toxic substances or pollutants from soil or water. Whereas restoration generally focuses on returning an ecosystem to its natural state, remediation targets
lands contaminated with substances harmful to human health and the environment.
T A B L E 3.4 Jobs per $1 Million Invested in Stormwater Management Projects
Total Employment
(Jobs per $1 Million
Project Type
Invested)
Units and Methods
Source
Washington, DC, green

roofs initiative
19.65
Total jobs based on total green

roof area covered, in square feet
American Rivers
and Alliance for
Water Efciency
(2008)
National investment in
green stormwater
infrastructure
10
Modeled total jobs (direct/

indirect/induced) using
macroeconomic and spending
multiplier
Green for All et al.

(2011)
Operation and
maintenance budget of
four stormwater
projects in Los Angeles
13.8

indirect/induced) using IMPLAN
system 2009 data and 2011
software
Burns and
Flaming (2011)
Montgomery County,
Maryland, stormwater
system construction
10.8
Montgomery County expects to

employ 3,300 for a three-year
project
Chesapeake Bay
Foundation
(2011)
Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania,
stormwater investment
5.3

system over next twenty years
BUCIP (2010)
45
Restoration can improve water quality and aquatic ecosystem health and can be
achieved using both natural and articial techniques. The EPA has identied three restoration techniques that deal with water quality (US EPA 1995):
1. In-stream techniques applied within the water system. For example,
streams that have been channeled can be restored to achieve more natural geometry, meander, sinuosity, substrate composition, structural complexity, aeration, and stream bank stability.
2. Riparian techniques applied to the land area surrounding or bordering
the water system. This can include planting of native riparian vegetation
or construction of fencing to protect delicate riparian plants.
3. Upland or surrounding watershed techniques designed to reduce non
point source pollution from upstream lands within the watershed.
Although they are integral aspects of environmental restoration, techniques used for
upland or surrounding watershed zones are cataloged here under stormwater management and agricultural efciency. Table 3.5 lists some examples of in-stream and riparian
restoration techniques.
Removal of contaminants in remediation projects can also be important, especially in
aquatic systems, where pollutant transport is a risk. As shown in table 3.6, a wide range
of techniques can be used to remediate groundwater and surface water, including phytoremediation, in which plants are used to absorb harmful contaminants, and installation
of permeable reactive barriers, in which membranes are used to capture or treat groundwater contaminant plumes. Another important aspect of environmental remediation is
the use of new technologies to characterize and monitor contamination (US EPA 2012c).
The work of restoration and remediation planning and design involves various technical assessments, coordinated planning, permitting, ecological research, design, and cost
estimation. Planning and assessment activities include the review of aerial photographs,
topographic maps, and results from soil tests and borings and engagement with regulatory
T A B L E 3.5 Restoration Techniques

)N STREAM
s 3TREAMBED RECONlGURATION
s 2ESTORATION OF NATURAL MEANDER PATTERNS
s $AYLIGHTING OF URBAN CREEKS FROM STORMWATER SEWERS
s 2OOT WADTREE REVETMENTS
s ,IVE STAKES LIVE FASCINES BRUSH MATTRESSES BRANCH PACKINGS BRUSH LAYERING
vegetated geogrids, and live cribwalls
s #HANNEL DEmECTORS AND CHANNEL CONSTRICTORS
s "OULDER CLUSTERS
s ,OG DROP STRUCTURES
s 2EMOVAL OF ARTIlCIAL STRUCTURES
2IPARIAN
s 7ETLAND RESTORATION
s 2ESTORATION OF RIPARIAN CORRIDOR VEGETATION
s ,EVEE SETBACKS OR REMOVAL
s #ONTROL OF TIMING LOCATION AND EXTENT OF WATER DIVERSIONS
s #ONSTRUCTION OF FENCES AND GATES IN RIPARIAN CORRIDOR TO CONTROL ACCESS
Source: US EPA (1995).
46
agencies and stakeholders (NOAA, n.d.). Design of restoration projects typically entails
the application of engineering, landscape architecture, river ecology, and expertise in
geomorphology. Cost estimates are developed using standardized unit material and labor costs and regional or municipal multipliers. The construction phase of restoration
and remediation projects is typically labor-intensive and involves some use of heavy machinery. In-stream and riparian restoration is typically implemented with a mix of hand
labor and heavy machinery for digging and bank alteration.
A large number of occupations are involved in restoration and remediation activities
(gure 3.3). Workers in these occupations range from the environmental and civil engineers who develop designs to sales representatives and truck drivers who sell and deliver
products, to scientists with expertise in river systems and aquatic ecology, to masons
and laborers who construct the projects. Workers in newer occupations, such as browneld redevelopment specialists and conservation technicians, also have skills required
for these projects.
The number of jobs created by restoration and remediation projects is highly variable,
ranging from about 15 to 72 total jobs per $1 million invested (table 3.7). For example,
$10.6 million spent on restoring the Cache River basin in Illinois generated approximately 36 jobs for each $1 million invested (Caudill 2008). This includes 22 workers directly
employed in the project and an additional 14 indirect and induced jobs, according to a
study commissioned by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. About half of the direct jobs
and 85 percent of the indirect and induced jobs were created locally in the four counties
where the project took place. Likewise, dam removal on Ohios Euclid Creek cost more
than $500,000 and generated 38 jobs, or 72 jobs per $1 million invested.
Studies have found that the number of jobs created can vary depending on how much
labor-intensive or equipment-intensive work must be done. For instance, a study by the
University of Oregons Institute for a Sustainable Environment estimates that direct employment in equipment-intensive watershed contracting is only 4.8 jobs per $1 million
invested because labor is a relatively small proportion of total spending (36 percent) and
worker payroll costs are relatively high (about $55,000 per job). By contrast, direct employment in labor-intensive projects is 13.8 jobs per $1 million, with labor making up 67
percent of spending and payroll costs averaging $31,000 per job, resulting in more and
lower-wage jobs (Nielsen-Pincus and Moseley 2010).
T A B L E 3.6 Remediation Techniques
Extraction or removal
techniques
s
s
-ULTIPHASE EXTRACTION
.ATURAL ATTENUATION
Containment techniques
%VAPOTRANSPIRATION COVERS
In situ treatment techniques
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
4HERMAL TREATMENT
&LUSHING
/XIDATION
!IR SPARGING
0ERMEABLE REACTIVE BARRIERS
0HYTOTECHNOLOGIES
'ROUNDWATER CIRCULATING WELLS
.ANOTECHNOLOGY
.ATURAL ATTENUATION
FIGURE 3.3 OCCUPATIONS IN RESTORATION AND REMEDIATION
48
T A B L E 3.7 Jobs per $1 Million Invested in Restoration and Remediation Projects

Total Employment
Project Type
Invested)
Units and Methods
Source
Cache River restoration in

Illinois
36
Caudill (2008)
Includes direct jobs
recorded in project
reports and modeled
indirect and induced jobs
Everglades restoration
20
Everglades
Modeled total jobs
(direct/indirect/induced) Foundation (2010),
125
using generic Sector 36
national multipliers
In-stream restoration
projects in Oregon
14.7
Nielsen-Pincus
Modeled total jobs
(direct/indirect/induced) and Moseley
using data from survey of (2010)
grants and contractors
Riparian restoration
projects in Oregon
23.1
Nielsen-Pincus
Modeled total jobs
Wetlands restoration
projects in Oregon
17.6
Nielsen-Pincus
Modeled total jobs
Restoration of four rivers

in Massachusetts
1013
Modeled total jobs

(direct/indirect/induced)
using generic state-level
multipliers
Massachusetts
Department of
Fish and Game
(2012)
Removal of two dams near

Watervliet, Michigan
19
Total jobs noted in

project summary
Great Lakes
Coalition (2012)
Removal of dam on Euclid

Creek in Ohio
72.2
Jobs noted in project

summary; may not be
full-time equivalents
Gershman and
Alexander (2012)
Developing Alternative Water Sources

Traditional water sources include rivers, lakes, and groundwater, as well as articial reservoirs created by dams. In the past few years, however, alternative water sources have
begun to play an increasingly important role in supplementing water systems where
traditional sources have become harder or more expensive to develop. Such alternative
sources include a range of unconventional supplies, such as rainwater, stormwater, grey
water, and reclaimed water. Projects to capture these alternative water sources can be
implemented by a water utility or at the facility level by households or businesses. For
the purposes of this report, this strategy focuses on activities at the utility scale; other actions at the site level, such as rainwater harvesting and grey water reuse, are captured in
49
other strategies. We also describe conjunctive use, or aquifer storage and recovery (ASR),
as a means of storing these alternative sources for later use.
Broadly, water reuse refers to the process of treating and reusing wastewater for a benecial purpose. Potential uses include agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial
processing and cooling, domestic uses, dust control, construction activities, concrete
mixing, articial lakes, replenishment of groundwater basins (referred to as groundwater
recharge, discussed in more detail below), and even direct potable reuse in some circumstances. Treatment levels can be tailored for the intended purpose and the level of
human contact, which can help save money and energy when the quality does not have
to meet drinking water standards. Water can be distributed from a wastewater treatment
facility or treated and reused directly on-site (such as at a home or an industrial facility).
Techniques to treat and reuse grey water on-site are discussed in the urban water conservation and efciency strategy.
A growing number of communities across the United States are already beginning to
move in the direction of encouraging and expanding the use of reclaimed water. According to the EPAs Clean Watersheds Needs Survey, an investment of approximately $4.4
billion is needed to build, rehabilitate, or replace infrastructure for distribution of reclaimed water (American Rivers et al. 2012). In 2004, the EPA estimated total wastewater
reuse in the United States at 1.7 billion gallons per day and growing at a rate of 15 percent
per year. The same report estimates that 32 billion gallons of wastewater are produced
each day, of which 12 billion gallons per day are discharged directly into an ocean or estuary. Portions of these ows could be made available for reuse (US EPA 2004).
Alternative sources can be captured and stored underground for later use. The term
conjunctive use describes the coordinated use of groundwater and surface water to
optimize supply and storage. When surface water supplies are plentiful, they can be used
instead of groundwater or to recharge groundwater basins. Also known as aquifer storage
and recovery (ASR), this technique can recharge groundwater through surface spreading, inltration pits and basins, or subsurface injection. This practice not only increases
the availability of water when it is most needed but also can add an additional treatment step; reduce evaporation and evapotranspiration, as compared with surface storage; and enhance the sustainability of groundwater storage by preventing subsidence.
The EPA is aware of 1,203 aquifer recharge and ASR injection wells that are capable of
operating; however, it is unclear how much water is injected into these wells each year
(US EPA 2009).
Multiple activities are involved throughout the process of developing alternative water supply sources.4 Research and development includes the development of new membranes with higher recovery rates and sensors that can provide real-time water quality
readings. Manufacturing and distribution involves production and delivery of all of the
products used throughout the process, including membranes, chemicals, and pumps.
The planning phase can be extensive and can include a technical analysis of existing water supply conditions and future needs. Construction of treatment and storage facilities
includes grading and paving the site and constructing the buildings. Ongoing operation
and maintenance work is needed to ensure compliance with treatment requirements
and to read meters, replace membranes, and repair the system.
4. The focus of this section is utility-scale alternative water supplies. Grey water systems are included as an
urban water efciency strategy.
50
Figure 3.4 summarizes the many occupations engaged in developing alternative water supplies throughout the development process. The planning phase, for example, employs environmental engineers, hydrologists, landscape architects, urban planners, and
other highly skilled professionals. Facilities and water and sewage operations staff are
responsible for ongoing operations and maintenance.
Studies of the number of jobs generated by alternative water supply projects are limited. Table 3.8 is based on several case studies in Los Angeles County, where major investments have been made in recycled water and groundwater facilities (Burns and Flaming
2011). These case studies suggest the creation of roughly 10 to 14 jobs per $1 million
invested. For example, the design and installation of recycled water projects produced
more than 12 jobs per $1 million invested, including 6.6 direct jobs, 2.3 indirect jobs, and
3.7 induced jobs. Most of the direct work was performed by companies located in the
area. Likewise, groundwater remediation projects in Los Angeles generated 12.8 jobs per
$1 million invested.
Improving Agricultural Water Efciency and Quality

Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in the nation, and while great advances in
water efciency in this sector have been made, additional gains are available through implementation of improved water management techniques (Christian-Smith and Gleick
2012). These practices are meant to reduce water waste and, in some cases, improve crop
quality and yield. They include improving irrigation technologies and scheduling, reducing erosion, lining canals, increasing pump efciency, restoring riparian areas, recycling
tailwater on-farm, and constructing spill reservoirs at the water supplier scale.
Practices such as these can help reduce on-farm water use as well as improve water
quality. Farmers are constantly implementing new technologies and management practices to improve their products. In many cases, water savings are a cobenet of practices
that are meant to decrease input costs or improve crop quality. Precision irrigation, in
particular, has been shown to do both. And, according to the Census of Agriculture, ood
irrigation declined by 5 percent nationwide between 2003 and 2008, replaced by more
precise sprinkler and drip irrigation. Nevertheless, 39 percent of irrigated land nationwide is still ood irrigated, and there is signicant room for improvement in all areas of
agricultural water management. The 2007 Census of Agriculture found that at least 23
percent of farms and ranches surveyed utilized conservation methods such as no-till or
conservation tillage, runoff collection or ltration, fencing of animals from streams, and
other practices (NASS 2007). Agricultural runoff is also a major source of pollution of surface water and groundwater, and thus conservation practices designed to reduce runoff
can also contribute to improved water quality and ecosystem health.
Agricultural efciency and runoff management is designed to improve the productivity of agricultural water use and water quality through more efcient irrigation management techniques, such as irrigation scheduling, tailwater recycling, drip irrigation, and
conservation tillage (see table 3.9). Figure 3.5 shows some of the occupations associated
with this strategy. We note, however, that thus far little attention has been given to the
number and types of jobs related to improved agricultural water management. Additional research and analysis are needed to develop a more comprehensive list.
Installation and operation and maintenance are the two most labor-intensive phases of the process. Installation can entail trenching, piping, earthmoving, and installing
51
FIGURE 3.4 OCCUPATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE WATER SOURCES
pumps, water lters, water meters, water control devices, and irrigation equipment. A
majority of this work is performed by construction laborers and agricultural technicians.
In order for these technologies to work effectively, operation and maintenance must be
performed regularly by maintenance and repair workers, agricultural inspectors, and
service repair workers. Irrigation systems are often installed by construction crews, typi-
T A B L E 3.8 Jobs per $1 Million Invested in Alternative Water Supply Projects

Total Employment
Project Type
Invested)
Units and Methods
Source
Eighteen recycled
water design and
installation projects in
Los Angeles and
surrounding region
12.5

software
Burns and
Flaming (2011)
Operation and
maintenance of two
recycled water projects
9.8

software
Burns and
Flaming (2011)
Two groundwater
remediation design
and installation
projects
12.8

software
Burns and
Flaming (2011)
Operation and
maintenance of
Tujunga Welleld
Liquid Phase Granular
Activated Carbon
Project Two
13.9

software
Burns and
Flaming (2011)
T A B L E 3.9 Agricultural Water Management Techniques

Agricultural water
efciency
techniques
s )MPROVING IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

s )MPROVING IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY EG SPRINKLER AND DRIP IRRIGATION
systems)
s ,INING CANALS AND EMPLOYING OTHER SEEPAGE CONTROL OPTIONS
s 2ECYCLING TAILWATER ON FARM
s )NCREASING PUMP EFlCIENCY
s #ONSTRUCTING SPILL RESERVOIRS AND CONDUCTING DISTRICT REOPERATION TO
reduce water waste
s 5TILIZING MULCHING AND OTHER TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE SOIL WATER
holding capacity
s #APTURING STORMWATER mOWS FOR LATER USE EG ON FARM PONDS FOR FROST
and heat control and irrigation)
Agricultural water
quality
improvement
techniques
s
s
s
s
s
0LANTING COVER CROPS

#ONSTRUCTING FENCING AROUND WATER BODIES AND STREAMS
5TILIZING CONSERVATION TILLAGE OR NO TILL
2ESTORING RIPARIAN ZONES OR CONSTRUCTING BUFFER ZONES
)MPROVING IRRIGATION SCHEDULING AND USING TECHNOLOGY THAT REDUCES
runoff
53
cally made up of a foreman and skilled laborers. The crews are often trained by the dealer
or contractor or by the water supplier and have very specic skill sets that are difcult
to nd. The labor-intensive components occur in implementing the installation and
operations stage, while the irrigation technologies dominate the business aspect of the
process. Other occupations essential to installation include precision agriculture technician, agricultural technician, purchasing agent, and buyer of farm products.
A recent analysis found that implementation of a range of agricultural best management practices would generate 14.6 jobs per $1 million invested (Rephann 2010). Re-
FIGURE 3.5 OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL WATER EFFICIENCY AND QUALITY
54
searchers found that if full implementation of agricultural practices outlined in the 2005
Commonwealth of Virginia Chesapeake Bay Nutrient and Sediment Reduction Tributary
Strategy were achieved, 11,751 person-years of employment would be created (Chesapeake Bay Foundation 2011). The majority of direct jobs generated would be in construction, construction-related services, and agricultural and forestry support industries. Additional indirect and induced jobs would be created in other industries.
An additional set of occupations that appear in multiple sustainable water strategies
are general roles that we did not include in the descriptions of different strategies. These
include the following:
Accountants and auditors
Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks
Building cleaning workers, all other
Business operations specialists, all other
Chief executives
Executive secretaries and administrative assistants
First-line supervisors and managers of ofce and administrative support
workers
General and operations managers
Human resources managers
Management analysts
Managers of ofce and administrative support workers
Marketing managers
Ofce and administrative support workers, all other
Ofce clerksgeneral
Public relations specialists
Receptionists and information clerks
Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive
Vocational education teachers, postsecondary

Occupations
Who is currently working in sustainable water occupations, and in what conditions?
Which of these occupations would be appropriate for focused efforts to increase opportunities for disadvantaged communities? These questions are key to identifying strategies that advance ecological preservation and address economic inequality. It is clear
from the previous section and other analyses that signicant jobs are created when many
types of sustainable water strategies are implemented. For these strategies to achieve the
goal of advancing economic equality, there must be sufcient opportunities and appro-
55
priate pathways for disadvantaged communities to access these opportunities (Moore

et al. 2013).
Our approach to identifying green job opportunities is to focus on jobs that are already growing in the overall economy, recognizing that we may be able to take action
to make them grow greener and faster. This is rooted in some important lessons from
past green job efforts. Much of the previous investment in green jobs went into preparing workers for occupations that were green and entirely new, such as solar installers
and energy auditors, yet the demand for graduates of these programs fell short. Because
these workers were not prepared with a broader set of skills that qualied them for conventional occupations, they were left with limited options for employment. We follow the
Center on Wisconsin Strategy (White et al. 2012) and others who recognize that all occupations will likely change as sustainable strategies reshape the tasks they carry out, but
the priority for training new workers should be on green skills embedded in a broader set
of skills for growing occupations. Our analysis to identify sustainable water occupations
that are more opportune is guided by the following questions:
Which sustainable water occupations are expected to have signicant
future growth beyond any growth in the water-related industries?
What level of education and experience is required to gain employment
in these occupations?
What are the wages and the level of union representation in these
occupations?
What are the demographics of the current workforce in sustainable water
occupations?
In which occupations are workers required to have unique skills in order
to be able to work on sustainable water projects?
What educational pathways and barriers may exist to workers from
disadvantaged communities seeking employment in these occupations?
We focus on occupations for which at least 100,000 job openings are projected for the
year 2020. This is the threshold used by the Occupational Information Network (O*NET)
for its Bright Outlook status.
The level of education and experience required for workers to access employment can
be a barrier or a pathway, depending on the accessibility of educational opportunities
that match time availability, language, cost, and prerequisites to the worker. The appropriate level of education and experience also depends on aspirations of the prospective
workers. An occupation that requires higher education may be completely appropriate
for a community college student setting a ten-year goal, whereas an adult parent with
little time to go back to school may be looking for a shorter pathway into an occupation
with family-supporting wages.
Twenty-seven sustainable water-related occupations have more than 100,000 job
openings projected for 2020 in the overall economy and have relatively accessible education and experience requirements consistent with job zones 1 through 3 as dened by
O*NET. Nine of these occupations require little or no previous work experience or education (job zone 1); eight require some experience and education (job zone 2); and ten
require experience and some formal education (job zone 3).
56
Of the twenty-seven sustainable water-related occupations with a high number of

projected openings, half have median wages above the national median wage of $16.57
per hour. Of those in job zone 1, the median hourly wage ranges from $10.50 to $14.50.
In job zone 2, median hourly wage ranges from the $11.50 earned by laborers and freight
movers to the $20 of operating engineers. Median wages of occupations in job zone 3
vary widely, with recreation workers and maintenance and repair workers earning $10.50
and $17, respectively, and business operations specialists and agricultural managers
earning more than $30 per hour.
Unionization in these occupations varies from the low 47 percent of farmworkers
and recreation workers to 20 percent of construction workers and plumbers. For the
management-level occupations, union representation is not applicable, but for occupations such as browneld site manager, business operations specialist, and rst-line
ofce supervisor, workers may be eligible for union representation. These latter three
occupations are notable because they have low union representation yet have among
the highest median hourly wages. The occupations with higher levels of union representation are also among those with extremely low percentages of female workers.
The gender makeup of the workforce in these sustainable water occupations suggests
a dividing line between clerical occupations and those that involve managerial or manual labor roles. For all but four of the fteen occupations for which worker demographic
data are available, the percentage of female workers is well below the national average of
47 percent. The four occupations with an above-average number of female workers are
ofce clerk; receptionist and information clerk; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing
clerk; and business specialist, all of which are at least two-thirds women.
The racial makeup of workers in sustainable water occupations ranges from the predominantly white agricultural managers to the disproportionately Latino and African
American laborers and truck drivers. Latino, African American, and Asian American
workers constitute 30 percent of US workers and make up a similar proportion of workers
in clerical occupations and carpenters. These workers are underrepresented in positions
as farmers, ranchers, and other agricultural managers (6 percent); general and operations
managers (17 percent); bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks (20 percent); electricians (22.5 percent); operating engineers and other construction equipment operators (22
percent); and business operations specialists (25 percent).
The underrepresentation of people of color working as agricultural managers and
general managers is concerning, given that these occupations are the two of the highestpaid sustainable water occupations that do not require advanced degrees. Agricultural
managers and general managers are projected to have 235,000 and 410,000 openings in
2020 and currently have median hourly wages of $31 and $45.75, respectively.
Ten sustainable water occupations are projected to have more than 100,000 job openings by 2020 and require higher education and experience consistent with job zones 4
and 5. These occupations tend to have higher median wages and lower percentages of
women, workers of color, and union representation than those requiring less education and training. Median hourly wages range from the $21 and $22 earned by executive secretaries and graphic designers to above $35 for sales representatives of wholesale
products and manufacturers of technical products, civil engineers, management analysts, and construction managers. Women represent less than half the national average
percentage of the workforce in positions as construction managers, cost estimators, and
civil engineers, and women are also underrepresented as chief executives and manage-
57
ment analysts. Union representation among these occupations is expectably low, considering that they are commonly management-level positions. Chief executives are the
only occupation categorized in job zone 5, requiring the highest level of education and
experience, and receive a median wage of $80 hourly.
Conclusions
The United States faces a complex set of water-related challenges that can be addressed
only with a greater commitment to invest in sustainable solutions. Failure to rise to this
challenge will leave crumbling infrastructure, contaminated waterways, and water shortages that threaten public health, economic growth, and ecosystems in myriad ways. Sustainable approaches take advantage of the potential for decentralized facilities; efcient
technologies; exible public, private, and community-based institutions; innovative
economics; and human capital. These solutions can be grouped into ve major strategies: urban water conservation and efciency, stormwater management, restoration and
remediation, alternative water sources, and agricultural water efciency and quality.
The types of jobs involved in implementing sustainable water strategies cover a broad
range of occupations. Our full analysis (Moore et al. 2013) identied 136 occupations
involved in the work of achieving more sustainable water outcomes in agriculture, urban residential and commercial settings, restoration and remediation, alternative water
sources, and stormwater management.
The extent of employment created by sustainable water practices is substantial. The
data available point to 1015 jobs per $1 million invested in alternative water supplies;
520 in stormwater management; 1222 in urban conservation and efciency; 14.6 in
agricultural efciency and quality; and 1072 jobs per $1 million invested in restoration
and remediation. The view that environmental conservation produces net job losses is
not supported by any of the data on sustainable water projects.
The potential for job creation through implementation of sustainable water strategies
has been largely ignored by policy makers, scholars, and practitioners, with the efforts on
green jobs mostly limited to energy efciency and renewable energy activities. This has
left a gap in understanding and action on these opportunities.
Many of the occupations involved in sustainable water projects are also projected to
have high demand in the overall economy. Thirty-seven sustainable water occupations
are projected in the overall economy to have more than 100,000 job openings by 2020.
Workers trained to advance water sustainability in these occupations will likely experience high demand and have the competitive edge of holding green skills. The high number of workers who will move into these occupations also means that there may be a
growing demand for occupational training, creating an opportunity to train a new generation with the green skills that will make their sector more sustainable.
Numerous sustainable water occupations are accessible to workers without advanced
degrees. Twenty-seven of the thirty-seven occupations projected to have 100,000 job
openings by 2020 generally require on-the-job training, with some requiring previous
experience and associates degrees or technical training but not graduate degrees. This
translates to a more feasible pathway to employment for adults without formal education beyond high school.
While data are limited, the existing training and education programs preparing work-
58
ers with the skills needed in sustainable water elds appear nascent and small in scale.
Conventional educational and job training resources such as community colleges and
union apprenticeships are only beginning to integrate green skills into their water-related
occupational training. And the link to disadvantaged communities is even more tenuous. Our analysis identied fewer than a dozen independent nonprot organizations in
the United States that are providing disadvantaged communities with job training and
certication for sustainable water-related careers.
Existing programs linking disadvantaged communities to sustainable water opportunities face multiple challenges in designing and implementing programs, meeting the
scale of need, and placing program graduates. Programs have difculty matching training to actual labor demand for particular occupations and skills. Certications and licensing related to sustainable water occupations too often are accepted in too small a
geographic area or too narrow an industry to provide workers and employers with the
needed level of condence in their value.
Existing training programs have also developed promising strategies for connecting
disadvantaged communities to sustainable water jobs. Hybrid models that both train
and hire workers through coordinated business and nonprot branches have found
greater success in placing graduates and maintaining stable funding. Organizations with
contracts to provide operation and maintenance services for public and private entities have also found a more stable source of funding and practical work experience for
participants. However, training programs are unlikely to achieve substantial economic
improvements for disadvantaged communities unless they are coupled with policy that
increases and targets demand for new workers.
Recommendations
The research points to several action areas in research, policy, and community organizing that would facilitate greater opportunities in sustainable water jobs. These opportunities can best be understood, planned for, and taken advantage of with future efforts
that consider the following recommendations.
Improve and Expand Data Collection and Research

Agencies managing state revolving funds and other state and federal funding programs
should require grantees and loan recipients to submit information on job types and
numbers using a template aligned with standard occupational codes.
Models for nancing the ongoing operation and maintenance of sustainable water
projects must be developed, piloted, and rened to ensure that desired environmental
and economic outcomes are sustained. This research should start with the lessons of
leading efforts at the local scale, such as those related to stormwater in Portland and
Philadelphia.
Workforce development and training organizations must increase their capacity to
track and evaluate job placement and other program outcomes to strengthen the feedback loop that will improve programming and broader understanding of best practices.
Economic research projecting job generation of sustainable water projects should incorporate data on the occupations and types of rms specic to these projects, as in some
cases they differ signicantly from those involved in conventional water project industries.
59
Integrate Sustainable Job Priorities into Policy and Planning

Water utilities, state water agencies, planning departments, and other public entities
funding and managing sustainable water projects should implement high-road strategies that consider job quality, training, and targeted hiring as an integral component of
project design and implementation. This should include local hiring and minority hiring requirements and incentives that increase contracting with and hiring of individuals
from local and disadvantaged communities.
Considering the strong interdependence between water and energy use, policy and
workforce efforts to take advantage of the win-win solutions at this nexus should be
strengthened.
Better planning for and investment in nancing of the ongoing operation and maintenance of sustainable water projects is needed to ensure that the maximum environmental and employment benets are realized.
Support Community Programs and Partnerships

Unions, community-based organizations, and environmental advocates should join together in envisioning and promoting policies and funding programs that incorporate
high-road work opportunities into sustainable water projects.
Workforce development and training organizations must build stronger partnerships
with unions and employers to ensure that training is well aligned with emerging occupations and skill sets, and they must increase placement rates for program participants.
Training programs seeking to improve access of disadvantaged communities to sustainable water jobs should focus on occupations that are projected to have high labor
demand in the overall economy. Data on the labor demand generated by sustainable
water projects alone is not robust enough to justify training workers for these jobs unless
their training will also prepare them to qualify for conventional occupations in demand.
Partnerships between industry associations, labor unions, and training programs are
needed to develop, deliver, and evaluate and update standardized training and certication that reects actual skills needed and that is accessible to disadvantaged communities. This should include the creation of a centralized, up-to-date clearinghouse of training curriculum and certication standards.
References
Alliance for Water Efciency. 2008. Transforming Water: Water Efciency as Stimulus and LongTerm Investment. Position Paper. December 4. Chicago: Alliance for Water Efciency.
American Rivers and Alliance for Water Efciency. 2008. Creating Jobs and Stimulating the
Economy through Investment in Green Water Infrastructure. http://www.americanrivers.org
/assets/pdfs/green-infrastructure-docs/green_infrastructure_stimulus_white_paper
_nal.pdf (accessed August 16, 2013).
American Rivers, Water Environment Federation, American Society of Landscape Architects, and
ECONorthwest. 2012. Banking on Green: A Look at How Green Infrastructure Can Save
Municipalities Money and Provide Economic Benets Community-wide. http://www.asla
.org/uploadedFiles/CMS/Government_Affairs/Federal_Government_Affairs/Banking
onGreen HighRes.pdf.
Burns, P., and D. Flaming. 2011. Water Use Efciency and Jobs. Los Angeles: Economic Roundtable.
http://www.lacountycleanwater.org/les/managed/Document/487/Water Use Efciency %26
Jobs.pdf.
60
Business United for Conservation Industry Partnership (BUCIP). 2010. Capturing the Storm:
Prots, Jobs, and Training in Philadelphias Stormwater Industry. Philadelphia, PA: Sustainable
Business Network of Greater Philadelphia. http://www.sbnphiladelphia.org/images
/uploads/Capturing the Storm - BUC Needs Assessment.pdf.
Caudill, J. 2008. The Economic Impacts of Restoration and Conservation-Related Expenditures:
The Cache River Watershed in Southern Illinois. Arlington, VA: US Fish and Wildlife Service,
Division of Economics, Census of Agriculture.
Chesapeake Bay Foundation. 2011. Debunking the Job Killer Myth: How Pollution Limits
Encourage Jobs in the Chesapeake Bay Region. Annapolis, MD: Chesapeake Bay Foundation.
http://www.cbf.org/document.doc?id=1023.
Christian-Smith, J., and P. H. Gleick, eds. 2012. A Twenty-First Century U.S. Water Policy. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Crompton, J. L. 2005. The impact of parks on property values: Empirical evidence from the past
two decades in the United States. Managing Leisure 10 (4): 203218.
Everglades Foundation. 2010. Measuring the Economic Benets of Americas Everglades
Restoration: An Economic Evaluation of Ecosystem Services Afliated with the Worlds Largest
Ecosystem Restoration Project. Report prepared by Mather Economics. http://everglades.3cdn
.net/8edd03d0943ae993fe_e0m6i4gx2.pdf (accessed August 16, 2013).
Gershman, D., and J. Alexander. 2012. Cleveland Great Lakes Restoration Projects Producing
Results for People, Communities. Ann Arbor, MI: Great Lakes Coalition. http://healthylakes
.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Cleveland-Success-Stories-20121.pdf (accessed December
2012).
Gleick, P. H. 2002. Soft water paths. Nature 418:373.
Gleick, P. H., H. Cooley, and D. Groves. 2005. California Water 2030: An Efcient Future. Oakland,
CA: Pacic Institute.
Gleick, P. H., D. Haasz, C. Henges-Jeck, V. Srinivasan, G. Wolff, K. Cushing, and A. Mann. 2003. Waste
Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California. Oakland, CA: Pacic
Institute.
Great Lakes Coalition. 2012. Great Lakes Restoration Projects: Producing Results for People,
Communities. Douglas, MI: Great Lakes Coalition. http://healthylakes.org/wp-content
/uploads/2012/02/2012-Success-Stories.pdf (accessed December 2012).
Green for All, American Rivers, Economic Policy Institute, and Pacic Institute. 2011. Water Works:
Rebuilding Infrastructure, Creating Jobs, Greening the Environment. Oakland, CA: Green for
All. http://greenforall.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Green-for-All-Water
-Works.pdf.
Greenroofs.com. 2012. International Greenroof and Greenwall Projects Database. http://www
.greenroofs.com/projects/plist.php (accessed November 2012).
Heberger, M. 2012. Australias millennium drought: Impacts and responses. In The Worlds Water:
The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, edited by P. H. Gleick, 7:97126. Washington, DC:
Island Press.
Jelks, H. L., S. J. Walsh, N. M. Burkhead, S. Contreras-Balderas, E. Daz-Pardo, D. A. Hendrickson,
J. Lyons, N. E. Mandrak, F. McCormick, J. S. Nelson, S. P. Platania, B. A. Porter, C. B. Renaud,
J. J. Schmitter-Soto, E. B. Taylor, and M. L. Warren Jr. 2008. Conservation status of imperiled
North American freshwater and diadromous shes. Fisheries 33 (8): 372406.
Lerner, S. 1997. Eco-Pioneers: Practical Visionaries Solving Todays Environmental Problems.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Massachusetts Department of Fish and Game. 2012. The Economic Impacts of Ecological
Restoration in Massachusetts. Boston: Massachusetts Department of Fish and Game, Division
of Ecological Restoration. http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/dfg/der/pdf/economic-impacts
-ma-der.pdf.
Mayer, P. W., W. B. DeOreo, and D. M. Lewis. 2000. Seattle Home Water Conservation Study: The
Impacts of High Efciency Plumbing Fixture Retrots in Single-Family Homes. Report prepared for Seattle Public Utilities and US Environmental Protection Agency. Boulder, CO:
Aquacraft.
Moore, E., H. Cooley, J. Christian-Smith, K. Donnelly, K. Ongoco, and D. Ford. 2013. Sustainable
Water Jobs: A National Assessment of Water-Related Green Job Opportunities. Oakland, CA:
Pacic Institute. http://www.pacinst.org/reports/sustainable_water_jobs/.
National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). 2007. 2007 Census of Agriculture. United States
Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. http://www.agcensus
.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Full_Report/usv1.pdf.
61
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). n.d. Streams and Rivers Restoration.
NOAA Habitat Conservation Restoration Center. http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/restoration
/techniques/srrestoration.html (accessed September 7, 2012).
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC). 2010. Climate Change, Water, and Risk: Current Water
Demands Are Not Sustainable. Report prepared by Tetra Tech. New York: Natural Resources
Defense Council. http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/watersustainability/les/WaterRisk
.pdf.
Nielsen-Pincus, M., and C. Moseley. 2010. Economic and Employment Impacts of Forest and
Watershed Restoration in Oregon. Eugene: University of Oregon, Institute for a Sustainable
Environment. http://ewp.uoregon.edu/sites/ewp.uoregon.edu/les/downloads/WP24.pdf
(accessed May 15, 2012).
Queensland Water Commission. 2010. Annual Report 201011. City East, Queensland, Australia:
Queensland Water Commission. http://www.dews.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_le/0016
/31471/qwc-annual-report-1011.pdf (accessed May 2, 2013).
Rephann, T. J. 2010. Economic Impacts of Implementing Agricultural Best Management Practices
to Achieve Goals Outlined in Virginias Tributary Strategy. Charlottesville: University of
Virginia, Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service, Center for Economic and Policy Studies.
http://www.cbf.org/document.doc?id=467.
Treuhaft, S., A. G. Blackwell, and M. Pastor. 2011. Americas Tomorrow: Equity Is the Superior
Growth Model. Oakland, CA: PolicyLink. http://www.policylink.org/atf/cf/%7B97c6d565
-bb43-406d-a6d5-eca3bbf35af0%7D/SUMMIT_FRAMING_WEB.PDF.
United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (US BLS). 2012a. Employment
Projections: Table 1.10, Replacement Needs, Projected 20102012. Washington, DC: US
Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_table_110
.htm.
. 2012b. A Prole of the Working Poor, 2010. Report 1035. Washington, DC: US Department
of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2010.pdf.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 1995. Ecological Restoration: A Tool to
Manage Stream Quality. EPA-841-F-95-007. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection
Agency, Ofce of Water. http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/archives/11.cfm.
. 2002. The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis. EPA-816-R-02-020.
Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce of Water. http://water.epa.gov
/aboutow/ogwdw/upload/2005_02_03_gapreport.pdf (accessed December 18, 2012).
. 2004. 2004 Guidelines for Water Reuse. EPA-625-R-04-108. http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl
/pubs/625r04108.html (accessed December 18, 2012).
. 2006. The Wadeable Streams Assessment: A Collaborative Survey of the Nations Streams.
EPA-841-B-06-002. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce of Research
and Development, Ofce of Water. http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/upload/2007
_10_25_monitoring_wsa_factsheet_10_25_06.pdf (accessed February 4, 2011).
. 2007. Watershed Assessment, Tracking, and Environmental Results System (WATERS).
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/datait/tools/waters/ (accessed August 9, 2013).
. 2008. Clean Watersheds Needs Survey 2008: Report to Congress. EPA-832-R-10-002. http://
water.epa.gov/scitech/datait/databases/cwns/upload/cwns2008rtc.pdf (accessed December
18, 2012).
. 2009. Class V Fact Sheet: Aquifer Recharge and Aquifer Storage and Recovery Wells. http://
water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/upload/fs_uic_class5_fact_sheet_on_aquifer_storage
_and_recovery_wells.pdf (accessed December 18, 2012).
. 2012a. Federal Regulatory Programs: Water; Green Infrastructure. June. http://water.epa
.gov/infrastructure/greeninfrastructure/gi_regulatory.cfm (accessed December 18, 2012).
. 2012b. Low Impact Development (LID). http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/green/.
. 2012c. Remediation Technologies: Tools and Resources to Assist in Contaminated Site
Remediation. Superfund. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/remedytech/remed.htm (accessed
December 18, 2012).
White, S., L. Dresser, and J. Rogers. 2012. Greener Reality: Jobs, Skills, and Equity in a Cleaner U.S.
Economy. Madison: Center on Wisconsin Strategy. http://www.cows.org/_data/docu
ments/1306.pdf.
C H A P T E R
Hydraulic Fracturing and

Water Resources
What Do We Know and Need to Know?
According to some energy analysts, natural gas is poised to enter a golden age as a result
of the availability and development of large volumes of new sources of unconventional
natural gas, including coal bed methane, tight gas, and shale gas. Historically, natural
gas production from unconventional reserves has been limited. In 2010, unconventional
natural gas accounted for about 14 percent of total global natural gas production. The
International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that by 2013 annual production from unconventional sources will triple and will represent about one-third of all natural gas
production (IEA 2012). While North America, especially the United States and Canada,
dominated unconventional gas production in 2010, growth in unconventional gas production is expected widely around the world (IEA 2012). China, in particular, is projected
to experience major increases in production, becoming the second-largest producer after the United States. While shale gas accounts for the vast majority of growth in natural
gas production, some growth is also projected for tight gas.
Natural gas is typically classied as conventional or unconventional. Conventional
natural gas is generally held as a pocket of gas beneath a rock layer with low permeability and ows freely to the surface once the well is drilled. By contrast, unconventional
natural gas is more difcult to extract because it is trapped in rock with very low permeability. Extracting natural gas from unconventional sources is more complex and costly
than conventional natural gas recovery. Technological improvements, however, have
made extraction from unconventional sources more economically viable in recent years.
In particular, the combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has greatly
increased the productivity of natural gas wells. These new techniques have also raised
concerns about the adverse environmental and social consequences of these practices,
especially effects on water resources.
To date, much of the debate about hydraulic fracturing has centered on the use of
chemicals and concerns that these chemicals could contaminate drinking water. In
response, numerous states have passed or are considering regulations requiring natural gas operators to disclose the chemicals used during well injection. Additionally, the
Groundwater Protection Council and the Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission
63
64
have established a public website that allows companies to voluntarily disclose water
and chemical usage for wells since January 2011 that have been hydraulically fractured,
although it is of note that these data are not subject to third-party verication and are
not in a format that can be searched or aggregated.
The debate has been particularly controversial in the United States, where the majority of unconventional natural gas development has been concentrated. To better identify and understand the key issues, the Pacic Institute conducted extensive interviews
with a diverse group of stakeholders, including representatives from state and federal
agencies, academia, industry, environmental groups, and community-based organizations from across the United States. This chapter provides a short summary of the key
issues identied in the interviews and in an initial assessment and synthesis of existing
research. It especially examines the impacts of hydraulic fracturing and unconventional
natural gas extraction on water resources and identies areas in which more information
is needed. More detail is available in the full report (Cooley and Donnelly 2012).
Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, refers to the process by which uid is injected into wells
under high pressure to create cracks and ssures in rock formations that improve the
production of these wells. These ssures can extend more than 300 meters (1,000 feet)
from the well (Veil 2010). The fracturing uid consists of water, chemical additives, and a
propping agent. The propping agenttypically sand, ceramic beads, or another incompressible materialholds open the newly created ssures to allow the natural gas to ow
more freely. In the rst few days to weeks after completion of the fracturing process, the
well pressure is released and some of the fracturing uid (referred to as owback) ows
back to the surface through the well bore. Some unknown volume of fracturing uid,
along with its chemical additives, remains underground. Over longer time periods, any
water naturally present in the ground (referred to as produced water) continues to ow
through the well to the surface. The owback and produced water, which can be considerably saltier than seawater and contain a variety of other contaminants (IOGCC and
ALL Consulting 2006), are typically stored on-site in tanks or pits before reuse, treatment,
or disposal. There are varying and conicting reports on whether and to what extent
wells will be fracked multiple times over their productive life (Nicot et al. 2011), although
this will likely depend on local geology, spacing of wells, and natural gas prices.
Hydraulic fracturing was rst developed in the early twentieth century but was not
commercially applied until the mid- to late 1940s. Although initially developed to improve the production of oil and gas wells, hydraulic fracturing has been used in other
applications, including development of drinking water wells (NHDES 2010), disposal
of wastes, and enhancement of electricity production from geothermal energy sources.
Hydraulic fracturing is standard practice for extracting natural gas from unconventional
sources, including coal beds, shale, and tight sands, and is increasingly being applied
to conventional sources to improve their productivity. While the process is the same,
the various applications of hydraulic fracturing differ in their water requirements, the
amount and types of chemicals employed, and the quantity and quality of wastewater
generated.
Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources
65
We note that there is no single denition of hydraulic fracturing. Some, including

industry representatives, dene hydraulic fracturing narrowly, referring only to the process by which uids are injected into a well bore. They argue that some of the challenges,
such as wastewater disposal, spills, and leaks, are common to all oil and gas operations
and therefore are not specically associated with hydraulic fracturing. Others, however,
dene the issue more broadly to include impacts associated with well construction and
completion, the hydraulic fracturing process itself, and well production and closure (US
EPA 2011c; ProPublica 2012). For these groups, hydraulic fracturing and unconventional
natural gas production are synonymous because hydraulic fracturing has allowed for the
development of these unconventional natural gas resources. Without hydraulic fracturing, shale gas production would be far more limited. For the purposes of this analysis, we
use a broader denition of hydraulic fracturing to include impacts associated with well
construction and completion, the hydraulic fracturing process itself, and well production and closure (Cooley and Donnelly 2012).

Operations
Hydraulic fracturing has generated a tremendous amount of controversy. There are daily media reports from outlets across the United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia,
France, England, and elsewhere about environmental, social, economic, and community impacts. In an effort to identify the key issues, the Pacic Institute interviewed sixteen
representatives of state and federal agencies, academia, industry, environmental groups,
and community-based organizations in the United States. Their responses are summarized in gure 4.1. Although the sample size was relatively small, the interviews were extensive, and the detailed responses from these diverse stakeholders are similar across
the spectrum and indicative of the broad range of concerns associated with hydraulic
fracturing raised in other forums.
All of the interviewees indicated that impacts on the availability and quality of water
resources were among the primary concerns associated with hydraulic fracturing operations. Water-related ndings of the interviews include the following:
Spills and leaks were the most commonly cited concern, with fourteen of
the sixteen people interviewed expressing concern.
Thirteen of the interviewees considered wastewater treatment and disposal
to be key challenges. One industry representative noted that wastewater
management was perhaps a larger issue than chemical usage.
Three-quarters of the interviewees were concerned about the water
requirements of hydraulic fracturing. This concern was not limited to
interviewees in the most arid regions; rather, it was expressed by people
working in various regions across the United States. In some cases, the
concern was directly related to the effects of large water withdrawals on
the availability of water for other uses. In other cases, concern was related
to how large withdrawals would affect water quality.
66

Number of Those Interviewed
FIGURE 4.1 KEY CONCERNS IDENTIFIED BY INTERVIEWEES

Note: Results are based on interviews with sixteen representatives of state and federal agencies,
academia, industry, environmental groups, and community-based organizations.
Nearly half of the interviewees explicitly identied water quality as a key

issue. Many of the other concerns mentioned, such as spills, leaks, and
wastewater management, also imply concern about water quality. One interviewee expressed concern about surface water contamination associated with air emissions.
Less than one-third of those interviewed specically identied chemical
usage and the associated risk of groundwater contamination as key issues,
although many more expressed concern about groundwater contamination more broadly. Some of the interviewees thought that with so much
attention given to chemical usage, inadequate attention is given to some of
the other issues, such as wastewater disposal and methane migration,
which may ultimately pose more serious risks.
One issue identied in our interviews that was not directly related to environmental impacts was the overall lack of information, with half of those
interviewed describing it as a key problem. Several commented on the
complexity of the issues and the difculty of explaining the technology to
the general public.
67
Water Challenges
In this section, we summarize the available information on the following key waterrelated concerns identied by those interviewed: (1) water withdrawals; (2) groundwater
contamination associated with well drilling and production; (3) wastewater management; (4) truck trafc and its impacts on water quality; (5) surface spills and leaks; and
(6) stormwater management. This information is largely drawn from a review of the academic and gray literature and from media reports. Our focus throughout this chapter is
on shale gas, although we discuss other unconventional natural gas sources for which
information is readily available. Here, we evaluate the impacts associated with well construction and completion, the hydraulic fracturing process itself, and well production
and closure.
Water Withdrawals
The drilling and fracking of a horizontal shale gas well uses large volumes of water, although the amount of water required is both variable and uncertain. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that fracturing of shale gas wells requires between 2.3 million and 3.8 million gallons of water per well (US EPA 2011c).1 An additional
40,0001,000,000 gallons is required to drill the well (GWPC and ALL Consulting 2009).
This is considerably more water than is required for conventional gas wells and even for
coal bed methane because the wells to access shale gas are deeper. Water requirements
for hydraulic fracturing of coal bed methane, for example, range from 50,000 to 350,000
gallons per well (US EPA 2011c), although we note that these estimates may be outdated
and may not include the application of more recent water-intensive processes.
New data, however, suggest that the water requirements for fracking of shale gas wells
might be both much larger and more variable than is reported by the EPA (table 4.1).
For example, Thomas Beauduy (2011) of the Susquehanna River Basin Commission nds
that fracking in the Marcellus Shale region requires, on average, about 4.5 million gallons
per well. Water requirements can be even greater within Texass Eagle Ford Shale area,
where fracking can use up to 13 million gallons of water per well (Nicot et al. 2011), with
additional water required to drill the wells. These data highlight the signicant variation
among shale formations, driven in part by differences in the depth to the target formation, even among wells within close proximity of one another (Nicot et al. 2011). Estimation of water requirements is further complicated by uncertainty about how many times
a single well will be fracked over the course of its productive life and by limited publicly
available data.
Water for hydraulic fracturing is typically withdrawn from one location or watershed
over several days (Veil 2010). Additionally, in some cases, the water is taken from remote, often environmentally sensitive headwater areas (Beauduy 2011, 34), where even
small withdrawals can signicantly affect the ow regime. As a result, while fracking may
account for a small fraction of a states or even a basins water supply, there can be more
severe local impacts. Additionally, much of the water injected underground either is not
1. While The Worlds Water volumes prefer to consistently use metric units, much of the research on water and
fracking discussed here is based on work done in the United States, so we have opted to report the original
units. For reference, one cubic meter contains 264.2 gallons. Additional conversion factors can be found in
the Water Units, Data Conversions, and Constants section near the end of this book.
68
T A B L E 4.1 Water Requirements for Hydraulic Fracturing by Shale Plays in Texas

Water Requirements (Gallons per Well)
Shale Play
Low Value
Median Value
High Value
Barnett Shale
Haynesville and Bossier Shales
Eagle Ford Shale
Woodford, Pearsall, and Barnett-PB Shales
< 1 million
< 1 million
1 million
< 1 million
2.6 million
5.56 million
66.5 million
0.751 million
> 8 million
> 10 million
13 million
< 5 million
Source: Estimated on the basis of data in Nicot et al. (2011).
recovered or is unt for further use once it is returned to the surface, usually requiring
disposal in an underground injection well. This water use represents a consumptive use
if it is not available for subsequent use within the basin from which it was extracted. In
some cases, water is treated and reused for subsequent fracking jobs, although this is still
fairly uncommon, and no national estimate on the prevalence of this practice is available
(US GAO 2012).
There is some evidence that the water requirements for hydraulic fracturing are already creating conicts with other uses and could constrain future natural gas production in some areas. For example, in Texas, a major drought in 2011 prompted water agencies in the region to impose mandatory reductions in water use. Water agencies, some
of which sold water to natural gas companies, indicated they might have to reconsider
these sales if the drought persisted. Natural gas companies also tried to purchase water
from local farmers, offering $9,500 to nearly $17,000 per million gallons of water (Carroll 2011). Likewise, at an auction of unallocated water in Colorado during the spring of
2012, natural gas companies successfully bid for water that had previously been largely
claimed by farmers, raising concerns among some about the impacts on agriculture in
the region and on ecosystems dependent on return ows (Finley 2012).
Concerns over water availability are not limited to drier climates. Pennsylvania is generally considered a relatively water-rich state. However, in August 2011, thirteen previously approved water withdrawal permits in Pennsylvanias Susquehanna River basin
were temporarily suspended because of low stream levels; eleven of these permits were
for natural gas projects (Susquehanna River Basin Commission 2011). While parts of the
state were abnormally dry, the basin was not experiencing a drought at the time, suggesting that natural gas operations are already creating conict with other water uses under
normal conditions. In many basins, the application of fracking is still in its infancy and
continued development could dramatically increase future water requirements and further intensify conicts with other uses.
While water withdrawals directly affect the availability of water for other uses, water withdrawals can also affect water quality. For example, withdrawals of large volumes
of water can adversely affect groundwater quality through a variety of means, such as
mobilizing naturally occurring substances, promoting bacterial growth, causing land
subsidence, and mobilizing lower-quality water from surrounding areas. Similarly, withdrawals from surface water can affect the hydrology and hydrodynamics of the source
water (US EPA 2011c), and reductions in the volume of water in a surface water body can
reduce the ability to dilute municipal or industrial wastewater discharges.
Given the proposed expansion of drilling in many regions, conicts between natural
gas companies and other users are likely to intensify. More and better data are needed on
69
the volume of water required for hydraulic fracturing and the major factors that determine the volume, such as well depth and the nature of the geologic formation. Additional
analysis is needed on the cumulative impacts of water withdrawals on local water availability, especially given that water for hydraulic fracturing can be a consumptive use of water. Finally, more research is needed to identify and address the impacts of these large water withdrawals on local water quality. This work must be done on a basin-by-basin level.
Groundwater Contamination Associated with Well Drilling

and Production
Groundwater contamination from shale gas operations can occur through a variety of
mechanisms. Natural gas is located at various depths, often (but not always) far below
underground sources of drinking water. A well bore, however, must sometimes be drilled
through these drinking water sources in order to access the gas. Chemicals and natural
gas can escape the well bore if it is not properly sealed and cased. While there are state
requirements for well casing and integrity, accidents and failures still occur, as was demonstrated by an explosion in Dimock Township, Pennsylvania (see box 4.1 for more information). Old, abandoned wells can also potentially serve as migration pathways (US EPA
2011b) for contaminants to enter groundwater systems. States have estimated that there
are roughly 150,000 undocumented and abandoned oil and gas wells in the United States
(IOGCC 2008). Natural underground fractures, as well as those potentially created during
the fracturing process, could also serve as conduits for groundwater contamination (Myers 2012). Finally, coal bed methane is generally found at shallower depths and in closer
proximity to underground sources of drinking water, and therefore accessing natural gas
from this source might pose a greater risk of contamination.
Much of the debate about groundwater contaminationand some of the most striking visual images showing water and burning natural gas coming out of home faucets
is related to reports of methane contamination in drinking water. Nearly 90 percent of
shale gas is composed of methane. A study in New York and Pennsylvania found that
methane levels in drinking water wells in active gas production areas (less than 1 kilometer, or about ve-eighths of a mile, from wells) were seventeen times higher than in those
outside of active gas production areas. An isotopic analysis of the methane suggests that
the methane in the active gas production areas originated from deep underground (Osborn et al. 2011).
Methane is not currently regulated in drinking water, although it can pose a public
health risk. Robert B. Jackson of Duke University and his colleagues (2011) note that
methane is not regulated in drinking water because it is not known to affect waters potability and does not affect its color, taste, or odor. Methane, however, is released from
water into the atmosphere, where it can cause explosions, res, asphyxiation, and other
health or safety problems. The 2009 New Years Day drinking water well explosion in Dimock, Pennsylvania, for example, was due to methane buildup associated with natural
gas production. The US Department of the Interior recommends taking mitigative action
when methane is present in water at concentrations exceeding 10 milligrams per liter
(mg/l) (Eltschlager et al. 2001). A recent study, however, notes that research on the health
effects is limited and recommends that an independent medical review be initiated to
evaluate the health effects of methane in drinking water and households (Jackson et al.
2011, 5).
BOX 4.1 Dimock Township, Pennsylvania

Dimock Township is located in northeastern Pennsylvanias Susquehanna
County, the heart of some of the most productive drilling areas in the Marcellus Shale play. On New Years Day in 2009, a residential water well in Dimock
exploded as a result of methane buildup in the well. Further investigation
found methane gas in drinking water wells and in the headspaces of drinking
water wells that provide water to local residents. These water wells were located near drilling wells owned and operated by Cabot Oil & Gas Corporation,
and in February 2009 the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) issued a notice of violation against the company, which stated
that Cabot had discharged natural gas, failed to properly cement casings, and
failed to prevent natural gas from entering fresh groundwater (PA DEP 2009).
Pennsylvania has what is called a rebuttable presumption for drinking water
pollution, whereby the oil and gas operator is assumed to be responsible for
drinking water pollution that occurs within 1,000 feet and within six months
of a drilling operation, unless the company can provide baseline data to refute
the claim. In the absence of baseline data, the company is required to replace
the water that has reportedly been lost or degraded (025 Pa. Code 78.51).
Cabot was ordered to install methane detectors in nine homes and provide
drinking water to four homes in the affected area (Lobins 2009).
The DEP conducted an investigation into the methane contamination
and determined that Cabot was responsible for polluting thirteen drinking
water wells, which was later revised to include an additional ve wells (PA
DEP 2010). Other violations were found, including several cases of improper
or insufcient casings and excessive borehole pressure. In November 2009,
the DEP entered into a consent order and settlement agreement with Cabot
that required the company to permanently restore or replace water supplies
for the affected homes and x any wells identied to have improper or insufcient casing (PA DEP 2009). Cabot was also ordered to cease drilling in the
area, and the company was later completely banned from fracking new or
existing wells until authorized by the DEP.
Six well owners signed agreements with Cabot and had water treatment
systems installed, including methane venting systems, although most were
still using bottled water because they lacked condence in the treatment systems. Twelve well owners refused to sign agreements with Cabot and took part
in a civil suit. Cabot continued to provide temporary water service to these
twelve homes. In October 2011, however, the DEP formally stated that Cabot
had fully complied with the consent order and was no longer required to
provide drinking water to Dimock residents (Legere 2011). The DEP allowed
Cabot to stop providing water to the twelve homes that had not installed the
water treatment systems because Cabot had provided a solution and the well
owners had been given sufcient time to sign the agreement (US EPA 2011a).
71
Despite a subsequent announcement in December 2011 from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that Dimock water was safe to drink, local
residents submitted results from their own testing, which indicated that the
water was polluted (McAllister and Gardner 2012). In January 2012, the EPA
began sampling water at sixty-four homes in the area and supplying drinking
water to four households that had shown elevated levels of contaminants that
pose a health concern (US EPA 2012a). Results of the testing indicated that
although ve homes showed elevated levels of arsenic, barium, and manganeseall naturally occurring substances not necessarily linked to fracking
the private wells did not have contaminant levels that posed a health concern
or exceeded the safe range for drinking water (US EPA 2012b). The EPAs testing also concluded that elevated levels of methane were present in some of the
wells, although Cabot disputes whether the methane resulted directly from
the drilling.
There is also signicant concern about groundwater contamination from hydraulic

fracturing uids, although limited data are available. According to draft reports released
in December 2011 and September 2012, however, EPA testing detected the presence of
chemicals commonly associated with hydraulic fracturing in drinking water wells in Pavillion, Wyoming (US EPA 2011b, 2012c). Encana Oil and Gas Inc., the company responsible for the natural gas wells, disputed the ndings of the study, criticizing the EPAs testing methods and assumptions as well as the processes used to construct the monitoring
wells and analyze the results (see box 4.2 for additional information).
Real analysis of the likelihood and extent of groundwater contamination is hindered
by a lack of baseline data and confusion about denitions. Without baseline data, it is
difcult to conrm or deny reports of groundwater contamination. In 2009, regulatory
ofcials submitted signed statements to the United States Congress asserting that there
were no conrmed cases of groundwater contamination associated with the hydraulic
fracturing process (NYSDEC 2011). Likewise, an American Petroleum Institute report
states that there are zero conrmed cases of groundwater contamination connected
to the fracturing operation in one million wells hydraulically fractured over the last 60
years (American Petroleum Institute 2010). Yet documented cases in Dimock, Pennsylvania; possibly in Pavillion, Wyoming; and elsewhere provide evidence of groundwater
contamination. In these cases, however, the contamination was associated with well casing integrity and wastewater disposal, not the process of injecting uids underground
per seand so the issue is clouded by denitions.
Wastewater Management
Natural gas drilling also produces liquid waste. After completion of the fracturing process, well pressure is released and some of the fracturing uid, along with naturally occurring substances, returns to the surface through the well bore. This mixture, commonly referred to as owback, returns to the surface over the course of several hours to weeks
72
after the fracturing process is completed (GWPC and ALL Consulting 2009). The amount
of fracturing uid that is actually recovered has not been well quantied and is likely to
be highly variable, depending on local formation characteristics. While various sources
quote estimates for the fracture uid recovery rate (Beauduy 2011; Hoffman 2010; US
EPA 2011c), a report by the Groundwater Protection Council (GWPC) and ALL Consulting (2009, 67) notes that it is not possible . . . to differentiate ow back water from natural formation water. Thus, these estimates are likely based on assumptions rather than
on actual data.
In addition to owback, natural gas operations may generate produced water. Produced water is any water that is present in a reservoir with the hydrocarbon resource
and is produced to the surface with the crude oil or natural gas (Veil et al. 2004, 1). Produced water can consist of natural formation water, that is, groundwater; naturally occurring substances, such as radioactive materials, metals, and salts; and even some residual fracturing uid. The physical and chemical properties of produced water depend
on the local geology (Veil et al. 2004). Flowback and produced water often have very high
levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), in some cases exceeding 200,000 mg/l (Kargbo et
al. 2010), nearly three times higher than seawater. In a recent report, the US Government
Accountability Ofce (US GAO 2012) found that the volume of produced water generated
by a given well varies depending on the type of hydrocarbon produced, the geographic
location of the well, and the method of production.
Wastewater resulting from natural gas production is temporarily stored in pits, embankments, or tanks at the well site and then transported, usually via pipeline or truck,
to a disposal site. Pits can lead to groundwater contamination, particularly if the pits
are unlined or if the integrity of the lining is compromised. In Pavillion, Wyoming, for
example, high concentrations of benzene, xylenes, and other organic compounds associated with gasoline and diesel were found in groundwater samples from shallow monitoring wells near pits (US EPA 2011b) (see box 4.2 for additional information on Pavillion,
Wyoming).
Wastewater from natural gas operations can be disposed of using a variety of methods. In most areas, the primary way to dispose of wastewater from natural gas operations
is by injection into a Class II well.2 In 1988, the EPA made a determination that oil and gas
waste is exempt from hazardous waste regulations under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1976. As a result, oil and gas wastes can be disposed of in Class II wells
rather than in Class I hazardous waste wells.3 Class II wells are subject to less stringent
requirements than are Class I wells, and therefore disposal in Class II wells presents a
greater risk of contaminating groundwater and triggering earthquakes than in Class I
wells (Hammer and VanBriesen 2012).
The EPA estimates that there are about 144,000 Class II wells in operation in the United
States, about 20 percent of which are disposal wells for brine and other uids from oil
and natural gas production. A Class II well might be an on-site well operated by the natural gas company or, more commonly, an off-site well operated by a commercial third
2. An injection well is a site where uids, such as water, wastewater, brine, or water mixed with chemicals, are
injected deep underground into porous rock formations, such as sandstone or limestone, or into or below the
shallow soil layer. Injection wells are used for long-term storage, waste disposal, enhancement of oil production, mining, and prevention of saltwater intrusion.
3. States can adopt more stringent regulations if desired.
BOX 4.2 Pavillion, Wyoming

The Pavillion gas eld is located in central Wyoming in the Wind River basin,
the upper portion of which serves as the primary source of drinking water for
the area. Oil and gas exploration began in the area in the 1950s and increased
dramatically between 1997 and 2006. The Pavillion gas eld is composed of a
mix of sandstone and shale; at the time of this writing, the eld had 169 vertical gas production wells. Encana Oil and Gas Inc. owns the rights to the Pavillion eld and began drilling in the area in 2004 after acquiring another drilling
company. Encana has not drilled any new wells since 2007 (US EPA 2011b).
In 2008, domestic well owners began complaining about taste and odor
problems, and residents believed these issues to be linked to nearby natural
gas activities. In response to complaints from local residents, the EPA initiated an investigation, collecting four rounds of water samples from thirty-ve
domestic wells and two municipal wells between 2009 and 2011. The EPA also
installed two deep monitoring wells in 2010 and took two rounds of samples
from each of these wells. According to a draft report released in December
2011, EPA testing found chemicals commonly associated with hydraulic fracturing in drinking water wells in the area (US EPA 2011b). The EPA also found
that concentrations of dissolved methane in the domestic wells were higher
near the gas production wells. The report concluded that nearby drilling activities had likely enhanced gas migration (US EPA 2011b).
Encana is disputing the EPAs preliminary ndings. According to Encana,
methane is commonly known to occur in the shallow groundwater aquifers in the area (Encana Oil and Gas Inc. 2011b) and is expected, given that
the Pavillion gas eld is also quite shallow (Encana Oil and Gas Inc. 2011a).
Furthermore, Encana argues that Pavillion has always had poor water quality,
referencing historical reports that levels of sulfate, total dissolved solids, and
pH commonly exceed state and federal drinking water standards (Encana
Oil and Gas Inc. 2011b). A 2011 report from the Wyoming Water Development
Commission conrms that Pavillions water is generally of poor quality and
has often had taste and odor problems. However, the Commission states that
nearly all of the private wells meet federal and state drinking water standards
(James Gores & Associates 2011). One of the challenges associated with the
EPAs analysis is that baseline data are not available to support claims about
impacts on groundwater quality.
Encana continues to dispute the ndings of the study, criticizing the EPAs
testing methods and assumptions as well as the processes used to construct
the monitoring wells and analyze the results (Gardner 2012). Although the
EPA has indicated its intention to submit the report to scientic review, the
comment period on the draft report has been extended several times, most
recently until September 2013, while the EPA collects and distributes new information and meets with stakeholders (Federal Register 2013).
74
party (Veil 2010). In some cases, wastewater receives partial treatment prior to disposal
to avoid clogging the well (Hammer and VanBriesen 2012).
With the proper safeguards, disposing of wastewater by underground injection reduces the risk of releasing wastewater contaminants into the environment; however, it
increases the risk of earthquakes and can require the transport of wastewater over long
distances (Hammer and VanBriesen 2012; Keranen et al. 2013). Some states do not have
sufcient injection well capacity to handle the volume of wastewater generated from
expanding hydraulic fracturing operations, so wastewater is transported to neighboring
states for disposal (Veil 2010). For example, as of late 2010, Pennsylvania had only seven
active disposal wells, and some wastewater had been hauled to Ohio, West Virginia, and
other states for disposal (STRONGER 2010; Veil 2010).4
Flowback and produced water have been treated at municipal wastewater treatment
plants (GWPC and ALL Consulting 2009), although this practice is both uncommon and
controversial. Municipal systems are not typically designed to handle this type of wastewater, which can potentially disrupt the treatment process and discharge salts and other
contaminants into the environment. In 2008 and 2009, TDS levels exceeded drinking water standards along Pennsylvanias Monongahela River, a major source of drinking water
that receives discharges from facilities handing wastewater from natural gas production
(STRONGER 2010). In 2009, excess TDS, primarily from mining discharges, wiped out
26 miles of stream in Greene County, Pennsylvania (STRONGER 2010, 22). In response,
regulations for new or expanded facilities that accept oil and gas wastewater, including
municipal wastewater treatment plants and centralized treatment plants, were passed in
2010 that set strict monthly discharge limits for TDS, chlorides, barium, and strontium
(STRONGER 2010). Municipal wastewater treatment plants in Pennsylvania can still receive wastewater from grandfathered natural gas operations, although this has now
been virtually eliminated (Hammer and VanBriesen 2012).
Wastewater reuse is becoming more common, driven in large part by the challenges
associated with wastewater disposal and in part by the growing difculty of nding new
sources of water for fracking operations. Reusing wastewater for new fracking activities
reduces the total volume of water required, helping to minimize impacts associated with
water withdrawals. Wastewater can also be reused for irrigation, dust control on unpaved
roads, and deicing of roads (US EPA 2011c; Hammer and VanBriesen 2012). In most cases, the wastewater must be treated prior to reuse, but in others it is simply blended with
freshwater to bring the levels of TDS and other constituents down to an acceptable range
(Veil 2010). Treatment for reuse can occur at the well site using a mobile plant or at a
centralized industrial facility. Some downsides of reuse include the need for more on-site
storage, energy requirements for the treatment processes, and additional transportation
needed to haul wastewater to the treatment plant and among sites. Additionally, concentrated treatment residuals, including brine, must be disposed of in some manner and
may require dilution (NYSDEC 2011).
Wastewater treatment and disposal associated with hydraulic fracturing may prove to
be a larger issue than some of the other water-related risks. Yet to date there has been little
discussion about the risks that wastewater treatment and disposal pose. In some areas, they
may physically or economically constrain natural gas operations. Additional work is needed
4. Applications for at least twenty additional disposal wells are presently before the EPA (STRONGER 2010).
75
to understand the nature of the risk of wastewater treatment and disposal to human health
and the environment and to identify where it may constrain natural gas operations.
Truck Trafc
Hydraulic fracturing operations generate a large amount of truck trafc. All of the materials and equipment needed for activities associated with hydraulic fracturing, including water and chemicals, are typically transported to the site by trucks (US EPA 2011c).
Additionally, wastewater from natural gas operations is usually removed by tanker truck
to the disposal site or to another well for reuse. Using information from the natural gas
industry, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation estimates that
high-pressure hydraulic fracturing in a horizontal well would require 3,950 truck trips
per well during early development of the well eld (NYSDEC 2011), two to three times
more than is required for conventional vertical wells (see table 4.2). Much of the truck
trafc is concentrated over the rst fty days following well development. Truck trafc
could be reduced by nearly 30 percent if pipelines were used to move water between
sites, although pipelines can create other concerns, such as leaks, spills, and right-ofway controversies.
Truck trafc raises a variety of other water-related social and environmental concerns.
Trucks increase wear and erosion on local roads and increase the risk of spills, both of
which can pollute local surface water and groundwater. In addition, because so much of
new drilling is occurring in rural locations, new roads must be built to accommodate the
truck trafc, increasing habitat fragmentation and ecological disturbances.
T A B L E 4.2 Truck Trafc Estimates for Vertical and Horizontal Wells
Horizontal Well
Well Pad Activity
Drill pad construction

Rig mobilization
Drilling uids
Non-rig drilling equipment
Drilling (rig crew, etc.)
Completion chemicals
Completion equipment
Hydraulic fracturing equipment
Hydraulic fracturing water hauling
Hydraulic fracturing sand
Produced water disposal
Final pad preparation
Miscellaneous
Total one-way, loaded trips per well
Total vehicle round trips per well
Heavy Truck
45
95
45
45
50
20
5
175
500
23
100
45
1,148
Light Truck
90
140
140
326
50
85
831
3,950
Vertical Well
Heavy Truck
32
50
15
10
30
10
5
75
90
5
42
34
398
Light Truck
90
140
70
72
50
85
507
1,810
Source: NYSDEC (2011).

Note: Light trucks have a gross vehicle weight rating that ranges from 0 to 14,000 pounds. Heavy trucks have
a gross vehicle weight rating in excess of 26,000 pounds. The gross vehicle weight is the maximum operating
weight of the vehicle, including the vehicles chassis, body, engine, engine uids, fuel, accessories, driver, passengers, and cargo but excluding any trailers.
76
Surface Spills and Leaks

All fossil-fuel extraction activities come with some risk of surface water or groundwater
contamination from the accidental or intentional release of waste. In the case of hydraulic fracturing, common wastes of concern include fracking uid, additives, owback, and
produced water. Fluids released onto the ground from spills or leaks can run off into
surface water and seep into groundwater.
Spills can occur at any stage during the drilling life cycle. Chemicals are hauled to the
site, where they are mixed to form the fracturing uid. Accidents and equipment failure
during on-site mixing of the fracturing uid can release chemicals into the environment.
Above ground storage pits, tanks, or embankments can fail. Vandalism and other illegal activities can also result in spills and improper wastewater disposal. For example, in
Canton Township, Pennsylvania, a January 2012 spill of 20,000 gallons of hydraulic fracturing wastewater is being investigated as criminal mischief (Clarke 2012). In a larger
incident in March 2012, criminal charges were led against a waste-hauling company
and its owner for illegally dumping millions of gallons of produced water into streams
and mine shafts and on properties across southwestern Pennsylvania (Pennsylvania Attorney General 2012). Given the large volume of truck trafc associated with hydraulic
fracturing, truck accidents can also lead to chemical and wastewater spills. In December
2011, a truck accident in Mifin Township, Pennsylvania, released fracking wastewater
into a nearby creek (Reppert 2011).
While there are reports of spills and leaks associated with hydraulic fracturing operations, the national extent of the problem is not yet well understood. A recent report from
Pennsylvania documented a string of violations in the Marcellus Shale region, many of
which could result in surface spills and leaks, including 155 industrial waste discharges,
162 violations of wastewater impoundment construction regulations, and 212 faulty pollution prevention practices (Pennsylvania Land Trust Association 2010), during the thirtytwo-month period from January 2008 to August 2010. New research provides documentation of twenty-four cases in six states of adverse health effects on humans, companion
animals, livestock, horses, and wildlife associated with natural gas operations, including spills and leaks (Bamberger and Oswald 2012). Additional research is needed on the
frequency, severity, cause, and impact of spills associated with hydraulic fracturing.
Stormwater Management
Stormwater runoff carries substances from the land surface that can be detrimental to
water quality and ecosystem health and deposits them into local waterways. While runoff is a natural occurrence, human disturbances to the land surface have increased the
timing, volume, and composition of runoff. According to the EPA, a 0.4-hectare (oneacre) construction site with no runoff controls can contribute thirty to forty metric tons
of sediment each year, comparable to the runoff from six and one-half hectares (sixteen
acres) of natural vegetated meadow (US EPA 2007a; Schueler 1994). Drilling for natural
gas contributes to this problem, as the process requires disturbances to the land surface.
Modern natural gas drilling requires the clearing of three or more hectares (typically seven to eight acres) per well pad, which includes area for the pad itself plus additional land
for access roads, waste pits, truck parking, equipment, and more (Johnson 2010). Runoff
can also contain pollutants from contact with drilling and construction equipment as
well as with storage facilities for fracking uid and produced water.
77
Stormwater discharges are regulated by state and local governments. The National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program regulates stormwater runoff
at the federal level, although states can receive primacy to administer their own permitting program. At the federal level, oil and gas operations have been afforded special protections and are exempt from provisions in the Clean Water Act. Consequently, oil and
gas operators are not required to obtain a stormwater permit unless, over the course of
operation, the facility generates stormwater discharge containing a reportable quantity
of oil or hazardous substances or the facility violates a water quality standard (40 CFR
122.26(c)(1)(iii)).5 In 2005, the denition of oil and gas exploration and production was
broadened to include construction and related activities, although regulations still require well pads larger than one acre to apply for an NPDES stormwater permit (Wiseman
2012).6 A 2005 study of the surface water impacts of natural gas drilling noted the difculty of monitoring and suggested that few facilities were monitoring in a way that would
allow them to determine whether they even required an NPDES permit (US EPA 2007b).
Conclusions
Energy analysts project massive increases in domestic natural gas production over the
next twenty-ve years. This increase is expected to be largely supplied by unconventional sources, especially shale gas. Although previously too expensive to develop, unconventional natural gas resources have become more economically viable in recent years
as a result of the application of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. These technological advances have allowed for a rapid expansion of natural gas development both
in areas accustomed to natural gas operations and in new areas.
Hydraulic fracturing has generated a tremendous amount of controversy in recent
years. Hydraulic fracturing is hailed by some as a game changer that promises increased
energy independence, job creation, and lower energy prices. Others have called for a
temporary moratorium or a complete ban on hydraulic fracturing because of concern
over environmental, social, and public health concerns. There are daily media reports on
this topic from outlets across the United States and in a host of other countries, including
Canada, South Africa, Australia, France, and England.
In an effort to identify the key issues, the Pacic Institute interviewed a diverse set of
representatives of state and federal agencies, academia, industry, environmental groups,
and community-based organizations in the United States. Despite the diversity of viewpoints, there was surprising agreement about the range of concerns and issues associated with hydraulic fracturing. Interviewees identied a broad set of social, economic, and
environmental concerns, foremost among which are impacts of hydraulic fracturing on
the availability and quality of water resources. In particular, key water-related concerns
identied by the interviewees included (1) water withdrawals; (2) groundwater contamination associated with well drilling and production; (3) wastewater management; (4)
truck trafc and its impacts on water quality; (5) surface spills and leaks; and (6) stormwater management (Cooley and Donnelly 2012).
Much of the media attention on hydraulic fracturing and its risk to water resources
has centered on the use of chemicals in the fracturing uids and the risk of groundwater
5. This requirement will not be met by sediment discharges alone.
6. States can implement stronger requirements if desired.
78
contamination. The mitigation strategies identied to address this concern have centered on disclosure and, to some extent, the use of less toxic chemicals. Risks associated
with fracking chemicals, however, are not the only issues that must be addressed. Indeed,
interviewees more frequently identied as key issues the overall water requirements of
hydraulic fracturing and the quantity and quality of wastewater generated.
Most signicantly, a lack of credible and comprehensive data and information is a
major impediment to identifying or clearly assessing the key water-related risks associated with hydraulic fracturing and to developing sound policies to minimize those risks.
Given the nature of the business, industry has an incentive to keep the specics of its
operations secret in order to gain a competitive advantage, avoid litigation, and so forth.
Additionally, there are few peer-reviewed scientic studies on the process and its environmental impacts. While much has been written about the interaction of hydraulic
fracturing and water resources, the majority of this writing is either industry or advocacy
reports that have not been peer-reviewed. As a result, the discourse around the issue is
largely driven by opinion. This hinders a comprehensive analysis of the potential environmental and public health risks and identication of strategies to minimize these
risks.
Finally, the dialogue about hydraulic fracturing has been marked by confusion and
obfuscation because of a lack of clarity about the terms used to characterize the process. For example, the American Petroleum Institute and other industry groups, using
a narrow denition of fracking, argue that there is no link between their activities and
groundwater contamination (American Petroleum Institute 2010), despite observational
evidence of groundwater contamination in Dimock, Pennsylvania, and Pavillion, Wyoming, that appears to be linked to the integrity of the well casings and of wastewater storage. Additional work is needed to clarify terms and denitions associated with hydraulic
fracturing to support more fruitful and informed dialogue and to develop appropriate
energy, water, and environmental policy.
References
American Petroleum Institute. 2010. Freeing Up EnergyHydraulic Fracturing: Unlocking
Americas Natural Gas Resources. http://www.api.org/~/media/Files/Policy/Exploration
/HYDRAULIC_FRACTURING_PRIMER.ashx.
Bamberger, M., and R. E. Oswald. 2012. Impacts of gas drilling on human and animal health. New
Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy 22 (1): 5777.
Beauduy, T. W. 2011. Hearing on Shale Gas Production and Water Resources in the Eastern United
States, October 20, 2011. US Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources,
Subcommittee on Water and Power. http://energy.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/les
/serve?File_id=0da002e7-87d9-41a1-8e4f-5ab8dd42d7cf.
Carroll, J. 2011. Worst drought in more than a century strikes Texas oil boom. Bloomberg, June 13.
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-06-13/worst-drought-in-more-than-a-century
-threatens-texas-oil-natural-gas-boom.html.
Clarke, C. R. 2012. Police: Spill at gas well site may have been vandalism. Williamsport Sun-Gazette,
January 13. http://www.sungazette.com/page/content.detail/id/573278/Police--Spill-at-gas
-well-site-may-have-been-vandalism.html?nav=5011.
Cooley, H., and K. Donnelly. 2012. Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources: Separating the Frack
from the Fiction. Oakland, CA: Pacic Institute.
Eltschlager, K. K., J. W. Hawkins, W. C. Ehler, and F. Baldassare. 2001. Technical Measures for the
Investigation and Mitigation of Fugitive Methane Hazards in Areas of Coal Mining. Pittsburgh,
PA: US Department of the Interior, Ofce of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement,
79
Appalachian Regional Coordinating Center. http://www.osmre.gov/resources/newsroom

/News/Archive/2001/090601.pdf.
Encana Oil and Gas Inc. 2011a. Encana Pavillion news media conference callTechnical brieng,
December 20. http://www.encana.com/pdf/news-stories/encana-pavillion-technical-brief
ing.pdf.
Encana Oil and Gas Inc. 2011b. Why Encana Refutes U.S. EPA Pavillion Groundwater Report. Press
release. Business Wire, December 12. http://www.encana.com/news-stories/news-release
/details.html?release=632327.
Federal Register. 2013. Draft research report: Investigation of ground water contamination near
Pavillion, WY. EPA Notice of Extension of Public Comment Period. Federal Register 78 (8):
23962397.
Finley, B. 2012. Colorado farms planning for dry spell losing auction bids for water to fracking
projects. Denver Post, April 1. http://www.denverpost.com/environment/ci_20299962/colo
rado-farms-planning-dry-spell-losing-auction-bids.
Gardner, T. 2012. Update 1EPA to retest Wyoming water said tainted by fracking. Reuters, March
9. http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/03/09/usa-epa-fracking-idUKL2E8E9C4220120309.
Ground Water Protection Council (GWPC) and ALL Consulting. 2009. Modern Shale Gas
Development in the United States: A Primer. Report prepared for US Department of Energy,
Ofce of Fossil Energy; and National Energy Technology Laboratory. http://www.all-llc.com
/publicdownloads/ShaleGasPrimer2009.pdf.
Hammer, R., and J. VanBriesen. 2012. In Frackings Wake: New Rules Are Needed to Protect Our
Health and Environment from Contaminated Wastewater. Natural Resources Defense Council.
http://www.nrdc.org/energy/les/Fracking-Wastewater-FullReport.pdf.
Hoffman, J. 2010. Susquehanna River Basin Commission Natural Gas Development. Presentation
at Science of the Marcellus Shale Symposium, January 29, Lycoming College, Williamsport, PA.
http://www.srbc.net/programs/docs/SRBC%20Science%20of%20the%20marcellus%20
012910.pdf.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2012. Golden Rules for a Golden Age of Gas: World Energy
Outlook Special Report on Unconventional Gas. Paris: International Energy Agency. http://
www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2012/goldenrules/WEO2012_Golden
RulesReport.pdf.
Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission (IOGCC). 2008. Protecting Our Countrys Resources:
The States Case; Orphaned Well Plugging Initiative. Report prepared for US Department of
Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory. http://groundwork.iogcc.org/sites/default
/les/2008-Protecting-Our-Country%27s-Resources-The-States%27-Case.pdf.
Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission (IOGCC) and ALL Consulting. 2006. A Guide to
Practical Management of Produced Water from Onshore Oil and Gas Operations in the United
States. Report prepared for US Department of Energy, National Petroleum Technology Ofce.
http://fracfocus.org/sites/default/les/publications/a_guide_to_practical_management_of
_produced_water_from_onshore_oil_and_gas_operations_in_the_united_states
.pdf.
Jackson, R. B., B. R. Pearson, S. G. Osborn, N. R. Warner, and A. Vengosh. 2011. Research and Policy
Recommendations for Hydraulic Fracturing and Shale-Gas Extraction. Durham, NC: Duke
University, Center on Global Change. http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/cgc/Hydraulic
FracturingWhitepaper2011.pdf.
James Gores & Associates. 2011. Pavillion Area Water Supply Level I Study. Report prepared for
State of Wyoming Water Development Commission. http://wwdc.state.wy.us/agency_publi
cations/PavillionWaterSupplyLl_exesum-2011.pdf.
Johnson, N. 2010. Pennsylvania Energy Impacts Assessment Report 1: Marcellus Shale Natural Gas
and Wind. The Nature Conservancy. http://www.nature.org/media/pa/tnc_energy
_analysis.pdf.
Kargbo, D. M., R. G. Wilhelm, and D. J. Campbell. 2010. Natural gas plays in the Marcellus Shale:
Challenges and potential opportunities. Environmental Science and Technology 44 (15):
56795684.
Keranen, K. M., H. M. Savage, G. A. Abers, and E. S. Cochran. 2013. Potentially induced earthquakes
in Oklahoma, USA: Links between wastewater injection and the 2011 Mw 5.7 earthquake
sequence. Geology, published online March 26. doi:10.1130/G34045.1.
Legere, L. 2011. DEP: Cabot OK to stop Dimock water deliveries. Scranton Times-Tribune, October
20. http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/dep-cabot-ok-to-stop-dimock-water-deliveries
-1.1220855#axzz1bLXITzCt.
80
Lobins, S. C. 2009. Notice of Violation: Letter from Pennsylvania Department of Environmental

Protection to Cabot Oil & Gas Corporation. February 27. http://s3.amazonaws.com/propubli
ca/assets/methane/pdep_nov_cabot_090227.pdf.
McAllister, E., and Gardner, T. 2012. EPA may truck water to residents near fracking site. Reuters,
January 6. http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/06/us-usa-fracking-epa-idUSTRE8041
YE20120106.
Myers, T. 2012. Potential contaminant pathways from hydraulically fractured shale to aquifers.
Groundwater 50 (6): 872882. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6584.2012.00933.x.
New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (NHDES). 2010. Well Development by
Hydro-fracturing. Environmental Fact Sheet WD-DWGB-1-3. http://des.nh.gov/organization
/commissioner/pip/factsheets/dwgb/documents/dwgb-1-3.pdf.
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC). 2011. Revised Draft,
Supplemental Generic Environmental Impact Statement on the Oil, Gas, and Solution Mining
Regulatory ProgramWell Permit Issuance for Horizontal Drilling and High-Volume Hydraulic
Fracturing to Develop the Marcellus Shale and Other Low-Permeability Gas Reservoirs.
Albany: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Mineral
Resources, Bureau of Oil and Gas Regulation. http://www.dec.ny.gov/data/dmn/rdsgeis
full0911.pdf.
Nicot, J.-P., A. K. Hebel, S. M. Ritter, S. Walden, R. Baier, P. Galusky, J. Beach, R. Kyle, L. Symank, and
C. Breton. 2011. Current and Projected Water Use in the Texas Mining and Oil and Gas
Industry. Report prepared for Texas Water Development Board. https://www.twdb.texas.gov
/publications/reports/contracted_reports/doc/0904830939_MiningWaterUse.pdf.
Osborn, S. G., A. Vengosh, N. R. Warner, and R. B. Jackson. 2011. Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 108 (20): 81728176. doi:10.1073/pnas.1100682108.
Pennsylvania Attorney General. 2012. Greene County Business Owner Charged with Illegally
Dumping Millions of Gallons of Gas Drilling Waste Water and Sewage Sludge. Press release.
Accessed May 24, 2012. http://www.attorneygeneral.gov/press.aspx?id=6030.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PA DEP). 2009. Consent Order and
Agreement. http://s3.amazonaws.com/propublica/assets/natural_gas/final_cabot_co-a
.pdf.
. 2010. Modication to Consent Order and Agreement Dated November 4, 2009. http://
www.marcellus-shale.us/pdf/Cabot_Consent-Mod_4-15-2010.pdf.
Pennsylvania Land Trust Association. 2010. Marcellus Shale Drillers in Pennsylvania Amass 1614
Violations Since 20081056 Identied as Most Likely to Harm the Environment. http://
conserveland.org/violationsrpt.
ProPublica. 2012. What Is Hydraulic Fracturing? FrackingGas Drillings Environmental Threat.
http://www.propublica.org/special/hydraulic-fracturing-national.
Reppert, J. 2011. Collision spills fracking uid on state route. Williamsport Sun-Gazette, December
27. http://www.sungazette.com/page/content.detail/id/572658/Collision-spills-fracking
-uid-on-state-route.html?nav=5011.
Schueler, T. R. 1994. The importance of imperviousness. Watershed Protection Techniques 1 (3):
100111.
State Review of Oil and Natural Gas Environmental Regulations (STRONGER). 2010. Pennsylvania
Hydraulic Fracturing State Review. http://www.shalegas.energy.gov/resources/071311
_stronger_pa_hf_review.pdf.
Susquehanna River Basin Commission. 2011. Whats New: 13 Water Withdrawals Remain on Hold
to Protect Streams in the Susquehanna Basin. http://www.srbc.net/whatsnew/Newsletters
/article_58.asp.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 2007a. Developing Your Stormwater
Pollution Prevention Plan: A Guide for Construction Sites. EPA-833-R-06-004. http://www
.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_swppp_guide.pdf.
. 2007b. Summary of the Results of the Investigation Regarding Gas Well Site Surface Water
Impacts. http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/oilandgas_gaswellsummary.pdf.
. 2011a. ATSDR Record of Activity/Technical Assist. http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/states
/dimock-atsdr.pdf (accessed May 24, 2012).
. 2011b. Investigation of Ground Water Contamination near Pavillion, Wyoming: Draft.
Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce of Research and Development.
http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/wy/pavillion/EPA_ReportOnPavillion_Dec-8-2011
.pdf.
81
. 2011c. Plan to Study the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water
Resources. EPA/600/R-11/122. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce
of Research and Development. http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulic
fracturing/upload/hf_study_plan_110211_nal_508.pdf.
. 2012a. Action MemorandumRequest for Funding for a Removal Action at the Dimock
Residential Groundwater Site, Intersection of PA Routes 29 & 2024, Dimock Township,
Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, PA: US Environmental Protection Agency,
Region 3. http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/gasregulation/authorizations/Orders
_Issued_2012/58._EPA_III.pdf.
. 2012b. EPA Completes Drinking Water Sampling in Dimock, PA. Press release, July 25.
http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/d0cf6618525a9efb85257359003fb69d/1a6e49d19
3e1007585257a46005b61ad!opendocument.
. 2012c. Investigation of Ground Water Contamination near Pavillion, Wyoming, Phase V
Sampling Event: Summary of Methods and Results. Denver, CO: US Environmental Protection
Agency, Region 8. http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/wy/pavillion/phase5
/PavillionSeptember2012Narrative.pdf.
United States Government Accountability Ofce (US GAO). 2012. Energy-Water Nexus: Information
on the Quantity, Quality, and Management of Water Produced during Oil and Gas Production.
GAO-12-256. Washington, DC: US Government Accountability Ofce. http://www.gao.gov
/assets/590/587522.pdf.
Veil, J. A. 2010. Water Management Technologies Used by Marcellus Shale Gas Producers. Report
prepared by Argonne National Laboratory, Environmental Science Division, for the US
Department of Energy, Ofce of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory. http://
fracfocus.org/sites/default/files/publications/water_management_in_the_marcel
lus.pdf.
Veil, J. A., M. G. Puder, D. Elcock, and R. J. Redweik Jr. 2004. A White Paper Describing Produced
Water from Production of Crude Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal Bed Methane. Report prepared by
Argonne National Laboratory for US Department of Energy, National Energy Technology
Laboratory. http://www.ipd.anl.gov/anlpubs/2004/02/49109.pdf.
Wiseman, H., and F. Gradijan. 2012. Regulation of Shale Gas Development, Including Hydraulic
Fracturing. University of Tulsa Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2011-11.
C H A P T E R
Water Footprint
We use water for a variety of purposes in our daily lives: for drinking, bathing, washing
our clothes, watering our gardens, and more. These direct uses of water, however, are
only part of the story. Water is also required to produce nearly everything we use and
consume, from the food we eat and the clothes we wear to the technological devices
that are integral to our modern society. Because this indirect water isnt visible in the
product, it is also often referred to as embedded, embodied, or virtual water. A full
measure, therefore, of the water footprint of an individual, industrial sector, or society is
the combination of direct water use and the water used indirectly to provide the goods
and services consumed.
As pressures on water resources intensify globally, there is growing interest in evaluating
the complex ways in which everyday human activities affect the worlds water resources.
Traditionally water has been thought of as a local or regional issue, but as globalization
has forged increasing interconnectedness among people and economies, better understanding is needed of the ways in which observed impacts to water systems have important global dimensions. The water footprint has emerged as one tool for identifying and
quantifying these impacts.
In recent years, there has been an explosion of interest in developing the methods and
data necessary for evaluating and comparing water footprints. In this chapter we discuss
the concept of a water footprint and how it is related to other footprint indicators, such
as the carbon footprint and the ecological footprint; how the water footprint is calculated; some ndings from recent research; and nally what the water footprint means in
the context of California.
The Water Footprint Concept

The water footprint of a product (good or service) has been dened as the quantity of
freshwater consumptively used, both directly and indirectly, throughout its supply chain
(Hoekstra et al. 2011). Consumptive and nonconsumptive uses of water occur at almost
every step along the supply chain of a product, but the water footprint counts only the
consumptive portion because the nonconsumptive portion can theoretically be used for
other purposes (see box 5.1). For example, an average of 140 liters (37 gallons) of water is consumptively used to produce a standard 125-milliliter (4.2-ounce) cup of coffee,
including the water required to grow the coffee crop and process the beans. In fact, all
food products require water in their production. Meat and dairy products tend to be very
83
84
BOX 5.1 A Note About Water Use

The water literature is rife with confusing and often misleading terminology to
describe water usewater withdrawal, consumptive use, nonconsumptive use, real water, paper water, and more. It is important to clarify these
terms, as different meanings can lead to different or conicting conclusions. A
water withdrawal is commonly dened as water taken from a source and used
for some human need. Water withdrawals can be divided into two categories,
consumptive and nonconsumptive use. Consumptive use typically refers to
water withdrawn from a source and made unavailable for reuse in the same
basin, such as through conversion to steam, losses to evaporation, seepage
to a saline sink, or contamination (Gleick 2003, 278). Additionally, water that
is incorporated into goods or plant and animal tissue is unavailable for reuse
and thus is also considered a consumptive use. Nonconsumptive use, on the
other hand, refers to water that can be made available for reuse within the
basin from which it was extracted, such as through return ows or recoverable
wastewater discharge into water bodies.
water intensive because water is required not only for bathing and hydrating the animals
but also, and especially, for all the feed they eat over their life span.
It isnt just food that requires water to produce. The water footprint of cotton clothing,
for example, includes the water for growing cotton, processing and dyeing fabric, and
various nishing proceduresand the footprint of a typical T-shirt has been estimated
at almost 2,500 liters (over 650 gallons) (Chapagain et al. 2006; Mekonnen and Hoekstra
2010).1 Many industrial products, such as electronics and cars, can require vast amounts
of water in their production, from the mining of various metals to the transport, processing, and disposal of a wide range of materials. Energy production is also a signicant
consumer of water. Generation of a megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity, enough to supply the average US household for about a month, consumes an average of 1,100 liters
(288 gallons) in the western United States (Cooley et al. 2011), but it can consume around
250,000 liters (65,000 gallons) for inefcient hydroelectricity produced in a hot, dry climate (Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2012). The production of goods is often much more water intensive than the provision of services, but even service industries such as hospitality (e.g., hotels), food (restaurants), health care (hospitals), and recreation (golf courses,
reservoirs) can require signicant levels of consumptive water use.
These are examples of just some of the products that are a part of our everyday lives,
and they all require some amount of consumptive water use before we purchase and use
or consume them. When we consume them, there is a connection between our action
and the water that was consumptively used because our action has generated a demand
for that use. The water footprint is therefore considered a consumption-based metric
1. This gure does not include the water used to wash the product over its life.
Water Footprint
85
because it attributes the water use to the consumer rather than the producer. While this
is the opposite of the way we have historically thought about water use, it is actually conceptually very close to other, more familiar ways of measuring peoples interactions with
the global environment.
Water, Carbon, and Ecological Footprints and

Nexus Thinking
Just as the water footprint is a consumption-based metric, so too are the carbon footprint and the ecological footprint. A carbon footprint measures the greenhouse gas
emissions associated with peoples activities and consumption habits in order to create a
better understanding of their contribution to global climate change. Transportation and
other energy-intensive activities, for example, tend to generate large carbon footprints
because so much of the global populations energy system is based on fossil fuels instead
of renewable forms of energy. The ecological footprint measures the amount of biologically productive land and water area that is appropriated by a product or activity; it is
measured as the amount of global hectares required to sustain an individual or population (see http://www.footprintnetwork.org).
Table 5.1 compares water, carbon, and ecological footprint indicators. There may be
synergies as well as trade-offs in these indicators. For example, some renewable energy
technologies that have a lower carbon footprint, such as photovoltaics, also have a lower
water footprint. However, crop varieties that are less water intensive might be grown only
in regions requiring more extensive land use or more transportation fuels to get them to
market. It is important to engage in nexus thinking (e.g., the water-energy nexus) by
considering the interactions of a range of environmental indicators when making decisions, whether personal, business, or governmental.
Furthermore, these consumption-based indicators should not be understood to replace
or obviate the need for production-based indicators. Traditional regulation and other ways
of working with producers are still directly relevant to reducing impacts to the local environment. Rather, consumption-based indicators provide a perspective that creates options
for new leverage points in addressing their respective concerns. For the water footprint,
this concern has to do with water availability in the places where products are produced.
The next section discusses details of the water footprint and how it is measured.
Calculating a Water Footprint

A water footprint provides a metric and methodology for quantifying consumptive use,
including additional qualitative features about the water used, such as where the water
comes from, the kinds and quality of water used, and more, as discussed below. The basic approach in calculating a water footprint is to combine consumptive water-use factors (volume per unit of production) for individual goods and services with statistics on
production, trade, and consumption of those goods and services. The Water Footprint
Network (WFN) advanced the methodology described in the Water Footprint Assessment
Manual (Hoekstra et al. 2011).
The water footprint is often reported as three components: green water, blue water,
and grey water. Green water is the amount of precipitation and soil moisture that is di-
86
T A B L E 5.1 Comparison of Footprint Indicators

Indicator
Measurement
Concern
Water footprint
Carbon footprint
Ecological footprint
Consumptive use
Greenhouse gases
Global hectare
Water availability and quality

Climate change
Land and bioproductivity degradation
rectly consumed in an activity, as in growing crops. Blue water is the amount of surface
water or groundwater that is applied and consumed in an activity, as in growing crops or
manufacturing an industrial good. Finally, grey water2 is the water needed to assimilate
pollutants from a production process back into water bodies at levels that meet governing standards, regardless of whether those standards are actually met (Hoekstra et al.
2011). The green, blue, and grey water metrics are calculated for individual processes
and then aggregated on the basis of the consumption patterns of the unit of interest.
Because a water footprint is based on the goods and services consumed, it can be calculated at different levels of consumer activity, that is, for individuals, households, regions,
states, nations, or even all of humanity. Trade is an important consideration when calculating water footprints, as the various processes required to produce a nal good often take
place in different countries. Using the example of a cotton T-shirt, the cotton may be grown
in India, woven into fabric and dyed in China, and nished in Mexico before heading to
market in the United States. Thus, the water footprint of that T-shirt will be geographically
distributed according to the structure of its supply chain (Chapagain et al. 2006).
Green, blue, and grey water footprints are often combined and reported as a single
value in the literature. Each, however, has a distinct ecological and social context. Green
water pertains to rainwater and soil moisture occurring where crops are grown and thus
may be signicant only to the degree it makes water unavailable for other land uses, alternative crops, or native vegetation. Blue water, by contrast, represents a deliberate extraction and allocation of surface water or groundwater resources, often with pumping
and conveyance systems used to extract and deliver water where it is needed. Grey water
is an indicator of water quality rather than a measure of consumptive water use. Even
though the contamination of surface waters is by denition a consumptive use, contaminated water can often still serve multiple uses, such as navigation or cooling. Thus, in
order to eliminate double counting of upstream grey water footprints by downstream
blue water uses, as well as to avoid confusing their distinct ecological contexts, we think
it is appropriate to present each type of water separately.
The quantitative measure of a green, blue, or grey water footprint, by itself, might reveal little about the consequences or local impacts of that water use. Additional information (and often subjective evaluation) is required to estimate the impact of a water footprint. If the water consumed comes from areas where water is relatively abundant, the
social and environmental impacts may be far less than for the same consumption from
a region where water is scarce. Such a contextualized analysis of the relative impacts of
a water footprint is generally called a water footprint sustainability assessment in the
literature (Hoekstra et al. 2011). These assessments are rarer in the literature, so here we
present only the quantitative dimensions of water footprint analyses in addition to our
more contextualized report on Californias water footprint.
2. Not to be confused with wastewater that is reused directly on a site, often also called grey water or greywater.
Water Footprint
87
Water Footprint Findings

The water footprint concept has developed substantially in scientic literature over
the past decade and resulted in numerous publications and extensive data sets, many of
which have come about through the work of the Water Footprint Network. With some exceptions, this research has focused on the scale of national consumption and international
trade. This is understandable, given that the national level is often where most production
and trade statistics are gathered and reported, but ideally the science would advance to be
able to identify water footprints of more hydrologically appropriate units, such as river
basins. Another limitation of these ndings is that they account only for bilateral trade
ows, thus missing consumptive water uses that may have occurred further upstream in
the supply chain of a product. Additionally, we note that while the scope of products covered is substantial, these gures do not include the water footprints of energy products,
mining activities, or traded service industries such as tourism and call centers.
Beginning at the global level, Arjen Hoekstra and Mesn Mekonnen (2012) of the University of Twente in the Netherlands found that the water footprint of global consumption, averaged between 1998 and 2005, was about 9.1 trillion cubic meters (around 7.4
billion acre-feet) per year.3 By comparison, that is about 500 times the average annual
ow of the Colorado River in its natural state (Cohen et al. 2001). Around three-quarters
of the global water footprint is green water, 11 percent is blue water, and 15 percent is
grey water. Ninety-two percent is associated with the consumption of agricultural products, while industrial products make up 5 percent and direct water consumption makes
up just 4 percent (gure 5.1). Twenty-two percent of the global water footprint is external, meaning that it pertains to internationally traded products.
Water footprints, however, vary tremendously from country to country. The United
States, for example, has one of the highest per capita water footprints in the world, at
FIGURE 5.1 GLOBAL WATER FOOTPRINT BROKEN DOWN BY TYPES OF CONSUMPTIVE USE
Source: Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011).
3. One acre-foot is the amount of water that would ll one acre to a depth of one foot and is approximately 325,851
gallons, or 1,233,482 liters.
88
nearly 8,000 liters per capita per day (LPCD), or 2,100 gallons per capita per day (GPCD)
(Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2011). Other developed countries have an average water footprint of around 5,000 LPCD (1,300 GPCD), and the global average is just under 4,000
LPCD (1,000 GPCD). Several developing countries, such as China and India, have per
capita water footprints that are well below the global average; however, their large populations and rapidly rising standards of living, if accompanied by rising water use, will
have substantial impacts on the worlds water resources. Figure 5.2 shows the per capita
total water footprint for nearly every country in the world.
Another important dimension of a nations water footprint is its relative dependence
on internal versus external water resources (gure 5.3). As mentioned earlier, 22 percent
of the entire global water footprint pertains to traded goods, and many nations rely heavily on international markets to make up for local water decits. For the most part, these
are countries with very little agricultural production capacity within their territory to
begin with, including small, geographically isolated nations such as Malta and Brunei;
nations with challenging topography, such as Japan and Switzerland; and nations with
extreme climates, such as Iceland and Kuwait. One interesting standout case is the Netherlands, which is 95 percent externally dependent despite its large agricultural economy.
Conversely, nations whose water footprint is mostly internal typically either are more
isolated economically, as is Myanmar, or have abundant resources for agricultural production, as does the United States. In fact, the United States not only has one of the largest water footprints in the world but also is a massive exporter of water-intensive products to other countries.
The Question of Scale: Californias Water Footprint

Delving beneath the level of national water footprint assessments is difcult in terms of
data availability, but it is important to understand how water footprint patterns and outcomes might change with scale. California, as a case of a subnational unit, is interesting
because it is the state with the largest population and gross domestic product in the nation (about one-eighth on both counts). California represents a substantial share of US
FIGURE 5.2 NATIONAL PER CAPITA WATER FOOTPRINTS

Water Footprint
89
FIGURE 5.3 EXTERNAL WATER DEPENDENCE OF NATIONS

economic activity, in terms of both consumption and production, so we might expect its
water footprint to be similar to that of the United States as a whole. Yet the state is unique
climatically and hydrologically, with minimal precipitation during the summer and fall
and very little runoff owing out of its borders. In fact, California derives about 10 percent of its annual surface water supplies from its neighbors (CDWR 2009).
The Pacic Institute recently completed an assessment of Californias water footprint,
and we briey present the results here (Fulton et al. 2012). Our analysis, summarized in
gure 5.4, found that the water footprint of the average Californian is about the same
as that of the average American in terms of size and breakdown of products. However, it is very different in two important respects. First, whereas the United States as a
whole is a net virtual water exporter, California is a net importer. This creates a unique
situation wherein decision makers in California must consider the fact that the water
footprint of in-state consumption pertains more to water resources in other states and
other countries than to Californias own water resources. On the one hand, this means
that if California experiences a severe drought, the impact on consumers may not be
so detrimental. This situation might be strategic in that California enjoys the benets
of being able to consume water-intensive products without having to consume scarce
local water resources (though California already consumes a substantial part of its own
water resources). Conversely, this may make California consumers more susceptible to
droughts or water-related issues elsewhere, and Californians must consider the effect
their consumption habits may have on exacerbating those impacts. Further research is
needed to understand the specic water-related impacts in locations where the goods
that Californians consume are produced.
The second important difference relates to the type of water. Despite the per capita
water footprints being nearly equal, Californias has a much larger share of blue water
than does that of the United States as a whole. This means that the state relies more on
applied surface water (primarily in irrigation), which has trade-offs with other uses, such
as supporting ecosystems. Additionally, blue water irrigation systems may have specic
90
vulnerabilities with respect to climate change that are different from the vulnerabilities
of production systems that depend on green water. More research is also needed in this
area. Nevertheless, these particular aspects of Californias water footprint suggest a set of
vulnerabilities and policy options that would likely be overlooked in a national assessment.
FIGURE 5.4 COMPARISON OF US AND CALIFORNIA WATER FOOTPRINTS BY PRODUCTS, GEOGRAPHIC

DISTRIBUTION, AND TYPE OF WATER
Californias per capita water footprint (left column) and that of the United States (right column)
are compared along three dimensions: constituent product groups (top row), geographic distribution (middle row), and type of water (bottom row).
Water Footprint
91
Conclusion
Continued population growth and improved living standards are creating new patterns of production and consumption that are likely to place increasing demands on the
worlds water resources. Water resources are already strained in many locations, and the
complex ways in which these processes occur require further attention. The water footprint tool, still evolving in concept and method, has begun to illuminate some of the
important dimensions of the ways in which people, economies, and water resources are
interconnected. The concept is reasonably analogous to the carbon footprint and the
ecological footprint, tools that have made substantial inroads with international policy
and business strategy. Important insights have already resulted from footprint analyses,
and the approach offers promise for assisting decision making at a number of levels,
from individuals to businesses to governing bodies at various scales.
National-level water footprints have been calculated for nearly every country on
Earth, and we now have a good sense of how afuence and increased consumption (particularly of some products, such as meat) affect demand for the worlds water resources. Trade is an important way in which countries can overcome local water scarcity by
importing virtual water. But trade also provides a way in which distant water resources
might be overexploited or mismanaged without the knowledge of the consumer who is
beneting from that water use. The more we know about how these causes and effects
occur, the better the worlds water resources can be managed.
The case of California illustrates how a water footprint assessment at the state level
can yield very different results from assessments at larger scales. This dynamic is very
important to understand, since California consumers and state agencies will be able to
make better-informed decisions than if they were to rely on a nationwide assessment.
Specically, our assessment shows that California is more dependent on water resources
outside of its borders than is the United States as a whole and that the state is more reliant on blue water. These aspects of Californias water footprint make decision making in
relation to such challenges as climate change unique.
But the state level is not necessarily the ideal scale at which water footprint information best applies. Many economic and water management decisions are made at
the state level, but there has also been a movement in the past ten to fteen years to
shift many important management decisions to the scale of river basins. This seems appropriate, given that populations living within river basins (e.g., the Colorado and Nile
River basins) have a hydrologic commonality and should to some degree share in waterrelated decision making. For example, upstream populations can shift their water footprint away from local resources by importing products produced downstream, thereby
allowing water to provide ecological benets along more of the rivers reach. These types
of basin-level decisions are more difcult when they require the crossing of political
boundaries, and the eld of transboundary water management has a lot to offer on this
subject. Water footprint research is just beginning to move in the direction of using the
river basin as a more appropriate unit of analysis.
Other exciting applications and improvements of the water footprint method have to
do with the study of how water footprints change over time. This information is especially important in examining how particular countries or regions develop and change
their production and consumption habits. For example, while the US population and
economy have continued to grow, domestic water withdrawals have been basically
92
steady since about 1980 (Gleick 2003). In part, this is the result of improvements in efciency of water use through various technologies in the agricultural, power production,
manufacturing, commercial, and residential sectors. But the economy overall has also
changed, with more of the products we consume being produced outside of our borders.
The water footprint method, applied over a time series, can shed light on the extent to
which the apparent leveling of overall water use in the United States has been in part an
externalizing of water use.
Overall, the water footprint tool is useful in answering a number of questions pertaining to the relationship between people and the worlds water resources. At its core,
it provides a description of the quantity, type, and location of water resources required
to produce products and to fulll the consumption habits of individuals or populations.
As populations grow and change, the connections between their actions and the global
environment need to be better understood. The worlds water resources are being pressured on numerous fronts, as evidenced in the other chapters in this book. The water
footprint tool, though still evolving, is beginning to provide us with another way in which
to better understand and reduce human impacts on those resources.
References
California Department of Water Resources (CDWR). 2009. California Water Plan Update 2009.
Sacramento: California Department of Water Resources.
Chapagain, A. K., A. Y. Hoekstra, H. H. G. Savenije, and R. Gautam. 2006. The water footprint of
cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries. Ecological Economics 60 (1):
186203. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.027.
Cohen, M. J., C. Henges-Jeck, and G. Castillo-Moreno. 2001. A preliminary water balance for the
Colorado River delta, 19921998. Journal of Arid Environments 49:3548. doi:10.1006
/jare.2001.0834.
Cooley, H., J. Fulton, and P. H. Gleick. 2011. Water for Energy: Future Water Needs for Electricity in
the Intermountain West. Oakland, CA: Pacic Institute. http://www.pacinst.org/wp-con
tent/uploads/2013/02/water_for_energy3.pdf.
Fulton, J., H. Cooley, and P. H. Gleick. 2012. Californias Water Footprint. Oakland, CA: Pacic
Institute. http://www.pacinst.org/reports/ca_water_footprint/ca_ftprint_full_report.pdf.
Gleick, P. H. 2003. Water use. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (1): 275314.
doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.28.040202.122849.
Hoekstra, A. Y., A. K. Chapagain, M. M. Aldaya, and M. M. Mekonnen. 2011. The Water Footprint
Assessment Manual: Setting the Global Standard. London: Earthscan.
Hoekstra, A. Y., and M. M. Mekonnen. 2012. The water footprint of humanity. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 109 (9) (February 28): 32323237. doi:10.1073/pnas.1109936109.
Mekonnen, M. M., and A. Y. Hoekstra. 2010. The Green, Blue, and Grey Water Footprint of Crops
and Derived Crop Products. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 47. Delft, Netherlands:
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.
. 2011. National Water Footprint Accounts: The Green, Blue, and Grey Water Footprint of
Production and Consumption. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 50. Delft, Netherlands: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.
. 2012. The blue water footprint of electricity from hydropower. Hydrology and Earth System
Sciences 16 (1): 179187. doi:10.5194/hess-16-179-2012.
C H A P T E R
Key Issues for Seawater

Desalination in California
Cost and Financing
In June 2006, the Pacic Institute released Desalination, with a Grain of Salt, an assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of seawater desalination for California (Cooley
et al. 2006). At that time, there were twenty-one active seawater desalination proposals
along the California coast. Since then, only one project, a small plant in Sand City, has
been permitted and built. A second project, in Carlsbad, has all of the necessary permits,
nally secured nancing in December 2012, and is now under construction. Interest in
seawater desalination, however, remains high in California, and many agencies are conducting technical and environmental studies and pilot projects to determine whether to
develop full-scale facilities.
In 2011, the Pacic Institute initiated a new research project on seawater desalination. As part of that effort, we conducted some twenty-ve one-on-one interviews with
industry experts, water agencies, environmental and community groups, and regulatory
agencies to identify some of the key outstanding issues for seawater desalination projects in California. Among the key issues raised were the cost and nancing of seawater
desalination projects, the marine impacts, and the energy requirements and associated
greenhouse gas emissions. In this chapter, we provide a short summary of the costs of
various projects and the spatial and temporal variability associated with these costs. We
also describe some of the project-related risks associated with desalination plants. Finally, we provide two case studies of seawater desalination projects in the United States
to highlight some of the issues involving cost and nancing of these projects.
How Much Does Seawater Desalination Cost?

The biggest barrier to widespread use of desalination technology remains its relatively
high cost. Most desalination capacity worldwide has been built where natural renewable
water resources are extremely limited and where energy resources critical for operating
desalination systems are abundant and inexpensive, such as in the Arabian Gulf region.
93
94
In other regions, however, alternative sources of water supply and improvements in water
efciency are still largely less costly than the water produced at desalination facilities.
Costs have declined considerably over the past forty years, although they are unlikely to
decline much further, barring a major technological breakthrough.
There are many components and denitions of the cost of a desalination project, and
uncertainty about these terms can lead to confusion about cost comparisons, especially
among those without a nance background. In this chapter, we explain the cost terminologies. We also compare costs among proposed and recently constructed plants and
describe some of the factors that contribute to the large variability among projects. We
conclude by comparing the cost of seawater desalination with that of other water alternatives.
It is important to note that this chapter describes nancial costs. There are other costs
that may not be captured in a nancial analysis because they are not internalized in
the project developers cost stream or are not subject to market-like transactions (NRC
2008). For example, seawater intake screens kill marine organisms. These impacts have a
cost associated with them that some other group or individual bears, for example, reductions in sh populations that affect local shermen. These costs may be captured in an
economic analysis. But unless they are internalized in the project through, for example,
a requirement to restore or enhance wetlands, they will not be factored into the nancial
feasibility of a project and are not included in this report.
Cost Terminology
In this section, we provide a short introduction to some of the terms used to describe the
nancial costs of a desalination project.
Capital Costs and Operation and Maintenance Costs

The primary cost components of a seawater desalination plant are commonly divided
into two major categories: capital costs and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs.
Capital costs are those costs incurred during construction of the project and include expenses associated with planning, permitting, designing, and constructing the project.
Other capital costs include expenses associated with buying or leasing equipment, purchasing the site, and mitigating environmental impacts.
Capital costs may also include the cost to nance the projectreferred to as the cost
of capital. The capital required to develop desalination projects is not free, and the project developer must pay to access it. The cost of capital includes the cost of debt (for those
projects nanced with debt) and the cost of equity (for those projects nanced with private equity). The cost of debt is based on the interest rate of the debt incurred for the
project, that is, the bond or loan, and reects the compensation a lender demands for
the risks involved in the project (Pemberton 2003). The cost of equity is the return paid
to private equity investors to compensate for the risk they undertake by investing their
capital. Generally, the greater the perceived risks of the project, the harder and costlier it
is to secure capital.
In addition to capital costs, there are O&M costs associated with desalination plants.
O&M costs represent the ongoing costs of operating the plant, including expenses associated with replacement membranes for reverse osmosis systems, pre- and posttreatment chemicals, energy to run the plant, environmental monitoring, and labor for
Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California
95
plant operators. Some O&M costs, such as labor, are xed; they do not vary with respect
to the amount of water produced. Other O&M costs, such as the costs of energy and
chemicals, are variable.
Capital and O&M costs are often reported in different ways, which can complicate
project cost comparisons. Capital costs are reported as onetime, xed costs. O&M costs,
by contrast, are typically reported as annual costs. In order to determine the total annual
cost of a desalination plant, the capital and O&M costs must be put on similar footing.
The most common approach is to spread the capital costs, which include the cost to
nance the project, over the life of the project, for example, for twenty or thirty years, to
produce an annualized capital cost. The annualized capital cost and the annual O&M
cost are added together to produce a total annual cost.
Figure 6.1 shows an annual cost breakdown of a typical seawater desalination plant.
Although variable from project to project, the annualized capital cost typically accounts
for about one-third of the annual cost of a seawater desalination plant. O&M costs account for the remaining two-thirds. Generally, energy costsat 36 percent of the annual
costrepresent the single largest O&M cost and are of similar magnitude as the annualized capital cost. Depending on the desalination process and local site conditions, chemical costs can also be signicant, accounting for about 12 percent of the total annual cost.
Unit Cost
In addition to reporting capital and O&M costs, water managers often report the unit
cost of water, that is, the cost per cubic meter (or acre-foot or thousand gallons) of water
produced. The unit cost of water is derived from the annual cost (the annualized capital
cost plus the O&M cost) and the annual production of water from the plant. Specically,
it is determined by the following formula:
unit cost = (annualized capital cost + annual O&M cost)
annual amount of water produced
Given that the project cost is driven, in part, by the size of the plant, the unit cost effectively normalizes the cost of the project by the volume of water produced. It can also be
useful for comparing projects of different sizes and for comparing various water supply
and demand management alternatives.
Desalination Cost Estimates

Discussions about the actual cost of desalination plants have been muddled and muddied because estimates have been provided in a variety of units, years, and ways that
are not directly comparable. Some report the cost of the desalination plant alone. Others include the costs for additional infrastructure needed to integrate the desalination
plant into the rest of the water system, which can be signicant. Some estimates include
the cost to nance the project, while others do not. In some regions, governmental subsidies hide some of the real costs. And local conditions, such as water salinity, options
for disposing of brine, level of environmental regulation, and labor or land costs, vary
widely. For example, the capital cost of the proposed Carlsbad Desalination Project is
currently estimated at $537 million. An additional $239 million is needed to build a pipeline to transport the water to customers and make other water system improvements
96
FIGURE 6.1 ANNUAL COST BREAKDOWN OF A TYPICAL SEAWATER DESALINATION PLANT

Source: NRC (2008).
Note: Estimate is for a reverse osmosis plant and is based on the following assumptions: capacity of
190,000 cubic meters (m3) per day (50 million gallons per day); constant energy costs at $0.07 per
kilowatt-hour (kWh); membrane life of ve years; nominal interest rate of 5 percent; and a depreciation period of twenty-ve years.
(Lee 2013).1 Given the inconsistent nature of estimates, the public, media, and analysts
must exercise caution when comparing claims of costs for different projects.
Table 6.1 shows capital, O&M, and unit cost estimates for proposed plants in California and several recently constructed plants in Florida and Australia. O&M costs shown
here are based on estimates made the year the project was completed; these costs change
over time and may not reect current O&M costs. Costs for desalination plants in Australia were converted into US dollars using the conversion rates that were in effect in the
year that the plant was completed. We have not adjusted the apparent year of each reported cost for ination because ination varies from country to country. Even without
1. Note that these estimates do not include nancing costs, which substantially increase the lifetime cost of
the project.
97
adjustment to current-year dollars, however, it is apparent from the table that costs vary
far more widely than can be explained solely by ination or currency exchange rates.
As shown in table 6.1, large plants tend to have higher capital and O&M costs than
small plants, but this is not always the case. For example, the Kwinana Desalination
Plant in Perth, Western Australia, has a capital cost of less than $330 million and an O&M
cost of $17 million per year. By contrast, the Gold Coast Desalination Plant in Tugun,
Queensland, is slightly smaller but has much higher capital and O&M costs, at $890 million and $30 million per year, respectively. The Gold Coast plant was considerably more
expensive than the Perth plant because steel and labor costs were dramatically higher
when the plant was constructed. Additionally, the Gold Coast plant used a more complicated intake design and required the construction of a longer pipeline to distribute the
water to customers (Crisp 2012).
Unit costs are also highly variable among projects. Variability among desalination
projects is driven by a range of site- and project-specic factors. Land prices and labor
costs, for example, can vary considerably among projects. Likewise, energy prices can
have a major inuence on the project cost. For example, the average electricity price of
the Gold Coast Desalination Plant was $0.15 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) in 20092010 (Robertson 2010). Currently, electricity prices for industrial customers in California are about
$0.10 per kilowatt-hour (US EIA 2012).2 Other project- and site-specic factors that affect
the cost include source water temperature and salinity, intake and outfall design, environmental mitigation requirements, interest rates and loan period, project team experience, permitting requirements, and the presence of hidden and visible subsidies (Cooley
et al. 2006; WateReuse Association 2012).
It is important to note that desalination costs are not static but can vary over time.
Many of the estimates shown in table 6.1 are engineering estimates based on the initial
project design. Actual production costs can be higher because of increases in the capital and O&M costs or a reduction in the amount of water produced. Capital costs may
change if the price of materials, such as cement or steel, or the cost of borrowing money
changes. Major project delays are also likely to increase capital costs.
O&M costs can also change over the life of the desalination plant as a result of changes
in input costs or in the lifetime of major equipment. Energy, for example, represents a
major cost component (gure 6.1), and short- and long-term increases in energy prices
can increase production costs. If energy accounts for 36 percent of the annual production cost, a 25 percent increase in energy costs would increase the cost of produced water by 9 percent. Similarly, membranes typically last for ve to seven years, although in
some cases ten years is possible. If the actual lifetime of the membranes exceeds ve to
seven years, the production cost may be lower than the initial estimate. Conversely, if the
membranes foul more quickly, O&M costs increase.
The cost of produced water from a desalination plant is especially sensitive to changes
in the amount of water produced. As described previously, the unit cost of water is determined by dividing the annual costs by the amount of water of produced. Typically, unit
cost estimates during the design and planning of a project are based on the assumption that the desalination plant will operate at or near full capacity. If the plant produces
less water, however, the unit cost increases (gure 6.2). Take, for example, a plant that
2. This was the price in 2012 for industrial customers.
T A B L E 6.1 Desalination Costs for Proposed and Recently Constructed Plants

Capacity
3
Project
(m /d)
Santa Cruz/
9,480
Capital Costa
($ Millions)
$114
O&M Costb
($ Millions)
$3$4
Unit Costc
3
Dollarsd
($/m )
are in . . .
Status
Data Source
n/a
2012
Proposed
Luckenbach
dollars
Soquel Creek
(2012)
Water District
California
18,60030,300
$175$207
$7.77$11
$2.06$2.63
American
2012
Proposed
dollars
Processes, Inc.
Watere
Deep Water
Separation
(2012)
18,60030,300
$134$160
$9.38$12.3
$1.94$2.53
Desale
2012
Proposed
dollars
Separation
Processes, Inc.
(2012)
The Peoples
18,60030,300
$161$190
$7.06$10.1
$1.90$2.42
Moss Landing
2012
Proposed
dollars
Separation
Processes, Inc.
Water Desal
(2012)
Projecte
Tampa Bay,
94,800
$158
n/a
$0.89
Florida
Gold Coast
2007
Complete
dollars
125,000
$888
$30
$1.61
Desalination
2009
See chapter
text
Complete
Pankratz (2012)
Complete
NWC (2008)
Proposed
Lee (2013);
dollars
Plantf
Kwinana
144,000
$330
$17
$0.99
Desalination
2008
dollars
Plant, Perthf
Carlsbad
190,000
$776
$49$54
$1.54$1.78
2012
dollars
Desalination
SDCWA (2012a)
Plant
Camp
190,000
$1,300
Pendleton
379,000
$1,900
Kurnell
208,000
$1,565
$45$105
$1.54$1.90
2009
Proposed
dollars
$47
$1.95
Desalination
2008
SDCWA
(2012d)
Complete
NWC (2008)
Complete
Pankratz (2012)
2012
In
Pankratz
dollars
progress
(2012); Kemp
dollars
Plant, Sydneyf
Southern
273,000
$1,466
n/a
$2.29
2012
dollars
Seawater
Desalination
Plantf
Port Stanvac,
273,000
$1,878
$136
$1.94
Adelaidef
(2012)
Wonthaggi
Desalination
413,000
$3,651
$63
$5.31
2012
Complete
Pankratz (2012)
dollars
Plant,
Melbournef
(continued)
99
T A B L E 6.1 continued
Note: n/a = not available.
a
Capital costs here are based on capital expenditures and include the cost of the desalination plant plus any
other infrastructure required to integrate the desalination plant into the rest of the water system. The cost to
nance the project is not included.
b
O&M costs include the operation and maintenance costs of the desalination plant and any other infrastructure required to integrate the desalination plant into the rest of the water system.
c
The unit cost captures capital and O&M costs as well as the cost to nance the project.
d
Costs have not been adjusted for ination. Unless otherwise indicated, we assume that cost estimates are provided in the year in which the project was completed.
e
The actual capacity of these projects may differ from what is stated here. The study these estimates were
drawn from (Separation Processes, Inc. 2012) adjusted the plant capacities to make a more accurate comparison among projects in the region.
f
Costs for plants in Australia were converted into US dollars using conversion rates for the year in which the
cost estimates were made.
produces 190,000 cubic meters (m3) of water per day, or 50 million gallons per day (MGD),
at a cost of $2.17 per m3 ($2,700 per acre-foot) at full capacity; an estimated one-third of
the cost is xed, and the remaining two-thirds of the cost is variable. If the operator reduces water production to 150,000 m3 per day (40 MGD), on average, then the unit cost
of water increases to $2.53 per m3 ($3,100 per acre-foot). If the operator further reduces
water production to 38,000 m3 per day (10 MGD), then the unit cost increases to more
than $7.96 per m3 ($9,800 per acre-foot).
Cost Comparisons
Seawater desalination has traditionally been considerably more expensive than most
other water supply and demand management options, but cost comparisons made on
the basis of the cost of existing water supplies can be misleading. The costs of existing
supplies are often far below the investment needed to construct and maintain these systems because of heavy subsidies from state and federal investments. Additionally, current water prices often fail to include costs for adequately maintaining and improving
water systems. As a result, the public often has a somewhat distorted perception of the
cost of a reliable supply of high-quality water, making it difcult for water utilities to justify their investment in more expensive water supply options, such as desalination.
Consequently, a comparison of the cost of new seawater desalination systems should
be based on the marginal cost of water: the cost of providing, or saving, the next increment of water. The marginal cost of water varies considerably among communities and
changes over time. As a result, these costs should be evaluated periodically on a caseby-case basis. A recent analysis of water alternatives for San Diego County, Californiaa
region where construction of multiple desalination plants is under considerationnds
that seawater desalination has the highest marginal cost of all plausible alternatives (table 6.2). The marginal cost of recycled water is also relatively high, although treating the
water to potable levels and using the existing distribution system can reduce this cost
considerably. New surface water and groundwater are less expensive than recycled water
or seawater desalination, although these supplies are limited. In many cases, conservation and efciency improvements have the lowest marginal cost.
100
FIGURE 6.2 AN EXAMPLE OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DESALINATION PLANT PRODUCTION AND UNIT COST
Note: Based on a desalination plant with a capacity of 190,000 m3 per day (50 MGD).
T A B L E 6.2 Example of the Marginal Cost of Water in San Diego County

Water Alternative
Imported water
Surface water
Groundwater
Seawater desalination
Recycled water (nonpotable)
Recycled water (potable)
Water conservation and efciency
Cost per Cubic Meter
Cost per Acre-Foot
$0.71$0.79
$0.32$0.65
$0.30$0.89
$1.46$2.27
$1.30$2.11
$0.97$1.46
$0.12$0.81
$875$975
$400$800
$375$1,100
$1,800$2,800
$1,600$2,600
$1,200$1,800
$150$1,000
Source: Equinox Center (2010).

Note: All costs are in 2010 dollars. Cost estimates for water conservation and efciency are based on costs to
the water agency, for example, estimated expenditures on educational initiatives or incentives for conservation measures divided by the cumulative water savings, and do not include costs or savings to the customer.
One acre-foot equals 1,233 cubic meters.
The cost associated with wastewater conveyance and treatment is another factor that
is often excluded from cost comparisons. The introduction of a new source of water increases the amount of wastewater that must be collected, treated, and disposed of. Some
communities may have adequate wastewater treatment capacity, and the additional
costs would simply be the variable O&M costs associated with that treatment. In other
101
communities, however, wastewater treatment capacity may need to be expanded, which

represents an additional, and in some cases signicant, capital cost to the community.
While these costs would apply to all of the water supply projects under consideration to
meet demand, the costs would not be incurred if water demand were met through water
conservation and efciency improvements.
Desalination Projects and Risk

Large-scale projects, such as desalination plants, include a variety of risks that affect the
ability to attract nancing, the rate of return, and the overall viability of a project. Each
project will have a unique set of risks that vary in their relative importance. Some of the
risks that have been identied for seawater desalination projects include the following
(Pemberton 2003; Wilcox and Whitney 2004; Wolfs and Woodroofe 2002; Schiller 2012):
Permitting risks are risks that governmental permits and approvals required to construct or operate the project will not be issued or will be issued only subject to onerous conditions.
Design and technology risks are risks that can be attributed to the use of a
design or technology that fails to deliver at expected service levels.
Construction risks arise during the construction period. Construction risks
can be attributed to poor project design, ineffective project management,
inexperienced contractors, or lack of effective communication among the
various contractors working on a project.
Operational and performance risks arise during the operation and maintenance period and can be attributed to inexperienced operators, higher
than anticipated operating costs, product water that fails to meet required
standards, or underperformance of equipment.
Financial risks are inuenced by the nancial status of the borrower,
changes in interest rates, uctuation in foreign exchange rates (if the project relies on foreign investment), and changes to pricing of construction or
operational phase insurance.
Market risks can be caused by unrealistic demand assessments and water
production assumptions, reluctance of customers to buy the produced water, and reluctance of those with rate-making authority to approve rate increases to cover new costs.
Political risks are associated with political decisions that affect the cost or
viability of the project and can relate to laws, tax rates, governmental permissions, and other factors. These risks may be associated with decisions
made by elected or appointed ofcials or by the public through, for example, a referendum.3
Force majeure risks are the risks of events that render the construction or
operation of the project impossible, either temporarily or permanently. A
3. For example, in November 2012, Santa Cruz residents passed Measure P, which guarantees residents the
right to vote on whether to pursue a seawater desalination project in the future.
102
force majeure event includes an extraordinary event or circumstance that

prevents one or both parties from fullling their obligations under the contract and is beyond the control of the parties, such as an earthquake, ood,
hurricane, war, strike, or riot.
Recent experience suggests that a key risk associated with seawater desalination
plants is overly optimistic assumptions about future demand for the produced water and
underappreciation of the availability of less expensive alternatives. This is a type of market risk that is also often referred to as demand risk. Water managers often have multiple
sources of water to choose from to meet water demand. Desalination is among the most
expensive options, and water managers may reduce the output of a desalination plant
when demand drops or when less expensive options are available. As noted above, reducing the output can increase the overall unit cost of the produced water considerably,
which can further reduce demand or make other supply options even more economically attractive. In response, water managers may temporarily or permanently shut down
the desalination plant. This can reduce the variable operating costs associated with the
plant, especially energy and chemical costs, but ultimately leave ratepayers to pay off a
plant while receiving little to no benet from it. Additionally, as desalination expert Tom
Pankratz notes, frequent stopping and starting, or long-term mothballing, may not only
affect the short-term performance of a plant, it may actually be detrimental to the system itself (Pankratz 2011).
Recent experience in Australia highlights demand risk (table 6.3). The Australian government has made a massive investment in seawater desalination plants in response to
a severe and persistent drought, developing six major plants since 2006. The rst plant,
with a capacity of 37 MGD, was built in Perth, became operational in late 2006, and continues to operate at or near full capacity. A second plant, the Southern Seawater Desalination Plant, is being developed in the same region and should be completed in 2013.
Other plants were built in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. While many
consider the rst Perth plant to be a success, the four other plants built in recent years
have been or will be put into standby mode as a result of reductions in demand and the
availability of less expensive alternatives.
For example, the Kurnell Desalination Plant in Sydney, New South Wales, was completed in January 2010 but was mothballed in July 2012 because less expensive surface
water sources are available.4 Likewise, the Wonthaggi Desalination Plant in Victoria was
completed in December 2012. Although the plant performed as designed, the government announced it would not be ordering water from the plant in 2013. Similarly, the
Port Stanvac Desalination Plant, south of Adelaide, South Australia, is expected to be
completed in 2013, but in an October 2012 statement, SA Waters chief executive, John
Ringham, announced that to keep costs down for our customers, SA Water is planning
to use our lower-cost water sources rst, which will mean placing the desalination plant
in stand-by mode when these cheaper sources are available (Kemp 2012). The desalination plant, which cost nearly $1.9 billion, is slated to go on standby mode in 2015.
Experience in Santa Barbara, California, and in Tampa Bay, Florida, provides further
evidence of demand risk. During a severe multiyear drought in California (19871992),
the City of Santa Barbara partnered with several local water agencies to build a seawater
desalination plant. The plant was completed in March 1992, and shortly thereafter the
4. If reservoir levels fall below 80 percent capacity, the desalination plant will be restarted.
103
T A B L E 6.3 Operational Status of Recently Constructed Desalination Plants
Facility Name
Location
Date Operational
Tampa Bay
Desalination
Plant
Tampa Bay,
Florida
2007
Gold Coast
Desalination
Planta
Plant Capacity
Plant Capacity
(MGD)
(m3/day)
Status
25
95,000
In intermittent use
February 2009
Tugun,
Queensland,
Australia
33
125,000
In standby mode
since December
2010 because of
high operating
cost and
operational issues
Kurnell
Desalination
Plantb
Sydney, New January 2010

South Wales,
Australia
66
250,000
In standby mode
since July 2012
because reservoirs
are full
Kwinana
Desalination
Plant
Perth,
Western
Australia
November
2006
38
144,000
Operational
Southern
Desalination
Plant
Binningup,
Western
Australia
September
2011 (phase 1);
March 2013
(phase 2)
72
270,000
Phase 1 is
operational; phase
2 is under
construction
Wonthaggi
Desalination
Plantc
Victoria,
Australia
December
2012
109
413,000
In standby mode
since January 2013
Port Stanvac
Desalination
Plantd
Adelaide,
South
Australia
2013
72
270,000
Will be put in
standby mode in
2015
Sources:
a
Marschke (2012).
b
AAP Newswire (2012).
c
Hosking (2012).
d
Kemp (2012).
drought ended. The plant was eventually decommissioned, as the cost to produce the
water was too high to warrant its use during non-drought periods. In addition, the high
cost of building the plant and connecting to the California State Water Project raised local
water prices enough to encourage substantial additional conservation, further decreasing need for the plant. Similarly, Floridas Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Project was
completed in 2008 in an effort to reduce groundwater pumping. Since it was built, that
plant has operated far below its full capacity as a result of periodic operational issues,
reductions in regional water demand, and availability of less expensive alternatives.
104
Project Delivery Methods

Planning, designing, nancing, constructing, and operating major water projects, such
as desalination plants, can be challenging. Such projects are often accomplished by
public agencies or through various types of public-private partnerships. The delivery of
large-scale water projects may involve different parties and stakeholders, including the
owner, designers and engineers, construction contractors, operation contractors, external nanciers, and consumers. The project delivery method determines how these multiple groups relate to one another. There is a range of project delivery methods; among
the most common are the following:
Design-bid-build (DBB). This is a traditional project delivery approach for
municipal infrastructure projects in which the owner, that is, the public
water provider, determines that a project is needed and secures nancing
for the project. The owner works with an engineer to dene the project and
develop plans with detailed specications; the owner then solicits bids
from multiple contractors to construct the project; the contractor that provides the lowest bid that meets all of the criteria is selected; and operations
are performed by the owner or by a contract operator.
Design-build (DB). The owner develops the project concept and secures
nancing; the owner then hires a design-build team to construct the project for a lump-sum xed price or a guaranteed maximum price; operations
are performed by the owner or by a contract operator.
Design-build-operate (DBO). The owner develops the project concept and
secures nancing; the owner hires a single team responsible for the development, design, construction, and long-term operation of the project.
Design-build-own-operate-transfer (DBOOT). The contractor is responsible for the design, construction, and long-term operation of the project. In
contrast with the more traditional project delivery methods, the contractor
must secure nancing for the project and initially owns the facility; the
water agency agrees to purchase the water at an agreed-upon price over a
certain period (these purchase agreements allow the contractor to secure
the necessary nancing); the contract contains provisions for the transfer
of ownership of the facility to the water provider on an agreed-upon date.
Design-build-own-operate (DBOO). In this variation of the DBOOT delivery
method the contractor is responsible for the design, nancing, construction, and long-term operation of the project, and the water agency agrees
to purchase the water at an agreed-upon price over a certain period. Unlike
the situation with a DBOOT, however, there is no asset transfer at the end
of the project.
Each project delivery method has advantages and disadvantages with respect to
how risk is shared among parties, the length of the process, and other factors. Some of
these advantages and disadvantages are described in table 6.4. A key difference among
the project delivery methods is the degree to which innovation in technology and design is integrated into the project. The water sector in the United States has traditionally employed the DBB delivery model. With DBB, the public utility or agency (owner
105
of the project) plays a central role, selecting different groups to design, construct, and
possibly operate the project. DBB contracts are generally awarded on the basis of lowest
cost (NRC 2008). Thus, there is often little incentive to implement innovative designs and
technologies that may have a higher capital cost but that reduce operating costs and result in a less expensive project overall. With a DBO delivery method, by contrast, the DBO
contractor is responsible for operation of the project. Thus, the contractor has an incentive to promote innovative designs and technologies that can optimize and improve the
operability of the project.
Another key difference among the various project delivery methods is the party required to secure nancing. Under the DBB, DB, and DBO delivery methods, the water
provider secures project nancing, largely by issuing debt (bonds or loans). Under the
DBOO and DBOOT delivery methods, by contrast, the contractor secures nancing by
issuing debt or obtaining private equity or both. One possible drawback in using this
approach, however, is the high cost of private capital, which is reected in the nal price
of desalinated water. Proponents of this delivery method, however, argue that the higher
costs (which are borne by the consumer) are offset by lower risk for the water provider,
higher efciency of the contractor, and technology performance guarantees (Texas Water Development Board 2002).
Risk Allocation among Project Partners

A key element of any public-private partnership is the allocation of risk among the project partners. With DBB contracts, the ownertypically the publiccarries most of the
risks associated with the project. By contrast, with DBO and DBOOT contracts, the contractor bears more of the risk (gure 6.3). By assuming a specic risk, the project partner
is responsible for any additional cost (or savings) associated with that risk and cannot
pass that cost along to the other project partner. For example, if Partner A assumes the
construction risk for the project, and the cost of construction is higher than anticipated,
Partner A must pay the additional cost of construction and cannot pass those costs along
to Partner B. Likewise, if construction costs are lower than anticipated, Partner A captures that savings and does not pass the savings on to Partner B.
The project sponsor is expected to identify the risks associated with the project and
determine the appropriate risk and responsibility allocation prior to the procurement
process and contract development. This allows the interested parties to understand the
FIGURE 6.3 RISK ALLOCATION UNDER VARIOUS PROJECT DELIVERY METHODS
106
underlying risks and responsibilities and price their proposal accordingly, since the contractual risk structure is directly related to pricing (Wilcox and Whitney 2004). In theory,
a particular risk should be allocated among parties such that the party with the greatest
ability to control the outcome takes on that risk. There are some risks, however, that are
outside the control of both parties.
As described above, demand risk is one of the key risks associated with desalination
projects. The quantity of water that will be purchased is set forth in a long-term water
purchase agreementalso referred to as an off-take agreement. This agreement is negotiated prior to construction of the project and is often needed to secure nancing.
Among the most common forms of off-take agreement is the take-or-pay contract.
Under a take-or-pay contract, the buyer agrees to pay for a minimum amount of water
from the seller on a certain date even if the buyer does not need the water. This type
of contract provides guaranteed revenue for the seller but commits the buyer to a purchase even if actual demand drops. A minimum commitment to a large volume of water,
however, provides a disincentive for water agencies to pursue more cost-effective water
supply and water conservation and efciency programs. Thus, take-or-pay contracts, if
structured poorly, can result in signicant exposure to demand risk and higher costs for
the buyera problem noticed long ago in the context of energy take-or-pay contracts.5
Case Studies
In the following section, we provide two case studies that emphasize several elements of
seawater desalination projects, including their cost, how they are nanced, the structure
of the public-private partnership, and the risks associated with the projects. The rst case
study looks in detail at the Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Project, which is the largest
plant built in North America to date and has been the subject of several in-depth assessments. The second case study focuses on the proposed desalination project in Carlsbad,
California, which has been in development for more than a decade, has received all of
the necessary permits, and nally secured nancing in December 2012.
Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Project

Like many communities around the United States, the Tampa Bay, Florida, region has
been experiencing signicant growth combined with increasing constraints on water
availability. Overpumping of local groundwater resources in the region has forced communities to think about alternative water solutions. In the late 1990s, some water managers and planners thought seawater desalination might be a key element of the regions
long-term water future. The Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Project faced several major delays but was completed in 2007 (Cooley 2009). It is the rst large-scale seawater
desalination project constructed in the United States.
5. A summary of problematic energy take-or-pay contracts can be found here: http://www.jbsenergy.com

/energy/papers/blueprint/blueprint.html#_Toc2576605. Similarly, take-or-pay contracts for natural gas
caused serious problems for both suppliers and consumers and required federal intervention in the 1980s
and 1990s (http://www.naturalgas.org/regulation/history.asp). See also the Carlsbad case study in this
chapter for some issues that can arise with a take-or-pay contract.
107
Since its completion in 2007, the plant has operated far below its design capacity of
95,000 m3 per day (25 MGD). Figure 6.4 shows the plants average monthly water production between 2003 and October 2012. During some short periods, the plant operated
at or near capacity. In others, the plant operated at reduced capacity or was in standby
mode. In 2013, Tampa Bay Water plans to operate the plant at a higher capacity (averaging 42,000 m3 per day, or 11 MGD) because a local water reservoir is undergoing repair. Once this is complete, however, production from the desalination plant will likely
be reduced once again because cheaper water supply alternatives are available. A recent
analysis by Tampa Bay Water found that implementing cost-effective conservation and
efciency programs in the region would reduce water demand by 2035 by 150,000 m3 per
day (40 MGD) (Tampa Bay Water 2012), signicantly more water than is produced by the
seawater desalination plant and at a lower cost.
Project Delivery Method

In response to ongoing water supply concerns, the West Coast Regional Water Supply
Authoritylater to become Tampa Bay Waterissued a request for proposals (RFP) to
design, build, operate, and own a desalination plant in 1996. The RFP allowed the project developer to select the size and location of the plant as well as the operations and
method of seawater desalination. In July 1999, after a two-and-a-half-year solicitation
process, Tampa Bay Water entered into a water purchase agreement with S&W Water,
LLCa partnership between Stone & Webster and Poseidon Resources Corporation.
FIGURE 6.4 AVERAGE MONTHLY WATER PRODUCTION FROM TAMPA BAY SEAWATER DESALINATION PLANT,
20032012
Note: The design capacity of the plant is 95,000 cubic meters per day (25 MGD).
Design-build
(DB)
Design-bidbuild (DBB)
Disadvantages
s 3EGMENTS DESIGN CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION AND

s 7ELL UNDERSTOOD BY ALL INVOLVED PARTIES
reduces collaboration
s 0OTENTIAL FOR HIGH DEGREE OF OWNER CONTROL AND
s ,INEAR PROCESS INCREASES SCHEDULE DURATION
involvement
s 0RONE TO DISPUTES AND CREATES OPPORTUNITIES FOR RISK
s )NDEPENDENT OVERSIGHT OF CONSTRUCTION
avoidance by the designer and construction
contractor
contractor
s ,OW BID CONTRACTOR SELECTION REDUCES CREATIVITY AND
increases risks of performance problems
s 2ISKS ARE MOSTLY BORNE BY THE OWNER
s -AY NOT ALLOW FOR ECONOMIES OF SCALE IN OPERATIONS
s &OR NEW TECHNOLOGIES OPERABILITY MAY NOT BE THE
primary design concern
s /WNER MAY NOT BE AS FAMILIAR WITH $" PROCESS OR
s #OLLABORATION BETWEEN DESIGNER AND
contract terms
contractor
s 2EDUCES OWNER CONTROL AND OVERSIGHT
s 0ARALLEL PROCESSES REDUCE DURATION
s $ESIGN AND hAS BUILTv DRAWINGS NOT AS DETAILED
s 2EDUCES DESIGN COSTS
s %LIMINATES hINDEPENDENT OVERSIGHTv ROLE OF THE
s 2EDUCES POTENTIAL FOR DISPUTES BETWEEN
designer
designer and construction contractor
s $OES NOT INHERENTLY INCLUDE INCENTIVES FOR
s 3INGLE POINT OF ACCOUNTABILITY
operability and construction quality, as does DBO
s #AN PROMOTE DESIGN INNOVATION
or DBOOT approach
s 0ROVIDES MORE CERTAINTY ABOUT COSTS AT AN
s (IGHER COST TO COMPETE
earlier stage
s !LLOWS OWNER TO ASSIGN CERTAIN RISKS TO $"
team
Advantages
T A B L E 6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Project Delivery Methods
s 4IME IS CRITICAL BUT EXISTING

conditions and desired outcomes
are well dened
s 0ROJECT USES CONVENTIONAL WELL
understood technology
s /WNER IS WILLING TO RELINQUISH
control over design details
s /PERATIONAL AND AESTHETIC ISSUES
are easily dened
s %ARLY CONTRACTOR INPUT WILL LIKELY
save time or money
s /PERATION OF FACILITY IS MINIMAL OR

well understood by owner
s 0ROJECT REQUIRES HIGH DEGREE OF
public oversight
s /WNER WANTS TO BE EXTENSIVELY
involved in the design
s 3CHEDULE IS NOT A PRIORITY
Works best when . . .
s /WNERS STAFF DOES NOT HAVE

experience in operating the type
of facility
s )NPUT CONDITIONS TO THE FACILITY
can be well dened and the
number of external inuences
affecting plant operations is
limited
s /WNER IS COMFORTABLE WITH LESS
direct control during design,
construction, and operation
s 0UBLIC lNANCING CANNOT BE

obtained
s 4RANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY RISK IS
important
2EDUCES OWNER INVOLVEMENT

/WNER MAY NOT BE FAMILIAR WITH $"/ CONTRACTING
(IGH COST TO COMPETE MAY LIMIT COMPETITION
$EPENDING ON CONTRACT TERMS MAY GIVE OPERATOR
incentives to overcharge for ongoing renewals and
replacements or to neglect maintenance near the
end of the contract term
s /PERATIONS CONTRACT MAY LIMIT LONG TERM mEXIBILITY
s 2EQUIRES MULTIPHASE CONTRACT
s 3AME AS WITH $"/ BUT LACK OF PUBLIC lNANCING

increases the cost of money
s
s
s
s
Source: Adapted from Texas Water Development Board (2002) and NRC (2008).
Design-build- s !LLOWS COLLABORATION AMONG DESIGNER

operate (DBO)
construction, contractor, and operator
s 0ARALLEL PROCESSES REDUCE DURATION
s /PERATOR INPUT ON NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND
design
s $"/ CONTRACTOR HAS BUILT IN INCENTIVE TO
ensure quality, since contractor will be longterm operator
s 3INGLE POINT OF ACCOUNTABILITY
s !LLOWS OWNER TO ASSIGN CERTAIN RISKS TO $"/
contractor
s %CONOMIES OF SCALE FOR OPERATIONS
s #OLLABORATION LONG TERM CONTRACT AND
appropriate risk allocation can cut costs
s $ElNES LONG TERM EXPENSES FOR RATE SETTING
Design-build- s 3AME AS WITH $"/ PLUS THE FOLLOWING
own-operate- s #AN BE USED WHERE PROJECT EXPENDITURES
exceed public borrowing capacity
transfer
s "ENElCIAL WHEN PRESERVING PUBLIC CREDIT FOR
(DBOOT)
other projects is important
s #AN ISOLATE OWNER FROM PROJECT RISK
110
Under the initial agreement, S&W Water would develop a desalination plant capable of
supplying 95,000 m3 per day (25 MGD) to Tampa Bay Water and would sell that water at
a xed price. The agreement was structured as a BOOT arrangement that would allow
Tampa Bay Water to buy the plant after thirty years or earlier, if desired.
Soon after the water purchase agreement was signed, the project began encountering
problems. In June 2000, Stone & Webster declared bankruptcy, leaving Poseidon without
an engineering and construction partner. Poseidon then hired Covanta Energy to construct the plant, and a new partnership emerged: Tampa Bay Desal. Obtaining nancing
for the project, however, proved to be difcult. Covanta Energy had a poor bond rating
and was unable to secure nancing for the construction bonds. Tampa Bay Water, however, had a more favorable AA bond rating, which would allow it to obtain nancing at a
lower interest rate and thereby reduce the nancing cost. In early 2002, Tampa Bay Water
bought Poseidons interest in the project while retaining the engineering and construction company (Covanta Construction) to complete the project. At the time, the plants
design and permitting were complete, while construction was only 30 percent complete
(Smith 2009). Tampa Bay Water signed a thirty-year O&M contract with Covanta Tampa
Bay, Inc. (a subsidiary of Covanta Energy) to operate the facility.6 This move effectively
restructured the DBOOT procurement into a DBO contract, whereby Tampa Bay Water
assumed ownership and many of the risks associated with the plant.
Before Covanta Tampa Bay could commence the separate thirty-year O&M contract,
the plant was required to meet certain performance standards. Covanta Construction
was unable to meet the test standards after repeated attempts and nally declared bankruptcy in 2003. In 2004, the parties agreed to a settlement whereby Tampa Bay Water paid
Covanta nearly $5 million to end its contract. In return, Tampa Bay Water retained full
control of the facilities and the operating contract. In late 2004, Tampa Bay Water signed
a DBO contract with American Water-Pridesa, a joint venture between American Water
and Acciona Agua, to repair deciencies and operate the plant on a long-term basis.
Under the current operating contract, Tampa Bay Water must pay American WaterPridesa about $7 million per year regardless of whether water is produced by the plant.
This base contract covers the xed O&M costs for the plant plus some return to the operator. Tampa Bay Water pays variable operating costs (chemicals and electricity) separately. This contract allows Tampa Bay Water to reduce the plants production if cheaper
alternatives are available.
Project Cost
The initial capital cost for the desalination plant and the fteen-mile pipeline to connect
it to the water system was estimated to be $110 million. Initial performance tests in 2003,
however, revealed thirty-one deciencies in the plant. To x the plant, Tampa Bay Water
signed a $29 million, two-year contract with American Water-Pridesa. Major improvements were made to the pre-treatment, reverse osmosis, and post-treatment system,
and the nal capital cost of the project was $158 million, more than 40 percent above the
original cost.
Initially, desalination proponents were excited by the Tampa Bay project and by the
apparent price breakthrough. In the initial water purchase agreement, S&W Water made
a binding commitment to deliver desalinated water in the rst year of operation at an
unprecedented wholesale cost of $0.45 per m3 ($557 per acre-foot), with a thirty-year
6. The O&M contract was worth $300$360 million and was Covanta Tampa Bays only asset (Wright 2003).
111
average cost of $0.55 per m3 ($678 per acre-foot) (Heller 1999). This was well below the
cost of water from other recent desalination plants. By comparison, in that same year the
Singapore Public Utilities Board announced plans to build a large desalination plant to
produce water at an estimated cost of between $1.98 and $2.31 per m3 ($2,440 and $2,850
per acre-foot, respectively), with an additional cost to deliver water to customers (U.S.
Water News 1999).
The project developers were unable to deliver on the initial cost estimates, and the
cost estimates have increased. Additionally, as noted above, the production of water
from the plant has varied dramatically since the project was completed in 2007, further
affecting the unit cost (gure 6.4). According to recent estimates from Tampa Bay Water,
the unit cost of water from the desalination plant is $1.05 per m3 ($1,300 per acre-foot) if
the plant is operating at full capacity (Vatter 2012).7 Ofcials at Tampa Bay Water, however, indicate that the plant will operate at an average production of 40,000 m3 per day (11
MGD) from October 2012 through October 2013, which is considerably less than full capacity. At this reduced capacity, the unit cost of water is estimated at $1.30 per m3 ($1,600
per acre-foot), more than double the original cost estimate (Vatter 2012).
Project Financing
The Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Project was originally structured as a BOOT
agreement, which usually employs some combination of debt and equity nancing. Taxexempt private-activity bonds provided 90 percent of the projects capital cost (Lokiec
and Kronenberg 2001), and the remaining 10 percent was provided as an equity stake by
the project developer. In 2007, however, Tampa Bay Water bought out Poseidons interest
in the project using short-term, variable interest rate bonds and became the sole owner
of the plant. Tampa Bay Water selected this nancing strategy because interest rates were
low at the time. Furthermore, the bonds would be repaid shortly after the project was
completed because the Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD), a regional agency that regulates and permits water resources for west-central Florida, agreed
to provide $85 million of the projects eligible capital costs over an eighteen-month period upon completion. The SWFWMD obtained these funds through voter-approved, locally collected ad valorem property taxes designated for water supply creation.
Summary
When the Tampa Bay desalination plant was announced, it was hailed as a breakthrough
for desalination in the United States and sparked enormous interest and excitement. But
the project encountered several technical and managerial challenges. The experiences of
Tampa Bay Water can help to inform the development of projects under consideration
elsewhere. Some of the lessons that can be learned about cost, nancing, and risk include the following:
Anticipate the transfer of ownership at any point of the project and
consider what actions will be taken if that transfer occurs.
Exercise caution when transferring ownership under a DBOOT contract.
The new owners must recognize that they are assuming many of the risks
associated with the project.
7. This estimate includes O&M plus the annual debt service cost, assuming that the full capital cost of the
project was nanced at Tampa Bay Waters average bond rate over thirty years.
112
Ensure that those submitting proposals have relevant experience with desalination projects.
Minimize demand risk by implementing cost-effective water supply alternatives prior to the development of the project.
Consider establishing a minimum operating contract, rather than a takeor-pay contract, to allow the water supplier to adjust production of the
plant if cheaper alternatives are available.
Carlsbad Desalination Project

Poseidon Resources Corporation is working to build a 190,000 m3 per day (50 MGD) desalination facility at the Encina Power Station in the city of Carlsbad. The project would
utilize the Encina Power Stations existing surface intake and outfall structures. Poseidon began developing the project in 1998, and in 2003 it constructed a demonstration
facility at the site. The project has been highly contested, with local and environmental
groups ling more than a dozen legal challenges, including lawsuits and permit appeals,
against the project. By November 2009, Poseidon had received all of the permits required
to build and operate the plant and announced it would begin to secure nancing. Financing was nally secured in December 2012. Here we provide a detailed case study of
the cost, nancing, and partnerships associated with the project.
Project Cost
Numerous and contradictory cost estimates for the Carlsbad Desalination Project have
been put forth since the project was initiated in the late 1990s. In May 2002, initial capital
cost estimates for the desalination plant were $260 million (Green 2002), dramatically
less than other plants of similar size at the time. Estimates for the desalination plant and
distribution pipeline were quoted at $270 million in 2002 (Jimenez 2002) and $320 million in 2009 (Schwartz 2009). By October 2011, however, projected costs had increased
to $950 million, more than three and one-half times the original cost. It is difcult to
determine why these costs grew so dramatically over the ten-year period because there
has been a lack of transparency regarding assumptions about nancing, ination rates,
energy costs, interest repayment, related facilities, and other factors.
The water purchase agreement provided detailed cost estimates for the project. According to these gures, the capital cost of the project is $767 million (Lee 2013). Of that
amount,
$537 million is needed for the planning, permitting, design, construction,
mitigation, and legal costs associated with the desalination plant;
$159 million is needed to build a ten-mile pipeline to transport the desalinated water from the coast to the regional water distribution system; and
$80 million is needed for indirect costs associated with water system
improvements, including relining and rehabilitating a ve-and-one-halfmile section of the distribution pipeline and modifying the Twin Oaks
Valley Water Treatment Plant to accommodate desalinated water ows.
113
In addition to the capital costs, operating and maintaining these facilities would cost an
additional $49$54 million each year (Lee 2013).8 Financing costs for the project, including bond repayments and the return to the equity investors, exceed $1 billion (Lee 2013).
As described previously, the unit cost of water is determined by dividing the annual
capital and O&M costs by the amount of water produced. In 2002, Poseidon estimated
that the unit cost of water would be $0.65 per m3 ($800 per acre-foot) (Green 2002). In the
initial contracts with local water agencies, Poseidon agreed to sell desalinated water at
the same price that the agencies paid for imported water. Poseidon was willing to take a
loss on the project in the short term, with the belief that imported water supplies would
eventually be more expensive than the desalinated water and that they would recover
these costs over the long term. Today, water agencies pay less than $0.81 per m3 ($1,000
per acre-foot) for treated water from the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD), which is more expensive than Poseidons original cost estimate but considerably less than the most recent estimates for the project.
Like the total cost, the unit price of water has also grown tremendously as the project
has developed. By July 2010, the unit cost for water had increased to $0.89 per m3 ($1,100
per acre-foot) plus an additional $0.41 per m3 ($500 per acre-foot) (in 2010 dollars) for
delivery charges (SDCWA 2010). Since that time, the unit cost has continued to rise in
response to changes in the plant design, ination rates, improved nancing estimates,
and more. The most recent gures from the San Diego County Water Authority (SDCWA,
or Water Authority) estimate that the cost to produce desalinated water and to integrate
it into the existing distribution system is about $1.55$1.76 per m3 ($1,900$2,200 per
acre-foot) (in 2012 dollars) (SDCWA 2012a).9 Note that the cost estimatesboth the total
cost and the unit costwill likely change as the project advances.
A key question is how the cost of desalination compares with the cost of other water
supply alternatives. A recent analysis by the Water Authority nds that the marginal cost
of new supply within the San Diego area ranges from $1.20 to $1.93 per m3 ($1,475$2,375
per acre-foot) (in 2011 dollars) (table 6.5). The cost of water from the proposed seawater
desalination plantsCarlsbad and Camp Pendletonare at the high end of the range.
Desalinated brackish groundwater and recycled water are considerably less expensive.
This analysis, however, does not include an evaluation of the cost of water conservation
and efciency measures, many of which provide water for considerably less than $1.22
per m3 ($1,500 per acre-foot) (Gleick et al. 2003).
Project Delivery Method

The Carlsbad desalination project has been in development since 1998 as a public-private partnership. The project partnersand the relationships between those partners
have changed considerably over the past fourteen years. In December 2001, Poseidon
completed an initial study for the City of Carlsbad and proposed to build a desalination plant at the Encina Power Station. The original proposal was structured as a DBOO
agreement, whereby Poseidon would retain ownership of the facility and would ask the
regional water agencies, including the City of Carlsbad and the Water Authority, to sign a
thirty-year contract to purchase water directly from Poseidon (La Rue 2001).
8. This includes O&M costs for the entire project, that is, the desalination plant, the conveyance pipeline, and
the efciency losses at the Twin Oaks Valley Water Treatment Plant.
9. The range in the unit price reects a purchase of 48,000 to 54,000 acre-feet per year.
114
T A B L E 6.5 Marginal Unit Cost of Water

Water Alternative
Brackish groundwater (Mission Basin Narrows)

Brackish groundwater (Otay River)
Indirect potable reuse (City of San Diego)
Indirect potable reuse (North San Diego County
Regional Reuse)
Seawater desalination (Camp Pendleton)
Cost per Cubic Meter
Cost per Acre-Foot
$1.39
$1.20$1.69
$1.60$1.93
$1.32$1.40
$1,717
$1,475$2,086
$1,975$2,375
$1,628$1,730
$1.54$1.90
$1,900$2,340
Source: SDCWA (2012d).

Note: These costs refer to estimates for specic projects and are directly from the SDCWA. The costs shown in
this table refer to average estimates across the regions. All costs are in 2011 US dollars and exclude any grants
or incentives. The cost listed for the City of San Diegos indirect potable reuse project includes wastewaterrelated costs that could reduce the unit cost by up to $600 per acre-foot ($0.49 per cubic meter). This gure also
excludes the costs of conservation and efciency, water transfers from agriculture, and additional water from
regional providers.
By 2002, the partnership had shifted to a DBOOT arrangement. In November 2002,

the Water Authority approved the outline of a partnership with Poseidon to build a desalination plant in Carlsbad. Under the proposed agreement, Poseidon would obtain the
permits, secure the nancing, and supervise the construction. The power plants owner,
Cabrillo Power, would operate and maintain the facility. The Water Authority would be
the sole purchaser of water and would be responsible for building the pipelines that distribute the water. Poseidon would initially own the plant but would sell it to the Water
Authority after ve years of operation (Jimenez 2002).
Negotiations between Poseidon and the Water Authority were on-again, off-again between 2003 and 2005. Unable to reach an agreement, the two sides resolved to pursue
separate, competing projects at the Encina Power Station: one by the Water Authority
and the other by Poseidon. In mid-2006, however, the Water Authority announced it
would no longer pursue a desalination plant in Carlsbad (Rodgers 2006). Poseidon continued to pursue water purchase agreements with local agencies. By late 2009, Poseidon
had received all of the permits it needed to build the plant and had signed water purchase agreements with a number of local agencies (Burge 2009). With these agreements
in place and with the withdrawal of the Water Authority, the Carlsbad Desalination Project in effect shifted to a DBOO arrangement.
In mid-2010, the structure of the project abruptly shifted back to a DBOOT arrangement. In July 2010, the Water Authority approved key terms to be the sole purchaser of
water from Poseidon. Water Authority staff began negotiating specic elements of the
agreement, including the water purchase price, allocation of risk, and options to eventually purchase the projects pipeline and the entire desalination plant (SDCWA 2010). In
September 2012, after more than two years of negotiation, the Water Authority released
the water purchase agreement for a public review period prior to a vote by the county
board of directors. Under this agreement, Poseidon would be responsible for designing,
permitting, nancing, constructing, and operating the desalination plant and would be
the owner of the plant during the contract term.10 The Water Authority would have the
10. The contractor for the project would be a joint venture of Kiewit Infrastructure West and J.F. Shea Construction. IDE Technologies would provide the process technology (e.g., the pumps and membranes) and
would also operate and maintain the desalination plant.
115
right to purchase the plant after ten years of commercial operation under previously
specied terms and conditions or to take over ownership of the plant after thirty years
for $1. The Water Authority may also purchase the plant if Poseidon is unable to secure
nancing or if the venture goes bankrupt (SDCWA 2012c). It is of note that in Tampa Bay,
Florida, the project contractors were unable to secure nancing, prompting Tampa Bay
Water to purchase Poseidons interest in the project and assume many of the projectrelated risks.
The pipeline needed to convey the desalinated water from the coast to the distribution
system would be developed under a separate DB agreement between the Water Authority and Poseidon. The Water Authority would own and maintain the pipeline and would
nance the project using municipal bonds. Poseidon, however, would assume responsibility for payment of the bonds in the event that Poseidon is unable to complete the desalination project. The Water Authority would also assume responsibility for completing
and nancing other water system improvements, specically, relining the conveyance
pipeline and upgrading the Twin Oaks Valley Water Treatment Plant.
The process for selecting Poseidon as the project partner was different from the typical
process in a DBOOT arrangement. Ordinarily, the public agency solicits proposals for a
project. Interested parties then submit their qualications and, if accepted, submit a proposal that includes some cost estimate. The public agency then selects a proposal on the
basis of a variety of factors, including cost. The Water Authority, however, did not allow
other parties to submit proposals and determine which one offered the best alternative.
Without this process, it is difcult to determine whether the best proposal was selected.
Risk Allocation
One key element of the water purchase agreement between Poseidon and the Water Authority is the allocation of risk among the project partners. As shown in table 6.6, projectrelated risks are split between Poseidon and the Water Authority. Poseidon, for example,
assumes the risks associated with construction of the plant; this includes ensuring that
the project is completed on time, on cost, and according to design standards. Poseidon
also assumes certain operational risks, including those associated with the amount of
energy consumed, the costs of membrane performance and replacement, and chemical
costs. Additionally, if Poseidon fails to produce water, then Poseidon must cover the debt
service cost for the desalination plant and the Water Authoritys conveyance pipeline.
The Water Authority also assumes several project-related risks that could further increase the price of water. For example, the Water Authority assumes the risk associated with changes in law or regulations that generally apply to water treatment facilities
and wastewater dischargers. Thus, any additional costs associated with complying with
these laws or regulations would allow Poseidon to increase the price of water. The State
Water Resources Control Board, for example, is considering amendments to the California Ocean Plan that could increase the costs associated with brine discharge. Under the
purchase agreement, capital costs of up to $20 million (in 2010 dollars) could be passed
along to the Water Authority. The Water Authority also assumes the risk associated with
ination and rising electricity prices, and thus Poseidon can increase the price of water
because of costs associated these factors.
The Water Authority also assumes the risk associated with sustaining demand for the
water produced by the desalination plant. The water purchase agreement is structured as
a take-or-pay contract, and under these terms the Water Authority must pay for the water
116
T A B L E 6.6 Project Risk Allocation

San Diego County Water
Risk Description
Poseidon
Authority
Construction riskfacility is not completed on time, on

cost, and according to design standards
Permitting riskcurrent permit and environmental

mitigation requirements increase
Change in law riskfuture unanticipated laws or

regulations increase operating costs
Technology riskplant technology does not perform as

expected
Output riskplant is not able to produce the projected

volume of water
Operating margin riskthe price of water is not

adequate to generate enough revenue to pay
expenditures or may increase more than projected
X
(budget cap)
X
(subject to CPI)
Pipeline operating riskthe pipeline connecting the

plant to the regional aqueduct system and associated
facilities is unable to transport acceptable water to the
SDCWAs wholesale customers
Electricitychanges in the cost or amount of electricity

used will affect the water price
X
(electricity
consumption)
X
(electricity price)
Force majeure events
X (insurable)
X (uninsurable)
Source: SDCWA (2012b).

Note: The San Diego County Water Authority (SDCWA) assumes those risks, and costs, that affect all water
treatment plant operators and wastewater dischargers and the cost of power plant improvements (with a cap
of up to $20 million in capital and $2.5 million in annual operating costs; these estimates are in 2010 dollars).
regardless of whether that water is needed. In a July 2012 meeting, SDCWA staff indicated
that current regional water demands do not justify a xed commitment to purchase the
entire output of the plant, which is equivalent to 69,000 megaliters (Ml) per year. Rather,
staff suggested that the agreement be based on a lower contract minimum of 59,000 Ml
per year and that xed costs be allocated on the basis of that purchase amount.
Based on the staffs recommendation, the 2012 water purchase agreement establishes a take-or-pay contract with a minimum demand commitment of 59,000 Ml per year.
Thus, the Water Authority must purchase at least 59,000 Ml per year of the most expensive water available, even if demand declines or if cheaper alternative supplies are available. This exposes the Water Authority to signicant demand risk and could have major
cost implications for the Water Authority and its ratepayers. One option is for the Water
Authority to consider a contract that establishes an even lower minimum commitment.
While this may increase the unit cost of water, it would allow the Water Authority to reduce some operating costs, especially energy and chemical costs.
117
Project Financing
Efforts to nance the project began in late 2009. At that time, the cost estimate for the
project was $300 million. Stephen Howard, head of the infrastructure group at Barclays
Capital, which was seriously considering the plant at the time, was quoted as saying that
a $300 million project was feasible, but if this project was north of $800 million to $1
billion, it would probably be very challenging (Schwartz 2009). Today, costs are squarely
within this range.
Financing for the project was nally secured in December 2012, shortly after the water
purchase agreement was approved. Nearly 80 percent of the projects cost was nanced
through tax-exempt private-activity bonds. The remaining 20 percent was provided by
cash equity from Stonepeak Infrastructure Partners (Brennan 2013).11 Standard & Poors
assigned a BBB credit rating to the project, which is the lowest investment rating and
was expected to increase the cost of nancing the project. Despite the low rating, the
project received a 4.78 percent yield on the bonds for the desalination plant and 44.5
percent for the pipeline. Higher rates of return are expected for the equity providers. The
Water Authority estimates that the cost to nance the project would be $227 million.
Summary
It is not yet clear whether the Carlsbad Desalination Project will succeed. However, the
project raises several issues that should be considered by other developers seeking to
pursue desalination project, particularly the following:
The project was negotiated in a noncompetitive environment, which raises
concerns about whether the best project was selected, especially in relation to the cost, design, and operation of the plant.
Demand risk is a major concern for the project. Alternative supplies and
conservation and efciency improvements are available at lower cost than
the desalination project.
The take-or-pay contract establishes a high minimum commitment to purchase water. This would prevent the Water Authority from pursuing cheaper
water alternatives as they become available.
The Water Authority should consider a lower minimum commitment,
which would allow it the exibility to reduce plant output and capture potentially signicant nancial savings from lower O&M expenses.
Conclusions
Economicsincluding both the cost of the water produced and the complex nancial
arrangements needed to develop a projectare important factors that will determine
the ultimate success and extent of desalination in California. In this chapter we provided
detailed information about the cost of seawater desalination projects, how they are nanced, and some of the risks associated with these projects.
11. Stonepeak Infrastructure Partners, formerly the infrastructure investment division of Blackstone, is an
equity investment rm that focuses on traditional infrastructure assets, especially in North America.
118
How Much Does Desalination Really Cost?

Our analysis nds that the cost to produce water from a desalination plant is highly variable. Recent estimates for plants proposed in California range from $1.54 to $2.43 per m3
($1,900 to more than $3,000 per acre-foot). Although the cost of seawater desalination
has declined considerably over the past twenty years, desalination costs remain high,
and major cost breakthroughs are unlikely to occur in the near to mid term. Indeed, desalination costs may increase in response to rising energy prices.
The public and decision makers must exercise caution when comparing cost estimates for different seawater desalination projects. In many cases, costs are reported in
ways that are not directly comparable. For example, some report the cost of the desalination plant alone, whereas others include the additional infrastructure, such as conveyance pipelines, needed to integrate the desalination plant into the rest of the water
system. Some estimates include the cost to nance the project, and others do not. Even
when there is an apples-to-apples comparison, a number of site- and project-specic
factors, such as energy, land, and labor costs, make cost comparisons difcult.
Furthermore, costs associated with wastewater conveyance and treatment (and many
other indirect costs to ecosystems) are often excluded from desalination cost comparisons. The introduction of a new source of water increases the amount of wastewater
that must be collected, treated, and disposed of. Some communities may have adequate
wastewater treatment capacity, and the additional costs would simply be the variable
O&M costs associated with that treatment. In other communities, however, wastewater
treatment capacity may need to be expanded, which represents an additional, and in
some cases signicant, capital cost to the community. While these costs would apply to
all of the water supply projects under consideration to meet demand, the costs would
not be incurred if water demand were met through water conservation and efciency
improvements.
What Are Some of the Risks Associated with Seawater Desalination

Projects?
Several risks can affect a seawater desalination projects cost, ability to attract nancing,
and overall viability. Many of these risks are not unique to seawater desalination projects; rather, they apply broadly to all major infrastructure projects. These include risks
associated with permitting, construction, operations, and changes in law.
But as recent experience in the United States and Australia has shown, desalination
projects entail risks specic to large water supply projects, including demand risk. Demand risk is the risk that water demand will be insufcient to justify continued full-time
operation of the desalination plant as a result of the availability of less expensive water
supply and demand management alternatives. In Australia, for example, four of the six
desalination plants that have been developed since 2006 are being placed in standby
mode. Likewise, the Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Project operates considerably below full capacity because demand is lower than expected and less expensive water supply options are available. Demand risk raises serious concerns about the size and timing
of desalination projects.
In some regions, seawater desalination can make an important contribution to the
availability and reliability of water resources. However, it remains among the most ex-
119
pensive options available to meet water demands. Additionally, project developers may
pursue large plants in an effort to capture economies of scale and reduce the unit cost of
water. This can, however, lead to oversized projects that ultimately increase demand risk
and threaten the long-term viability of a project.
How Are Desalination Projects Structured?

Issues regarding nancing and the allocation of project costs and risks are tied to the
way the project is structured. Many project developers in California are using some form
of public-private partnership. The private sectors involvement in seawater desalination
projects is not new. The private sector has developed several small plants to supply highquality water for specic industrial purposes, such as for use on oil and gas platforms.
Likewise, a desalination project in Santa Barbara, completed in 1992, was operated and
partially owned by a private company. In some cases, the private sectors involvement
is limited to conducting feasibility studies and preparing environmental documents as
requested by the public project developer. In other cases, however, a private entity owns
and operates the desalination plant and sells water directly to a public agency. Publicprivate partnerships provide a mechanism to access private capital and allocate risks
among the project partners. They can, however, be highly contentious because of concerns about openness and transparency of data and nancial information and the allocation of the risk among the project partners.
Additionally, utilities that are developing seawater desalination plants must be sure
that there is a demand for that water, especially when establishing minimum commitments under take-or-pay contracts. A take-or-pay contract provides guaranteed revenue
for the seller but commits the buyer to a purchase even if actual demand drops. This exposes the buyer to demand risk and provides a disincentive for water agencies to pursue
more cost-effective water supply and water conservation and efciency programs.
References
AAP Newswire. 2012. Desal plant closure not waste: NSW govt. Australian Associated Press, June
26. http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/desal-plant-closure-not-waste-nsw
-govt-20120626-20z7d.html.
Brennan, D. S. 2013. Low bond rates cut desalination costs. San Diego Union-Tribune, January 24.
http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2013/jan/24/poseidon-desalination-carlsbad-water
-authority/.
Burge, M. 2009. Carlsbad desalination plant gets nal OK: Coastal panel gives permit to Poseidon.
San Diego Union-Tribune, November 4. http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2009/Nov/04
/carlsbad-desalination-plant-gets-nal-ok/.
Cooley, H. 2009. Tampa Bay desalination plant: An update. In The Worlds Water 20082009: The
Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, edited by P. H. Gleick, 123125. Washington, DC:
Island Press.
Cooley, H., P. H. Gleick, and G. Wolff. 2006. Desalination, with a Grain of Salt: A California
Perspective. Oakland, CA: Pacic Institute. http://www.pacinst.org/publication/desalina
tion-with-a-grain-of-salt-a-california-perspective-2/.
Crisp, G. 2012. Global business leader, desalination, at GHD. Personal communication, October 25.
Equinox Center. 2010. San Diegos Water Sources: Assessing the Options. Report prepared by
Fermanian Business and Economic Institute. Encinitas, CA: Equinox Center. http://www
.equinoxcenter.org/assets/les/pdf/AssessingtheOptionsnal.pdf.
Gleick, P. H., D. Haasz, C. Henges-Jeck, V. Srinivasan, G. Wolff, K. K. Cushing, and A. Mann. 2003.
Waste Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California. Oakland, CA:
120
Pacic Institute. http://www.pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/waste_not_want

_not_full_report3.pdf.
Green, K. 2002. Water panel OKs talks on desalination plant; rival companies jockey for position.
San Diego Union-Tribune, May 24.
Heller, J. 1999. Water board green-lights desalination plant on bay. Tampa Bay Business News,
March 16.
Hosking, W. 2012. Water from Wonthaggi desalination plant ows into Cardinia Reservoir. Herald
Sun, Melbourne, September 26.
Jimenez, J. L. 2002. Desalination partnership gets water authority nod; directors agree to work with
Poseidon. San Diego Union-Tribune, November 15.
Kemp, M. 2012. Silver lining to $1.8bn Port Stanvac desalination plant white elephant. The
Advertiser, October 4.
La Rue, S. 2001. Desalting plant for some county water proposed for Carlsbad. San Diego UnionTribune, December 5.
Lee, M. 2013. Public affairs representative, San Diego County Water Authority. Personal e-mail
communication, February 6.
Lokiec, F., and G. Kronenberg. 2001. Emerging role of BOOT desalination projects. Desalination
136 (13): 109114.
Luckenbach, H. 2012. Desalination program coordinator. Personal e-mail communication,
October 9.
Marschke, T. 2012. Call to keep desal plant running. Gold Coast Sun, July 12.
National Research Council (NRC). 2008. Desalination: A National Perspective. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press.
National Water Commission (NWC). 2008. Emerging Trends in Desalination: A Review. Waterlines
Report Series No. 9. Canberra, ACT, Australia: National Water Commission.
Pankratz, T. 2011. Plant mothballing: To be or not to be. Water Desalination Report 47 (3): 23.
. 2012. Editor of Global Water Intelligences Water Desalination Report. Personal communication, November 9.
Pemberton, C. 2003. Financing Water and Sewerage Systems: A Caribbean Perspective. St. Lucia:
Caribbean Basin Water Management Programme Inc. http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd
/cwwa/cecil.pdf.
Robertson, T. 2010. Pre-Hearing Non-Government Question on Notice, Estimates Committee C
2010. Government of Queensland, Australia. www.jeffseeney.com.au/getdata.do?source
=3&id=191 (accessed August 14, 2013).
Rodgers, T. 2006. County drops Carlsbad desalination plan; private company is free to pursue own
proposal. San Diego Union-Tribune, July 28.
San Diego County Water Authority (SDCWA). 2010. Consideration of Key Terms and Conditions of
a Potential Water Purchase Agreement with Poseidon Resources (Channelside) for Desalinated
Seawater from the Carlsbad Desalination Project. Water Planning Committee. July 16. http://
www.sdcwa.org/sites/default/les/les/desal-board-memo-2010-07-16.pdf.
. 2012a. Favorable Desalination Project Bond Sale Saves Ratepayers $200 Million. Press
release, December 14. http://www.sdcwa.org/favorable-desalination-project-bond-sale
-saves-ratepayers-200-million (accessed January 22, 2013).
. 2012b. Member Agency Purchases of Water AuthorityOwned Supplies from the Carlsbad
Desalination Project: Special Board of Directors Meeting, July 12, 2012. http://es.slideshare
.net/waterauthority/desalmemberagency (accessed August 7, 2013).
. 2012c. Overview of Key Terms for a Water Purchase Agreement between the San Diego
County Water Authority and Poseidon Resources: Water Plan Committee Meeting, September
27, 2012.
. 2012d. Public Workshop on Issues Related to the Carlsbad Desalination Project: San Diego
County Water Authority, Special Water Planning Committee Meeting, October 2, 2012. http://
www.sdcwa.org/sites/default/les/les/board/2012_presentations/2012_10_02presentations
.pdf (accessed August 7, 2013).
Schiller, E. A. 2012. Successful Procurement and Finance Methods: The Southwest Florida
Experience. http://texaswater.tamu.edu/readings/desal/tampaaproject.pdf (accessed
November 9, 2012).
Schwartz, N. 2009. San Diego Water Board OKs Huge Desalination Plant. Associated Press, Los
Angeles Metro Area, May 13.
Separation Processes, Inc. 2012. Evaluation of Seawater Desalination Projects. Report prepared for
Monterey Peninsula Regional Water Authority. Carlsbad, CA: Separation Processes, Inc.
121
Smith, A. L. 2009. Water Supply Case Study: Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Plant. KDI/ADB
/ADBI/WBI Conference, Knowledge Sharing of Infrastructure Public-Private Partnerships in
Asia, May 1921, 2009, Seoul, Korea. http://www.adbi.org/les/2009.05.21.cpp.day3.sess7
.smith.usa.water.supply.pdf.
Tampa Bay Water. 2012. Tampa Bay Water Demand Management Plan Avoided Supply Cost
Technical Memorandum. Clearwater, FL: Tampa Bay Water.
Texas Water Development Board. 2002. Alternative Project Delivery. Technical report prepared by
RW Beck Inc. Austin: Texas Water Development Board. http://www.twdb.texas.gov/publica
tions/reports/contracted_reports/doc/2000483347.pdf.
United States Energy Information Administration (US EIA). 2012. Electric Sales, Revenue, and
Average Price: With Data for 2011. http://www.eia.gov/electricity/sales_revenue_price/.
U.S. Water News. 1999. Tampa Bay desalinated water will be the cheapest in the world. March.
http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/9tambay3.html.
Vatter, L. 2012. Budget analyst, Tampa Bay Water. E-mail communication, November 5.
WateReuse Association. 2012. Seawater Desalination Costs. WateReuse Association Desalination
Committee White Paper. Alexandria, VA: WateReuse Association.
Wilcox, J., and S. Whitney. 2004. Considerations of desalination projects. In Desalination and Water
Reuse, edited by S. Nicklin, 2226. Leicester, England: Tudor Rose.
Wolfs, M., and S. Woodroffe. 2002. Structuring and nancing international BOO/BOT desalination
projects. Desalination 142:101106.
Wright, A. G. 2003. Desalination dispute leaves a bitter taste: Judge orders Tampa Bay Water and
Covanta to name a mediator to work out plant dispute. McGraw-Hill Construction Industry
Headlines. December. http://enr.construction.com/news/environment/archives/031208
.asp.
C H A P T E R

Terraforming is not science ction but reality: humans are remaking the surface of our
planet. We are altering the composition of the planets atmosphere and fundamentally
changing the entire global climate. We remove mountains and dig miles beneath the surface for minerals. We cut down and destroy entire forests. We wipe out species and communities of species. We divert and consume entire rivers. Weve stored so much water behind articial reservoirs that weve actually (very modestly) changed the planets orbital
dynamics. But weve lost sight of a fundamental principle: can does not mean should.
Modern civilization must learn that the ability to do something doesnt mean that we actually should, especially in the eld of large-scale geoengineering. And this is especially
true in the eld of large water projects.
A key characteristic of the worlds hydrologic cycle is the uneven distribution of water
in both space and time. While the planet, as a whole, has plenty of water, problems of
availability arise in regions and seasons in which water is limited. These problems with
distribution have led to a wide variety of solutions to store and move water from regions
or periods of abundance to regions or periods of scarcity. In ancient times, moving water
meant carrying it on ones back, or digging short irrigation ditches from rivers to agricultural elds, or, by the time of the ancient Romans, constructing elaborate gravity-fed
aqueducts tens or even hundreds of kilometers long. But it wasnt until the industrial
age, with the energy of fossil fuels and the invention of machines that could pump water
uphill, that humans began to conceive of and implement truly long-distance transfers of
water. Today, there are no technical constraints on how far water can be moved; our limitations are political, economic, and environmental. But even these constraints do not
stop people from dreaming of ever more grandiose schemes to try to help solve global
water problems.
As any consumer of popular culture today knows, a zombie is an undead creature,
something that was killed but came back to life, in some form, to terrify, entertain, and
gross people out. Zombies are big business. Zombie books, movies, costumes, makeup,
computer games, and more are probably worth billions to our economy (not to mention
the value of extra sales of axes, chain saws, and shotguns to people who never hunt or cut
down trees).
But not all zombies are ctional, and some are potentially really dangerousat least to
our pocketbooks and environment. These include zombie water projects, which we dene as large, costly water projects that are proposed, killed off for one reason or another,
and brought back to life, even if the project itself is socially, politically, economically, or
environmentally unjustied. We offer herein an only partly tongue-in-cheek effort
a list of some major zombie water projects from the past century: serious proposals
123
124
for massive projects to use, divert, or transfer water that died only to come back to life in
one form or another.
We do not believe that any of the following zombie water projects will ever be built or
implemented. But, as in movie zombies, we can never really be sure if they are truly dead.

NAWAPA
One of the largest water projects ever proposed was the North American Water and Power
Alliance (NAWAPA). Stretching over the entire North American continent, it would have
altered the hydraulic landscape in massive, dramatic ways. While never built, it remains
a paper monument to the engineering mentality that in the past century dominated, and
to some extent still dominates, water planning and thinking.
History
The North American Water and Power Alliance, or NAWAPA, was a plan rst proposed in
the 1950s to divert the ows of large rivers in western Canada and Alaska to the United
States and Mexico. The project, named for the intergovernmental alliance that would run
the project, would modify watersheds and water ows for much of the North American
continent, and backers claimed it would completely solve the water shortage problem
for generations to come (Special Subcommittee on Western Water Development 1964).
The grandiose plan has been called the most outsize engineering project ever conceived (Rothfeder 2004, 111) and the water scheme to beat all water schemes, grander
in scale than any river manipulation project ever imagined (Worster 1992, 315). Its total
cost was estimated by backers in 1964 at $100$200 billion over thirty years, a large sum
considering that total federal government spending was about $110 billion in 1964. Accounting for ination alone, and not considering increases in land value or construction
costs, the project would cost $0.71.4 trillion in 2013, nearly 10 percent of the United
States annual economic output, or 40 percent of annual federal spending.
The project to divert rivers in Alaska and the Pacic Northwest to the lower forty-eight
states was rst imagined in the late 1950s by Donald McCord Baker, an engineer with the
Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. He approached Ralph M. Parsons, president of the Ralph M. Parsons Company, one of the countrys largest engineering and
construction companies,1 headquartered in nearby Pasadena. Parsons was so taken with
the idea that he vigorously promoted it his entire life, including endowing the NAWAPA
Foundation to advance the cause. In addition, in the 1960s, Parsons assembled several
former Bureau of Reclamation engineers . . . to make money consulting and designing
resource projects for countries around the world (Worster 1992, 315).
The project also gained the attention of US senator Frank E. Moss, a Democrat from
Utah, for whom the project became a lifelong interest. At Mosss instigation, the Sen1. It remains so to this day, having built large projects, such as a Washington, DC, airport and the Goddard
Space Flight Center in Maryland, and securing a $243 million contract in 2004 to build 150 hospitals in Iraq.
The latter project erupted in controversy when it was later found that only twenty hospitals were completed
(Mandel 2006).
125
ate Public Works Committee studied the proposal, and the Senate held a series of hearings on the subject. The committee report concluded that the project warrants a serious
analysis while acknowledging that merely to conduct a thorough engineering study
to nd out whether the project was actually feasible and cost-effective would take years
and cost millions. Such a study was never authorized by Congress, but Moss continued to
push for the project. He wrote a book promoting NAWAPA called The Water Crisis in 1967,
and, after losing his bid for reelection in 1976, he was hired by Parsons as a lobbyist. The
proposal was also treated seriously by the executive branch of the federal government:
the US secretary of state traveled to Canada to discuss the project, and the NAWAPA
Foundation sent groups of American dignitaries north to tour project sites.
Promoters of NAWAPA emphasized impending water shortages and the need for traditional technological and infrastructural solutions. Concern was especially great for the
arid and semi-arid Southwest, where groundwater reserves were dwindling in Texass
Upper Rio Grande region and in Colorado, the Great Basin, and Southern California. Because NAWAPA would take thirty years to construct, its backers argued, it was important
to begin before it was too late: the water crisis is a problem of serious and far-reaching
implications that will grow steadily worse until it reaches alarming proportions in the
years 1980 and 2000 (Special Subcommittee on Western Water Development 1964, 11).
Frank Moss, the Democratic senator from Utah, noted that current water withdrawals
in the United States stood at 300 billion gallons per day, or 27 percent of stream ow.
By 1980, he argued, population growth and expanded industry and irrigation would increase demand to 900 billion gallons per day, or 80 percent of available stream ow. The
forecasted increases in water use never occurred. According to the US Geological Survey,
total water withdrawals peaked at 350 billion gallons per day in 1980 and have declined
slightly since then, even while the countrys population and agricultural output have
continued to rise steadily (Gleick 2003; Kenny et al. 2009).
Project Design
It was perhaps inevitable that some ambitious planner or engineer, confronted with the
aridity and water scarcity of the American Southwest, would eventually look north. Some
of the continents largest rivers, in terms of ow, are found in Southeast Alaska, the Canadian province of British Columbia, and the Yukon Territory and pour wasted and unused into the Pacic and Arctic Oceans (NAWAPA 1964). NAWAPAs goal was nothing
less than total water management on a continental scale, requiring the construction of
3,151 individual projects, including dams, canals, pipelines, tunnels, and pumping stations to divert freshwater from this region of plenty to cities and farms on the Canadian
prairie, in the United States, and as far away as Mexico. The catchment area of the project
covers an area of 3.4 million square kilometers (1.3 million square miles) and by some
estimates accounts for a quarter of all runoff in North America (see gure 7.1).
The plan called for diverting up to 20 percent of the ow of the Tanana, Susitna, and
Yukon Rivers in Alaska. In British Columbia, it would tap the Churchill, Blackstone, Slave,
Coppermine, Peace, and Mackenzie Rivers. Diversions from these rivers would be redirected to ll a natural valley that runs the length of British Columbia, the Rocky Mountain Trench, second in size only to the Great Rift Valley in East Africa. When lled, the
reservoir would extend 800 kilometers (500 miles), average 16 kilometers (10 miles) in
width, and be capable of storing 500 cubic kilometers (400 million acre-feet) of water.
126
FIGURE 7.1 MAP OF NORTH AMERICA SHOWING THE MAJOR WATER PROJECTS FOR NAWAPA
Source: Map by Matthew Heberger.
NAWAPAs water projects extend from northwestern British Columbia, the Yukon Territories, and
Alaska to Mexico and the St. Lawrence Seaway.
This would be the largest reservoir on the continent, sixteen times bigger than Lake
Mead, behind Hoover Dam on the Colorado River.
From the southern end of this new reservoir, a canal would extend southeast through
the prairies in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario and into
Lake Superior, delivering irrigation water along the way and sending ow into the Great
Lakes (gure 7.1). Among its purported benets would be to alleviate falling levels and
degraded quality of the Great Lakes (NAWAPA 1964). The CanadianGreat Lakes Waterway would also open the long-dreamed-of waterway across the continent, allowing
barge trafc from Alaska all the way to New Orleans or Montreal.
At the southern end of the Rocky Mountain Trench, another set of canals, tunnels, and
lift pumps would send water to the Columbia River basin, the high plains of Idaho and
Montana, and farther south. In northern Nevada, the main canal would split. A western
fork would direct water southwest toward Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, the Colorado River delta, and the Baja California Peninsula. The eastern fork would send irrigation
water to Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Texas, and the northern Mexican states of Sonora
and Chihuahua.
Among the other astounding facts about the project are that it would require the
movement of 25 million cubic meters (32 million cubic yards) of earth and the use of
127
27 million metric tons (30 million tons) of steel (NAWAPA 1964). These gures were announced in a promotional lm produced by Parsons and were apparently meant to stoke
the imagination of Americans, who, it has been argued, have a predilection for technological solutions to problems, especially if the solution involves the construction of an
impressive structure (Sewell et al. 1967, 11).
Purported Benets
Parsonss spokesmen admitted that at rst or casual glance, the size of the concept may
seem unrealistic or fanciful. The company insisted, however, that more careful analysis
revealed it to be feasible from an engineering standpoint and economically realistic
(NAWAPA 1964). Much of the contemporary criticism of NAWAPA cited here comes from
a twenty-page article, NAWAPA: A Continental Water System, printed in the Bulletin of
the Atomic Scientists and containing an analysis of the project by prominent experts in
the elds of economics, political science, engineering, and sheries (Sewell et al. 1967).
While the plan relied on contemporary technologies such as concrete arch and earthen dams, there was legitimate concern about whether it was even technically realistic.
The plan called for a dam 570 meters (1,700 feet) high, taller than a 170-story building
and taller by far than the highest dam that had ever been built, Hoover Dam, at 220 meters (725 feet). (In 2013, the worlds tallest dam is the Nurek Dam in Tajikistan, at 300
meters, or 980 feet.) Critics also noted that much of the construction was to take place in
the Rocky Mountains and would involve the blasting and moving of solid rock.
Among the main benets of NAWAPA would be increased water supply for agriculture
and cities. The planners foresaw a West with a rapidly growing population and increasing
water use. Overall, the system was designed to deliver 150 cubic kilometers (120 million
acre-feet) per year of water annually to thirty-three American states and seven Canadian
provinces. To put this in perspective, this is about one-third of the average outow of the
Mississippi River and about eight times the natural ow of the Colorado River. This ow
would allow Mexico to triple its irrigated acreage, would nearly double irrigated area in
the United States by adding 16 million hectares (40 million acres), and would add 3 million hectares (7 million acres) in Canada. Further, it would allow the United States to
recover thousands of acres of formerly productive farmland that had been degraded by
the Colorado Rivers excessive mineral content.
Project proponents played into growing unease about population growth by saying
that America had a duty to produce more food and calling NAWAPA the only hope of
averting worldwide famine. Furthermore, additional reclamation in the West, it was
claimed, would support the development of 230,000 family-size farms, . . . 40,000 local retail enterprises, and $4 billion in retail trade annually. Even with promised water deliveries, this would have been unlikely, as the irrigated western small family farm
had long been proven an elusive fantasy. The mythos of Reclamationconverting dry
and barren land into irrigated cropland, divided into 160-acre parcels to support family
farmswas, by the 1960s, no longer a viable dream. These relatively small holdings, by
western standards, and the high cost of farm inputs made it tough to break even. While
irrigation water is used to grow valuable citrus fruits and vegetables in Southern California and Arizona, irrigation in the High Plains has never been very productive because of
the short growing season, with most irrigation water today used to grow pasture for grazing cattle. Imported water would also potentially reduce pressure on the overpumped
128
Ogallala Aquifer, which was being drained at alarming rates by farmers in the High Plains
states from Nebraska to Texas.
Another benet would be an increase in freshwater inows to the Great Lakes, which
in the 1960s were in deplorable condition as a result of pollution from industry and pesticides and fertilizer in agricultural runoff. Further, residents became alarmed when water
levels in Lakes Huron and Michigan dropped to their lowest levels in one hundred years.
But to economist James Crutcheld, attempting to dilute pollution with additional inow would have been foolishly expensive and unlikely to succeed. A cheaper and more
effective solution would have been to reduce pollution load through the establishment and enforcement of adequate receiving water standards (Sewell et al. 1967, 20).
Indeed, this strategy was later pursued through federal clean water legislation.
Electrical generation was another promised benet; hydroelectric dams would generate 100 million kilowatts of electrical power, 30 percent of which would be needed to lift
water over mountain ranges. The remainder would be sold for competitive prices on the
open market, which, proponents stated, would stimulate industry and new economic
activities. It would have increased North Americas electrical output by one-sixth with
clean hydroelectric powerno pollution, no CO2, no acid rain (Reisner 1986, 505). University of Washington professor of civil engineering E. Roy Tinney called the allocation
of water and power facilities suboptimal, declaring the project little more than a map of
potential hydropower sites (Sewell et al. 1967, 23). The project could be accused of planning unnecessary hydroelectric facilities to make up for revenue shortfalls from water
projects that could never pay for themselves. Journalist Marc Reisner would later criticize the US Bureau of Reclamation for bundling bad water projects with cash-register
dams to make projects look economically feasible when considered from a river basin
perspective (Reisner 1986, 42).
Abundant electricity and inexpensive canal transportation would benet Canada,
NAWAPA advocates claimed, by opening access to its mineral-rich northern regions.
However, enthusiasm for these new opportunities was tempered by the reality that land
would have been ooded: The reservoirs not only ood good farming land and destroy
natural habitat, they also eliminate large forest resources and inundate as yet unknown
mineral deposits (Sewell et al. 1967, 23). Reservoirs would also have ooded the lands
of some First Nations people and cities such as Prince George, British Columbia, whose
population today is 70,000.
Among the more dubious claims by Parsons were that sh and game would increase
and the creation of new scenic waterways would enhance tourism. Even contemporary
observers were skeptical of these claims, which in hindsight seem even more preposterous. A critic wrote, I boggle at the thought that western Canadians, or American visitors,
would regard a giant man-made lake as an acceptable substitute for the magnicent recreational area that it would despoil (Sewell et al. 1967, 19). The project would have been
devastating to salmon sheries in every major river in British Columbia. Dams and diversions would have either cut off or submerged breeding habitat for migrating salmon
on the Tanana, Bella Coola, Dean, Chilcotin, and Fraser Rivers, which were among the
most important salmon rivers on earth since the destruction of the sheries of the Columbia and Sacramento Rivers.
Luna Leopold, professor of hydrology at the University of California, Berkeley, wrote:
The environmental damage that would be caused by that damned thing cant even
be described. It could cause as much harm as all the dam-building we have done in a
hundred years (quoted in Reisner 1986, 510). Today, several Pacic salmon are listed
129
as federally protected endangered species in the United States, making the construction of new dams on Americas northwestern rivers increasingly unlikely. In fact, in order
to help recovering salmon populations, the Bonneville Power Administration, Oregons
state-owned hydropower utility, spends $170 million per year on a sh and wildlife recovery program in the Snake River and Columbia River watersheds (Garrick et al. 2009,
378), and some dams are even being removed. The United States Congress passed the
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act in 1968 with the intention of protecting rivers from damming
and development for the enjoyment of future generations. The National Environmental
Policy Act followed in 1969, requiring federally funded projects to undergo a thorough
environmental review, which by law must consider the no project alternative.
Public Acceptance
At the time, economist James Crutcheld called the NAWAPA proposal symptomatic of
a growing public dissatisfaction with the planning of water development in the United
States. Despite huge investments, the problems of pollution and overuse were evident
everywhere. Cold war rivalry may have also played a role. Historian Donald Worster
wrote that the project had about it the irresistible logic of an imperial history, comparing it to rival plans in the Soviet Union to reverse the ow of Siberias north-owing rivers
to water a new breadbasket in the countrys arid central plains (Worster 1992, 316). Project backers certainly played into the publics anxieties, proclaiming that ultimately, the
decision to build NAWAPAor a project similar to itwill determine, in some part, the
future economic well-being in North America (NAWAPA 1964).
Despite its appeal, Worster wrote, the scheme arrived both too early and too late to
win broad acceptance: too early because at the time there were other, more readily exhaustible water supplies that could be tapped. Planned or ongoing projects such as the
California State Water Project or the Central Arizona Project were already controversial
and massive drains on the public purse. Critics in the 1960s pointed out that even if there
were a need for massive new water supplies, the NAWAPA scheme would not be the most
economical way to provide them. Possible alternatives included desalination, recycling,
depollution, reduction of leaks in cities, and decrease of waste through better technology and pricing. And NAWAPA arrived too late because in the mid-1960s the environmental movement was growing and the Reclamation era was coming to an end. Rachel
Carson had published the groundbreaking Silent Spring in 1962, awakening Americans
to the perils of pollution from pesticides and herbicides, and many people were already
acquainted with Aldo Leopolds land ethic (Lee 1978, 557).
Reception by Canada
At the time of its introduction, it was noted that the proposal aroused relatively little
enthusiasm in Canada, but as the idea gained momentum, more Canadians became
openly hostile to the whole idea, viewing it as an attempt to plunder Canadian resources (Sewell et al. 1967, 9). Canada is endowed with more freshwater per person than any
other nation: it ranks rst in renewable freshwater but, with 34 million people, only thirtysixth in terms of population. A prominent American political scientist noted that, at the
time, some Americans held the view that Canadians had an obligation to share their water resource with the United States and suggested in 1967 that the United States could
conceivably apply pressure on the Canadian government to change its policy, backed
130
up perhaps by sanctions of various kinds (Sewell et al. 1967, 9)a strategy unlikely to
further endear the project to Canadians.
Canada has historically opposed most water export schemes (Rothfeder 2004). Federal
water policy promulgated by the environment ministry in 1987, during the administration of conservative Brian Mulroney, stated, The Government of Canada emphatically
opposes large-scale exports of our water. We have another reason for our opposition; the
inter-basin diversions necessary for such exports would inict enormous harm on both
the environment and society, especially in the North, where the ecology is delicate and
where the effects on Native cultures would be devastating (Environment Canada 1987).
However, the lack of a federal law regarding water transfers left the issue to the provinces,
and there is no formal federal ban on such transfers.
Few Canadians believed the project would ever be built, but any mention of NAWAPA
by an American politician continues to draw a vigorous negative response from the Canadian press. Despite widespread public opposition, the plan also receives occasional
support from British Columbia politicians. Currently, one of the provinces largest sources of income is its logging industry, which harms the environment and is also subject to
boom-and-bust cycles, depending on the economy and the housing market in the United
States. By contrast, agriculture is more dependable: water could be sold through fortyyear contracts . . . ensuring a steady, predictable income every year (Reisner 1986, 511).
Statements by the United Nations and international trade agreements may further
limit the Canadian governments ability to impose a ban on all water transfers. At the
United Nations 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment in Dublin,
the delegates issued a statement recognizing water as an economic good in response to
the increasing scarcity, conict, and overuse. To some, the declaration made it seem inconceivable that Canada could continue to oppose water transfers and reject NAWAPA
(Rothfeder 2004, 111).
Trade liberalization may also play a role in facilitating international water projects.
In 1994, the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) with a goal of reducing barriers to trade and investment by eliminating tariffs on many imports among the three countries. A provision of the agreement
(chapter 11) backs the right of companies to sue if they believe that their ability to trade
freely is hampered in any way (Rothfeder 2004, 112). In fact, this occurred in 1999, when
a California company, Sun Belt Water, sued the Canadian government over its prohibition on shipping freshwater by marine tanker from British Columbia (Boyd 2003).
Renewed Interest and Current Status

As with many zombie water projects, interest in NAWAPA seems to fade away only to be
revived decades later. In the 1980s, the American economy was recovering from recession and ination at the same time a severe drought occurred across the western states,
sparking widespread concern over food prices. At a 1980 meeting in California titled A
High-Technology Policy for U.S. Reindustrialization, sponsored by the fringe Fusion Energy Foundation, Dr. Nathan Snyder of the Parsons Company reintroduced NAWAPA to
a large and enthusiastic audience (Reisner 1986, 508).
As recently as 2008, Michael Campana, professor of hydrogeology at Oregon State
University, wrote that he had heard talk about bringing NAWAPA back, just as I have
heard people suggest reviving a plan to study the diversion of Columbia River water to
131
the Southwest USA (Campana 2008). In recent years, the project has again been promoted by controversial political gure Lyndon LaRouche through his advocacy organization LaRouchePAC (LaRouche was behind the Fusion Energy Foundation, mentioned
above). LaRouche has run for the US presidency eight times, and although he began his
political career in the radical leftist student politics of the 1960s, his views are now considered ultraconservative. His reputation has been tarnished by a tax fraud conviction,
for which he served fteen years in prison; apparent anti-Semitism; climate change denial; and the promotion of 9/11 conspiracy theories (Wikipedia 2013).
Although it seems doubtful that NAWAPA, as originally planned in the 1950s and 1960s,
will ever be built, some of its individual components have already come to fruition. The
overall scheme of NAWAPA included diversions and hydropower on rivers owing into
Hudson Bay in eastern Canada. Beginning in 1971, the government of Quebec has built
hydroelectric dams on rivers in the James Bay watershed, including the La Grande and
Eastmain Rivers. The James Bay Project currently generates 16,000 megawatts (equivalent to the output of twenty-four average coal power plants), providing half of the provinces electricity and making electricity one of the provinces major exports. The James
Bay Project continues to expand, with construction of dams on the Rupert River having
begun in 2010.
Lest we consider NAWAPA nally laid to rest, consider the scene described by Marc
Reisner in the epilogue to his classic book Cadillac Desert. In 1981, British Columbia premier Bill Bennett visited San Francisco to give a talk at the Commonwealth Club. When
an audience member asked whether British Columbia would sell water to the United
States, he replied with a rm No. He then added, But come and see me in twenty
years (Reisner 1986, 513). And consider the words of Tom McCall, governor of Oregon
from 1967 to 1975: This is a plan that will not roll over and die. It may be fty years, or it
may be a hundred years, but something like it will be built.
The Reber Plan

Water policy and planning in the twentieth century was dominated in California, as it
was in many other places, by an engineering mentality. A massive imbalance between
when and where precipitation fell, where runoff owed, and where demand for water
occurred required major replumbing, and this led to the construction of some of the
worlds largest water transfer systems in California, including the Los Angeles Aqueduct,
the California State Water Project, and the federal Central Valley Project. Today, these
and other systems transfer billions of cubic meters of water every year from the wetter,
mountainous northern regions of the state to the drier agricultural lands of the Central
Valley and the cities along Californias coast.
California also served as a critical region during World War II, providing food, major
seaports and airports, railroad terminuses, munitions plants, shipyards, troop-staging
areas, and workers for the massive Pacic war effort. It may be no surprise, therefore,
to learn that the combination of the war effort and the engineering approach to water
produced one of the most signicant water zombies ever designedthe Reber Plan for
San Francisco Bay.
132
History
Freshwater runoff from Californias two largest rivers, the Sacramento and San Joaquin,
merges in the Central Valley Delta region, once one of the biggest inland aquatic ecosystems in the world (gure 7.2). That water then ows into San Francisco Bay and out the
Golden Gate to the Pacic Ocean. So much freshwater once owed out of the bay during
peak runoff season that early explorers reported nding plumes of freshwater outside
the Golden Gate in the Pacic Ocean (Presidio Trust, 2012). This system also supported
some of the worlds largest anadromous sheriesprimarily salmonwith millions of
sh being born in the rivers, living part of their lives in the oceans, and then returning to
their upstream habitats to spawn.
The Reber Planalso called the San Francisco Bay Projectwas developed by John
Reber, a schoolteacher and theatrical producer. Rebers idea was to transform San Francisco Bay from the largest natural estuary and coastal ecosystem on the West Coast into
a completely articial engineered system. Two major earth and rock-ll dams would be
constructed, one between the city of Richmond and Marin County and one between
Oakland and San Francisco (where the current RichmondSan Rafael Bridge and San
FranciscoOakland Bay Bridge now stand). These dams would turn the upper and lower
parts of the bay into freshwater reservoirs, permitting the destruction of 20,000 acres (80
square kilometers) of marshes and wetlands with landll on most of the eastern side of
the bay. Highways and railroads would cross the dams, and a lock system the size of the
Panama Canal would be built to permit shipping to reach the ports of Oakland, Stockton,
and Sacramento (gures 7.2 and 7.3).
Gray Brechin, a historical geographer from the University of California, Berkeley,
wrote that part of the motivation for the plan was fear that Japan would attack the West
Coast. Political cartoons of the day show that people were terried, Brechin says. The
Reber Plan seemed to provide the answer; people could be moved in and out of the area
relatively quickly (Sinclaire 2011).
Supporters of the Reber Plan also argued that the freshwater reservoirs created by the
dams would solve Californias water problems by capturing water that was lost out the
Golden Gate. That water could then be sent throughout the state to meet growing demands. Many newspapers supported parts of the plan when it was proposed, the Joint
Army and Navy Board requested a report (Nishkian 1946), and Congress even held some
initial hearings in December 1949.
Project Review and Demise

The US Army Corps of Engineers was ordered to build a working hydraulic model of San
Francisco Bay to see whether the Reber Plan would work. In 1957 the corps built the
model, more than one and one-half acres in size, in Marin County. It created a physical
representation of an area from the Pacic Ocean to Sacramento and Stockton, including
San Francisco Bay, San Pablo Bay, and Suisun Bay and a portion of the SacramentoSan
Joaquin Delta. (KQED, n.d.) Testing began in 1959, and corps engineers determined that
the Reber Plan would be catastrophic for the ecosystem, ows, and chemistry of the estuary and for San Francisco Bay. The reservoirs, instead of storing freshwater, would become enormous evaporation ponds, incapable of providing any discernible amount of
freshwater. Contaminants would build up in the bay, and commercial and natural sh-
133
FIGURE 7.2 THE SACRAMENTOSAN JOAQUIN DELTA IN NORTH-CENTRAL CALIFORNIA

Source: US Geological Survey.
The SacramentoSan Joaquin Delta, where Californias two largest rivers meet, was a historically
rich ecosystem but now provides much of the water transferred south for urban and agricultural
developments.
eries would be completely eliminated. The idea for the project was also overwhelmed
by changing perceptions of the value of San Francisco Bay, a growing national environmental movement, and a decrease in the perceived need for the military benets the
plan ostensibly offered. While the Reber Plan attracted considerable attention, it was ultimately opposed by the State of California, the US Bureau of Reclamation, and the US
Army Corps of Engineers, and it never proceeded beyond the initial hearings and physical testing.
Alaskan Water Shipments

Most large-scale water transfers have been limited to water that can be moved overland
through pipes and aqueducts. Transfers across bodies of water, especially salt water,
have been constrained by distance and technology and limited by needs that could be
satised with cheaper and more practical local alternatives. Despite this, proposals periodically arise for large-scale bulk water transfers by sea from regions of water abundance
FIGURE 7.3 THE REBER PLAN

Source: University of California, Water Resources Center Archives.
Conceived in the 1940s, the Reber Plan would have turned San Francisco Bay into a completely
articial, militarized system. The proposed water benets turned out to be unrealistic.
135
to regions of severe scarcity. Until the late twentieth century, such transfers that actually
occurred were done with bulk tankers, like the kind used to ship oil, typically called very
large crude carriers (VLCCs) or ultra large crude carriers (ULCCs).
Occasionally tankers have been constructed solely for the purpose of carrying potable
water, which requires very strict water quality protections. Over the past two decades,
however, some entrepreneurs have sought to develop and commercialize giant reusable,
towable plastic bladders dedicated to the business of water transfers. We wrote about
this technology in volume 1 of The Worlds Water (Gleick 1998), describing some shortterm commercial experiments with bulk water bags in the Mediterranean and the longterm efforts of entrepreneur Terry Spragg to develop Spragg Bags for both water transfers and emergency response.
In the late 1990s, a company called Aquarius Water Trading and Transportation developed and built water bags that were briey used for commercial deliveries of water from
Piraeus, Greece, to Aeginaa distance of around twenty kilometers (about twelve and
a half miles). A Norwegian company, Nordic Water Supply, also developed a bag system
designed to deliver water from Turkey to northern Cyprus. This project also failed to be
economically and politically viable (Gleick 1998). More recent proposals include the following example of an effort to move water from Alaska to commercial markets overseas.
History
In the past decade, a proposal to ship water from Sitka, Alaska, to Asia or the Middle East
has been proposed and promoted several times. Each time, the idea has run into the wall
of economics, collapsed, lain fallow for a while, and then, like most zombie water projects, gotten up and staggered around again (Gleick 2011).
Here are the basics of the idea: In 2006, the town of Sitka in southeastern Alaska built
a forty-two-inch-diameter pipeline connecting a local reservoir (Blue Lake Reservoir in
Tongass National Forest) and the local port at Sawmill Cove. The waters of the lake are
replenished by nearly one hundred inches (2.5 meters) of annual precipitation and some
additional glacier melt. The pipeline is capable of delivering 22,500 gallons of water per
minute, or around 32 million gallons per day (Alaska Water Project 2013). That same year,
a local company, True Alaska Bottling Company (TAB), and a nancial partnerS2C
Global Systems from San Antonio, Texassecured a contract from the town to sell just
around 3 billion gallons of water a year (11 million cubic meters) in bulk from this reservoir at a rate of around one cent per gallon. The company proposed that water be fed
through an underground pipe system leading 2,000 feet offshore to permit loading of
deepwater ships. In an early proposal, S2C Global Systems said it was developing a hub
with an Indian port on the Arabian Sea (Barclay 2010).
Project Limitations
The company has never been able to capitalize on the contract, and it missed a series
of deadlines imposed by the town to complete nancial deals for the water. In late 2010,
for the third time in four years, TAB and S2C Global Systems missed a deadline, for a
minimum annual shipment of 50 million gallons by early December 2010. No water has
been shipped in the years since the contract was rst signed, in 2006 (Walton 2010b). The
136
city amended and extended the contract each time but increased export minimums and
imposed fees on the company.2
Despite the projects limitations, the Sitka Economic Development Association has
been a strong supporter. In 2010, Garry White, executive director of the association, commented on the project. This water is falling into the ocean less than a mile from the
lake, he noted. The community sees an opportunity to take this resource that ows out
into the ocean and make it a driver for us.
The biggest problem with the project, as with many such large-scale water transfer
ideas, is the high cost of transportation. Moving water from Sitka, Alaska, to Asia or the
Middle East involves massive energy costs for operating large tankers. Typical mediumsized water tankers can carry as much as 100 million gallons per trip. If the water is worth
even a penny a gallon (more than typical desalinated water costs), a tanker with 100 million gallons is worth only around a million dollars. Capital and operating costs for tankers far exceed the value of water as a cargo. The costs are increased by the fact that even
high-quality water, as is available in Sitka, will deteriorate in quality in a tanker over time,
requiring additional treatment and expense. Professor James McNiven at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia observed (Barclay 2010):
If that water sits in the hold of a tanker for weeks traveling across the ocean, when it arrives
its not spring water anymore; youre going to have to clean it up. As a business proposition
this gets to be very expensive and chances are the economics dont work.
In an interview with Circle of Blue in August 2010, S2Cs president, Rod Bartlett, optimistically suggested that the cost of purchasing and shipping water from Sitka to India
would be on the order of $0.07 per gallon, ten times the cost of even the most expensive
desalinated water. Why there would ever be a buyer for this water is hard to explain (Walton 2010a) when the alternative is a cheaper (albeit still costly) desalination plant built
and owned locally.
Nevertheless, the project proponents are still pursuing buyers for the water. As of early
January 2013, the City and Borough of Sitkas website included an ad for bulk water exports that linked to a commercial Sawmill Cove solicitation for proposals from companies or individuals who are interested in bulk fresh water export. We currently have
19,047 acre feet available annually for sale (City and Borough of Sitka, Alaska 2013).
Las Vegas Valley Pipeline Project

Nevada is a water-short state, given the paucity of natural rainfall, high average temperatures, and large and rapidly growing population centers of Reno and, especially, Las
Vegas. Water management around Las Vegas was the responsibility of individual water
districts until 1991, when seven neighboring water agencies joined together to form the
Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA). The seven member agencies are the cities of
Las Vegas, North Las Vegas, Boulder City, and Henderson and the water and reclamation
districts of Las Vegas Valley, Big Bend, and Clark County.
2. In early 2013, the TAB website said the company was owned by Cove Partners LLC, an investment and hotel
company located in Lebanon, Oregon.
137
Although the individual water districts maintain control over their own daily operations, the SNWA is in overall charge of managing the regions water resources and ensuring future supply (SNWA 2007). As part of this responsibility, the SNWA considers and
evaluates long-term plans, including costly and politically controversial proposals. One
of these is the Las Vegas Valley Pipeline Projecta potential water zombie.
History
Las Vegas is a desert. The city itself was created as a consequence of the construction of
Boulder (now Hoover) Dam on the Colorado River and the creation of Lake Mead, the
only signicant source of water in the region (SNWA 2006). In the late 1920s, when seven
western states that share the Colorado River were negotiating how to apportion ows,
the southern Nevada region had a very low population and little to no agricultural or
industrial water demand as compared with the other basin states. Partly as a result, during the negotiations Nevada was allocated 300,000 acre-feet per year (AFY) of water, just
4 percent of the total amount estimated for the lower basin. Today, nearly all of it goes
to the Las Vegas region (Clark County), where 2 million people72 percent of Nevadas
total populationreside.
As Nevadas population has grown through the twentieth century, there have been efforts to modify or renegotiate the Colorado River Law of the Riverthe set of compacts, agreements, contracts, regulations, and court decisions that govern management
of the Colorado River (US BOR 2007). However, these efforts are highly controversial and
are largely ignored by the other basin states, which also are experiencing increased demand for a limited resource. Part of the argument against reallocation of the Colorado
River ow was based on the fact that Nevada had other in-state resources that could be
developed, as the other lower basin states had done.
As a result, southern Nevada has considered several options for increasing its available
water supplies, including development of ve northern groundwater basins. In 1989, the
Las Vegas Valley Water District (LVVWD) applied to the Nevada State Engineer (NSE) for
permission to drill 146 groundwater wells in twenty-eight different sub-basins in White
Pine, Lincoln, and northern Clark Counties. The permits requested up to 840,000 AFY
(over a billion cubic meters per year) from wells as much as 500 kilometers (300 miles)
from the city (Reinhold 1991) and drew substantial opposition from local residents, public interest groups, and federal agencies. More than 3,600 protests were led with the
State Engineers Ofce (Reinhold 1991). When asked about the groundwater project in
1994, the SNWAs director, Patricia Mulroy, said that although others were calling it the
singularly most stupid idea anyones ever had, concern over the applications helped
draw attention to Nevadas water needs (Christensen 1994). The groundwater permits,
along with other water development proposals, were used to argue for changes to the
Law of the River (Greene and Hynes 1996). One article notes that Mulroy said that the applications for rural groundwater would be dropped if the agencys Colorado River apportionment were to increase (Egan 1994). Within a few years, Las Vegas would end up with
new rights to the Virgin River, a second pipeline into Lake Mead, and a water-banking
agreement with Arizona.
138
Recent Developments
The groundwater development project was revived in 2004 in the form of a proposed
major pipeline to northeastern Nevada counties during a prolonged drought in the Colorado River basin (Casey 2004). Before the drought, the SNWA had been expecting future
water deliveries to come from surplus and banked supplies on the Colorado; however,
falling lake levels put new pressures on those resources, and the SNWA could no longer count on their supply. Projections suggested that if drought conditions continued, at
least one of the SNWAs water intakes from Lake Mead could be unusable as early as 2012.
Plans were made to build a third, deeper intake, and in February 2004 the SNWAs board
approved a plan to move forward with new plans to tap northern Nevada groundwater
resources. The SNWA submitted a right-of-way application for construction of the pipeline to the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in 2004.
State permitting agencies approved new SNWA groundwater applications in Spring
Valley in April 2007 and applications in Delamar, Dry Lake, and Cave Valleys in July 2008.
However, these rulings were followed by nearly four years of efforts to delay implementation, including two court cases, required resubmission of the appropriations applications, and public hearings, meetings, and a mandatory reopening of the protest period.
In March 2012, the NSE again approved the applications for the four basins, with even
greater pumping allowances as well as modied requirements for research, monitoring,
and reporting. The rulings also required expanded hydrologic and biological monitoring,
preparation of annual reports, completion of baseline studies, and development of efforts to mitigate adverse effects.
The BLM published a nal environmental impact statement (EIS) for the pipeline system and associated infrastructure in August 2012 and approved the right-of-way in December. The EIS recommended approval of a modied plan that would support transfer
of nearly 115,000 acre-feet per year through over 300 miles of pipeline, at an estimated
cost of just under $4 billion for the preferred alternative (US BOR 2012) (see table 7.1). A
coalition of ranchers, farmers, rural local governments, and environmentalists appealed
the state engineers 2012 ruling. Oral arguments were scheduled for June 2013, and if the
decision is appealed (which is likely regardless of the ruling) the case could move into
2014 (Eggen 2012).
Concerns about the project have changed little since its inception. They focus on the
effects that groundwater pumping and withdrawals would have on local ecosystems and
existing water users in the northern valleys, equity concerns about massive water transfers from rural communities to urban centers, the long-term impact of climate change
on water needs and availability, and the science behind the groundwater models and
demand assumptions. Opponents are particularly concerned that groundwater in the
extraction areas is already overallocated and that pumping at the proposed levels will
draw down the water table by hundreds of feet. Although the SNWA has promised to
monitor and to stop pumping should major drawdown occur, opponents argue that once
negative effects are recognized, it will be too late to recover and too difcult politically
to reduce extraction (Deacon 2009). Some opponents describe the project as a twentyrst-century version of the Los Angeles water grab from the Owens Valley, or the movie
Chinatown with its political intrigue, corruption, and land speculation. In that instance,
in the early 1900s Los Angeles obtained the rights to take water from a distant rural community and disrupted the farming culture and environmental conditions there.
139
T A B L E 7.1 Withdrawal Volumes for the Groundwater Development Project (Acre-Feet

per Year)
NSE Ruling
Location
SNWA Applications
2007/2008
NSE Ruling 2012
BLM EIS, Alternative F
Spring Valley
91,224
60,000
61,127
84,370
Delamar Valley
11,584
2,493
6,042
6,591
Dry Lake Valley
11,584
11,584
11,584
11,584
Cave Valley
Total
Snake Valley
11,584
4,678
5,235
11,584
125,976
78,755
83,988
114,129
50,679
Source: US BLM (2012).
The Special Problems with Snake Valley

Although the proposals for groundwater extraction have always included plans to pump
water from Snake Valley, obtaining approval for this piece of the effort has been considerably more complicated than for the other basins. The Snake Valley basin straddles the
border of Nevada and Utah and is the only basin in the proposal that is shared with another state (Deacon 2009).3 In 2004, Congress passed an act that would allow the groundwater development project to be constructed on federal lands; however, it also required
the SNWA to come to an agreement with Utah over Snake Valley (P.L. 108-424). The two
states reached a tentative agreement in 2009 (State of Utah 2009); however, as of early
2013, Utah still had not signed. And then, suddenly and unexpectedly, the governor of
Utah, Gary Herbert, announced in April 2013 that he would not sign the agreement to
share the groundwater in the joint basin. Governor Herbert said that he based his decision on feedback from local Snake Valley residents, including ranchers, landowners, Native American tribes, and governmental ofcials, most of whom opposed the agreement.
A majority of local residents do not support the agreement with Nevada, the governor said. Therefore, I cannot in good conscience sign the agreement because I wont
impose a solution on those most impacted that they themselves cannot support (Salt
Lake Tribune 2013).
The SNWA considered suing Utah for not signing the agreement, but as of mid-2013 it
had not yet taken action.
Las Vegas Pipeline Summary

Is this a zombie water project? Were not sure. It is unclear whether the project is politically, economically, or environmentally viable and will move forward, although the
SNWA maintains it is indispensable to the future of the city. The economic recession that
began in 2008 slowed growth in the Las Vegas area, and increased conservation efforts
have improved the water situation, though not by much and perhaps only temporarily.
The citys heavy dependence on the Colorado River, combined with very little industrial
or agricultural use, means that the bulk of the efforts to modify demands must fall on
3. However, it is not the only transboundary basin potentially affected.
140
residential users. As some studies have suggested, far more could be done in this area
(Cooley et al. 2007). Ensuring that southern Nevada has a sustainable supply of water will
certainly require changes in both supply and demand management, but in the long run,
there will have to be changes to regional development policies as well.
The project doesnt appear to be dead yet, and indeed, it may actually be built. But it
is clear that it represents the kind of project that would have been built in the twentieth
century, when society didnt care about, or didnt understand, the social and environmental implications of unrestrained long-distance water extraction and transfers.
Diverting the Missouri River to the West

Another proposal for a massive interbasin water diversion is the idea of moving Missouri or Mississippi River water west to the arid and semi-arid parts of the country. While
far smaller in scope than the NAWAPA project described earlier, water diversion from
the Missouri or Mississippi basin would still be an enormous undertaking. Water would
be moved in massive pipes and aqueducts, requiring large amounts of energy to pump
water over mountains and leading to ecological and social dislocations in downstream
regions.
History
There is a long history of ideas, efforts, actual expenditures, and construction projects
designed to move Missouri River water somewhere else. As early as 1889, the Constitutional Convention of North Dakota considered a proposal to build a canal to divert
Missouri River water in Montana to the Red River for irrigation. The infamous Garrison
Diversion Project and its related components (proposed and partially built in the 1930s,
1940s, and 1950s) is a case in which hundreds of millions of dollars have been spent to
try to do things that ultimately have failed to satisfy political, environmental, and social
needs (Springer 2013).
Recent Efforts at Revival

The concept has always been seen as far-fetched, yet like traditional zombies, it is never
seen as really dead. In 2012, the idea was raised again when the US Bureau of Reclamation included it as one of many possibilities for rethinking management of the Colorado
River. The study by the Bureau of Reclamation (the Basin Study) was the culmination
of a two-year effort to develop and analyze future supply and demand scenarios for the
seven states that share the Colorado River (Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico,
Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming) (US BOR 2012). In the bureaus analysis, the project was
described as a 670-mile pipeline to divert water from one of the Mississippi Rivers major
tributaries to help seven arid states in the West (Salter 2012). The core of the idea is to
build diversion dams along the Missouri and its tributaries to divert water during periods of high ow and move water west. If the water goes to users in the upper part of the
Colorado River basin, for example, downstream users hope that upstream users would
forgo some of their formal Colorado River legal allotments, permitting increased use
lower in the basin. They suggest that the project would cost an estimated $11.2 billion
141
and take thirty years to complete, though such initial cost estimates have a long history
of being largely guesswork.
The Basin Study is a multiyear, multi-participant assessment of the growing challenges facing the most important river basin in the arid western United Statesthe Colorado.
It shows that water demands in the basin already exceed the rivers available supply
a situation the Pacic Institute previously dened in a paper in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences as having reached peak water (Gleick and Palaniappan
2010). The situation will worsen as water demands grow with population and if, as scientists now expect, water supply in the river diminishes with climate changes. Just as important as identifying water scarcity problems is identifying the options for addressing
or preventing them. The Basin Study offers over a hundred different options and strategies for increasing supply or reducing demand. Many make sense; a few are far-fetched
and seriously out of touch with reality, including the idea to divert the Missouri River. It
did, however, receive considerable attention in the media when it was released, reecting the fascination the public and the media have with massive engineering ideas.
This kind of proposal has been made especially forcefully by the city of Las Vegas,
which (as described earlier in this chapter) faces serious water constraints as a result of
uncontrolled development. As stated in 2011 by Patricia Mulroy, director of the Southern
Nevada Water Authority (Velotta 2011),
it makes no difference to the corn and the alfalfa whether it gets Colorado River water or
Mississippi water or Missouri water. . . . You could improve the transportation and cargo
transports on the Mississippi River, which have been severely impaired this year by ood
conditions, and at the same time provide some security for those communities that have lost
everything by pulling some of that water off and moving it. . . . Its more water than the system down there can handle. Lets use it. Lets recharge the Ogallala aquifer, lets replace some
Colorado River users. Let them use some of this and leave the other water in the Colorado
River for those states that are west of the Colorado.
From a narrow technological perspective, there is no doubt that such a pipeline can be
built: a treatment plant, massive pumping stations, and a 600-mile-plus pipeline to move
water. Technically, this is standard engineering, albeit on a large scale.
Project Limitations
But some observers note that it is a dangerous idea whose time has come and gone again,
and in this era of scal limits, the federal government should not spend one penny even
studying it, much less invest in such a thing. Why? The project is predicated on three assumptionsall false:
First, it assumes that conservation and efciency will not be sufcient to
limit water demand and that we must nd more supply.
Second, it assumes that money, energy, and the environment dont matter.
Third, it assumes that there is excess water in the Missouri River to transfer.
Water demands should not be assumed to grow without limits. In the rst case, water managers, planners, local ofcials, and others are all trained to assume that water
demands must grow inexorably with population and the economy and that the only re-
142
sponse is to nd new sources of water. Recent experience in the western United States
and many other regionsindeed, in the United States as a wholeshows that we can
cut water use substantially by improving efciency, cutting waste, and changing use patterns while populations and economies continue to grow. Figure 7.4 shows that this has
been the case in the United States for over thirty years, during which time total water use
has actually declinedand new studies show that vast untapped and relatively low-cost
efciency improvements remain. Moreover, it is long past time we had a real conversation about land use, urban planning, and population policies instead of assuming they
have no implications for water policy.
In the second case, a pipeline taking water west from the Missouri River makes sense
only if you deeply discount or ignore economic, energy, and environmental factors. Such
a pipeline would costat a minimumtens of billions of dollars to build and would require massive energy inputs to run. Here is just one piece of this puzzle: moving water
from the Missouri River at Leavenworth, Kansas (often described as a logical diversion
point), to Denver, Colorado, would require a pipeline at least 600 miles long pumping
water uphill around 5,000 feet (see gure 7.5). Even doing the math on the back of an envelope shows that the energy costs for pumping alone, with conservative assumptions,
would be at least $1,000 per acre-foot of water. Add in the additional costs of nancing
and building such a pipeline and the power plants to run it, of operating it, and of treating and distributing the water, and were looking at some of the most expensive water
FIGURE 7.4 US WATER USE AND GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

Source: Gleick and Palaniappan 2010.
The graph shows US water withdrawals from 1900 to 2005 in cubic kilometers per year plotted
against US gross domestic product in 2005 adjusted dollars. Note that water withdrawals are no
longer growing with population and the economy but have actually declined.
143
in the world (not including bottled wateranother story). Even more ambitious, and
costly, would be trying to move any of the water over the Rocky Mountains, where the
additional pumping and energy costs would skyrocket.
Finally, the idea is also largely predicated on the assumption that the Missouri River
has excess water. This, of course, depends on how you dene excess and who is doing the dening. Some of the proposals try to argue that water would be diverted only
during infrequent high ow, or ood, events, which would further dramatically increase
the unit cost of water, since huge, costly infrastructure would be idle for long periods of
time. It is unlikely that, if actually built, the system would be operated in this manner.
But it is also ironic that the idea was presented at exactly the same timethe 20122013
seasonsthat massive, severe drought cut the ows of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers to record low levels, barges were being stranded, downstream users were demanding more upstream releases, and Midwest agriculture was suffering from water shortages. The US Army Corps of Engineersthe federal agency responsible for managing the
FIGURE 7.5 ONE POSSIBLE ROUTE FOR THE DIVERSION OF MISSOURI RIVER WATER TO DENVER AND THE
COLORADO FRONT RANGE
This gure also presents the distance/elevation prole showing that water would have to be
moved nearly 600 miles and be pumped nearly 5,000 feet up, at a huge energy cost.
144
riverdeclined requests for more water from the Missouri River to alleviate shortages
on the Mississippi because such releases would have come at the expense of upstream
users, drinking water supplies, environmental conditions, and hydropower generation.
Conclusions
Weve reached the era of peak water, even on big rivers such as the Missouri or for untapped resources such as northern-owing rivers in Alaska and Canada. There are many
other potential candidates for the category of zombie water projects. There is the proposal to divert water from the Gulf of California back north to the Salton Sea. There is the
proposal to cut a canal or run a pipeline from the Mediterranean Sea or the Red Sea to
the Dead Sea (see the In Brief report in this volume for a detailed update on this idea).
There has been talk for decades about building a massive canal in the Jonglei region of
Sudan on the Nile to dry up the ecologically valuable inland Sudd swamps there and cut
evaporative losses on the Nile. The Chinese are building a massive southnorth canal
system that may be quite alive.
While we can continue to fantasize about developing new water supplies by building larger and larger engineering projects to move water longer and longer distances,
destroying ever more distant ecosystems in the name of satisfying uncontrolled and unquestioned sprawl and development in arid regions, perhaps it is time to ask: Just because we can, should we? And once we ask that question, the answer typically comes
back quickly: No, we shouldnt. There are often far more environmentally, politically, and
economically sound solutions that should be considered rst. And many of these zombie
water projects should be left for dead.
References
Alaska Water Project. 2013. Bulk Water Pipeline. http://www.alaskabulkwater.com/Water-Pipeline
.html (accessed January 2, 2013).
Barclay, E. 2010. Alaska town eyes shipping water abroad. National Geographic Daily News, June
25. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/06/100625-freshwater-alaska-shipping
-water/.
Boyd, D. R. 2003. Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental Law and Policy. Vancouver:
University of British Columbia Press.
Campana, M. E. 2008. Canadian water exports: Will NAWAPA return? WaterWired, January 25.
http://aquadoc.typepad.com/waterwired/2008/01/kennedy-to-cana.html.
Casey, J. V. 2004. Ofcials speed up plans to tap rural Nevada water. Las Vegas Review-Journal,
February 27.
Christensen, J. 1994. Las Vegas wheels and deals for Colorado River water. High Country News,
February 21. https://www.hcn.org/issues/4/118.
City and Borough of Sitka, Alaska. 2013. Bulk water export advertisement. http://www.sitka.net
/sitka/resources.html (accessed January 2, 2013).
Cooley, H., T. Hutchins-Cabibi, M. Cohen, P. H. Gleick, and M. Heberger. 2007. Hidden Oasis: Water
Conservation and Efciency in Las Vegas. Oakland, CA: Pacic Institute. http://www
.pacinst.org/publication/hidden-oasis-water-conservation-and-efciency-in-las-vegas/.
Deacon, J. E. 2009. Potential environmental effects of the Southern Nevada Groundwater Project.
Mojave Applied Ecology Notes 2 (3): 68.
Egan, T. 1994. Las Vegas stakes claim in 90s water war. New York Times, April 10. http://www.ny
times.com/1994/04/10/us/las-vegas-stakes-claim-in-90-s-water-war.html?page
wanted=all&src=pm.
145
Eggen, L. 2012. Pipeline resolution not likely in 2013. Ely Times, Nevada, December 21. http://
www.elynews.com/news/article_4f0810be-4ace-11e2-af85-0019bb2963f4.html.
Environment Canada. 1987. Federal Water Policy. http://www.ec.gc.ca/eau-water/default
.asp?lang=En&n=D11549FA-1.
Garrick, D., M. A. Siebentritt, B. Aylward, C. J. Bauer, and A. Purkey. 2009. Water markets and freshwater ecosystem services: Policy reform and implementation in the Columbia and MurrayDarling basins. Ecological Economics 69 (2): 366379.
Gleick, P. H. 1998. Water bag technology. In The Worlds Water 19981999: The Biennial Report on
Freshwater Resources, edited by P. H. Gleick, 200205. Washington, DC: Island Press.
. 2003. Water use. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28:275314. doi:10.1146
/annurev.energy.28.040202.122849.
. 2011. Zombie water projects (just when you thought they were really dead . . .). Forbes
Blogs, December 7. http://www.forbes.com/sites/petergleick/2011/12/07/zombie-water
-projects-just-when-you-thought-they-were-really-dead/.
Gleick, P. H., and M. Palaniappan. 2010. Peak water limits to freshwater withdrawal and use.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (25): 1115511162. doi: 10.1073
/pnas.1004812107.
Greene, S., and M. Hynes. 1996. The politics of water: Law of the river guides water talks. Las Vegas
Review-Journal, October 13.
Kenny, J. F., N. L. Barber, S. S. Hutson, K. S. Linsey, J. K. Lovelace, and M. A. Maupin. 2009. Estimated
use of water in the United States in 2005. Circular 1344. Reston, VA: US Geological Survey.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1344/.
KQED. n.d. The Reber Plan: A Big Idea for San Francisco Bay. San Francisco: KQED. http://educa
tion.savingthebay.org/the-reber-plan-a-big-idea-for-san-francisco-bay/.
Lee, L. B. 1978. 100 years of reclamation historiography. Pacic Historical Review 47 (4): 507564.
doi:10.2307/3637371.
Mandel, J. 2006. Report details problems with contract for Iraq health centers. Government
Executive, May 1. http://www.govexec.com/management/2006/05/report-details-problems
-with-contract-for-iraq-health-centers/21710/.
NAWAPA. 1964. Ralph M. Parsons Company. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mTissXa48yg
&feature=youtube_gdata_player.
Nishkian, L. H. 1946. Report on the Reber Plan and Bay Land Crossing. San Francisco, CA: Joint
Army-Navy Board on an Additional Crossing of San Francisco Bay.
Presidio Trust. 2012. Before the Bridge: Sight and Sound at the Golden Gate. San Francisco: Presidio
Trust.
Reinhold, R. 1991. Battle lines drawn in sand as Las Vegas covets water. New York Times, April 23.
Reisner, M. 1986. Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water. Rev. ed. New York:
Viking.
Rothfeder, J. 2004. Every Drop for Sale: Our Desperate Battle over Water in a World About to Run Out.
New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin.
Salter, J. 2012. Major pipeline among ideas for aiding arid West. Associated Press, December 11.
http://bigstory.ap.org/article/major-pipeline-among-ideas-aiding-arid-west.
Salt Lake Tribune. 2013. The right decision: Herbert right to reject water deal. April 3. http://www
.sltrib.com/sltrib/opinion/56100950-82/herbert-deal-governor-nevada.html.csp.
Sewell, W. R. D., V. Ostrom, J. A. Crutcheld, E. R. Tinney, and W. F. Royce. 1967. NAWAPA: A continental water system. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (September): 827.
Sinclaire, J. 2011. The tness of physical models. Pacic Standard, December 5.
Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA). 2006. Water Resource Plan. Las Vegas, NV: Southern
Nevada Water Authority.
. 2007. About the Southern Nevada Water Authority. http://www.snwa.com/html/about
_index.html (accessed November 3, 2007).
Special Subcommittee on Western Water Development. 1964. A Summary of Water Resources
Projects, Plans, and Studies Relating to the Western and Midwestern United States. 755-567
O-64. Washington, DC: United States Senate, Committee on Public Works.
Springer, P. 2013. The quest for water. The Forum. http://legacy.inforum.com/specials/century
/jan3/week6.htm.
State of Utah. 2009. Snake Valley Agreement. Salt Lake City, UT: State of Utah, Utah Division of
Water Rights. http://waterrights.utah.gov/snakeValleyAgreement/snakeValley.asp.
United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (US BLM). 2012. Clark,
Lincoln, and White Pine Counties Groundwater Development Project Final Environmental
146
Impact Statement. FES 12-33. Reno, NV: United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Land Management. http://www.blm.gov/nv/st/en/prog/planning/groundwater_projects
/snwa_groundwater_project/nal_eis.html (accessed April 25, 2013).
United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation (US BOR). 2007. Law of the River.
Boulder City, NV: United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Lower
Colorado Region. http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/pao/lawofrvr.html (accessed November 24,
2007).
. 2012. Colorado River Basin Water Supply and Demand Study. Boulder City, NV: United
States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Lower Colorado Region. http://
www.usbr.gov/lc/region/programs/crbstudy/nalreport/index.html.
Velotta, R. N. 2011. Troubled waters: Las Vegas perpetual quest to quench itself. Vegas Inc., August
1. http://www.vegasinc.com/news/2011/aug/01/troubled-waters/.
Walton, B. 2010a. Bulk water company plans to export to India, East Asia, and the Caribbean. Circle
of Blue Water News, August 27. http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2010/world
/bulk-water-company-plans-to-export-to-india-east-asia-and-the-caribbean/.
. 2010b. Bulk water shipping company misses deadline to export from Alaska. Circle of Blue
Water News, December 13. http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2010/world/bulk-water
-shipping-company-misses-deadline-to-export-from-alaska/.
Wikipedia. 2013. Lyndon LaRouche. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lyndon
_LaRouche&oldid=551550653 (accessed February 2013).
Worster, D. 1992. Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West. New York:
W A T E R
B R I E F
The Syrian Conict and the

Role of Water
Peter H. Gleick
There is a long history of conicts over waterconsistently documented in each previous volume of The Worlds Water biennial assessments, going back to the rst, in 1998.
The Pacic Institute also maintains a searchable online chronology of such conicts going back ve thousand years.1 There were dozens of new examples in the past two years,
in countries from Latin America to Africa to Asia. Access to water and the control of water systems have been causes of conict, weapons used during conicts, and targets of
conict, but there are also growing risks of violence over the role that water plays in development disputes and economic activities. One especially disturbing example of a major conict, with complicated but direct connections to water, has developed since 2010:
the unraveling of Syria and the escalation of massive civil war there.
Syria and Water

Syrias political dissolution is, like almost all conicts, the result of complex, interrelated
factors. In this case, the conict was inuenced by an especially repressive and unresponsive political regime, the erosion of the economic health of the country, and a wave
of political reform sweeping over the entire Middle East and North Africa region. But in
a detailed assessment, Francesco Femia and Caitlin Werrell (2012) of the Center for Climate and Security in Washington, DC, noted that factors related to drought, agricultural
failure, water shortages, and water mismanagement also played an important role in
nurturing Syrias seeds of social unrest and contributing to violence. In particular, they
argue that a very severe drought led to persistent crop failures, which in turn led to very
signicant dislocation and migration of rural communities to the cities. These factors in
turn contributed to urban unemployment and economic dislocations and social unrest.
Water has always been a scarce resource in the regionone of the driest in the world.
Syria receives, on average, less than 250 millimeters (not quite 10 inches) of rainfall annually. All of its major rivers (the Tigris, Euphrates, and Orontes Rivers and the Yarmouk, a
tributary of the Jordan) are shared with neighboring countries. And Syria, like the region
as a whole, experiences periodic droughts. Over the past century (from 1900 to 2005)
there were six signicant droughts in Syria, in which average monthly winter precipitation dropped to only one-third of normal. Five of these droughts lasted only one season;
1. The chronology can be found at http://www.worldwater.org/conict.html, and a version appears in this
volume of The Worlds Water.
147
148
the sixth lasted two. Starting in 2006, however, and lasting into 2011, Syria experienced a
multi-season extreme drought and agricultural failures, described by Shahrzad Mohtadi
as the worst long-term drought and most severe set of crop failures since agricultural
civilizations began in the Fertile Crescent many millennia ago (Mohtadi 2012).
Robert Worth of the New York Times noted that this drought contributed to a series
of social and economic dislocations (Worth 2010). The United Nations estimated that
by 2011, the drought was affecting 23 million people, with 1 million driven into food
insecurity. More than 1.5 million peoplemostly agricultural workers and family farmersmoved from rural regions to cities and temporary settlements near urban centers,
especially on the outskirts of Aleppo, Hama, Homs, Damascus, and Daraa.
In 2008, a diplomatic cable from the US embassy in Damascus to the US Department
of State in Washington warned of the implications of the drought, with a review of local
opinions and concerns as well as insights from the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO).2 During the drought, FAO Syrian representative Abdullah bin
Yehia provided a brieng on the impacts, described as a perfect storm when combined
with other economic and social pressures. At that time, concerns were expressed that the
population displacements could act as a multiplier on social and economic pressures
already at play and undermine stability in Syria. In July 2008, Syrias minister of agriculture stated publicly to UN ofcials that the economic and social fallout from the drought
was beyond our capacity as a country to deal with. This warning was perceptive and
prescient: some of the earliest political unrest began around the town of Daraa, which
saw a particularly large inux of farmers displaced from their lands by crop failures.
The political problem was worsened by water mismanagement, poor planning, and
policy errors. The regime of Bashar al-Assad traditionally provided large subsidies for
the production of water-intensive crops, such as wheat and cotton, and ood irrigation systems are largely inefcient. Groundwater supplies were reportedly overpumped,
leading to dropping groundwater levels and rising production costs. Water withdrawals
upstream by Turkey for its own agricultural production in the southern Anatolia region
further reduced surface ows inside Syria. All of these factors contributed to growing
economic and political uncertainty.
Suzanne Saleeby, writing for Jadaliyya, a magazine published by the Arab Studies Institute, analyzed the links between economic and environmental conditions and the
subsequent political unrest. Saleeby (2012) argued, The regimes failure to put in place
economic measures to alleviate the effects of drought was a critical driver in propelling
such massive mobilizations of dissent.
Saleeby noted that the Assad regime made great strides in improving access to water,
building water infrastructure that beneted rural communities and expanded agricultural production. But she also noted that the vast expansion of irrigated agriculture in
the region, especially of nonfood industrial crops, worsened water shortages in rural areas and led to salination of farmland.
These effects increased vulnerability to subsequent droughts. At the same time, governmental sales of land in recent years to private agricultural interests led to growing
mistrust and concern about corruption. Extensive exploitation of groundwater led to
substantial drops in groundwater levels and, in some regions, contamination by salts and
2. These observations were cited in the diplomatic cable, published at http://wikileaks.org/cable/2008
/11/08DAMASCUS847.html. The accuracy of this cables contents has not been veried, but these statements
appear to be in the public record.
149
nitrates, making local wells (for example, in the ar-Raqqah region) unt for human use.
In all of these cases, trends toward privatization corroded customary law over boundary
rights (Saleeby 2012), further worsening local tensions. These complex factors contributed to the extent and severity of the unrest (Saleeby 2012):
It is logical to conclude that escalating pressures on urban areas due to internal migration,
increasing food insecurity, and resultant high rates of unemployment have spurred many
Syrians to make their political grievances publically known. One might look to the city of
Deir ez-Zor, one of Syrias most dangerously dry areas, to locate deeply rooted seeds in the
harvest of dissent. The northeastern city experienced one of the strongest sieges by the Syrian army at the beginning of Ramadan after popular uprisings spread across its parched
expanse. As a local activist told Syria Today, the citizens of Deir ez-Zor are suffering and
complain that they have had no help from the authorities who tell them what type of crops
they have to plant, and have a monopoly on buying up what they produce. Also among the
cities whose residents livelihoods were most crippled by recent drought was Daraa, historically a bread basket of Syria. Additionally, Hama remains a major destination for droughtdisplaced farmers despite suffering its own water scarcity woes. In all three centers of popular uprisings lie important narratives of livelihoods lost and families left wanting.
Other Links between Water and Conicts in Syria

After serious conict in Syria developed, violence worsened and spread. In 2012, incidental impacts on urban water distribution systems were reported, as were specic, intentional attacks on water systems because of their strategic value. During ghting around
the city of Aleppo in 2012, the major pipeline delivering water to the city was badly
damaged, and in September the city of about 3 million people was suffering shortages
of drinking water (BBC 2012). In late November 2012, anti-Assad Syrian rebels overran
governmental forces and captured the Tishrin Dam, a hydroelectric dam on the Euphrates River, after heavy clashes (Mroue 2012). The dam supplies several areas of Syria with
electricity and is considered to be of major strategic importance to the Syrian regime. In
February 2013, anti-Assad forces captured the Tabqa Dam, also called the al-Thawrah
Dam, which is the largest hydroelectric dam in the country and provides much of the
electricity for the city of Aleppo (BBC 2013).
The Role of Climate Change

Indications for the future are not promising: on top of political unrest and economic
dislocations, the region faces challenges posed by growing populations, the lack of international agreements over shared water resources, poor water management, and the
increasing risks of climate change. In 2008, the World Bank was already warning of future
climate risks (World Bank 2008):
According to the latest IPCC assessment, the climate is predicted to become even hotter and
drier in most of the MENA [Middle East and North Africa] region. Higher temperatures and
reduced precipitation will result in higher frequency and severity of droughts, an effect that
is already materializing in the Maghreb.
FIGURE WB 1.1 MILLIMETERS OF RAINFALL DURING WINTER PERIODS FROM 1902 TO 2010, SHOWING A
DROP IN RAINFALL IN 19712010
Source: NOAA (2011).
FIGURE WB 1.2 FOUR DARKEST SHADES INDICATE THE AREAS AROUND THE MEDITERRANEAN THAT
EXPERIENCED SIGNIFICANTLY DRIER WINTERS DURING 19712010 THAN IN 19022010
Source: NOAA (2011).
151
A research paper published in 2012 suggested that climate change is already beginning
to inuence long-term droughts in the region including Syria by reducing winter rainfall (see gures IB 1.1 and IB 1.2) (Hoerling et al. 2012). That study suggests that winter
droughts are increasingly common and that human-caused climate change is playing a
role. Martin Hoerling of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations Earth
System Research Laboratory, one of the studys authors, stated, The magnitude and frequency of the drying that has occurred is too great to be explained by natural variability
alone (NOAA 2011).
If the international community wants to reduce the risks of local and international
political conicts and violence over water, more effort will have to be put into recognizing these risks and improving the tools needed to reduce them.
References
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). 2012. Aleppo water supply cut as Syria ghting rages.
September 8. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19533112.
. 2013. Syria crisis: Powerful minibus explosion kills 13. February 11. http://www.bbc
.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21409661.
Femia, F., and C. Werrell. 2012. Syria: Climate Change, Drought, and Social Unrest. Center for
Climate and Security, Washington, DC. http://climateandsecurity.org/2012/02/29/syria
-climate-change-drought-and-social-unrest/.
Hoerling, M., J. Eischeid, J. Perlwitz, X. Quan, T. Zhang, and P. Pegion. 2012. On the increased
frequency of Mediterranean drought. Journal of Climate 25:21462161. doi:10.1175/JCLI
-D-11-00296.1.
Mohtadi, S. 2012. Climate change and the Syrian uprising. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, August
16. http://thebulletin.org/web-edition/features/climate-change-and-the-syrian-uprising.
Mroue, B. 2012. Activists: Syrian rebels seize major dam in north. Daily Star, Lebanon, November
26. http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Nov-26/196180-activists-syrian
-rebels-seize-major-dam-in-north.ashx#ixzz2KA8TTBbj.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 2011. NOAA Study: Human-Caused
Climate Change a Major Factor in More Frequent Mediterranean Droughts. October 27.
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2011/20111027_drought.html.
Saleeby, S. 2012. Sowing the seeds of dissent: Economic grievances and the Syrian social contracts unraveling. Jadaliyya, February 16. Washington, DC, and Beirut: Arab Studies Institute.
http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/4383/sowing-the-seeds-of-dissent_economic
-grievances-an.
World Bank. 2008. A Strategy to Address Climate Change in the MENA Region. Washington, DC:
World Bank. http://go.worldbank.org/OIZZFRJZZ0.
Worth, R. F. 2010. Earth is parched where Syrian farms thrived. New York Times, October 13.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html?_r=0.
W A T E R
B R I E F
The Red SeaDead Sea

Project Update
Kristina Donnelly
The Dead Sea is a terminal lake with great historical, cultural, and economic signicance. The sea sits at the conuence of East and West, on the borders of the Hashemite
Kingdom of Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinian National Authority, an area that has transported people, goods, and ideas for generations. For at least the past 150 years, serious
proposals have been made to engineer a connection between the Red Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Dead Sea. The political, social, water, and environmental needs of the
region have each, over time, contributed to the endurance of this idea; hammers, as they
say, tend to manifest a great deal of nails, and humans have an afnity for large, complex
hammers. Over time, the proposal has been offered as a means to facilitate transportation, generate electricity, supply freshwater through desalination, and advance broader
regional peace and economic development. This Water Brief report summarizes both the
history of and recent events in the proposals to build major infrastructure in this region.1
Projects to Improve Transportation

The rst proposals date as far back as the 1850s, when the British suggested that a canal
linking the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea could serve as an alternative to the Suez Canal as a route from Europe to India (Allen 1855). Political considerations regarding Egypt
made nding alternatives to the Suez Canal attractive for the British and then for Israel
(Ofner 1946; New York Times 1956). As early as 1883, a British member of Parliament noted the immense importance of obtaining, if possible, a waterway to India independent
of the Suez Canal, and all its untoward complications (Martin 1883). The idea persisted
through the mid-twentieth century (Wallenstein 1966). As proposed, creation of a waterway suitable for navigation would completely alter the local environment and would
ood important cultural, religious, and historical sites (San Francisco Chronicle 1883).
Ultimately, Israel chose to build a rail system over a canal to link the Mediterranean to
the Red Sea, although even this project was never completed.
1. We chose not to include this section in the earlier chapter on zombie water projects because it isnt clear
that the idea is fully deadyet.
153
154
Projects to Expand Energy

As the lowest point on Earth, the Dead Sea has tremendous potential for hydroelectric
power generation. In 1902, Theodor Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism, wrote about
a canal that would take advantage of the 400-meter (1,310-foot) elevation difference between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean to generate hydroelectric power. As the cost
of oil rose in the 1970s, Israel began studying the feasibility study of a canal project for
energy generation, with navigation listed only as a potential fringe benet (Torgerson
1979). Jordan objected to the plan, as one option would have passed through the Gaza
Strip, and in response began studying the feasibility of a hydropower canal from the Red
Sea to the Dead Sea (Khouri 1980). Over time, canal proposals have considered other
kinds of energy generation besides hydropower, including nuclear power and solar energy elds (Wallenstein 1966; Torgerson 1979). Although energy generation would also
become another fringe benet of future canal proposals, it remains a key component
to reducing overall project costs.
Projects to Produce Freshwater

The project began to take its modern shape during the Middle East peace talks in the
early 1990s, when freshwater scarcity and drastically increasing populations were threatening the water security of the entire region (Wolf and Newton 2007). In order to address
some of the regions critical water issues, the peace process brought about the formation
of the Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources. At a meeting of the group in 1993,
Israel proposed desalinating Red Sea water to provide 1 billion cubic meters of water to
the region, particularly Jordan (Schmetzer 1993).
It was envisioned that this project would be part of a much larger regional economic
development plan to facilitate peace, with the London Observer calling it the development centerpiece of the Middle East peace accords (Holmes 1994; Wisconsin State Journal 1994; Land 1994). Both sides began referring to the section of the Jordan Rift Valley
between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea as Peace Valley (Peres 1994). However, by 1995
the project had been shelved as a result of onerous bureaucracy, deteriorating relations,
lack of funding, and failure of the parties to agree on design and management. At that
time, the project was estimated to cost $4.2 billion, and the World Bank and other international monetary ofcials were making it clear that the money would not come from
the international community (Rodan 1995; Izenberg 1997). There would be little movement on the idea until changing circumstances offered a fresh application for the proposal.
Projects to Restore the Dead Sea

The Dead Sea has slowly been shrinking throughout the twentieth and twenty-rst centuries. Israel, Jordan, and Syria began diverting the Jordan River in the 1960s, and everyone knew that the Dead Sea would slowly disappear as a result (Wallenstein 1966).
Located in an area that receives less than 100 millimeters (under 4 inches) of rain per
year and where temperatures often exceed 45C, the Dead Sea is completely reliant on
155
inow for its continued existence. It is estimated that the total inow to the Dead Sea has
been reduced from around 1,250 million cubic meters (MCM) per year in 1950 to around
260 MCM per year in 2010. Furthermore, much of the water left in the lower Jordan River consists of raw sewage, agricultural runoff, sh pond water, and saline spring water
(Gafny et al. 2010). Lucrative chemical production facilities on the southern shore of the
sea have also contributed to the decline. In order to extract potash and other chemical
products, the chemical industries pump water from the upper Dead Sea to the lower section, into solar evaporation ponds. Without this pumping, the southern Dead Sea would
completely dry up. Paradoxically, the southern portion of the sea is now suffering from
rising levels: waste materials left over from the mineral extraction process are causing
the water levels to increase by 20 centimeters per year. This means that the majority of
the tourism activity taking place on the Israeli side of the Dead Sea is at risk from ooding, and large-scale dredging plans are being discussed (Udasin and Hartman 2011).
The Dead Sea shoreline now sits 426 meters (m) below sea level, more than 30 m lower
than in the 1960s. Without any intervention, the sea is expected to drop by another 150
m, stabilizing around 543 m below sea level, by the mid-twenty-second century (Coyne
et Bellier et al. 2012).
Although one canal project noted the replenishment of the Dead Sea as a potential
benet as early as the 1980s (Khouri 1980), the idea would not take prominence until
the late 1990s, when sinkholes began to appear on both the Israeli and Jordanian shores.
Sinkholes form when declining sea levels move the interface of fresh and saline groundwater, bringing undersaturated water into contact with salt formations. This freshwater
dissolves these formations, leaving behind underground caverns that can eventually collapse (Yechieli et al. 2002). These sinkholes have swallowed up roads, houses, and other
infrastructure on the shorelines,2 which has had, and will continue to have, negative consequences for the local and national economies.
A Combined Plan
In 2001, the Center for Middle East Peace and Economic Cooperation revived the concept, in a project dubbed the Peace Conduit, this time with saving the Dead Sea as a
major objective, with other benets being the production of drinking water, generation
of hydropower, and a reduction in regional conict (Lazaroff 2001). Israel and Jordan announced their commitment to the project in 2002 during the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa (Gavrieli and Bein 2007).
In 2005, Israel, the Palestinian Authority, and Jordan signed an agreement for a $15.5
million feasibility study, funded through a multidonor trust fund administered by the
World Bank (Al Bawaba 2005; Urquhart 2005). In 2013, the World Bank issued the nal
three draft reports: a feasibility study, an environmental and social assessment, and a
study of alternatives.3 The reports tentatively conclude that a $10 billion pipeline is feasible, though risky and not without environmental and social impacts.
The proposed plan would convey 2,000 MCM per year of Red Sea water to a desalina2. Sometimes even people: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/31475786/ns/world_news-environment/t/dead
-sea-sinkholes-swallow-plans/#.UVgTQaLZ7jI.
3. The World Bank held a series of stakeholder meetings in February 2013 and planned to issue the nal report
documents in June (World Bank 2013).
156
tion plant in Jordan, south of the southern tip of the chemical industries evaporation
ponds. By 2060, the plant would produce more than 820 MCM per year, with 550 MCM
per year for Jordan, 60 MCM per year for Israel, 60 MCM for Palestine, and 200 MCM left
unallocated. Despite the inclusion of a hydropower facility in the preferred option, by
2060 the desalination plant would still require at least an additional 6,140 gigawatt-hours
of energy per year.4 Leftover brine waste would be used to replenish the Dead Sea, stabilizing the level around 416 m below sea level by 2054. Potential impacts from this brine
include precipitation of gypsum, which could create whitening events, stimulate algae
blooms, or otherwise alter the waters aesthetics.
Criticisms of the Project

It is unclear whether an effective multinational organization could form and carry out
such a cumbersome and lengthy project. In order to access international support and
nancing, the project partners would need to set up a legal and institutional framework
founded on internationally accepted law and good practice (Coyne et Bellier et al.
2012). That could mean Israel would need to recognize that the Palestinian Authority
has rights to the Dead Sea, which it has not yet done. As noted in the feasibility study,
one particularly powerful lesson to be learnt from experience elsewhere is that good
governance requires a strong and autonomous regulatory authority. It has not yet been
made clear what kind of regulatory authority could be created, how it would operate,
who would pay for it, and what its roles and responsibilities would be.
Moreover, anti-Israel sentiment is high in Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, and
any collaborative projects are often widely perceived as normalizing the occupation in
Palestine. The feasibility study and other reports have considered a Jordanian-led project, with bilateral agreements set up to sell water and electricity to Israel and Jordan.
However, a unilateral project would still require multinational cooperation and agreement.
None of the individual countries has the nancial means or political support to unilaterally move forward, and international nancing is crucial. Although the feasibility study
considered whether the project could be built in phases in order to alleviate some nancial pressure, the study concluded that at least 75 percent of the projects total capacity
would be needed in the rst phase to make the project nancially viable. The feasibility
study concluded that a mix of funding sources would be needed in order to meet the
$10 billion price tag, and it outlined a list of preconditions that international nanciers
would likely have prior to investing, including implementing multinational agreements,
making improvements to existing water infrastructure, and increasing the institutional
capacity of the water sector.
In addition, environmental organizations and the chemical industries remain critical, citing concerns about Dead Sea and Red Sea water quality and environmental impacts, as well as potential environmental and groundwater impacts in the Arava Valley.
Both Israel and Jordan harvest chemicals from the rich, mineral-laden waters of the
Dead Sea, and industries on both sides of the border are concerned that the impact of
4. Energy and cost estimates include the energy required to pump potable water to Amman but not to Israel
or the Palestinian Authority.
157
mixing the desalination brine with water from the Dead Sea will threaten their lucrative
operations.
The freshwater component of the project, while important, is less pressing now than
it was at the beginning of the twenty-rst century. Israel is already moving forward with
its own coastal desalination program, which is expanding the freshwater available internally. The feasibility study concluded that it would be economically feasible to deliver
water only to the low-elevation demand centers in the Dead Sea basin and the Arava
Valley, where demand has been estimated to be 60 MCM per year. It is unclear whether
the benets of the project offer enough incentive for Israels continued participation. In
Jordan, the Disi Water Conveyance Project is expected to be completed in 2013 and will
transport 100 MCM of water to Amman from the Disi Aquifer, which lies beneath southern Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Although the pressing need for freshwater in Jordan is expected to be temporarily assuaged by the project, water from this groundwater basin is
not a sufcient or sustainable supply.
The idea to link the Mediterranean Sea or the Red Sea with the Dead Sea is not new,
although the purpose and scope have changed considerably over time. The factors that
have inuenced these changespopulation, politics, economics, and natural resource
needsare not static and will continue to shift. It is unclear whether the proposed alternative, or some other iteration, can meet all these needs simultaneously and for all
stakeholders in the region.
References
Al Bawaba. 2005. Donor countries agree on providing funding to the study on Red SeaDead Sea
Canal project. Al Bawaba News Service, July 7. http://www.albawaba.com/news/donor
-countries-agree-providing-funding-study-red-sea-dead-sea-canal-project.
Allen, W. 1855. The Dead Sea, a New Route to India: with Other Fragments and Gleanings in the
East. 2 vols. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
Coyne et Bellier, Tractebel Engineering, and Kema. 2012. Red SeaDead Sea Water Conveyance
Study Program: Draft Feasibility Study Report. Report No. 12 147 RP 04. July. http://sitere
sources.worldbank.org/INTREDSEADEADSEA/Resources/Feasibility_Study_Report
_Summary_EN.pdf.
Gafny, S., S. Talozi, B. Al Sheikh, and E. Yaari. 2010. Towards a Living Jordan River: An Environmental Flows Report on the Rehabilitation of the Lower Jordan River. Amman, Bethlehem,
and Tel Aviv: Friends of the Earth Middle East. http://foeme.org/uploads/publications
_publ117_1.pdf.
Gavrieli, I., and A. Bein. 2007. Formulating a regional policy for the future of the Dead SeaThe
Peace Conduit alternative. Water Resources in the Middle East 2:109116.
Holmes, C. W. 1994. At Israel-Jordan Summit, peace stirs hope for prots. Austin AmericanStatesman, July 24.
Izenberg, D. 1997. An insiders view of the Jordan rift. Jerusalem Post, May 9.
Khouri, R. J. 1980. Jordan reveals own plan for canal link to Dead Sea. Washington Post, August 30.
Land, T. 1994. Plan for desert canals links former enemies. Washington Times, January 23.
Lazaroff, T. 2001. A bitter end for the Dead Sea? Jerusalem Post, April 27.
Martin, H. J. 1883. The Palestine Canal. Letter to Mr. Jon Corbett, Member of Parliament. New York
Times, August 6.
New York Times. 1956. Israel studies Suez substitute for Middle East link to Europe. August 11.
Ofner, F. 1946. British study Red Sea canal to rival Suez. Chicago Daily Tribune, May 15.
Peres, J. 1994. Israel, Jordan open border nations contemplate commercial possibilities of new
Peace Valley. Lincoln (NE) Journal Star, August 9.
Rodan, S. 1995. Getting down to business in the Middle East. Jerusalem Post, November 3.
San Francisco Chronicle. 1883. The Dead Sea canal scheme: One of the most important projects
of the century. August 26.
158
Schmetzer, U. 1993. Canal could douse Mideast water wars. Chicago Tribune, October 29.
Torgerson, D. 1979. Israel sees Dead Sea as spring of life. Los Angeles Times, August 25.
Udasin, S., and B. Hartman. 2011. Tourism, environment ministers urge Dead Sea salt harvest.
Jerusalem Post, May 24. http://www.jpost.com/Enviro-Tech/Tourism-environment-ministers
-urge-Dead-Sea-salt-harvest.
Urquhart, C. 2005. Peace canal deal for thirsty Middle East. The Guardian, May 9.
Wallenstein, A. 1966. Ambitious proposal for Negev canal draws strong reactions. Washington
Post, October 20.
Wisconsin State Journal. 1994. Peace good economic strategy. July 27.
Wolf, A. T., and J. T. Newton. 2007. Case Study Transboundary Dispute Resolution: Multilateral
Working Group on Water Resources (Middle East). Transboundary Freshwater Dispute
Database (TFDD), Oregon State University. http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu.
World Bank. 2013. Red SeaDead Sea Water Conveyance Study ProgramOverview, Updated:
January. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Yechieli, Y., D. Wachs, M. Abelson, O. Crouvi, V. Shtivelman, E. Raz, and G. Baer. 2002. Formation
of sinkholes along the shore of the Dead SeaSummary of the rst stage of investigation. GSI
Current Research 13:16. http://www.gsi.gov.il/_Uploads/178GSI-Curent-Research-vol13
.pdf.
W A T E R
B R I E F
Water and Conict

Events, Trends, and Analysis (20112012)
Violence over freshwater has a long and distressing history. For nearly two decades, the
Pacic Institute has been tracking, analyzing, and cataloging instances of conict over
water resources (see box WB 3.1).
In recent years, there has been an increase in reported cases of water-related disputes
and violence. Figure WB 3.1 shows the average number of events per year from 1931 to
2012, averaged over two-year reporting periods. Part of this increase is almost certainly
due to improvements in reporting; new Internet tools that permit more comprehensive
collection and dissemination of news, data, and information; and more widespread
awareness of the issue. But it is also possible that part of the increase is due to growing tensions and disputes over limited freshwater resources and the unresolved political
challenges associated with peak waterthe limits imposed on the availability of both
renewable and nonrenewable water resources (Gleick and Palaniappan 2010). Without
more information and a more comprehensive analysis, we are not able at this point to
make any denitive statement about how to attribute the observed trends in this eld,
but we put forward the hypothesis, subject to better data and analysis, that the risks of
water-related disputes involving violence are increasing. Others have also expressed
this hypothesis, based on estimates of growing absolute and per capita scarcity of water,
water contamination, and the extensive reliance of agriculture and some urban uses on
nonrenewable sources of water that are rapidly being depleted (see, e.g., CSIS and Sandia
National Laboratories 2005; US DIA 2012; Leurig 2012).
This idea is also at odds with some academic and popular writing that argues that the
fear of water wars is overblown (Kramer et al. 2013). Part of that argument is based on
the observation that there are substantial numbers of historical agreements and political treaties over shared interstate water systems and a long history of cooperation and
negotiation when disputes develop. But the argument against water wars is different
from the broader issue of water-related conicts. And it is somewhat of a straw man
argument: the water wars discussions are almost always found in the popular media,
not academic analyses, and while wars are almost never solely or primarily about water,
water-related violence, at many different scales, does occur.
Furthermore, much of the discussion and analysis of water wars focuses on transnational, or interstate, disputes, while there appears to be a growing threat of subnational,
or intrastate, water conicts. This distinction is further discussed and analyzed below,
but we note that the prevalence and availability of international mechanisms to reduce
the risks of interstate conicts may offer little or no help in the area of intrastate conicts.
159
BOX WB 3.1 The Pacic Institute Water Conict Chronology

The Pacic Institute maintains a comprehensive database, the Water Conict
Chronology, at http://www.worldwater.org. An update is also provided every
two years in this biennial water report, The Worlds Water, published by Island
Press. Using these data, the Pacic Institute produces theoretical research papers, historical reviews, and regional case studies on water conicts. We have
organized workshops on lessons from regional water disputes in the Middle
East, Central Asia, and Latin America. We have brought together experts from
the elds of traditional and nontraditional arms control and helped coordinate a workshop on the role of science and religion in reducing the risks of
water-related violence, which was held at the Pontical Academy of Sciences
of the Vatican.
The full Water Conict Chronology includes integrated Google Maps; time,
location, and subject lters; and a separate searchable bibliography.* The nature of entries in the chronology can be described and categorized in different
ways. The Institute has split the categories, or types, of conicts as follows,
though other groupings and distinctions can also be useful:
Military tool (state actors): water resources, or water systems themselves,
are used by a nation or state as a weapon during a military action.
Military target (state actors): water resources or water systems are targets
of military actions by nations or states.
Terrorism or domestic violence, including cyberterrorism (nonstate actors):
water resources or water systems are the targets or tools of violence or
coercion by nonstate actors. A distinction is drawn between environmental terrorism and ecoterrorism (see Gleick 2006).
Development dispute (state and nonstate actors): water resources or water
systems are a major source of contention and dispute in the context of
economic and social development.
The Water Conict Chronology has appeared in every volume of The Worlds
Water since 1998. It continues to be one of the most popular features of the
Pacic Institutes work, and it is used regularly by the media and by academics interested in understanding more about both the history and character of
disputes over water resources (Zakaria 2013).
*Water Conict Chronology, http://worldwater.org/chronology.html.
161
FIGURE WB 3.1 NUMBER OF REPORTED WATER CONFLICT EVENTS PER YEAR, 19312012 (AVERAGED
OVER TWO-YEAR PERIODS TO SMOOTH FOR CROSS-YEAR EVENTS AND UNEVEN REPORTING)
As shown here, it is precisely these subnational conicts that appear to be increasing

in scope and severity. In that sense, it is not water wars that the international community
must address but the far broader lethal causes of water conicts overall, especially conicts over equitable access to water, strategies for sharing during shortages, and water
contamination.
There is also evidence of a shift in the nature of these conicts, away from water disputes between nations and toward subnational and local violence over water access. Figure WB 3.2 shows the changes in the number and proportion of reported events at the
transnational and subnational levels. The growing risk of subnational water conicts was
noted as far back as 1998 in the rst volume of The Worlds Water (Gleick 1998, 105):
Traditional political and ideological questions that have long dominated international discourse are now becoming more tightly woven with other variables that loomed less large in
the past, including population growth, transnational pollution, resource scarcity and inequitable access to resources and their use.
Part of this shift is almost certainly due to improved local reporting of water conicts,
but part is also likely to reect the greater availability of diplomatic and political tools at
the international level that permit disputing parties to move toward cooperation rather
than conict. Such tools are notoriously weak at the local level, especially in countries
with young or weak political institutions. And the greater prevalence of international
162
FIGURE WB 3.2 INCIDENCE OF REPORTED WATER-RELATED CONFLICTS FOR TRANSNATIONAL EVENTS

(SOLID LINE) AND SUBNATIONAL EVENTS (DASHED LINE). IN THE PAST TWO DECADES, WATER CONFLICTS
HAVE BEEN DOMINATED BY SUBNATIONAL DISPUTES.
mechanisms to reduce the risks of interstate conicts over water does little or nothing to
reduce the risks of intrastate, or subnational, violence.
The latest version of the Water Conict Chronology includes events from 2011 and
2012 plus new events from other years added by our research, submissions from colleagues and researchers, and contributions from the public. We continue to welcome
such contributions.
2011 and 2012 Update

In 2011 and 2012, violence over water was reported in every major developing region of
the world, especially the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, with additional important examples in Latin America. Below, we provide an update with key examples from this two-year
period. The full chronology and list are available online.1
1. Corrections, additions, and modications are welcome. Send full citations and supporting information to
pgleick@pacinst.org.
163
Southern and Western Asia (India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran)

In Afghanistan, three separate events were reported, in April, July, and December 2012.
In mid-April, 150 schoolgirls were reported to have been sickened by poison in their
school water supply in an intentional attack thought to have been carried out by religious conservatives opposed to the education of women (Hamid 2012). In July, seven
children were killed by a bomb thought to have been intended for Afghan police and
planted at a freshwater spring in the Taywara District of western Ghor Province (Shah
2012). In December, in a sign of broader tensions over water between Afghanistan, Iran,
and Pakistan, which share several rivers, Afghans defending the Machalgho Dam were
killed. The dam is being developed for irrigation and local power supply. This dispute is
just one of several surrounding the international waters of the region (Mashal 2012).
The year 2012 also saw a series of water-related conicts within and between India,
Pakistan, and Afghanistan. India has long experienced internal (state-to-state) disputes
over water, especially between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the Cauvery River in a
dispute that has been going on since at least 1991. At that time, court rulings allocating
water from Karnataka to Tamil Nadu led to riots in Bangalore that killed twenty-three
people, mostly Tamils. In 2002, a farmer in Karnataka jumped into a reservoir, killing
himself, to protest water deliveries to Tamil Nadu (Circle of Blue 2012). Violence broke
out again in 2012 when the state of Karnataka stopped the ow of water to Tamil Nadu, in
violation of an order by the Supreme Court of India. In October 2012, thousands of farmers in Karnataka tried to prevent the release of water from two dams (Krishna Raja Sagar
and Kabini Dams) on the Cauvery River. Injuries to protestors and police were reported (Circle of Blue 2012). The water releases were ordered by the Indian Supreme Court,
which required that Karnataka meet deliveries to the downstream state of Tamil Nadu
despite severe drought. The dispute continued later in the year when Karnataka again
stopped releases downstream (Indian Express 2012).
Separately, scufes and protests broke out around New Delhi during the summer
of 2012 as residents surrounded water delivery trucks and fought over water (Reuters
2012a). That summer was the hottest in thirty-three years, leading to extensive energy
and water shortages.
In an international dispute between Pakistan and India, Pakistani militants were reported to have attacked and sabotaged water systems, ood protection works, and dams
in the Wullar Lake region of northern Kashmir. In August 2012, water engineers and
workers were attacked and explosives were detonated at the unnished Tulbul Navigation Lock/Wullar Dam, which Pakistan claims would violate the Indus Water Treaty with
India by cutting water ows to Pakistan (Hassan 2012).
The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region

Serious examples of the use of water as a target and weapon of war were reported in Libya, during the civil war there, and in the long-standing dispute over borders, land, settlements, and water control in Israel and Palestine in 2011. Cross-border and subnational
disputes over water were reported in northern Africa in 2012 involving Egypt, Ethiopia,
and Sudan, and separately, within both Sudan/South Sudan and Egypt over water allocation and scarcity.
164
Libya
During the 2011 Libyan Civil War, forces loyal to dictator Muammar Gadda took control of a water operations center, cutting off the water supply to Tripoli. The system controls Libyas so-called Great Manmade Rivera system of pumps, pipes, and canals that
brings water from distant aquifers to Tripoli and other cities. Half the country was left
without running water, prompting the United Nations and neighboring countries to mobilize tanker ships to deliver water to coastal cities (Circle of Blue 2011; UPI 2011).
Sudan, Egypt, and Ethiopia

Continuing violence in Sudan had displaced hundreds of thousands of refugees, leading to an increase in deaths from water shortages. Violence broke out in March 2012 in
refugee camps, where large numbers of people faced serious water scarcity. Fighting was
reported at the limited water points in the Jamam refugee camp (McNeish 2012). The international aid group Mdicins Sans Frontires reported in June 2012 that as many as ten
refugees were dying daily as water ran out in refugee camps in South Sudan (Ferrie 2012).
Within Egypt, farmers from the Abu Simbel region held over two hundred tourists
hostage in June in a protest over the inadequate provision of irrigation water for local
farms. The farmers captured the tourists after they had visited famous attractions in the
region but released them after ofcials agreed to a temporary release of water (Egypt Independent 2012). Shortly after this, a series of public protests over shortages of drinking
and irrigation water took place, extending across seven Egyptian governorates. Some of
these protests were violent: in Beni Suef Governorate, one person was killed and many
were injured during a conict over irrigation water; in Minya, villagers clashed with ofcials over water shortages and water pollution; in Fayoum, hundreds of people protesting water shortages blocked a highway and set res (Ooska News 2012).
In a transnational dispute involving Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan in September and October 2012, information was released about a possible secret agreement between Egypt
and Sudan about an aireld that could be used to attack a major Ethiopian dam under
construction. The dam, now known as the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD),
has also been called the Millennium Dam or the Hidase Dam. If built, GERD will be one
of the largest dams in the world and the largest hydroelectric facility in Africa, located
just upstream of the Ethiopian-Sudanese border on the Blue Nile. Egypt has expressed
concerns about reductions in water ows reaching its citizens. The claim in 2012, strongly denied by Egypt, was that Egypt and Sudan had reached an agreement to permit Egypt
to use Sudanese territories to launch attacks on GERD if diplomatic efforts failed to resolve water-sharing disputes between Egypt and Ethiopia. The allegations originated in
an internal 2010 e-mail made available by WikiLeaks (Sudan Tribune 2012; Al Arabiya
News 2012).
Yemen
In September 2011, political violence in Yemens capital, Sanaa, led to secondary impacts on access to water. Damage to infrastructure contributed to acute water and
power shortages, forcing residents to rely on power generators and buy water extracted
from wells and sold on a thriving black market (AP 2011). The violence arose during
the Yemeni uprising that followed the Tunisian Revolution in early 2011 and coincided
with mass protests in Egypt and other parts of the Middle East. During the violence, gov-
165
ernmental soldiers shelled neighborhoods and destroyed many traditional rooftop water
tanks, worsening the problem of water access.
Israel and Palestine

Two separate incidents involving conicts and violence over water were reported in 2011
in Israel and Palestinea region with an especially long history of water disputes. In the
rst, Israels military was reported to have destroyed nine water tanks in the Bedouin
village of Amniyr in the South Hebron Hills in the West Bank, Palestine. Later, soldiers destroyed pumps and wells in the Jordan Valley villages of Al-Nasaryah, Al-Akrabanyah, and
Beit Hassan (Abuwara 2011). In the second incident, Israeli settlers near Qasra, a West
Bank village of 6,000, were reported to have destroyed cropsincluding olive treesand
a water well (Bsharat and Ramadan 2011).
Syria
In a period (20112012) in which there were a large number of water-related conicts,
one particularly disturbing event occurred with a complicated but direct connection to
water: the unraveling of Syria and the escalation of massive civil war there (see In Brief
2). Syrias political dissolution, like almost all conicts, is the result of complex and interrelated factors, including an especially repressive and unresponsive political regime, the
erosion of the economic health of the country, and a wave of political reform sweeping
over the entire Middle East and North Africa region. But in hindsight, factors related to
drought, agricultural failure, water shortages, and water mismanagement appear to have
played an important role in nurturing seeds of social unrest as well; see the separate In
Brief on this topic in this volume.
Latin America
Violence over water was reported widely in Latin America in 2012. Incidents involved Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Guatemala. Three events were reported in Brazil in 2012: one
associated with a controversy over control and management of indigenous lands, one
during a dispute over dam construction, and violence associated with ongoing drought
and water shortages. In the rst instance, Brazils federal police were investigating reports that water used by an indigenous tribe had been poisoned by nearby landowners
who were attempting to gain control over disputed land. Since 2009, three men from this
tribe had been reported killed in this dispute (AP 2012). In November 2012, work on the
controversial $13 billion Belo Monte Dam was halted after protesters burned buildings
at three dam sites. Several local groups and environmentalists fear that the dam across
the Xingu River, a tributary of the Amazon, will damage local communities and their way
of life, but the conict also has economic roots (Phys.org 2012). Northeastern Brazil also
saw growing conicts after severe drought reduced water availability. News agencies report that on average, one person a day was being killed as a result of water wars that
involved locals ghting over scarce supplies (Catholic Online 2012).
There is a growing dispute over water from the Silala/Siloli River, which originates in
Bolivia in the highlands of the Andes and ows to Chile. Bolivia recently linked an ongoing argument about access to the Pacic coast with the ows of water in a shared river:
166
the Silala/Siloli (The Economist 2012a). In Guatemala, human rights activists protesting the impacts of mining on local water quality and water rights were attacked. In June
2012, a local activist was shot, mirroring another incident in 2010 when an activist had
been shot while protesting the impacts of mining on water quality and local water rights
(Amnesty International 2012).
In Peru, several incidents involving protests, injuries, and deaths were reported in regions with opposition to large-scale mining operations because of concerns over water
quality and water rights. In July 2012, four people were reported to have been killed in
clashes between protestors and police over the proposed multibillion-dollar Minas Conga gold mine (Yeager 2012). Protests focused on pollution, concern about water supplies,
and economic issues have signicantly slowed, and temporarily completely halted, all
work at the mine (Reuters 2012b). A similar protest over the Xstrata Tintaya copper mine
in May 2012 led to two deaths and fty injuries (Reuters 2012c).
Central Asia
Central Asia, including the former Soviet republics, where almost all of the major rivers
cross international borders, has been the scene of long-simmering tensions over water
(Water Politics 2012). In this region, there are especially clear links between water and
energya growing concern in other parts of the world as well. In 2012, a major dispute
developed over water allocation and management among the Central Asian countries
of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. Tensions among countries in the region have
been growing for some time because of water scarcity, rivers that cross political borders,
dam construction and management, and a lack of cooperative institutional agreements
or institutions. In April 2012, Tajikistan protested that Uzbekistan had stopped deliveries of natural gas because of a disagreement over a hydropower dam. Uzbekistan cut gas
deliveries needed by Tajikistan because of concerns over efforts to build a hydroelectric
power station that Uzbekistan said would disrupt water supplies for its citizens. Gas ow
was resumed after a new contract was signed (Kozhevnikov 2012).
This event was perceived to be part of a larger long-standing dispute over two major proposed hydropower dams in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.2 These dams would be
the largest ever built in Central Asia and would potentially affect water deliveries and
availability to the downstream nations of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan,
all of which have expressed their concerns. By some estimates, the Rogun Dam would
signicantly reduce summer water availability and increase winter ows, depending on
operations. There is concern that if the dams are built, economic and political tensions
among the countries will escalate. Uzbekistan has the ability to cut off natural gas exports to both Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and as noted above, it has actually done so. In
September 2012, the leader of Uzbekistan, Islam Karimov, stated that the Rogun Dam
could lead to not just serious confrontation, but even wars (The Economist 2012b). This
regional dispute is further complicated by political relationships with Russia. Russia has
strategic interests in the region and has supported Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan in return for
an agreement to host Russian military bases for several decades to come (Borisov 2012).
2. The Kambarata-1 hydropower plant, proposed by Kyrgyzstan for the Naryn River, a tributary of the Syr
Darya; and the Rogun Dam, proposed by Tajikistan for the Vakhsh River, a tributary of the Amu Darya.
167
Other Regions in Africa

Several instances of violent clashes over access to water between pastoralists and farmers were reported in many parts of Africa in 2012. The worst cases occurred in Kenya, but
additional conicts were reported between communities in Mali and Burkina Faso, in
Mali and Mauritania, in Kenya and Uganda, in Kenya and Somalia, and within Tanzania.
Somalia/Kenya
In September 2012, Kenyan military ofcials reported that Al-Shabaab insurgent ghters
had poisoned a water well and damaged water infrastructure for another well near the
port city of Kismayu in an effort to counter the participation of Kenyan troops as part of
the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) (Wabala 2012).
Kenya
Extensive violence over water was reported in Kenya in 2012, with more than one hundred deaths in clashes between farmers and cattle herders over land and water (New
York Times 2012). This conict is part of a long-running dispute between the Pokomo
peoplemostly farmers near the Tana Riverand the Orma, seminomadic cattle herders. In 2001, at least 130 people were killed in a string of clashes in the same district and
between the same two communities over access to land and a river (Google News 2012a).
There is some indication, however, that the current conict is being exacerbated by Kenyan and foreign investment in vast tracts of land for food and biofuel cultivation, putting pressure on local resources (BBC 2012). Additional violence, including deaths, was
reported in 2012 in disputes over access to water in the poorest slums around Nairobi
(Njeru 2012).
Mali/Burkina Faso, Mali/Mauritania, Kenya/Uganda, Kenya/Somalia,

and Tanzania
The past few years have seen a series of increasingly violent clashes over access to water
and land between nomadic herders, pastoralists, and settled villagers. In May 2012, a
clash along the border between Dogon tribesmen from Mali and nomadic Fulani herders
from Burkina Faso killed at least thirty people after the revocation of an earlier agreement to share water and pastureland (Xinhua News 2012b).
The conict in Mali is also having repercussions in neighboring Mauritania, with protests and violence over water shortages reaching the capital, Nouakchott. By July 2012,
over 70,000 Malian refuges were seeking asylum in Mauritania, putting added pressure
on scarce food and water supplies. This led to protests in the capital over the lack of
water (Taha 2012).
In August 2012, ghting between two clans in the Lower Jubba region of South Somalia killed at least three people and wounded ve. Reports from the village of Waraq (near
the border with Kenya) indicated that the dispute originated with a disagreement over
the ownership of new water wells (Shabelle Media Network 2012).
Cross-border tensions are also growing between Uganda and Kenya after Kenyan Pokot herdsman crossed the border in search of water and pasture. Borders are often ignored in the region, where traditional pastoralists move herds to follow rains and grazing opportunities. In October 2012, the Ugandan government deployed more than 5,000
soldiers to the region in order to contain armed conict among pastoralists from the two
countries (Bii 2012).
168
Violence between farmers and pastoralists has also expanded in Tanzanias southeastern Ruji River valley, a region hit by drought. In May 2012, a farmer was killed in
a conict with a herdsman in a dispute over access to water in the southern regions of
Lindi and Mtwara. Five more people died and many more were injured in subsequent violence. According to local sources, the violence has been worsened in the past ve years
by prolonged drought (Makoye 2012).
South Africa
Protesters in Cape Town, South Africa, rioted over local failure to deliver adequate water
and power to poor communities. Hundreds of protesters burned tires, destroyed cars,
and threw rocks at police in August 2012 after continued disappointment and anger over
the lack of basic services (Xinhua News 2012a).
Asia-Pacic Region
Amnesty International reported in 2011 that women in the slums of the Solomon Islands
are continually harassed, attacked, and raped when they are forced to walk long distances in unsafe areas in order to nd clean water. A survey showed that 92 percent of
households do not have a tap in their home and that local water sources are often polluted (Amnesty International 2011). Violence over access to a water source was reported
in Maluku, Indonesia. Clashes in early 2012 led to several deaths and injuries (Jakarta
Globe 2012).
Conclusions
Water-related violence has a long history and continues to be a global and regional problem. The past several years have seen an increase in the total number of reports of violent
conict over water. Unlike the situation in the early and middle parts of the twentieth
century, an increasing proportion of reported cases have to do with subnational disputes, terrorism, and local violence rather than transnational incidents. Many are small
in scale, involving local violence over water allocations and use or violence over local
development decisions that affect environmental and economic conditions at the community scale. But more and more of the reported cases have their roots in water scarcity
and competition for a xed resource that is reaching peak limits (Gleick and Palaniappan
2010).
Much has been written in recent years about the nature of water-related conicts
and the need for improved international cooperation. Far less attention has been given
to what appears to be the more signicant risk: subnational violence and competition.
Some of this violence has been, and will remain, local. But some may spill over into the
international arena: the ongoing civil war in Syria (at the time of this writing) is a critical example in which water shortages, mismanagement, drought, and subsequent economic and population dislocations appear to have contributed directly to the political
unraveling of that country.
The data suggest that the challenges of water conicts are growing, not shrinking, es-
169
pecially at the subnational scale. Far better mechanisms and far greater efforts are needed to address these kinds of conicts.
References
Abuwara, A. 2011. Can water end the Arab-Israeli conict? Al Jazeera English, July 29. http://en
glish.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/07/20117278519784574.html (accessed March 2,
2013).
Al Arabiya News. 2012. Egypt, Sudan could seek military action over Nile: WikiLeaks. October 12.
http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/10/12/243396.html (accessed February 5, 2013).
Amnesty International. 2011. Where Is the Dignity in That? Women in Solomon Islands Slums
Denied Sanitation and Safety. September. http://www.amnesty.org.nz/les/SolomonIslands
WEB.pdf.
. 2012. Guatemala: Lives and Livelihoods at Stake in Mining Conict. June 21. http://www
.amnesty.org/en/news/guatemala-lives-and-livelihoods-stake-mining-conict-2012-06-21
(accessed January 31, 2013).
Associated Press (AP). 2011. 9 killed in renewed violence in Yemeni capital. September 22. http://
www.foxnews.com/world/2011/09/22/killed-in-renewed-violence-in-yemeni-capital
/ (accessed March 2, 2013).
. 2012. Brazil police investigate indigenous claim that creek in sacred land was poisoned.
November 21. http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/11/21/brazil-police-investigate-indig
enous-claim-that-creek-in-sacred-land-was/#ixzz2Jae2OGLn (accessed January 31, 2013).
BBC. 2012. Mass graves found in Kenyas Tana River Delta region. BBC News Africa, September 18.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19634076 (accessed February 6, 2013).
Bii, B. 2012. Tension at Kenya-Uganda border over rustling. Daily Nation, October 3. http://www
.nation.co.ke/News/-/1056/1523908/-/xtc5qbz/-/index.html (accessed February 6, 2013).
Borisov, A. 2012. Water tensions overow in ex-Soviet Central Asia. Phys.org, November 21. http://
phys.org/news/2012-11-tensions-ex-soviet-central-asia.html#jCp (accessed February 5,
2013).
Bsharat, M., and S. A. Ramadan. 2011. Fears of violence mount in West Bank on eve of Palestinian
UN bid. Xinhua News Agency, September 21. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010
/world/2011-09/21/c_131150218.htm (accessed March 2, 2013).
Catholic Online. 2012. Severe drought in Brazil destroying herds and lives. October 12. http://
www.catholic.org/international/international_story.php?id=48869 (accessed January 31,
2013).
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) and Sandia National Laboratories. 2005.
Addressing Our Global Water Future. September 30. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and
International Studies; Albuquerque: Sandia National Laboratories. http://csis.org/les
/media/csis/pubs/csis-snl_ogwf_sept_28_2005.pdf (accessed August 15, 2013).
Circle of Blue. 2011. Water as a tool of war: Qadda loyalists turn off tap for half of Libya. Circle of
Blue Water News, August 30. http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2011/world/water-as
-a-tool-of-war-qadda-loyalists-turn-off-tap-for-half-of-libya/ (accessed March 2, 2013).
. 2012. Protests break out after Indias Supreme Court rules in favor of downstream state in
Cauvery River dispute. Circle of Blue Water News, October 3. http://www.circleofblue.org
/waternews/2012/world/protests-break-out-after-indias-supreme-court-rules-in-favor-of
-downstream-state-in-cauvery-river-dispute/ (accessed February 5, 2013).
The Economist. 2012a. Bolivia and Chile: Trickle-down diplomacy; Evo Morales tries to swap a
stream for a piece of Chilean seafront. November 17. http://www.economist.com/news
/americas/21566673-evo-morales-tries-swap-stream-piece-chilean-seafront-trickle-down
-diplomacy (accessed January 31, 2013).
. 2012b. Water wars in Central Asia: Dammed if they do; Spats over control of water roil an
already unstable region. September 29. http://www.economist.com/node/21563764
(accessed February 5, 2013).
Egypt Independent. 2012. Abu Simbel farmers release tourists held over water shortage. June 3.
http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/farmers-hold-tourists-abu-simbel-over-water
-shortage-news2 (accessed February 5, 2013).
170
Ferrie, J. 2012. South Sudan refugee water shortage killing up to 10 people daily. Bloomberg News,
June 13. http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-06-13/south-sudan-refugee-water
-shortage-killing-up-to-10-people-daily (accessed February 6, 2013).
Gleick, P. H. 1998. Conict and cooperation over fresh water. In The Worlds Water 19981999: The
Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, edited by P. H. Gleick, 105. Washington, DC: Island
Press.
. 2006. Water and terrorism. Water Policy 8 (6): 481503.
Gleick, P. H., and M. Palaniappan. 2010. Peak water limits to freshwater withdrawal and use.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (25): 1115511162. http://www.pnas
.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1004812107.
Google News. 2012a. Kenya to hold peace meeting after 52 killed. AFP, August 23. http://www
.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jZdyUiAcUA7p94cH8PjEtslQUK3A?docId
=CNG.4fe0cb53fa3afbb412c2a959ae285e36.211 (accessed February 6, 2013).
Hamid, M. 2012. Afghan schoolgirls poisoned in anti-education attack. Reuters, April 17. http://
www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/17/us-afghanistan-women-idUSBRE83G0PZ20120417
(accessed January 31, 2013).
Hassan, I. 2012. Militants sabotage works on J&K lake. dna, August 30. http://www.dnaindia.com
/india/report_militants-sabotage-works-on-j-and-k-lake_1734411 (accessed February 6,
2013).
Indian Express. 2012. Stopped releasing Cauvery water to TN, says Karnataka CM. December 10.
http://www.indianexpress.com/news/stopped-releasing-cauvery-water-to-tn-says-karnata
ka-cm/1043124/ (accessed February 5, 2013).
Jakarta Globe. 2012. Bloody clashes in Indonesias Maluku claim another life. March 8. http://
www.thejakartaglobe.com/news/bloody-clashes-in-indonesias-maluku-claim-another
-life/503346 (accessed February 6, 2013).
Kozhevnikov, R. 2012. Uzbekistan resumes gas supplies to Tajikistan. Reuters, April 16. http://
www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/16/tajikistan-gas-idUSL6E8FG3YL20120416 (accessed
February 5, 2013).
Kramer, A., A. T. Wolf, A. Carius, and G. D. Dabelko. 2013. The key to managing conict and cooperation over water. A World of Science 11 (1) (JanuaryMarch): 412. http://unesdoc.unesco
.org/images/0021/002191/219156E.pdf.
Leurig, S. 2012. Water Ripples: Expanding Risks for U.S. Water Providers. Boston, MA: Ceres.
http://www.ceres.org/resources/reports/water-ripples-expanding-risks-for-u.s.-water-pro
viders/view.
Makoye, K. 2012. Drought drives Tanzanian herders into conict with farmers. Reuters, June 12.
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/drought-drives-tanzanian-herders-into-conict-with
-farmers/ (accessed February 6, 2013).
Mashal, M. 2012. What Iran and Pakistan want from the Afghans: Water. Time, December 2.
http://world.time.com/2012/12/02/what-iran-and-pakistan-want-from-the-afghans
-water/ (accessed January 31, 2013).
McNeish, H. 2012. Refugees in South Sudan face water crisis. AFP, March 31. http://www.google
.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ho-X1B6kIDKnLCHEUnlrW9665trw?docId%3DCNG
.91f54df3baaf54aa7554fca3c3d379df.41 (accessed February 5, 2013).
New York Times. 2012. Kenya: Clashes over land and water leave 12 dead. September 7. http://
www.nytimes.com/2012/09/08/world/africa/kenya-clashes-over-land-and-water-leave
-12-dead.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss&_moc.semityn&_r=1& (accessed February 6, 2013).
Njeru, G. 2012. Water shortages driving growing thefts, conicts in Kenya. Reuters, August 6.
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/water-shortages-driving-growing-thefts-conicts-in
-kenya/ (accessed February 6, 2013).
Ooska News. 2012. Egypt water shortage protests are widespread and violent. July 25. http://www
.ooskanews.com/daily-water-brieng/egypt-water-shortage-protests-are-widespread-and
-violent_23549 (accessed February 5, 2013).
Phys.org. 2012. Trouble at Brazil mega-dam stops construction for now. November 12. http://
phys.org/news/2012-11-brazil-mega-dam.html#jCp (accessed January 31, 2013).
Reuters. 2012a. Power cuts spark protests as India swelters. July 4. http://www.reuters.com/arti
cle/2012/07/04/uk-india-electricity-protest-idUSLNE86300Q20120704. (accessed February
5, 2013.)
. 2012b. Update 3Peru clash over Newmont mine kills three. July 3. http://www.reuters
.com/article/2012/07/04/peru-newmont-idUSL2E8I3GB820120704 (accessed February 5,
2013).
171
. 2012c. Update 3Peru uses emergency rules to try to end anti-mining protest. May 28.
http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/29/xstrata-peru-idUSL1E8GS34F20120529
(accessed February 5, 2013).
Shabelle Media Network. 2012. Somalia: Ethnic ghting renews in lower Jubba region, South
Somalia. August 15. http://allafrica.com/stories/201208160039.html (accessed February 6,
2013).
Shah, A. 2012. Ofcials say 7 Afghan children killed by bomb. Associated Press, July 25. http://
news.yahoo.com/ofcials-7-afghan-children-killed-bomb-110922657.html (accessed January 31, 2013).
Sudan Tribune. 2012. Egypt: Govt denies deal with Sudan to strike Ethiopian dam. September 24.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201209250218.html (accessed February 5, 2013).
Taha, R. M. 2012. Mali conict spilling over: Inux of refugees from Mali exacerbates political
instability in neighbouring Mauritania. Daily News of Egypt, July 1.http://www.dailynews
egypt.com/2012/07/01/mali-conict-spilling-over/ (accessed February 6, 2013).
United Press International (UPI). 2011. Gadha turns water project into a weapon. UPI.com,
September 2. http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Resources/2011/09/02/Gadha
-turns-water-project-into-a-weapon/UPI-66451314984213/?spt=hs&or=er (accessed March
2, 2013).
United States Department of Defense, Defense Intelligence Agency (US DIA). 2012. Global Water
Security. Intelligence Community Assessment ICA 2012-08. February 2. Washington, DC:
Ofce of the Director of National Intelligence. http://www.dni.gov/les/documents
/Newsroom/Press%20Releases/ICA_Global%20Water%20Security.pdf (accessed January 31,
2013).
Wabala, D. 2012. Kenya: KDF airlifts water to troops as wells poisoned. AllAfrica, The Star,
September 24. http://allafrica.com/stories/201209250173.html (accessed February 6, 2013).
Water Politics. 2012. Central Asias looming conict over water: The upriver countries. November
12. http://www.waterpolitics.com/2012/11/12/central-asias-looming-conict-over-water
-the-upriver-countries/ (accessed February 5, 2013).
Xinhua News. 2012a. Cape Town hit by continued protest against poor service delivery. August
14. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2012-08/14/c_131782882.htm (accessed
February 6, 2013).
. 2012b. Tribal clash kills 30 along MaliBurkina Faso border. May 25. http://news.xinhua
net.com/english/world/2012-05/25/c_131611541.htm (accessed February 6, 2013).
Yeager, C. 2012. When gold loses its luster: Four dead in Peru mining protests. Circle of Blue Water
News, July 6. http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2012/commentary/editorial-in-the
-circle-fresh-focus/when-gold-loses-its-luster-four-dead-in-peru-mining-protests/ (accessed February 5, 2013).
Zakaria, F. 2013. The coming water wars. CNN World, Global Public Square, February 25. http://
globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2013/02/25/the-coming-water-wars/?iref=allsearch
(accessed March 2, 2013).
W A T E R
B R I E F
Water Conict Chronology

The full Pacic Institute Water Conict Chronology, updated for 20102012, appears below. A summary of recent events is provided in Water Brief 3 in this volume. As noted in
volume 7 of The Worlds Water, a detailed, interactive online database now provides integrated Google Maps and lters to permit readers and researchers to view entries ltered
by time period, location, and subject. It also includes a separate searchable bibliography.
The Water Conict Chronology has appeared in every volume of The Worlds Water since
1998. It continues to be one of the most popular features of this report, and we continue
to seek out and include additions sent by readers and researchers around the world. The
chronology is increasingly being used by media and academics, and in 2013 it was cited
by Fareed Zakaria (2013) of CNN.
The current categories or types of conicts include the following:
Military tool (state actors): water resources, or water systems themselves,
are used by a nation or state as a weapon during a military action.
Military target (state actors): water resources or water systems are targets
of military actions by nations or states.
Terrorism or domestic violence, including cyberterrorism (nonstate actors):
water resources or water systems are the targets or tools of violence or
coercion by nonstate actors. A distinction is drawn between environmental terrorism and ecoterrorism (see Gleick 2006).
Development disputes (state and nonstate actors): water resources or water systems are a major source of contention and dispute in the context of
economic and social development.
Please email any contributions with full citations and supporting information to
pgleick@pipeline.com.
173
174
Lagash,
Umma
Hammurabi
Abi-Eshuh,
Iluma-Ilum
Sisera, Barak,
God
Moses, Egypt
2500 BC
1790 BC
17201684
BC
circa 1300
BC
1200 BC
720705 BC Assyria,
Armenia
Ea, Noah
3000 BC
Military tool
Military tool;
Religious
account
Religious
account;
Military tool
Military tool
Development
dispute
Military tool
Religious
account
Parties Involved Basis of Conict
Date

May 2013 Update
Sources
Yes
After a successful campaign against the Halidians of Armenia, Sargon II of Assyria

destroys their intricate irrigation network and oods their land.
Hatami and
When Moses and the retreating Jews nd themselves trapped between the Pharaohs
army and the Red Sea, Moses miraculously parts the waters of the Red Sea, allowing his Gleick (1994)
followers to escape. The waters close behind them and cut off the Egyptians.
Yes
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
Scoeld (1967)
The Old Testament gives an account of the defeat of Sisera and his nine hundred
chariots of iron by the unmounted army of Barak on the fabled Plains of Esdraelon.
God sends heavy rainfall in the mountains, and the Kishon River overows the plain
and immobilizes or destroys Siseras technologically superior forces (. . . the earth
trembled, and the heavens dropped, and the clouds also dropped water, Judges 5:4;
. . . The river of Kishon swept them away, that ancient river, the river Kishon, Judges
5:21).
Yes
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
A grandson of Hammurabi, Abish or Abi-Eshuh, dams the Tigris to prevent the retreat
of rebels led by Iluma-Ilum, who declared the independence of Babylon. This failed
attempt marks the decline of the Sumerians, who had reached their apex under
Hammurabi.
The Code of Hammurabi for the State of Sumer lists several laws pertaining to
irrigation that address negligence of irrigation systems and water theft.
Hatami and
The dispute over the Guedena (edge of paradise) region begins. Urlama, King of
Lagash from 2450 to 2400 BC, diverts water from this region to boundary canals, drying Gleick (1994)
up boundary ditches to deprive Umma of water. His son Il cuts off the water supply to
Girsu, a city in Umma.
Ancient Sumerian legend recounts the deeds of the deity Ea, who punished humanity Hatami and
for its sins by inicting the earth with a six-day storm. The Sumerian myth parallels the Gleick (1994)
biblical account of Noah and the deluge, although some details differ.
Description
Yes
No
Yes
No: Threat
Violent or in
Violent
Context?
175
Military target;
Military tool
6th century Assyria

BC
590600 BC Cirrha, Delphi Military tool
Military tool
605562 BC Babylon
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Military tool
612 BC
Egypt, Persia,
Babylon,
Assyria
Yes
Military tool;
Military target
669626 BC Assyria,
Arabia, Elam
Yes
Athenian legislator Solon reportedly has roots of Helleborus thrown into a small river
or aqueduct leading from the Pleistrus River to Cirrha during a siege of this city. The
enemy forces become violently ill and are defeated as a result. Some accounts have
Solon building a dam across the Plesitus River, cutting off the citys water supply. Such
practices were widespread.
Assyrians poison the wells of their enemies with rye ergot.
Nebuchadnezzar builds immense walls around Babylon, using the Euphrates and
canals as defensive moats surrounding the inner castle.
A coalition of Egyptian, Median (Persian), and Babylonian forces attacks and destroys
Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. Nebuchadnezzars father, Nebopolassar, leads the
Babylonians. The converging armies divert the Khosr River to create a ood, which
allows them to elevate their siege engines on rafts.
Assurbanipals inscriptions also refer to a siege against Tyre, although scholars

attribute it to Esarhaddon. In campaigns against both Arabia and Elam in 645 BC,
Assurbanipal, son of Esarhaddon, dries up wells to deprive Elamite troops. He also
guards wells from Arabian fugitives in an earlier Arabian war. On his return from
victorious battle against Elam, Assurbanipal oods the city of Sapibel, an ally of Elam.
According to inscriptions, he dams the Ulai River with the bodies of dead Elamite
soldiers and deprives dead Elamite kings of their food and water offerings.
Esarhaddon, an Assyrian, refers to an earlier period when gods, angered by insolent

mortals, created destructive oods. According to inscriptions recorded during his
reign, Esarhaddon besieges Tyre, cutting off food and water.
continues
Absolute
Astronomy
(2006)
Eitzen and
Takafuji (1997)
Hatami and
Gleick (1994);
Drower (1954)
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
When King Hezekiah of Judah sees that Sennacherib of Assyria is coming in war, he has Scoeld (1967)
springs and a brook outside Jerusalem stopped to keep water from the Assyrians. (So
there was gathered much people together, who stopped all the fountains, and the
brook that ran through the midst of the land, saying, Why should the kings of Assyria
come, and nd much water?, 2 Chronicles 32:14).
Yes
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
In quelling rebellious Assyrians in 695 BC, Sennacherib razes Babylon and diverts one
of the principal irrigation canals so that its waters wash over the ruins.
Yes
Military tool;
Religious
account
Israel (Judah), Military tool;

Assyria
Military
maneuvers
Military tool;
Military target
681699 BC Assyria, Tyre
701 BC
705682 BC Sennacherib,
Babylon
176
Athens
430 BC
Military tool
Military tool
210209 BC Rome and

Carthage
52 BC
Rome, Gaul
Military tool
355323 BC Babylon
Military tool
Military tool
Babylon
539 BC
Basis
of Conict
Military tool
Parties
Involved
558528 BC Babylon
Date
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Sources
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
Strategy Page
(2006)
Hatami and
Gleick (1994)
Caesar constructs water-lled ditches as a blockade during the Siege of Alesia in Gaul,
site of modern-day Alise-Sainte-Reine in Cte dOr, near Dijon, France.
Wikipedia
(2011a)
In 210 BC, Scipio crosses the Ebro to attack New Carthage. During a short siege, Scipio Fonner (1996);
Gowan (2004)
leads a breaching column through a supposedly impregnable lagoon located on the
landward side of the city; a strong northerly wind combined with the natural ebb of the
tide leaves the lagoon shallow enough for the Roman infantry to wade through. New
Carthage is quickly taken.
Returning from the razing of Persepolis, Alexander proceeds to India. After the Indian
campaigns, he heads back to Babylon via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, where he
tears down defensive weirs that the Persians had constructed along the river. Arrian
describes Alexanders disdain for the Persians attempt to block navigation, which he
saw as unbecoming to men who are victorious in battle.
During the second year of the Peloponnesian War, a plague breaks out in Athens. The
Spartans are accused of poisoning the cisterns of the Piraeus, the source of most of
Athenss water.
According to Herodotus, Cyrus invades Babylon by diverting the Euphrates above the
city and marching troops along the dry riverbed. This popular account describes a
midnight attack that coincided with a Babylonian feast.
Hatami and
On his way from Sardis to defeat Nabonidus at Babylon, Cyrus faces a powerful
Gleick (1994)
tributary of the Tigris, probably the Diyalah. According to Herodotuss account, the
river drowns his royal white horse and presents a formidable obstacle to his march.
Cyrus, angered by the insolence of the river, halts his army and orders them to cut
360 canals to divert the rivers ow. Other historians argue that Cyrus needed the water
to maintain his troops on their southward journey, while another asserts that the
construction was an attempt to win the condence of the locals.
Description
177
Rome, Gaul
France, Rome
Roman
Empire
(Pontius
Pilate), Jews
Goths and
Rome
Saladin and
the Crusaders
Florence and
Pisa
Holland and
Spain
51 BC
49 BC
AD 30
537
1187
1503
15731574
Military tool
Military tool
Military tool
Saladin is able to defeat the Crusaders at the Horns of Hattin in 1187 by denying them
access to water. In some reports, Saladin lls all the wells along the way with sand and
destroys the villages of the Maronite Christians, who would supply the Christian army
with water.
In the sixth century AD, as the Roman Empire begins to decline, the Goths besiege
Rome and cut almost all of the aqueducts leading into the city. In AD 537, this siege
succeeds. The only aqueduct that continues to function is the Aqua Virgo, which runs
almost entirely underground.
Roman Procurator Pontius Pilate uses sacred money to divert a stream to Jerusalem.
The Jews are angered by the diversion, and tens of thousands gather to protest. Pilates
soldiers mingle among the crowd and, with daggers hidden in their garments, attack
the protesters. A great number are slain and wounded and the sedition is ended.
During the rst year of the Great Roman Civil War, Julius Caesars troops lay siege to
the walled city of Massilia (modern-day Marseille) using siege towers and battering
rams and by digging mines or tunnels to undermine the city walls. Massilians defend
their city with dogged determination; tactics include directing water through pipes to
wash down on attackers, which the Romans counter by covering siege buildings with
bricks and several coatings of stucco. Defenders also excavate a large basin inside the
walls, lling it with water. As the Roman miners reach the walls, the tunnels are
ooded with water and collapse. Massilia ultimately surrenders after a ve-month
siege.
Lockwood
(2006); Priscoli
(1998)
Rome Guide
(2004); InfoRoma
(2004)
Josephus (AD 90)
Illustrated
History of the
Roman Empire
(2011); Caesar
(1906);
Wikipedia
(2013a)
Caesar attacks water supplies during the siege of Uxellodunum by undermining one of History of War
Online (2011)
the local springs and placing attackers near the other. Shortage of water leads to the
surrender of the Gauls.
Yes
In 1573, at the beginning of the Eighty Years War against Spain, the Dutch ood the
land to break the siege of Spanish troops on the town Alkmaar. The same defense is
used to protect Leiden in 1574. This strategy becomes known as the Dutch Water Line
and is used frequently for defense in later years.
continues
Dutch Water
Line (2002)
No: Plan only Leonardo da Vinci and Machiavelli plan to divert the Arno River away from Pisa during Honan (1996)
a conict between Pisa and Florence.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute
Military tool;
Military target
Yes
Yes
Military tool
Military target
178
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
French, Dutch Military tool
United States
United States
France,
Holland
Canada
1672
1748
1777
1804
1841
A reservoir in Ops Township, Upper Canada (now Ontario), is destroyed by neighbors

who consider it a hazard to health.
Yes
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
Napoleon orders the construction of a canal between Neuss and Venlo to connect the
Rhine and Meuse Rivers, in order to divert trade from the Batavia Republic to the
Southern Netherlands, then under French control. Three-quarters of the canal is
completed, but work stops because of lack of funds.
British and Hessians attack the water system of New York. The enemy wantonly
destroyed the New York water works during the War for Independence.
Ferry house on Brooklyn shore of East River burns down. New Yorkers accuse
Brooklynites of having set the re as revenge for unfair East River water rights.
Yes
Yes
Louis XIV starts the third of the Dutch Wars in 1672, in which the French overrun the
Netherlands. In defense, the Dutch open their dikes and ood the country, creating a
watery barrier that is virtually impenetrable.
The Huang Hes dikes are breached for military purposes. In 1642, toward the end of
the Ming dynasty (13681644), General Gao Mingheng used the tactic near Kaifeng in
an attempt to suppress a peasant uprising.
Yes
Yes
The Spanish Habsburgs attempt to prevent ship trafc on the River Rhine from
reaching the Dutch Republic in order to damage the Dutch economy. Plans are also
made to divert water from the Rhine to lands under Spanish control, to dry up
downstream cities in Holland. The rst stage is a canal between the Rhine and Meuse
Rivers, between the cities of Rheinberg and Venlo. Plans for a later stage call for a
connection between the Meuse and the Scheldt to circumvent the Scheldt Estuary,
controlled by the Dutch. Although some 60 kilometers of canal are constructed, the
plan fails because of changed military conditions and lack of funding. Parts of the
canal are still visible in present-day Germany.
Description
No
Development
dispute; Military
tool
Military tool
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
Military tool
China; Ming
Dynasty
1642
No
Development
dispute; Military
tool
Basis
of Conict
Spain, Dutch
Republic
Parties
Involved
16261629
Date
Forkey (1998)
Israel (1997)
Thatcher (1827)
MCNY (n.d.)
Columbia
Encyclopedia
(2000a)
Hillel (1991)
Israel (1997);
Bachiene (1791)
Sources
179
Development
dispute
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
Canada
China
1870s
Military tool
1890
United States
1863
Fatout (1972);
Fickle (1983)
Recurrent friction and eventual violent conict over water rights in the vicinity of
Tularosa, New Mexico, involves villagers, ranchers, and farmers.
A canal reservoir in Paulding County, Ohio, is dynamited by a mob regarding it as a
health hazard. State militia are called out to restore order.
A partly successful attempt is made to destroy a lock on the Welland Canal in Ontario,
Canada, either by Fenians protesting English policy in Ireland or by agents of Buffalo,
New York, grain handlers unhappy about the diversion of trade through the canal.
Yes
Yes
An unauthorized dam in Hubei, China, is constructed by locals and removed by

government (twice).
General Ulysses S. Grant, during the Civil War campaign against Vicksburg, cuts levees
in the battle against the Confederates.
continues
Styran and
Taylor (2001)
Walters (1948)
Rasch (1968)
Rowe (1988)
Grant (1885);
Barry (1997)
Hitchcock (1862)
During the US Civil War, Confederate forces near Yorktown use dams to ood the
Warwick River and cut off Union troops. The enemy is pushed behind a . . . branch of
the Warwick river in which they control the depths of water by dams. McClellan did not
intend to pass that stream at that time, or at that point where the skirmish took place.
But the troops, nding the stream fordable went over (under whose immediate orders
does not appear) and the water was then deepened so that they were measurably cut
off.
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Military tool
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
United States
Union and
Confederate
armies
1862
The banks and reservoirs of the Wabash and Erie Canal in southern Indiana are
repeatedly destroyed by mobs regarding it as a health hazard.
Yes
Steinberg (1990)
Scheiber (1969)
Eitzen and
General William T. Shermans memoirs contain an account of Confederate soldiers
poisoning ponds by dumping the carcasses of dead animals into them. Other accounts Takafuji (1997)
suggest this tactic was used by both sides.
A New Hampshire dam that had impounded water for factories downstream is
attacked by local residents unhappy about its effect on water levels.
Yes
Yes
A reservoir in Mercer County, Ohio, is destroyed by a mob that considers it a health

hazard.
Yes
Military tool;
Military target
United States
United States
18601865
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
1887
United States
18531861
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
Development
dispute
United States
1850s
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
1870s1881 United States
United States
1844
180
Basis
of Conict
California,
Arizona
Military target
Republican
government of
Spain, Spanish
Nationalists
1935
1937
Development
dispute
Yes
Military
maneuvers
Yes
Military tool
German
Southwest
Africa
1915
Yes
United States
19081909
Vanderwood
(1969)
Reisner
(1986/1993)
During the Spanish Civil War, two concrete gravity dams, at Burguillo and Ordunte, are Pagan (2005)
attacked by the Nationalist army, with a two-and-one-half-ton charge placed in an
inspection gallery at Ordunte. There is some limited damage, which is repaired in
19381939.
Arizona calls out the National Guard and militia units to its border with California to
protest the construction of Parker Dam and diversions from the Colorado River; the
dispute ultimately is settled in court. The militia mount machine guns on
commandeered ferries and patrol the river, earning the nickname the Arizona Navy.
Union of South African troops capture Windhoek, capital of German Southwest Africa, Daniel (1995)
in May. Retreating German troops poison wellsa violation of the Hague convention.
Violence, including a murder, is directed against agents of a land company that had
claimed title to Reelfoot Lake in northwestern Tennessee; the agents had attempted to
levy charges for sh taken and threatened to drain the lake for agriculture.
Reisner 1993
The Los Angeles Valley aqueduct/pipeline suffers repeated bombings in an effort to

prevent diversions of water from the Owens Valley to Los Angeles.
Yes
Sources
Moorehead
Military conict nearly ensues between Britain and France when a French expedition
(1960)
attempts to gain control of the headwaters of the White Nile. While the parties
ultimately negotiate a settlement of the dispute, the incident has been characterized as
having dramatized Egypts vulnerable dependence on the Nile, and xed the attitude
of Egyptian policy-makers ever since.
Description
Military
maneuvers
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Development
dispute
Owens Valley,
Los Angeles,
California
Terrorism;
Development
dispute
Egypt, France, Military tool;

Britain
Political tool
Parties
Involved
19071913
1898
Date
181
Japan, China
Finland, Soviet Military tool

Union
Multiple
parties
USSR and
Germany
Germany,
Soviet Union
Germany,
USSR
19391942
1940
19401945
1941
1941
19411943
Military target
Military tool
Military target
Military target
Military target;
Military tool
Military tool
Netherlands,
Germany
19391940
Military tool;
Military target
China and
Japan
1938
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Malik (2005)
Pagan (2005);
New York Times
(1941); Makarov
(2005); AHF
(2004)
Gleick (1993)
Malik (2005)
Harris (1994)
IDG (1996)
Hillel (1991);
Yang Lang
(1989/1994)
continues
World War II inicts enormous harm to hydroelectric systems in the Soviet Union. Over Malik (2005)
two-thirds of the hydroelectric power stations are lost.
In November, Soviet troops ood the area south of the Istra Reservoir near Moscow in
an effort to slow the German advance. Just a few weeks later, German troops used the
same tactic to create a water barrier to halt advances by the Soviet 16th Army.
The strategically important Dnieper hydropower plant in the Ukraine is targeted by

both Soviet and German troops during World War II. On August 18, 1941, the dam and
power plant are dynamited by Soviet troops retreating before advancing German
forces. The facility is bombed again in 1943 by retreating German troops.
Hydroelectric dams are routinely bombed as strategic targets during World War II.
Partisan Finns manipulate the waters of the Saimaan Canal (Finland) in order to ood
surrounding land and hinder Soviet troop movements during the Soviet-Finnish
conict.
Japanese chemical and biological weapons activities reportedly include tests by Unit
731 against military and civilian targets in which water wells and reservoirs are laced
with typhoid and other pathogens.
During the mobilization of the Dutch at the beginning of World War II, 19391940, the
Dutch attempt to ood the Gelderse Vallei with the New Dutch Water Defence Line,
which had been completed in 1885. During the German invasion in May 1940, large
areas are inundated.
Chiang Kai-shek orders the destruction of ood control dikes of the Huayuankou
section of the Huang He (Yellow) River, in order to ood areas threatened by the
Japanese army. West of Kaifeng, dikes are destroyed with dynamite, spilling water
across the at plain. Even though the ood destroys part of the invading army and
mires its equipment in mud, Wuhan, headquarters of the Nationalist government, is
taken by the Japanese in October. Floodwaters cover an area variously estimated as
between 3,000 and 50,000 square kilometers, killing Chinese estimated in numbers
between tens of thousands and one million.
182
Germany,
Allied forces
United States,
Japan
Finland, USSR Military target
1944
1944
1944
Military target
Military tool
Military tool
Germany,
Allied forces
1944
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Military tool
Germany,
Italy, Britain,
United States
1944
Yes
Military tool
Germany,
Italy, Britain,
United States
1944
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Military target
Basis
of Conict
Britain,
Germany
Parties
Involved
1943
Date
Kirschner (1949);
Semann (1950)
Sources
In June, the Soviet air force attacks the Svir River Dam, near Leningrad, then under the
control of the Finnish military.
The US bombardment of a Japanese-occupied island in June targets water supply

points, resulting in severe shortages.
Germans ood the Ill River Valley during the Battle of the Bulge (winter 19441945),
creating a lake sixteen kilometers long, three to six kilometers wide, and one to two
meters deep, greatly delaying the American armys advance toward the Rhine.
Germans ood the Ay River in France in July, creating a lake two meters deep and
several kilometers wide, slowing an advance on Saint L, a German communications
center in Normandy.
Orlenko (1981);
AHF (2004)
Stewart (n.d.)
US ACE (1953)
US ACE (1953)
The German army oods the Pontine Marshes, on the coast of Italy southeast of Rome, US ACE (1953);
Evans (2008)
by stopping pumps and opening dikes, in order to disrupt Allied forces who had
established a beachhead at Anzio. Allied forces are surrounded by German artillery and
pinned down for months by heavy shelling. The purpose of the ooding is to bring
mosquitoes and malaria, deliberately introduced as an act of biological warfare. This
has a limited military impact but devastates the local population, which the Third
Reich wished to punish for disloyalty.
German forces use waters from the Isoletta Dam (Liri River) in January and February to US ACE (1953)
successfully destroy British assault forces crossing the Garigliano River (downstream of
the Liri River). The German army then dams the Rapido River, ooding a valley
occupied by the American army.
The British Royal Air Force bombs dams on the Mhne, Sorpe, and Eder Rivers in
Germany (May 16 and 17). A Mhne Dam breach kills 1,200 and destroys all
downstream dams for fty kilometers. The ood that occurs after the breaching of the
Eder Dam reaches a peak discharge of 8,500 cubic meters per second, nine times
higher than the highest ood observed. Many houses and bridges are destroyed, and
sixty-eight are killed.
Description
183
Arabs, Israelis
Korea, United
States, others
Korea, United
Nations
Israel, Jordan,
Syria
United States,
Korea
1948
1950s
1951
1951
1951
Military target
Military tool;
Development
dispute
Military tool;
Military target
Military target
Military tool
Yes
The Hwacheon Dam in Korea, completed in 1944, becomes both a target and a tool of
opposing forces during the Korean War. In 1951, North Korea opens the dam to ood
downstream areas and slow advancing UN forces. In response, the US Navy sends
aircraft to bomb the dam, in the last known American use of aerial torpedoes in war.
continues
Calcagno (2004)
Wolf (1997);
Samson and
Charrier (1997)
Jordan makes public its plans to irrigate the Jordan Valley by tapping the Yarmouk
River. Israel responds by commencing drainage of the Huleh swamps, located in the
demilitarized zone between Israel and Syria; border skirmishes ensue between Israel
and Syria.
Yes
Gleick (1993)
Collins and
LaPierre (1972);
Joseph (1960);
Wikipedia
(2011b)
Wolf (1995); Wolf

(1997)
Bingham et al.
(1994)
Butts (1997);
Samson and
Charrier (1997)
SIPRI (1971)
US ACE (1953)
North Korea releases ood waves from the Hwachon Dam, damaging oating bridges
operated by UN troops in the Pukhan Valley. The US Navy then sends planes to destroy
the spillway crest gates.
Centralized dams on the Yalu (Amnok) River serving North Korea and China are
attacked during the Korean War.
Water and food supplies are cut off during an Arab siege of Jerusalem from December
1, 1947, to July 10, 1948. Arab forces block the road to Jerusalem in an attempt to defeat
Jewish Jerusalem. Shortages cause Israelis to begin rationing water on May 12, limiting
each person to two gallons (eight liters) per day, of which four pints (two liters) are for
drinking.
Arab forces cut off West Jerusalems water supply in the rst Arab-Israeli war.
A partition leaves the Indus River basin divided between India and Pakistan; disputes
over irrigation water ensue, during which India stems the ow of water into irrigation
canals in Pakistan. The Indus Waters Agreement is reached in 1960, after twelve years
of World Bankled negotiations.
A partition divides the Ganges River between Bangladesh and India; construction of
the Farakka barrage by India, beginning in 1962, increases tension; short-term
agreements settle disputes in 19771982, 19821984, and 19851988;and a thirty-year
treaty is signed in 1996.
In one of the few veried German tactical uses of biological warfare, German forces
pollute a large reservoir in northwestern Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, with sewage. See
also the entry for the Pontine Marshes in 1944.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Arabs, Israelis
1948
Military tool
No
19471960s India, Pakistan Development

dispute
Yes
No
Bangladesh,
India
1947
onward
Military target
Development
dispute
Romania,
Germany
1945
184
Israel, Jordan,
Syria
Egypt, Sudan
North
Vietnam,
United States
Israel, Syria
Brazil,
Paraguay
Ethiopia,
Somalia
Cuba, United
States
Israel, Syria
1958
1960s
1962
19621967
19631964
1964
1964
Parties
Involved
1953
Date
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Yes
Military target
Military
maneuvers
Military target
Military tool
Yes
No
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
tool
Military tool;
Development
dispute
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
target
Yes
Military tool;
Development
dispute
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
target
Basis
of Conict
Wolf (1997)
Naff and Matson

(1984); Samson
and Charrier
(1997)
Sources
Naff and Matson

(1984)
Headwaters of the Dan River on the Jordan River are bombed at Tell El-Qadi in a
dispute about sovereignty over the source of the Dan.
On February 6, the Cuban government cuts off the normal water supply to the US
Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay in retaliation for the US seizure of four Cuban shing
boats days earlier near Florida.
Naff and Matson

(1984)
Guantanamo
Bay Gazette
(1964)
Wolf (1997)
Creation of boundaries in 1948 leaves Somali nomads under Ethiopian rule; border
skirmishes occur over disputed territory in the Ogaden Desert, where critical water and
oil resources are located. A cease-re is negotiated only after several hundred are
killed.
Murphy and
Negotiations between Brazil and Paraguay over development of the Paran River are
Sabadell (1986)
interrupted in 1962 by a unilateral show of military force by Brazil, which invades the
area and claims control over the Guaira Falls site. Military forces are withdrawn in 1967
following an agreement for a joint commission to examine development in the region.
Israel destroys irrigation ditches in the lower Tarq in the demilitarized zone. Syria
complains.
Irrigation water supply systems in North Vietnam are bombed during the Vietnam War. IWCT (1967);
An estimated 661 sections of dikes are damaged or destroyed.
Gleick (1993);
Zemmali (1995)
Egypt sends an unsuccessful military expedition into disputed territory amid pending
negotiations over Nile waters, Sudanese general elections, and an Egyptian vote on
Sudan-Egypt unication; the Nile Water Treaty is signed when a pro-Egyptian
government is elected in Sudan.
Israel begins construction of its National Water Carrier to transfer water from the north
of the Sea of Galilee out of the Jordan River basin to the Negev Desert for irrigation.
Syrian military actions along the border and international disapproval lead Israel to
move its intake to the Sea of Galilee.
Description
185
Zambia,
Rhodesia,
Great Britain
Israel,
Palestinians
Israel, Syria
Israel, Syria
Vietnam,
United States
Israel, Jordan
United States
Chinese
citizens
1965
1965
19651966
1967
19671972
1969
1970
1970
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Military target;
Military tool
Military tool
Military target;
Military tool
Military tool;
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Military target
Yes
No: Threat
Yes
Yes
Yes
Conicts over excessive water withdrawals from, and subsequent water shortages in,
Chinas Zhang River had been worsening for over three decades between villages in
Shenxian and Linzhou counties. In the 1970s, militias from competing villages ght
over withdrawals. (See also entries for 1976, 1991, 1992, and 1999.)
The Weathermen, a group opposed to American imperialism and the Vietnam War,
allegedly attempt to obtain biological agents to contaminate the water supply systems
of US urban centers.
Israel, suspicious that Jordan is overdiverting the Yarmouk, leads two raids to destroy
the newly built East Ghor Canal. Secret negotiations, mediated by the United States,
lead to an agreement in 1970.
continues
China Water
Resources Daily
(2002)
Kupperman and
Trent (1979);
Eitzen and
Takafuji (1997);
Purver (1995)
Samson and
Charrier (1997)
Plant (1995);
The US military, in Operation Popeye, uses silver iodide for cloud seeding over
Indochina (Vietnam) in an attempt to extend the monsoon season and stop the ow of Troung and
materiel along Ho Chi Minh Trail. Continuous rainfall was intended to slow down the Cooper (2003)
truck trafc and was relatively successful.
Gleick (1993);
Israel destroys the Arab diversion works on the Jordan River headwaters. During the
Arab-Israeli War, Israel occupies Golan Heights, with the Banias tributary to the Jordan; Wolf (1995); Wolf
(1997);
Israel occupies the West Bank.
Wallensteen and
Swain (1997)
Wolf (1995); Wolf

Fire is exchanged over an all-Arab plan to divert the Jordan River headwaters
(Hasbani and Banias) and presumably preempt the Israeli National Water Carrier; Syria (1997)
halts construction of its diversion in July 1966.
Yes
Chenje (2001)
The rst attack ever by the Palestinian National Liberation Movement Al-Fatah is made Naff and Matson
on the diversion pumps for the Israeli National Water Carrier. The attack fails.
(1984); Dolatyar
(1995)
President Kenneth Kaunda calls on the British government to send troops to Kariba
Dam to protect it from possible saboteurs from the Rhodesian government.
Yes
No
186
United States
North Vietnam Military target
Germany
Iraq, Syria
1972
1972
1973
1974
Sources
Eitzen and
Takafuji (1997)
Iraq threatens to bomb the al-Thawra (Tabaqah) Dam in Syria and masses troops along Gleick (1994)
the border, alleging that the dam has reduced the ow of Euphrates River water to Iraq.
Military
maneuvers
Jenkins and
Rubin (1978);
Kupperman and
Trent (1979)
Columbia
Encyclopedia
(2000b)
A German biologist threatens to contaminate water supplies with anthrax bacilli and
botulinum toxin unless he is paid $8.5 million.
The United States bombs dikes in the Red River delta, rivers, and canals during a
massive bombing campaign.
There is a reported threat to contaminate the water supply of New York City with nerve Purver (1995)
gas.
Two members of the right-wing Order of the Rising Sun are arrested in Chicago with
thirty to forty kilograms of typhoid cultures, with which they allegedly planned to
poison the water supply in Chicago, St. Louis, and other cities. Experts say the plan
would have been unlikely to cause health problems, given that the water is
chlorinated.
Brazil and Paraguay announce plans to construct a dam at Itaipu on the Paran River, Wallensteen and
causing concern in Argentina about downstream environmental repercussions and the Swain (1997)
efcacy of Argentinas own planned dam project downstream. Argentina demands to
be consulted during the planning of Itaipu, but Brazil refuses. An agreement is reached
in 1979 that provides for the construction of both Brazils and Paraguays dams at
Itaipu and Argentinas Yacyreta Dam.
Description
No: Threat
Yes
No: Threat
No: Threat
No
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Military target;
Military tool;
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism
United States
1972
Development
dispute
Basis
of Conict
Argentina,
Brazil,
Paraguay
Parties
Involved
1970s
Date
187
Iraq, Syria
Angola, South
Africa
China
United States
Egypt,
Ethiopia
Sudan
Mozambique,
Rhodesia/
Zimbabwe,
South Africa
Iran, Iraq
Iran, Iraq
1975
1975
1976
1977
1978
onward
19781984
1980s
19801988
1981
Military target;
Military tool
Military tool
Military target;
Terrorism
Yes
Yes
Yes
Iran claims to have bombed a hydroelectric facility in Kurdistan, thereby blacking out
large portions of Iraq, during the Iran-Iraq War.
Iran diverts water to ood Iraqi defense positions.
Power lines from Cahora Bassa Dam are repeatedly destroyed during a ght for
independence in the region. The dam is targeted by RENAMO (the Mozambican
National Resistance).
Demonstrations in Juba, Sudan, in 1978 opposing the construction of the Jonglei Canal Suliman (1998);
Keluel-Jang
lead to the deaths of two students. Construction of the canal is suspended in 1984
(1997)
following a series of attacks on the construction site.
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
target; Terrorism
continues
Gleick (1993)
Plant (1995)
Chenje (2001)
Gleick (1991);
Gleick (1994)
There are long-standing tensions over the Nile, especially the Blue Nile, originating in
Ethiopia. Ethiopias proposed construction of dams on the headwaters of the Blue Nile
leads Egypt to repeatedly declare the vital importance of water. The only matter that
could take Egypt to war again is water (Anwar Sadat, 1979). The next war in our
region will be over the waters of the Nile, not politics (Boutros Boutrous-Ghali, 1988).
Clark (1980);
Purver (1995)
China Water
Resources Daily
(2002)
No
Development
dispute; Political
tool
A local militia chief is shot to death in a clash over the damming of the Zhang River.
Conicts over excessive water withdrawals and subsequent water shortages from
Chinas Zhang River had been worsening for over three decades. (See also entries for
1970, 1991, 1992, 1999.)
South African troops move into Angola to occupy and defend the Ruacana hydropower Meissner (2000)
complex, including the Gov Dam on the Kunene River. The goal is to take possession
of and defend the water resources of southwestern Africa and Namibia.
A North Carolina reservoir is contaminated with unknown materials. According to

Clark, Safety caps and valves were removed, and poison chemicals were sent into the
reservoir. . . . Water had to be brought in.
Yes
Yes
As upstream dams are lled during a low-ow year on the Euphrates, Iraqis claim that Gleick (1993);
ow reaching its territory is intolerable and ask the Arab League to intervene. Syrians Gleick (1994);
Wolf (1997)
claim they are receiving less than half the rivers normal ow and pull out of an Arab
League technical committee formed to mediate the conict. In May, Syria closes its
airspace to Iraqi ights and both Syria and Iraq reportedly transfer troops to their
mutual border. Saudi Arabia successfully mediates the conict.
Yes
Terrorism
Development
dispute
Military goal;
Military target
Military
Development
dispute; Military maneuvers
tool
188
Angola,
Namibia
United States
Israel,
Lebanon,
Syria
Guatemala
Lebanon
Israel
United States
United States
1982
1982
1982
1983
1983
1984
1985
Parties
Involved
19811982
Date
Terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Military tool
Development
dispute
No: Threat
Terrorism
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Military target;
Military tool
Basis
of Conict
Turton (2005)
Sources
Levy (2000)
Wolf (1997)
Law enforcement authorities discover that a small survivalist group in the Ozark
Mountains of Arkansas known as The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord
(CSA) has acquired a drum containing thirty gallons of potassium cyanide, with the
apparent intent to poison water supplies in New York, Chicago, and Washington, DC.
CSA members believe that such attacks would make the Messiah return more quickly
by punishing unrepentant sinners. The objective appears to be mass murder in the
name of a divine mission rather than a change in governmental policy.
Members of the Rajneeshee religious cult contaminate a city water supply tank in The
Dalles, Oregon, using salmonella bacteria. A community outbreak of over 750 cases
occurs in a county that normally reports fewer than 5 cases per year.
The Israeli government reports that it has uncovered a plot by Israeli Arabs to poison
the water in Galilee with an unidentied powder.
Tucker (2000);
NTI (2005)
Clark and
Deininger (2000)
Douglass and
Livingstone
(1987)
An explosives-laden truck disguised as a water delivery vehicle destroys a barracks in a BBC (2007)
US military compound, killing more than 300 people. The attack is blamed on
Hezbollah, with the support of the Iranian government.
In Ro Negro, 177 civilians are killed over opposition to the Chixoy hydroelectric dam.
Israel cuts off the water supply to Beirut during a siege.
Los Angeles police and the FBI arrest a man who is preparing to poison the citys water Livingston
supply with a biological agent.
(1982); Eitzen
and Takafuji
(1997)
Water infrastructure, including dams and the major Cunene-Cuvelai pipeline, is

targeted during the conicts in Namibia and Angola in the 1980s.
Description
189
Angola, South
Africa, Cuba
South Africa
Iraq, Syria,
Turkey
Iraq, Kuwait,
United States
Canada
Iraq, Turkey,
United
Nations
1988
1990
1990
1991
1991
1991
No
No: Threat
No: Threat
Military tool
Yes
Terrorism
Military target
No
Development
dispute; Military
tool
Development
dispute
Yes
Yes
Lesotho, South Military goal;

Africa
Development
dispute
1986
Military goal;
Military target
Yes
Lesotho, South Development
Africa
dispute; Military
goal
No
1986
Military tool
North Korea,
South Korea
1986
American
University
(2000b)
Mohamed (2001)
Gleick (1993)
Gleick (1993)
Gleick (1993)
The United Nations discusses use of the Ataturk Dam in Turkey to cut off ows of the
Euphrates to Iraq.
continues
Gleick (1993)
A threat is made via an anonymous letter to contaminate the water supply of the city of Purver (1995)
Kelowna, British Columbia, with biological contaminates. The motive is apparently
associated with the Gulf War. The security of the water supply is increased in
response, and no group is identied as the perpetrator.
During the Gulf War, Iraq destroys much of Kuwaits desalination capacity during its
retreat.
The ow of the Euphrates is interrupted for a month as Turkey nishes construction of Gleick (1993);
the Ataturk Dam, part of the Grand Anatolia Project. Syria and Iraq protest that Turkey Gleick (1995)
now has a weapon of war. In mid-1990, Turkish president Turgut Ozal threatens to
restrict water ow to Syria to force it to withdraw support for Kurdish rebels operating
in southern Turkey.
A pro-apartheid council cuts off water to the Wesselton township of 50,000 blacks
following protests over miserable sanitation and living conditions.
Meissner (2000)
Cuban and Angolan forces launch an attack on Calueque Dam via land and then air.
Considerable damage is inicted on the dams wall, and the power supply to the dam is
cut. The water pipeline to Owamboland is cut and destroyed.
South Africa supports a coup in Lesotho over support for the African National
Congress, opposition to apartheid, and water. The new government in Lesotho quickly
signs the Lesotho Highlands water agreement.
South Africa supports a bloodless coup by Lesothos defense forces. Immediately

afterward, the two countries agree to share water from the Highlands of Lesotho,
following thirty years of unsuccessful negotiations. There is disagreement over the
degree to which water is a motivating factor for either party.
North Koreas announcement of its plans to build the Kumgansan hydroelectric dam
on a tributary of the Han River upstream of Seoul raises concerns in South Korea that
the dam could be used as a tool for ecological destruction or war.
190
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Turkey
Karnataka,
India
19912007
Lethal concentrations of potassium cyanide are reportedly discovered in the water

tanks of a Turkish Air Force compound in Istanbul. The Kurdish Workers Party (PKK)
claims credit.
Citing environmental concerns, Hungary abrogates a 1977 treaty with Czechoslovakia

concerning construction of the Gabcikovo/Nagymaros project. Slovakia continues
construction unilaterally, completes the dam, and diverts the Danube into a canal
inside the Slovak Republic. Massive public protest and movement of military to the
border ensue; the issue is taken to the International Court of Justice.
Military
maneuvers
The United States deliberately pursues a policy of destroying Iraqs water systems
through sanctions and withholding contracts.
Violence erupts when Karnataka rejects an interim order handed down by the Cauvery
Waters Tribunal, set up by the Supreme Court of India. The tribunal had been
established in 1990 to settle two decades of dispute between Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu over irrigation rights to the Cauvery River.
Yes
Gleick (1993);
Arbuthnot
(2000); Barrett
(2003)
Sources
Chelyshev (1992)
Gleick (1993)
Gleick (1993);
Butts (1997);
American
University
(2000a)
Nagy (2001)
In December 1991, Huanglongkou village and Qianyu village exchange mortar re over China Water
Resources Daily
the construction of new water diversion facilities. Conicts over excessive water
(2002)
withdrawals and subsequent water shortages from Chinas Zhang River had been
worsening for over three decades. (See also entries for 1970, 1976, 1992, and 1999.)
During the Persian Gulf War, Allied Coalition forces damage Baghdads modern water
supply and sanitation systemintentionally and unintentionally. Four of seven major
pumping stations were destroyed, as were 31 municipal water and sewerage
facilities20 in Baghdadresulting in sewage pouring into the Tigris. Water
purication plants were incapacitated throughout Iraq (Arbuthnot 2000). Following
the damage, the New England Journal of Medicine reports that during the rst eight
months of 1991, childhood deaths in Iraq increase by 47,000 and the countrys infant
mortality rate doubles, to 92.7 per 1,000 live births.
Description
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Military target;
Military tool
1992
United States,
Iraq
19912001
Development
dispute
Political tool;
Development
dispute
China
1991
Military target
Basis
of Conict
1992
Iraq, Kuwait,
United States
Parties
Involved
1991
Date
191
China
Moldova,
Russia
Iran
Yugoslavia
1992
1992
1993
1993
Military target;
Military tool
Terrorism
Military target
Development
dispute
Bosnia,
Military tool
Bosnian Serbs
1992
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
The sixty-ve-meter-high Peru a Dam on the Cetina River was Yugoslavias secondlargest hydroelectric facility before the countrys breakup with the Croatian War
beginning in 1991. On January 28, 1993, Serbian/Yugoslav army forces detonate
explosives at the dam in an attempt to wipe out Croatian villages and the port city of
Omi. A successful Croatian counterattack allows military engineers to reach the dam
and release water in time to prevent it from bursting, saving an estimated twenty to
thirty thousand civilians. Credit for preventing a dam burst is also given to British
Marine Captain Mark Gray, a UN observer, for opening gates to reduce water levels
prior to the attack.
A report suggests that proposals were made at a meeting of fundamentalist groups in

Tehran, under the auspices of the Iranian Foreign Ministry, to poison water supplies of
major cities in the West as a possible response to Western offensives against Islamic
organizations and states.
In June, hostilities between Moldova and Russia in a short but intense conict include
a rocket-artillery attack on the hydroelectric turbines at the Dubossary power station
on the Nistru (or Dniester) River.
continues
Gleick (1993);
Rathfelder (2007)
Haeri (1993)
Malik (2005);
Belitser et al.
(2009)
China Water
In August 1992, bombs are set off along a Zhang River distribution canal, collapsing
part of the canal and causing ooding and economic losses. Violence continues in the Resources Daily
late 1990s with confrontations, mortar attacks, and bombings. Conicts over excessive (2002)
water withdrawals and subsequent water shortages from Chinas Zhang River had been
worsening for over three decades. (See also entries for 1970, 1976, 1991, and 1999.)
Burns (1992);
The Serbian siege of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, includes a cutoff of all
Husarska (1995)
electrical power and the water feeding the city from the surrounding mountains. The
lack of power cuts the two main pumping stations inside the city, despite pledges from
Serbian nationalist leaders to United Nations ofcials that they would not use their
control of Sarajevos utilities as a weapon. Bosnian Serbs take control of water valves
regulating ow from wells that provide more than 80 percent of water to Sarajevo; the
reduced water ow to the city is used to smoke out Bosnians.
192
Iraq
Moldova,
Russia
United States
Ecuador, Peru
Singapore,
Malaysia
Tajikistan
Angola
1994
1998/1994
1995
1997
1998
1998
Parties
Involved
19932003
Date
Military tool;
Political tool
Terrorism;
Political tool
Political tool
Military tool;
Political tool
Yes
No: Threat
No
Yes
No
No: Threat
No
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Cyberterrorism
Terrorism
Military tool
Basis
of Conict
In September, erce ghting between UNITA and Angolan governmental forces breaks
out at Gove Dam on the Kunene River for control of the installation.
Tajik guerrilla commander Makhmud Khudoberdyev threatens to blow up a dam on

the Kairakkhum channel if his political demands are not met.
Malaysia, which supplies about half of Singapores water, threatens to cut off that
supply in retribution for criticisms by Singapore of policy in Malaysia.
Armed skirmishes arise in part because of disagreement over the control of the
headwaters of the Cenepa River. Wolf argues that this is primarily a border dispute
simply coinciding with the location of a water resource.
The Washington Post reports that a twelve-year-old computer hacker has broken into
the SCADA computer system that runs Arizonas Roosevelt Dam, gaining complete
control of the dams massive oodgates. The cities of Mesa, Tempe, and Phoenix,
Arizona, are downstream of this dam. This report turns out to be incorrect. A hacker
did break into the computers of an Arizona water facility, the Salt River Project in the
Phoenix area. But he was twenty-seven, not twelve, and the incident occurred in 1994,
not 1998. And while clearly trespassing in critical areas, the hacker never could have
had control of any dams, leading investigators to conclude that no lives or property
were ever threatened.
Moldavian general Nikolay Matveyev reportedly threatens to contaminate the water

supply of the Russian 14th Army in Tiraspol, Moldova, with mercury.
To quell opposition to his government, Saddam Hussein reportedly poisons and drains
the water supplies of southern Shiite Muslims, the Madan. The marshes of southern
Iraq are intentionally targeted. The European Parliament and UN Human Rights
Commission deplore the use of water as a weapon in the region.
Description
Meissner (2001)
WRR (1998)
Zachary (1997)
Samson and
Charrier (1997);
Wolf (1997)
Gellman (2002);
Lemos (2002)
Purver (1995)
Gleick (1993);
American
University
(2000c); National
Geographic
News (2001)
Sources
193
Democratic
Republic of
Congo
Kosovo
Eritrea and
Ethiopia
Lusaka,
Zambia
Yugoslavia
Bangladesh
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Kosovo
South Africa
Angola
Puerto Rico,
United States
1998
19981999
19982000
1999
1999
1999
1999
1999
1999
1999
1999
1999
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Political tool
Terrorism;
Political tool
Terrorism
Political tool
Political tool
Military target
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute; Political
tool
Military target
Terrorism;
Political tool
Military target
Terrorism;
Political tool
Military target;
Terrorism
Chenje (2001);
Human Rights
Watch (1998)
Reuters (1999c)
FTGWR (1999)
ICRC (2003)
Reuters (1999a)
Protesters block water intake to Roosevelt Roads Navy Base in opposition to US

military presence and the navys use of the Blanco River, following chronic water
shortages in neighboring towns.
One hundred bodies are found in four drinking water wells in central Angola.
continues
New York Times

(1999)
International
Herald Tribune
(1999)
A homemade bomb is discovered at a water reservoir at Wallmansthal, near Pretoria. It Pretoria Dispatch
is thought to have been meant to sabotage water supplies to farmers.
(1999)
Serbian engineers shut down the water system in Pristina prior to occupation by
NATO.
Yugoslavia refuses to clear war debris (downed bridges) on the Danube unless nancial Simons (1999)
aid for reconstruction is provided; European countries on the Danube fear that
ooding due to winter ice dams will result. Diplomats decry environmental blackmail.
NATO targets utilities and shuts down water supplies in Belgrade. NATO bombs bridges Reuters (1999b)
on Danube, disrupting navigation.
Ahmed (1999)
Fifty people are hurt during strikes called to protest power and water shortages.
Protests are led by former prime minister Begum Khaleda Zia over a decrease in public
services and deterioration of law and order.
Belgrade reports that NATO planes have targeted a hydroelectric plant during the
Kosovo campaign.
A bomb blast destroys Lusakas main water pipeline, cutting off water for the city,
population 3 million.
Water-pumping plants and pipelines in the border town of Adi Quala are destroyed
during the civil war between Eritrea and Ethiopia.
Water supplies and wells are contaminated by Serbs disposing of the bodies of Kosovar CNN (1999);
Hickman (1999)
Albanians. There are also reports of Yugoslav federal forces poisoning wells with
carcasses and hazardous materials.
Attacks are made on Inga Dam during efforts to topple President Kabila. Electricity
supplies from Inga Dam and water supplies to Kinshasa are disrupted.
194
China
East Timor
Yemen
Namibia,
Botswana,
Zambia
Ethiopia
Central Asia:
Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan
France,
Belgium,
Netherlands
1999
1999
19992000
2000
2000
2000
Parties
Involved
1999
Date
Yes
No
Yes
Development
dispute
Terrorism
No
Military goal;
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Yes
Yes
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Development
dispute
Military tool;
Terrorism
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
Basis
of Conict
BBC (1999)
China Water
Resources Daily
(2002)
Sources
Pannier (2000)
Sandrasagra
(2000)
ICJ (1999)
In July, workers at the Cellatex chemical plant in northern France dump 5,000 liters of Christian Science
sulfuric acid into a tributary of the Meuse River after they are denied workers benets. Monitor (2000)
A French analyst points out that this is the rst time the environment and public
health were made hostage in order to exert pressure, an unheard-of situation until
now.
Kyrgyzstan cuts off water to Kazakhstan until coal is delivered; Uzbekistan cuts off
water to Kazakhstan for nonpayment of debt.
A man is stabbed to death during a ght over clean water during the famine in
Ethiopia.
On Sedudu/Kasikili Island, in the Zambezi/Chobe River, a dispute arises about the

border and access to water. The conict is presented to the International Court of
Justice.
Al-Qadhi (2003)
Yemen sends 700 soldiers to quell ghting that claimed six lives and injured sixty in
clashes that erupted between two villages ghting over a local spring near Taiz. The
village of Al-Marzuh believed it was entitled to exclusive use of a spring because the
spring was located on its land; the neighboring village of Quradah believed its right to
the water had been afrmed in a fty-year-old court verdict. The dispute erupted in
violence. President Ali Abdullah Saleh intervenes by summoning the sheikhs of the two
villages to the capital and sorts out the problem by dividing the water into halves.
Militia opposing East Timor independence kills pro-independence supporters and

throws their bodies in a water well.
Around the Chinese New Year, farmers from Hebei and Henan Provinces ght over
limited water resources. Heavy weapons, including mortars and bombs, are used and
nearly one hundred villagers are injured. Houses and facilities are damaged, and the
total loss reaches US$1 million.
Description
195
Hazarajat,
Afghanistan
India: Gujarat
Bolivia
United States
Kenya
Australia
China
Israel,
Palestine
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2001
Terrorism;
Military target
Development
dispute
Cyberterrorism
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
FTGWR (2000)
Cooperation
Center for
Afghanistan
(2000)
Palestinians destroy water supply pipelines to the West Bank settlement of Yitzhar and
to Kibbutz Kisum. The Agbat Jabar refugee camp near Jericho disconnects from its
water supply after Palestinians loot and damage local water pumps. Palestinians
accuse Israel of destroying a water cistern, blocking water tanker deliveries, and
attacking materials for a wastewater treatment project.
Civil unrest erupts over the use and allocation of water from Baiyangdian Lake, the
largest natural lake in northern China. Several people die in riots by villagers in July in
Shandong after ofcials cut off water supplies. In August, six die when ofcials in the
southern province of Guangdong blow up a water channel to prevent a neighboring
county from diverting water.
In Queensland, Australia, police arrest a man for using a computer and radio
transmitter to take control of the Maroochy Shire wastewater system and release
sewage into parks, rivers, and property.
A clash between villagers and thirsty monkeys leaves eight monkeys dead and ten
villagers wounded. The duel started after water tankers brought water to a droughtstricken area and the monkeys, desperate for water, attacked the villagers.
A drill simulating a terrorist attack on the Nacimiento Dam in Monterey County,

California, gets out of hand when two radio stations report it as a real attack.
continues
Israel Line
(2001a); Israel
Line (2001b);
ENS (2001)
Pottinger (2000)
Gellman (2002)
BBC (2000);
Okoko (2000)
Gaura (2000)
Massive protests, riots, and violence result from efforts to privatize the water system of Shultz and
Cochabamba, Bolivia.
Draper (2009)
Water riots are reported in some areas of Gujarat in protest of authoritys failure to
arrange an adequate supply of tanker water. Police are reported to have shot into a
crowd at Falla village near Jamnagar, resulting in the deaths of three and injuries to
twenty following protests against the diversion of water from the Kankavati Dam to
Jamnagar town.
Violent conicts break out over water resources in the villages of Burna Legan and
Taina Legan, and in other parts of the region, as drought depletes local resources.
196
Pakistan
Macedonia
China
Philippines
Afghanistan
Pokomo
farmers and
Orma cattle
herders
2001
2001
2001
2001
2001
Parties
Involved
2001
Date
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Military target
Terrorism
Development
dispute
Terrorism;
Military target
Development
dispute;
Terrorism
Basis
of Conict
Nadeem (2001);
Soloman (2001)
Sources
At least 130 people are killed in a string of clashes between Pokomo farmers and Orma
people, seminomadic cattle herders, over access to land and river water.
American forces bomb the hydroelectric facility at Kajaki Dam in Helmand Province,
cutting off electricity for the city of Kandahar. The dam itself is not targeted.
The militant Islamist separatist group Abu Sayyaf threatens to poison the water supply
in Isablela, a mainly Christian town on Basilan Island in the countrys south. In
October, residents in six nearby villages suspect contamination because the water
smells like gasoline. Local ofcials respond by closing pipelines and bringing in
drinking water by truck. In the months following the 9/11 attacks on New York,
numerous false alarms of terrorist activity are reported around the world.
In an act to protest the destruction of sheries by uncontrolled water pollution,

shermen in northern Jiaxing City, Zhejiang Province, dam a large industrial
wastewater canal for twenty-three days. The wastewater discharges into the
neighboring Shengze Town, Jiangsu Province, killing sh and threatening public
health.
AFP (2012)
BBC (2001);
Parry (2001)
World
Environment
News (2001);
Fenton et al.
(2001)
China Ministry
of Water
Resources (2001)
AFP (2001);
Water ow to Kumanovo (population 100,000) is cut off for twelve days in a conict
between ethnic Albanians and Macedonian forces. Valves of Glaznja and Lipkovo Lakes Macedonia
Information
are damaged.
Agency (2001)
Civil unrest erupts over severe water shortages caused by the long-term drought.
Protests begin in March and April and continue into summer, involving riots, four
bombs in Karachi (June 13), one death, twelve injuries, and thirty arrests. Ethnic
conicts arise as some groups accuse the government of favoring the populous
Punjab province [over Sindh Province] in water distribution.
Description
197
Kashmir, India Development

dispute
United States
Colombia
Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu,
India
2002
2002
2002
2002
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute
No: Threat
Yes
No: Threat
Yes
Terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism
Rome, Italy
2002
Terrorism;
Political tool
Nepal
2002
There is continuing violence over allocation of water from the Cauvery (Kaveri) River
between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, with riots, property destruction, more than thirty
injuries, and arrests through September and October.
Colombian rebels in January damage a gate valve in the dam that supplies most of
Bogots drinking water. The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)
detonates an explosive device planted on a German-made gate valve located inside a
tunnel in the Chingaza Dam.
Papers seized during the arrest of a Lebanese imam at a mosque in Seattle include
instructions on poisoning water sources from a London-based Al-Qaeda recruiter.
The FBI issues a bulletin to computer security experts around the country indicating
that Al-Qaeda terrorists may have been studying American dams and water supply
systems in preparation for new attacks. U.S. law enforcement and intelligence
agencies have received indications that al-Qaeda members have sought information
on Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems available on multiple
SCADA-related Web sites, reads the bulletin, according to SecurityFocus. They
specically sought information on water supply and wastewater management
practices in the U.S. and abroad.
Two people are killed and twenty-ve others are injured in Kashmir when police re at
a group of villagers clashing over water sharing. The incident takes place in Garend
village in a dispute over sharing water from an irrigation stream.
Italian police arrest four Moroccans allegedly planning to contaminate the water
supply system in Rome with a cyanide-based chemical, targeting buildings that
include the United States embassy. Ties to Al-Qaeda are suggested.
The Khumbuwan Liberation Front (KLF) blows up a 250-kilowatt hydroelectric

powerhouse in Nepals Bhojpur District, cutting off power to Bhojpur and surrounding
areas. The damage takes six months to repair and costs 10 million Rs (US$120,000).
During 2002, Maoist rebels destroy more than seven micro-hydro projects, a water
supply intake, and supply pipelines to Khalanga, in western Nepal.
continues
The Hindu
(2002a); The
Hindu (2002b);
Times of India
(2002)
WaterWeek
(2002)
McDonnell and
Meyer (2002);
MSNBC (2002)
Japan Times
(2002)
BBC (2002)
Kathmandu Post
(2002); FTGWR
(2002)
198
Parties
Involved
United States
Botswana,
Bushmen
Bolivian
irrigators,
townsmen
United States
United States
Colombia
Date
2002
2002
2002
2003
2003
2003
Terrorism;
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Workman (2009)
Crecente (2002);
AP (2002)
Sources
PSI (2003)
Yes
A bomb blast at the Cali Drinking Water Treatment Plant kills three workers on May 8.
The workers were members of a trade union involved in intense negotiations over
privatization of the water system.
Four incendiary devices are found in the pumping station of a Michigan water-bottling AP (2003a)
plant. The Earth Liberation Front claims responsibility, accusing Ice Mountain Water
Company of stealing water for prot. Ice Mountain is a subsidiary of Nestle Waters.
Al-Qaeda threatens US water systems via a call to a Saudi Arabian magazine. Al-Qaeda AP (2003b);
does not rule out . . . the poisoning of drinking water in American and Western cities. Waterman
(2003); NewsMax
(2003); US Water
News (2003)
Bustamante et
Violence erupts between irrigators and the townsmen of Tarata over the use of water
from the Laka Laka Dam. After local authorities begin diverting some water to cultivate al. (2004)
gardens in the town, irrigators in the downstream area of Arbieto protest that their
water rights are being violated. Irrigators destroy a portion of the towns pipeline, and
townsmen retaliate by vandalizing part of an irrigation canal.
Botswanas president, Festus Mogae, sends troops to the Kalahari Desert to destroy
wells and empty water sources of indigenous Khoisan people (also known as
Bushmen), ostensibly in an effort to remove them from their ancestral lands and
assimilate them into modern society. Critics accuse the government of taking away
water rights in favor of mining interests and label the governments actions a siege;
Botswana is condemned by international observers. Against expectations, a band of
Bushmen retreat into the desert and survive for years with little outside assistance.
The Earth Liberation Front threatens the water supply for the town of Winter Park, Co.
Previously, this group claimed responsibility for the destruction of a ski lodge in Vail,
Colorado, that threatened lynx habitat.
Description
Yes
No: Threat
Yes
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Yes
No: Threat
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Basis
of Conict
199
Iraq
Sudan, Darfur
Mexico
Pakistan
India, Kashmir Terrorism
China
2003
20032007
2004
2004
2004
2004
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Development
dispute
Military tool;
Military target;
Terrorism
Terrorism
Military target
Iraq, United
States, others
2003
Terrorism
Jordan
2003
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No: Threat
UNICEF (2003);
ARC (2003)
Amnesty
International
(2004); Reuters
(2004b)
Tens of thousands of farmers stage a sit-in against the construction of the Pubugou
Dam on the Dadu River in Sichuan Province. Riot police are deployed to quell the
unrest, and one person is killed. Witnesses also report the deaths of a number of
residents. (See China, 2006, for a follow-up.)
Twelve Indian security forces are killed by an improvised explosive device planted in
an underground water pipe during a counter-insurgency operation in Khanabal area
in Anantnag district.
continues
BBC (2004a);
VOA (2004)
TNN (2004)
In military action aimed at Islamic terrorists, including Al-Qaeda and the Islamic
Reuters (2004a)
Movement of Uzbekistan, homes, schools, and water wells are damaged and destroyed.
Guardian (2004)
Two Mexican farmers had argued for years over water rights to a small spring used to
irrigate a small corn plot near the town of Pihuamo. In March, these farmers shoot and
kill each other.
The ongoing civil war in Sudan includes violence against water resources. In 2003,
villagers from around Tina say that bombings have destroyed water wells. In Khasan
Basao, they allege that water wells have been poisoned. In 2004, wells in Darfur are
intentionally contaminated as part of a strategy of harassment against displaced
populations.
Insurgents bomb a main water pipeline in Baghdad. City engineers say this is the rst Tierney and
strike against Baghdads water system during the Iraq War, which began in March 2003. Worth (2003)
The bombing occurs when an explosive is red at the six-foot-wide water main in the
northern part of Baghdad, says Hayder Muhammad, chief engineer for the citys water
treatment plants.
During the US-led invasion of Iraq, water systems are reportedly damaged and
destroyed by different parties, and major dams are military objectives of the US forces.
Damage directly attributable to the war includes vast segments of the water
distribution system and the Baghdad water system, damaged by a missile.
MJS (2003)
Jordanian authorities arrest Iraqi agents in connection with a botched plot to poison
the water supply that serves American troops in the eastern Jordanian desert near the
border with Iraq. The scheme involves the poisoning of a water tank that supplies
American soldiers at a military base in Khao, which lies in an arid region of the eastern
frontier near the industrial town of Zarqa.
200
China, United
States
South Africa
Gaza Strip
India
Ethiopia
Kenya
2004
2004
2004
20042006
2005
Parties
Involved
2004
Date
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Terrorism;
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Military target
Basis
of Conict
Yes
Yes
Yes
Police are sent to the northwestern part of Kenya to control a major violent dispute
between Kikuyu and Maasai groups over water. More than twenty people are killed in
ghting in January. By July, the death toll exceeds ninety, principally in the rural center
of Turbi. The tensions arose over grazing and water. Maasai herdsmen accused a local
Kikuyu politician of diverting a river to irrigate his farm, depriving downstream
livestock. Fighting displaces more than 2,000 villagers, reecting tensions between
nomadic and settled communities.
At least 250 people are killed and many more are injured in clashes over water wells
and pastoral lands. Villagers call the clashes the War of the Well and describe well
warlords, well widows, and well warriors. A three-year drought has led to extensive
violence over limited water resources, worsened by the lack of effective governmental
and central planning.
BBC (2005); Ryu

(2005); Lane
(2005)
BBC (2004b); AP
(2005); Wax
(2006)
Indo-Asian News
Four people are killed in October and more than thirty are injured in November in
ongoing protests by farmers over allocations of water from the Indira Gandhi Irrigation Service (2004)
Canal in Sriganganagar District, which borders Pakistan. Authorities impose curfews
on the towns of Gharsana, Raola, and Anoopgarh.
AP (2004)
The United States halts two water development projects as punishment to the
Palestinian Authority for its failure to nd those responsible for a deadly attack on a US
diplomatic convoy in October 2003.
Yes
CDE (2007)
China Daily
(2004); US DOD
(2004)
Sources
Poor delivery of water and sanitation services in Phumelela Township leads to several
months of protests. No one is killed during the protests, but a few people are seriously
injured, and municipal property is damaged.
A 2004 Pentagon report on Chinas military capacity raises the concept of Taipei
adopting military systems capable of being used as a tool for deterring Chinese
military coercion by presenting credible threats to Chinas urban population or highvalue targets, such as the Three Gorges Dam. China promptly denounces a U.S.
suggestion that Taiwans military target the Three Gorges Dam, leading the United
States to deny that it had so urged.
Description
Yes
No
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
201
Ukraine
Yemen
China
Ethiopia
Ethiopia and
Kenya
Sri Lanka
Israel,
Lebanon
Sudan
India
2005
2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2007
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Military target;
Terrorism
Military tool;
Military target;
Terrorism
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Terrorism
Al-Ariqi (2006)
Levitsky (2005)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Bosshard (2009)
Science (2006);
Amnesty
International
(2006); Murphy
(2006)
continues
Statesman News
Thousands of farmers breach security and storm the area of Hirakud Dam to protest
allocation of water to industry. Minor injuries are reported during the conict between Service (2007)
the farmers and police.
Militia of the Merowe Dam Militia Implementation Unit in Sudan attack a gathering of
villagers concerned about the community impacts of the dam at a school in Amri
village, killing three farmers and injuring more than fty others.
Hezbollah rockets damage a wastewater plant in Israel. Israeli counterattacks damage

water systems throughout southern Lebanon, including tanks, pipes, pumping
stations, and facilities along the Litani River.
Tamil Tiger rebels cut the water supply to government-held villages in northeastern Sri BBC (2006c);
Lanka. Sri Lankan governmental forces then launch attacks on the reservoir, declaring BBC (2006d);
the Tamil actions to be terrorism. As of August, conict around the water blockade had Gutierrez (2006)
claimed over 425 lives.
Yes
Reuters (2006)
BBC (2006b)
At least forty people die in Kenya and Ethiopia in continuing clashes over water,
livestock, and grazing land. Fighting takes place in southern Ethiopia in the region of
Oromo and in the northern Kenya Marsabit District.
At least twelve people die and over twenty are wounded in clashes over water and
pasture in the Somali border region.
Chinese authorities execute a man who took part in protests against the Pubugou Dam BBC (2006a);
Coonan (2006)
in Sichuan Province in 2004 (see the 2004 China entry). Chen Tao was convicted of
killing a policeman but is executed before legal appeals are completed.
Local media report a struggle between the Hajja and Amran tribes over a well located
between the two governorates in Yemen. According to news reports, armed clashes
between the two sides force many families to leave their homes and migrate. News
reports conrm that authorities have arrested twenty people in an attempt to stop the
ghting.
On April 13, the Kiev Hydropower Station on the Dnieper River receives a threat that
forty rail cars lled with explosives have been placed on a portion of levees holding
back the reservoir.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
202
Parties
Involved
Afghanistan
Canada
Burkina Faso,
Ghana, Cte
dIvoire
Israel,
Palestine
Sydney
residents
Sudan
Nigeria
China, Tibet
Date
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2008
2008
Military target;
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Sharife (2008)
China launches a political crackdown in Tibet. At least some observers note the
importance of Tibet for the water resources of China, though the political
complications between Tibet and China extend far beyond water. As noted: Tibet is
referred to in some circles as the worlds water tower; the Tibetan plateau is home to
vast reserves of glaciated water, the sources of 10 of the largest rivers in Asia, including
the Yellow, Yangtze, Mekong, Brahmaputra, Salween, Hindus and Sutlej among others.
By some estimates, the Tibetan plateau is the source of fresh water for fully a quarter of
the worlds population.
Yes
Yakubu (2008)
Bosshard (2009)
ABC News
(2007); Crase
(2009)
Oxfam (2007)
UN OCHA (2007)
Toronto Star
(2007)
Friel (2007)
Sources
A protest over the price of water in Nyanya, Abuja, Nigeria, results in violence,
including the beating of water vendors.
Angry villagers in Sudan stage protests against Kajbar Dam; four villagers are killed by
governmental militia.
A thirty-six-year-old Australian is charged with murder after killing a man during a

ght over water restrictions in Sydney. A number of incidents have been reported
following ten years of drought and water restrictions, leading scholars to suggest a
link between persistent urban water restrictions and civil unrest.
Israels sanctions against Gaza cause water shortages and a growing public health risk.
In particular, restrictions on fuel, spare parts, and maintenance equipment threaten
the functioning of Gazas already limited water and sanitation system.
Declining rainfall has led to growing ghts between animal herders and farmers with
competing needs. In August, 2007 people are forced to ee their homes by ghting in
Zounweogo Province.
A Toronto man previously accused of attempted murder and illegal possession of

explosives is charged with eight more counts of attempted murder after allegedly
tampering with bottled water, which he injected with an unspecied liquid.
The Kajaki Dam is the scene of major ghting between Taliban and NATO forces,
mainly British and Dutch. The Taliban is attempting to make it impossible to work on
reconstruction of the dam and power lines to boost output.
Description
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
No
Terrorism
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Military target;
Terrorism
Basis
of Conict
203
Yes
Yes
Yes
Indian citizens Development

dispute
Development
dispute
Mumbai
residents,
police
North Korea,
South Korea
Pakistani
tribes
2009
2009
2009
2010
Perlez and Shah

(2008)
Wong (2009)
Singh (2009)
Without previous warning, North Korea releases 40 million cubic meters of water from
the Hwanggag Dam, causing a ash ood on the Imjin River. In South Korea, at least
six shermen and campers drown. North Korea claims that the water had to be
urgently released and promises to warn the South of future releases. South Korea fears
that North Korea could use the water of the dam as a weapon during a violent conict.
More than one hundred are dead and scores are injured following two weeks of tribal
ghting in Parachinar, in the Kurram region of Pakistan near the Afghanistan border.
The conict over irrigation water began as the Shalozan Tangi tribe cut off supplies to
the Shalozan tribe. Some report that Al-Qaeda may be involved; others claim that
sectarian violence is to blame, as one group is Sunni Muslim and the other Shiite.
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
tool
continues
Express Tribune
(2010); AP (2010)
Choe (2009)
Chandran (2009)
Police clash with hundreds of Mumbai residents protesting water cuts. One man is
killed, and a dozen others are injured. Mumbai authorities are forced to ration supplies
after the worst monsoon season in decades.
A family in Madhya Pradesh State in India is killed by a small mob for illegally drawing
water from a municipal pipe. Others run to collect water for themselves before the
water in the pipe runs out. Drought and inequality in water distribution lead to
increasing conict in the region. Indian media report more than fty violent clashes in
the state capital, Bhopal, during May alone. Since January, twelve people have been
killed and even more have been injured.
Ethiopian Somalis attack a Borana community in the Oromia region over ownership of BBC (2009)
a new borehole being drilled on the disputed border between them. Three people from
the Oromia village of Kafa are killed and seven are injured, and the entire community
is driven from their homes. The drilling rig is destroyed.
China claims a part of historical Tibet that is now under Indian control as part of the
state of Arunachal Pradesh. To inuence this territorial dispute, China tries to block a
$2.9 billion Asian Development Bank loan to India because it would help nance
Indian water projects in the disputed area.
Fighting over boreholes in arid northern Kenya kills at least four people as competition Reuters (2008)
for resources grows in the drought-hit region between the Murulle and Garre clans in
Elwak, Mandera District.
In October, the Taliban threatens to blow up Warsak Dam, the main water supply for
Peshawar, during a governmental offensive in the region.
Yes
Political tool
Yes
Development
Ethiopian
dispute
Oromia,
Somali regions
2009
Yes
China, India
2009
No
Development
dispute; Military
tool
Murulle, Garre Development

clans
dispute
2008
Terrorism
Pakistan
2008
204
Parties
Involved
Afghanistan
Pakistani
Mangal, Tori
tribes
India
Guatemala
Protestors,
authorities in
India
Yemen
Solomon
Islands
Israel,
Palestinians
Israel,
Palestine
Date
2010
2010
2010
2010
2010
2011
2011
2011
2011
Israelis from nearby settlements attack Qasra, a West Bank village of 6,000, destroying
crops and a water well. Attackers previously burned down a mosque and damaged
hundreds of olive trees.
Bsharat and
Ramadan (2011)
Amnesty
International
(2011)
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
target
Amnesty International reports that women in the slums of the Solomon Islands must
walk more than a kilometer to fetch clean water and are continually harassed,
attacked, and raped. A survey shows that 92 percent of households do not have a tap
in their home and that local water sources are often polluted, forcing women to walk
through unsafe areas.
Israels military destroys nine water tanks in the Bedouin village of Amniyr in the South Aburawa (2011)
Hebron Hills in the West Bank, Palestine. Later, soldiers destroy pumps and wells in the
Jordan Valley villages of Al-Nasaryah, Al-Akrabanyah, and Beit Hassan.
Yes
The Hindu
(2010)
Amnesty
International
(2012)
Gosh (2010)
CNN (2010)
AP (2009)
Sources
Violence in Yemens capital, Sanaa, leads to acute water and power shortages, forcing Shah (2012)
residents to rely on power generators and buy water extracted from wells and sold on a
thriving black market. The violence arises during the Yemeni uprising during the Arab
Spring protests across the Middle East. During the violence, governmental soldiers
shell neighborhoods and destroy many rooftop water tanks.
At least three deaths and dozens of injuries are reported during protests over land and
water given away for a power plant in Sompeta, in Srikakulam District in Andhra
Pradesh, India.
Two unidentied gunmen on a motorbike shoot an activist protesting the impacts of

mining on water quality and local water rights.
A protest over water shortages in the National Capital Territory of Delhi in India leads
to violence. Erratic water supply and cutoffs in the Kondli area of Mayur Vihar in East
Delhi cause a violent protest and several injuries.
A water dispute in Pakistans tribal region leads to 116 deaths. In early September, the
Mangal tribe cuts off the supply of irrigation water to lands used by the neighboring
Tori tribe, leading to ghting.
A remote-controlled bomb hidden in a water truck kills three people, including two
children, in the eastern Afghan province of Khost, which borders Pakistan.
Description
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
target
Development
dispute
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute
Military target
Yes
Development
dispute
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Terrorism
Basis
of Conict
205
Syria
Libya
Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan
India
India
20112012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Military target;
Terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism
Military tool
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
goal
Mohtadi (2012);
Worth (2010);
Femia and
Werrell (2012)
Shah (2012)
Scufes and protests break out around New Delhi during the summer as residents
surround water delivery trucks and ght over water. The summer is the hottest in
thirty-three years, leading to extensive energy and water shortages.
Thousands of farmers in Karnataka try to prevent the release of water from two dams
(Krishna Raja Sagar and Kabini) on the Cauvery River. Injuries to protestors and police
are reported. The water releases were ordered by the Supreme Court of India, which
required Karnataka to deliver water to the downstream state of Tamil Nadu despite
severe drought. The dispute continues later in the year when Karnataka again halts
releases.
continues
Reuters (2012a)
Circle of Blue
(2012); Indian
Express (2012)
Mashal (2012)
Islamist militants execute militia members defending the Machalgho Dam in eastern
Afghanistan. The dam is being developed for irrigation and local power supply. This
dispute is one of several surrounding the international waters of Afghanistan, Iran, and
Pakistan, which share several rivers.
Seven children are killed by a bomb thought to have been intended for Afghan police
and planted at a freshwater spring in Ghor Province.
Hamid (2012)
Up to 150 schoolgirls are reported sickened by poison in a school water supply in an
intentional attack thought to have been carried out by religious conservatives opposed
to the education of women.
Circle of Blue
During the 2011 Libyan Civil War, forces loyal to dictator Muammar Gadda gain
control of a water operations center and cut off water supply to the capital. The system (2011); UPI
(2011)
controls Libyas Great Manmade Rivera system of pumps, pipes, and canals that
brings water from distant aquifers to Tripoli and other cities. Half the country is left
without running water, prompting the United Nations and neighboring countries to
mobilize tanker ships to deliver water to coastal cities.
Severe political conict in Syria has been aggravated by the multiyear drought gripping
the region. More than 1.5 million peoplemostly farmers and their familieshave
moved to cities and their outskirts. In 2008, US diplomats in Syria warned that the
inux of rural people to cities could act as a multiplier on social and economic
pressures already at play and undermine stability in Syria. Political unrest begins in
March 2011 in Daraa and soon escalates into civil war as ousters seek to overturn the
regime of President Bashar al-Assad and the ruling Baath Party.
206
Brazil
Brazil
Peru
Peru
Egypt
Egypt
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Property
damage
Yes
2012
Development
dispute
Brazil
2012
Basis
of Conict
Yes
India, Pakistan Development
dispute; Military
target
Parties
Involved
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
2012
Date
Catholic Online
(2012)
Phys.org (2012)
AP (2012)
Ul Hassan (2012)
Sources
Egypt
Independent
(2012)
Reuters (2012c)
Ooska News
Public protests over drinking and irrigation water shortages take place across Egypt.
(2012)
Several protests turn violent: in Beni Suef, one person is killed and many are injured
during a conict over irrigation water; in Minya, villagers clash with ofcials over water
shortages and water pollution; in Fayyoum, hundreds of people protesting water
shortages block a highway and set res.
Farmers from the Abu Simbel region in Egypt hold over 200 tourists hostage to protest
inadequate irrigation water. The farmers had captured the tourists after they visited
nearby monuments. They release them after ofcials agree to a temporary release of
water.
Protests because of concerns over water quality and water rights around the Xstrata
Tintaya copper mine lead to two deaths and fty injuries.
Several incidents of protests, injuries, and deaths are reported in regions of Peru where Reuters (2012b);
residents oppose large mines because of concerns over water quality and water rights. Yeager (2012)
Police kill four protestors in clashes over the proposed Canadian-operated $5 billion
Minas Conga gold mine.
Northeastern Brazil sees growing conicts after severe drought reduces water
availability. News agencies report that one person a day is being killed in water wars
that involve locals ghting over scarce supplies.
Work on the controversial $13 billion Belo Monte Dam is halted after protesters burn
buildings at three dam sites.
Brazils federal police respond to reports that water used by the indigenous GuaraniKaiowa tribe has been poisoned by nearby landowners attempting to gain control over
disputed land. Since 2009, the dispute has led to the deaths of three tribesmen;
tribesmen say the water runs through sacred land.
Violence erupts in the latest event in the dispute between Pakistan and India over the
waters of the Indus River basin. Pakistani militants attack and sabotage water systems,
ood protection works, and dams in the Wullar Lake region of northern Kashmir. They
attack engineers and workers and detonate explosives at the unnished Tulbul
Navigation Lock/Wullar Dam. Pakistan claims the new dam violates the Indus Water
Treaty by cutting ows to Pakistan.
Description
207
Yes
No
Development
dispute
Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan
Development
Kyrgyzstan,
dispute
Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan,
Kazakhstan
Sudan, South
Sudan
Egypt,
Ethiopia,
Sudan
Mali, Burkina
Faso
Mali,
Mauritania
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
Yes
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Yes
Yes
Yes
Development
dispute; Military
target
Development
dispute
Yes
2012
Development
dispute
Kenya
Yes
2012
Military target
Somalia,
Kenya
2012
Njeru (2012)
Wabala (2012)
The Economist
(2012)
Sudan Tribune
(2012); Al
Arabiya News
(2012)
Protests and violence over water shortages erupt in the capital of Mauritania,
Nouakchott. By July, over 70,000 Malian refugees are seeking asylum in Mauritania,
putting pressure on scarce food and water supplies.
continues
Taha (2012)
Xinhua News
A clash along the border between Dogon villagers from Mali and nomadic Fulani
herders from Burkina Faso kills at least thirty people after an earlier agreement to share (2012b)
water and pastureland is revoked. Chaos following a military coup in March is partly
responsible for the breakdown in law and order in Mali.
Information is leaked about an alleged secret agreement that would allow Egypt to
build an air base in Sudan to attack the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD).
Egypt is concerned that the dam, under construction in Ethiopia just upstream of
Sudan on the Blue Nile, would reduce ows into its territory. The news reports, strongly
denied by Egypt, claim that Sudan would allow Egypt to launch attacks if diplomatic
efforts fail to resolve water-sharing disputes between Egypt and Ethiopia. The
allegations are based on an internal 2010 e-mail made available by WikiLeaks.
McNeish (2012);
Violence breaks out at water points in the Jamam refugee camp in South Sudan.
Mdicins Sans Frontires reports that as many as ten refugees die every day because of Ferrie (2012)
water shortages at refugee camps in South Sudan.
Tensions escalate over two proposed dams in central Asia: Kambarata-1 in Kyrgyzstan
and the Rogun Dam in Tajikistan. These dams could affect water supplies in the
downstream nations of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan. Uzbekistans
president, Islam Karimov, says the dams could cause not just serious confrontation,
but even wars.
Kozhevnikov
Uzbekistan cuts natural gas deliveries to Tajikistan in retaliation over a Tajik
hydroelectric dam that Uzbeks say will disrupt water supplies. Gas ows resume after a (2012)
new contract is signed.
Violence, including several deaths, occurs during disputes over access to water in the
poorest slums around Nairobi, Kenya.
Somali Al-Shabaab insurgents poison a well and damage water infrastructure near the
port city of Kismayo, Somalia. Insurgents are ghting Kenyan peacekeeping troops
participating in the African Union mission in Somalia.
208
Somalia
Uganda,
Kenya
Tanzania
South Africa
Syria
Syria
Indonesia
Kenya
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
20122013
Parties
Involved
2012
Date
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Military target
Military target
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Development
dispute
Basis
of Conict
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Violent Conict
or in the
Context of
Violence?
continued
Bii (2012)
Shabelle Media
Network (2012)
Sources
Extensive violence over water is reported in Kenya, with more than one hundred
deaths in clashes between farmers and cattle herders. The conict is part of a longrunning dispute between Pokomo farmers and Orma people, seminomadic cattle
herders, over land and water. The current conict is exacerbated by Kenyan and
foreign investment in vast tracts of land for food and biofuel cultivation, putting
pressure on local resources. (See also the entry in 2001.)
Violence breaks out over access to a water source in Maluku, Indonesia. Rival mobs
from two villages attack each other with sharp weapons, guns and explosives,
causing several deaths and injuries.
In November, Syrian rebels ghting the government of President Bashar al-Assad

overrun governmental forces and capture the Tishrin hydroelectric dam on the
Euphrates River, after days of heavy clashes. The dam supplies electricity to part of
Syria and is considered strategically important to the Syrian regime.
During the Syrian Civil War, the major pipeline delivering water to the city of Aleppo is
badly damaged. The city of 3 million suffers severe shortages of drinking water.
AFP (2012);
Wikipedia
(2013b)
Antara (2012)
Mroue (2012)
BBC (2012a)
Protesters in poor communities of Cape Town, South Africa, riot over inadequate water Xinhua News
(2012a)
and power. Hundreds burn tires, destroy cars, and throw rocks at police in anger over
the lack of basic services.
Makoye (2012)
Violence between farmers and pastoralists expands in Tanzanias southeastern Ruji
Valley, a region hit by drought. A farmer is killed in a conict with a herdsman over
access to water in the southern regions of Lindi and Mtwara. Five more people die and
many more are injured in subsequent violence. According to local sources, violence
has worsened during the prolonged drought.
Tensions lead to violence between Uganda and Kenya after Kenyan Pokot herdsmen
cross the border seeking water and pasture. In October, the Ugandan government
sends 5,000 soldiers to control violence among pastoralists from the two countries.
In August, ghting between two clans in the Lower Jubba region of south Somalia kills
at least three people and wounds ve. Reports from the village of Waraq (near the
border with Kenya) indicate that the dispute began over the ownership of new water
wells.
Description
209
References
ABC News. 2007. Man charged with murder after lawn watering dispute. Australian Broadcasting
Company (ABC), November 1. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/11/01/2078076
.htm (accessed February 11, 2011).
Absolute Astronomy. 2006. Incapacitating Agent. http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/refer
ence/incapacitating_agent (accessed 2006).
Aburawa, A. 2011. Can water end the Arab-Israeli conict? Al Jazeera English, July 29. http://en
glish.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/07/20117278519784574.html.
Agence France-Press (AFP). 2001. Macedonian troops ght for water supply as president moots
amnesty. June 8. http://www.balkanpeace.org/hed/archive/june01/hed3454.shtml.
. 2012. Kenya to hold peace meeting after 52 killed. August 23. http://www.google.com
/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jZdyUiAcUA7p94cH8PjEtslQUK3A?docId=CNG.4fe0cb53f
a3afbb412c2a959ae285e36.211.
Ahmed, A. 1999. Fifty hurt in Bangladesh strike violence. Reuters, Dhaka, April 18.
Al Arabiya News. 2012. Egypt, Sudan could seek military action over Nile: WikiLeaks. October 12.
http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/10/12/243396.html.
Al-Ariqi, A. 2006. Water war in Yemen. Yemen Times 14 (932) (April 24). http://yementimes.com
/article.shtml?i=932&p=health&a=1.
Al-Qadhi, M. 2003. Thirst for water and development leads to conict in Yemen. Choices (United
Nations Development Programme) 12 (1): 1314. See also http://yementimes.com/article
.shtml?i=642&p=health&a=1.
American Red Cross (ARC). 2003. Baghdad hospitals reopen but health care system strained.
Mason Booth, staff writer, RedCross.org, April 24. http://www.redcross.org/news/in
/iraq/030424baghdad.html.
American University. 2000a. Cauvery River dispute. Washington, DC: American University,
Inventory of Conict and Environment (ICE). http://www.american.edu/projects/mandala
/TED/ice/cauvery.htm.
. 2000b. Lesotho Water Coup. Washington, DC: American University, Inventory of
Conict and Environment (ICE). http://www.american.edu/projects/mandala/ted/ice
/leswater.htm.
. 2000c. Marsh Arabs and Iraq. Washington, DC: American University, Inventory of Conict
and Environment (ICE). http://www.american.edu/projects/mandala/TED/ice/marsh.htm.
Amnesty International. 2004. Sudan: Darfur; Too Many People Killed for No Reason. February
3. http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR54/008/2004.
. 2006. Lebanon: Deliberate Destruction or Collateral Damage? Israeli Attacks on Civilian
Infrastructure. August 22. http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE180072006.
. 2011. Where Is the Dignity in That? Women in Solomon Islands Slums Denied Sanitation
and Safety. September. http://www.amnesty.org.nz/les/SolomonIslandsWEB.pdf.
. 2012. Guatemala: Lives and Livelihoods at Stake in Mining Conict. June 21. http://www
.amnesty.org/en/news/guatemala-lives-and-livelihoods-stake-mining-conict-2012-06-21.
Antara, J. G. 2012. Bloody clashes in Indonesias Maluku claim another life. Jakarta Globe, March
8. http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/news/bloody-clashes-in-indonesias-maluku-claim
-another-life/503346.
Arbuthnot, F. 2000. Allies deliberately poisoned Iraq public water supply in Gulf War. Sunday
Herald, Scotland, September 17.
Associated Press (AP). 2002. Earth Liberation Front members threaten Colorado towns water.
October 15.
. 2003a. Incendiary devices placed at water plant. September 25.
. 2003b. Water targeted, magazine reports. May 29.
. 2004. US dumps water projects in Gaza over convoy bomb. May 6.
. 2005. At least 16 killed in Somalia over water, pasture battles. June 8.
. 2009. Bomb in water truck kills 3 in Afghanistan. November 23. http://www.signonsandi
ego.com/news/2009/nov/23/bomb-in-water-truck-kills-3-in-afghanistan/ (accessed February 10, 2011).
. 2010. Fighting between tribes in Pakistan kills 102. September 17. http://www.google
.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5hkiMxbHNH0BqgpWA2ZG6VD6wVTmAD9I9NH7G0.
. 2012. Brazil police investigate indigenous claim that creek in sacred land was poisoned.
Fox News, November 21. http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/11/21/brazil-police-investi
gate-indigenous-claim-that-creek-in-sacred-land-was/.
210
Axis History Forum (AHF). 2004. Dnieper Dam blown up by retreating Russians. http://forum
.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=55&t=52940 (accessed February 10, 2011).
Bachiene, W. 1791. Vaderlandsche geographie of nieuwe tegenwoordige staat en hedendaagsche historie
der Nederlanden. Amsterdam.
Barrett, G. 2003. Iraqs bad water brings disease, alarms relief workers. Olympian, Olympia,
Washington, June 29.
Barry, J. M. 1997. Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America, 67. New
York: Simon and Schuster.
Belitser, N., S. Gerasymchuk, O. Grytsenko, Y. Dovgopol, Z. Zhminko, Y. Matiychyk, O. Sushko, and
O. Chabala. 2009. Transnistrian Problem: A View from Ukraine. Kiev, Ukraine: Strategic and
Security Studies Group (SSSG). http://www.irf.ua/les/eng/text_eng.pdf.
Bii, B. 2012. Tension at Kenya-Uganda border over rustling. Daily Nation, October 3. http://www
.nation.co.ke/News/-/1056/1523908/-/xtc5qbz/-/index.html.
Bingham, G., A. Wolf, and T. Wohlegenant. 1994. Resolving water disputes: Conict and cooperation in the United States, the Near East, and Asia. Washington, DC: United States Agency for
International Development (USAID), Bureau for Asia and the Near East.
Bosshard, P. 2009. China dams the world. World Policy Journal (Winter 2009/2010): 4351.
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). 1999. World: Asia-Pacic Timor atrocities unearthed.
BBC News, September 22. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/asia-pacic/news
id_455000/455030.stm.
. 2000. Kenyan monkeys ght humans for water. BBC News, March 21. http://news.bbc
.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/685381.stm.
. 2001. US bombed Afghan power plant. BBC News, November 1. http://news.bbc.co
.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1632304.stm.
. 2002. Cyanide attack foiled in Italy. BBC News, February 20. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi
/english/world/europe/newsid_1831000/1831511.stm.
. 2004a. China tries to calm dam protests. BBC News, Louisa Lim, November 18. http://
news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/asia-pacic/4021901.stm.
. 2004b. Dozens dead in Somalia clashes. BBC News, December 6. http://news.bbc.co
.uk/2/hi/africa/4073063.stm.
. 2005. Thousands ee Kenyan water clash. BBC News, January 24. http://news.bbc.co
.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4201483.stm.
. 2006a. China executes dam protester. BBC News, December 7. http://www.bbc.co.uk
/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/asia-pacic/6217148.stm.
. 2006b. Somalis clash over scarce water. BBC News, February 17. http://news.bbc.co.uk
/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/world/africa/4723008.stm.
. 2006c. Sri Lanka forces attack reservoir. BBC News, August 7. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi
/south_asia/5249884.stm?ls.
. 2006d. Water and war in Sri Lanka. BBC News, August 3. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi
/south_asia/5239570.stm.
. 2007. Iran faces $2.65 bn US bomb award. BBC News, September 7. http://news.bbc.co
.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/middle_east/6984365.stm.
. 2009. Water pipe sparks Ethiopian conict. BBC News, March 13. http://news.bbc.co
.uk/2/hi/africa/7929104.stm.
. 2012a. Aleppo water supply cut as Syria ghting rages. BBC News, September 8. http://
www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19533112.
. 2012b. Mass graves found in Kenyas Tana River Delta region. BBC News, September 18.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19634076.
Bsharat, M., and S. A. Ramadan. 2011. Fears of violence mount in West Bank on eve of Palestinian
UN bid. Xinhua News, September 21. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011
-09/21/c_131150218.htm.
Burns, J. F. 1992. Tactics of the Sarajevo siege: Cut off the power and water. New York Times,
September 25, A1.
Bustamante, R., J. Butterworth, M. Flierman, D. Herbas, M. den Hollander, S. van der Meer,
P. Ravenstijn, M. Reynaga, and G. Zurita. 2004. Livelihoods in conict: Disputes over water for
household-level productive uses in Tarata, Bolivia. In Beyond Domestic: Case Studies on
Poverty and Productive Uses of Water at the Household Level, edited by P. Moriarty,
J. Butterworth, and B. van Koppen, 137152. Technical Paper Series 41. Delft, Netherlands:
IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. http://www.irc.nl/content/download
/6802/105351/le/preprints.pdf.
211
Butts, K., ed. 1997. Environmental Change and Regional Security. Carlisle, PA: US Army War College,
Center for Strategic Leadership, Asia-Pacic Center for Security Studies.
Cable News Network (CNN). 1999. U.S.: Serbs destroying bodies of Kosovo victims. May 5. http://
www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9905/05/kosovo.bodies.
. 2010. Water conict in Pakistans tribal region leaves dozens dead. CNN International
Edition. http://articles.cnn.com/2010-09-19/world/pakistan.water.dispute_1_tribal-region
-water-dispute-mumtaz-zareen?_s=PM:WORLD (accessed February 10, 2011).
Caesar, J. 1906. Caesars Civil War with Pompeius. Translated by F. P. Long. Rome: Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=z-8JAQAAIAAJ.
Calcagno, F. 2004. Historical OverviewLicensee Assessments (Lessons Learned). January 27. San
Francisco: US Department of Energy, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. http://www
.ferc.gov/EventCalendar/Files/20040309095131-1%20Historical%20Overview.pdf.
Catholic Online. 2012. Severe drought in Brazil destroying herds and lives. October 12. http://
www.catholic.org/international/international_story.php?id=48869.
Centre for Development and Enterprise (CDE). 2007. Voices of anger: Phumelela and Khutsong;
Protest and conict in two municipalities. CDE Focus 10 (April). http://www.cde.org.za/index
.php/component/content/article/85-4-south-africa-s-future-and-issues-of-national-impor
tance/214-voices-of-anger-phumelela-and-khutsong-protest-and-conflict-in-two-munic
ipalities?highlight=Y To2OntpOjA7czo2OiJ2b2lj ZXMiO2k6MTtz OjI6Im9 mIjtpOjI7czo1OiJhb
mdlciI7aTozO3M6OToidm9pY2VzIG9mIjtpOjQ7czoxNToidm9pY2VzIG9mIGFuZ2VyIjtpO
jU7czo4OiJvZiBhbm dlciI7fQ==.
Chandran, R. 2009. One killed in Mumbai water shortage protests. Reuters, December 3. http://
www.reuters.com/article/idUSBOM105009.
Chelyshev, A. 1992. Terrorists poison water in Turkish army cantonment. Telegraph Agency of the
Soviet Union (TASS), March 29.
Chenje, M. 2001. Hydro-politics and the quest of the Zambezi River Basin Organization. In
International Waters in Southern Africa, edited by M. Nakayama. Tokyo: United Nations
University.
China Daily. 2004. PLA general: Attempt to destroy dam doomed. June 16. http://www.chinadaily
.com.cn/english/doc/2004-06/16/content_339969.htm.
China Ministry of Water Resources. 2001. Policy and Regulatory Department website. http://
shuizheng.chinawater.com.cn/ssjf/20021021/200210160087.htm.
China Water Resources Daily. 2002. Villagers ght over water resources. October 24. Citation provided by Ma Jun, personal communication.
Choe, S.-H. 2009. South Korea demands apology from North over dam incident. New York Times,
September 8. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/09/world/asia/09korea.html (accessed
February 10, 2011).
Christian Science Monitor. 2000. Ecoterrorism as negotiating tactic. July 21, 8.
Circle of Blue. 2011. Water as a tool of war: Qadda loyalists turn off tap for half of Libya. Circle of
Blue Water News, August 30. http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2011/world/water-as-a
-tool-of-war-qadda-loyalists-turn-off-tap-for-half-of-libya/.
. 2012. Protests break out after Indias Supreme Court rules in favor of downstream state in
Cauvery River dispute. Circle of Blue Water News, October 3. http://www.circleofblue.org
/waternews/2012/world/protests-break-out-after-indias-supreme-court-rules-in-favor-of
-downstream-state-in-cauvery-river-dispute/.
Clark, R. C. 1980. Technological Terrorism. Old Greenwich, CT: Devin-Adair.
Clark, R. M., and R. A. Deininger. 2000. Protecting the nations critical infrastructure: The vulnerability of U.S. water supply systems. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 8 (2): 7380.
Collins, L., and D. LaPierre. 1972. O Jerusalem. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Columbia Encyclopedia. 2000a. Netherlands. 6th ed. http://www.bartleby.com/65/ne/Nethrlds
.html.
. 2000b. Vietnam: History. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0861793.html.
Coonan, C. 2006. China secretly executes anti-dam protester. The Independent, London, December
7. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-secretly-executes-antidam-pro
tester-427401.html.
Cooperation Center for Afghanistan. 2000. The Social Impact of Drought in Hazarajat. http://
www.ccamata.com/impact.html.
Crase, L. 2009. Water policy in Australia: The impact of drought and uncertainty. In Policy and
Strategic Behaviour in Water Resource Management, edited by A. Dinar and J. Albiac, 91107.
London: Earthscan.
212
Crecente, B. D. 2002. ELF targets water: Group threatens eco-terror attack on Winter Park tanks.
Rocky Mountain News, October 15. http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/state/article
/0,1299,DRMN_21_1479883,00.html.
Daniel, C., ed. 1995. Chronicle of the 20th Century. New York: Dorling Kindersley.
Dolatyar, M. 1995. Water diplomacy in the Middle East. In The Middle Eastern Environment, edited
by E. Watson. London: John Adamson.
Douglass, J. D., and N. C. Livingstone. 1987. America the Vulnerable: The Threat of Chemical and
Biological Warfare. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Drower, M. S. 1954. Water-supply, irrigation, and agriculture. In A History of Technology, edited by
C. Singer, E. J. Holmyard, and A. R. Hall. New York: Oxford University Press.
Dutch Water Line. 2002. Information on the historical use of water in defense of Holland. http://
www.xs4all.nl/~pho/Dutchwaterline/dutchwaterl.htm.
The Economist. 2012. Water wars in Central Asia: Dammed if they do. September 29. http://www
.economist.com/node/21563764.
Egypt Independent. 2012. Abu Simbel farmers release tourists held over water shortage. June 3.
http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/farmers-hold-tourists-abu-simbel-over-water
-shortage-news2.
Eitzen, E. M., and E. T. Takafuji. 1997. Historical overview of biological warfare. In Medical Aspects
of Chemical and Biological Warfare: Textbook of Military Medicine. Bethesda, MD: United States
Army, Ofce of the Surgeon General.
Environment News Service (ENS). 2001. Environment a weapon in the Israeli-Palestinian conict.
February 5. http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/feb2001/2001-02-05-01.asp.
Evans, R. J. 2008. The Third Reich at War. New York: Penguin.
Express Tribune. 2010. Kurram tribal clash leaves 13 more dead. Lahore, Pakistan, September 19.
http://tribune.com.pk/story/51998/kurram-tribal-clash-leaves-13-more-dead/.
Fatout, P. 1972. Indiana Canals, 158162. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Studies.
Femia, F., and C. Werrell. 2012. Syria: Climate change, drought, and social unrest. Center for
Climate and Security, February 29. http://climateandsecurity.org/2012/02/29/syria-climate
-change-drought-and-social-unrest/.
Fenton, B., T. Helm, and B. Dutter. 2001. Anthrax letter spreads panic around world. The Telegraph,
October 16. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1359605
/Anthrax-letter-spreads-panic-around-world.html.
Ferrie, J. 2012. South Sudan refugee water shortage killing up to 10 people daily. Bloomberg News,
June 13. http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-06-13/south-sudan-refugee-water
-shortage-killing-up-to-10-people-daily.
Fickle, J. E. 1983. The people versus progress: Local opposition to the construction of the
Wabash and Erie Canal. Old Northwest 8 (4): 309328.
Financial Times Global Water Report (FTGWR). 1999. Zambia: Water cutoff. FTGWR 68 (March 19): 15.
. 2000. Drought in India comes as no surprise. FTGWR 94 (April 28): 14.
. 2002. Maoists destroy Nepals infrastructure. FTGWR 146 (May 17): 45.
Fonner, D. K. 1996. Scipio Africanus. Military History Magazine, March. Cited at http://historynet
.com/mh/blscipioafricanus/index1.html.
Forkey, N. S. 1998. Damning the dam: Ecology and community in Ops Township, Upper Canada.
Canadian Historical Review 79 (1): 6899.
Friel, T. 2007. Taliban ee battle using children as shields: NATO. Reuters.
Gaura, M. A. 2000. Disaster simulation too realistic. San Francisco Chronicle, October 27, A1.
Gellman, B. 2002. Cyber-attacks by Al Qaeda feared. Washington Post, June 27, A1.
Gleick, P. H. 1991. Environment and security: The clear connections. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
(April): 1721.
. 1993. Water and conict: Fresh water resources and international security. International
Security 18 (1): 79112.
. 1994. Water, war, and peace in the Middle East. Environment 36 (3): 642. Washington, DC:
Heldref Publishers.
. 1995. Water and Conict: Critical Issues. Presentation to the 45th Pugwash Conference on
Science and World Affairs, Hiroshima, Japan, July 2329.
Gleick, P.H. Water and terrorism in The Worlds Water 2006-2007 (Washington, DC: Island Press,
2007), 1-28.
Gosh, D. 2010. Protest against water shortage turns violent. Times of India, July 7. http://timesof
india.indiatimes.com/articleshow/6136544.cms.
Gowan, H. 2004. Hannibal Barca and the Punic Wars. http://www.barca.fsnet.co.uk/ (accessed
March 2005).
213
Grant, U. S. 1885. Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant. New York: C. L. Webster.

Guantanamo Bay Gazette. 1964. The History of Guantanamo Bay: An Online Edition. Chapter 21:
The 1964 water crisis. Archived version at archive.org: http://web.archive.org/web/2001
1121080500/www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/History/HISCHP21.HTM.
The Guardian. 2004. Water duel kills elderly cousins. London, March 11. http://www.guardian
.co.uk/world/2004/mar/11/mexico.
Gutierrez, J. 2006. Sri Lanka rejects Norway deal with Tigers, battle for water resumes. Agence
France-Press, August 6.
Haeri, S. 1993. Iran: Vehement reaction. Middle East International, March 19, 8.
Hamid, M. 2012. Afghan schoolgirls poisoned in anti-education attack. Reuters, April 17. http://
www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/17/us-afghanistan-women-idUSBRE83G0PZ20120417.
Harris, S. H. 1994. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 19321945 and the American Coverup. New York: Routledge.
Hatami, H., and P. Gleick. 1994. Chronology of conict over water in the legends, myths, and history of the ancient Middle East. In Water, war, and peace in the Middle East. Environment 36
(3): 6ff. Washington, DC: Heldref Publishers.
Hickman, D. C. 1999. A Chemical and Biological Warfare Threat: USAF Water Systems at Risk.
Counterproliferation Paper No. 3. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: United States Air Force
Counterproliferation Center, Air War College.
Hillel, D. 1991. Lash of the dragon. Natural History, August, 2837.
The Hindu. 2002a. Farmers go berserk; MLAs house attacked. October 30. http://www.hinduonnet
.com/thehindu/2002/10/30/stories/2002103004870400.htm.
. 2002b. Ryots on the rampage in Mandya. October 31. http://www.hinduonnet.com/the
hindu/2002/10/31/stories/2002103106680100.htm.
. 2010. Sompeta: Land allotment suspended. June 24. http://www.hindu.com/2011/06/24
/stories/2011062457830100.htm.
History of War Online. 2011. Siege of Uxellodunum, SpringSummer 51 B.C. http://www.history
ofwar.org/articles/siege_uxellodunum.html (accessed February 11, 2011).
Hitchcock, E. A. 1862. Signed letter from Major General Ethan Allen Hitchcock to his niece Mary,
Washington City. April 20. (During this period, Hitchcock served as chairman of the War
Board serving President Lincoln and Secretary of War Stanton.) http://www.liveauctioneers
.com/item/7093913.
Honan, W. H. 1996. Scholar sees Leonardos inuence on Machiavelli. New York Times, December
8, 18. http://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/08/us/scholar-sees-leonardo-s-influence-on
-machiavelli.html.
Human Rights Watch. 1998. Human Rights Watch Condemns Civilian Killings by Congo Rebels.
http://www.hrw.org/press98/aug/congo827.htm.
Husarska, A. 1995. Running dry in Sarajevo: Water ght. New Republic, July 17 and 24.
Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. 2011. http://www.roman-empire.net/army/leg-siege
.html (accessed February 11, 2011).
Indian Express. 2012. Stopped releasing Cauvery water to TN, says Karnataka CM. December 10.
http://www.indianexpress.com/news/stopped-releasing-cauvery-water-to-tn-says-karnata
ka-cm/1043124/.
Indo-Asian News Service. 2004. Curfew imposed in three Rajasthan towns. Hindustan Times,
December 4. http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1136315,000900010008.htm.
Information and Documentation Center for the Geography of the Netherlands (IDG). 1996. Water
in, around, and under the Netherlands. IDG-Bulletin 1995/1996.
InfoRoma. 2004. Roman Aqueducts. http://www.inforoma.it/feature.php?lookup=aqueduct
(accessed March 2005).
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). 2003. Eritrea: ICRC repairs war-damaged
health centre and water system. December 15. ICRC News No. 03/158. http://www.alertnet
.org/thenews/fromtheeld/107148342038.htm.
International Court of Justice (ICJ). 1999. International Court of Justice Press Communiqu 99/53,
Kasikili Island/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia). December 13. The Hague, Netherlands:
International Court of Justice. http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ipresscom/ipress1999/ipress
com9953_ibon.
International Herald Tribune. 1999. 100 bodies found in well. August 1415, 4.
International War Crimes Tribunal (IWCT). 1967. Some Facts on Bombing of Dikes. http://www
.infotrad.clara.co.uk/antiwar/warcrimes/index.html.
Israel, J. 1997. &RQLFWV RI (PSLUHV 6SDLQ WKH /RZ &RXQWULHV DQG WKH 6WUXJJOH IRU :RUOG 6XSUHPDF\
15851713. London: Hambledon Press.
214
,VUDHO /LQH. 2001a. Palestinians loot water pumping center, cutting off supply to refugee camp.
January 5. http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH0iy50 (accessed January 5, 2001).
. 2001b. Palestinians vandalize Yitzhar water pipe. January 9. http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa
/go.asp?MFAH0izu0.
Japan Times. 2002. Kashmir water clash. May 27, 3.
Jenkins, B. M., and A. P. Rubin. 1978. New vulnerabilities and the acquisition of new weapons by
nongovernment groups. In /HJDO$VSHFWV RI ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 7HUURULVP, edited by A. E. Evans and
J. F. Murphy, 221276. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Joseph, D. B. 1960. 7KH)DLWKIXO&LW\7KH6LHJHRI-HUXVDOHP. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Josephus. AD 90. Antiquities of the Jews. Book 18, chapter 3, section 2. http://www.fullbooks.com
/The-Antiquities-of-the-Jews20.html.
Kathmandu Post. 2002. KLF destroys micro hydro plant. January 28. http://www.nepalnews.com
.np/contents/englishdaily/ktmpost/2002/jan/jan28/index.htm.
Keluel-Jang, S. A. 1997. Alier and the Jonglei Canal. Southern Sudan Bulletin 2 (3) (January). http://
www.sufo.demon.co.uk/poli007.htm.
Kirschner, O. 1949. Destruction and Protection of Dams and Levees. Military Hydrology, Research
and Development Branch, U.S. Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army, Washington
District. From Schweizerische Bauzeitung, March 14, 1949. Translated by H. E. Schwarz,
Washington, DC.
Kozhevnikov, R. 2012. Uzbekistan resumes gas supplies to Tajikistan. Reuters, April 16. http://
www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/16/tajikistan-gas-idUSL6E8FG3YL20120416.
Kupperman, R. H., and D. M. Trent. 1979. 7HUURULVP7KUHDW5HDOLW\5HVSRQVH. Stanford, CA: Hoover
Institution Press.
Lane, M. 2005. Personal communication to P. Gleick regarding conicts in northern Kenya, with
reference to Sunday Nation newspaper reports of July 17, 2005.
Lemos, R. 2002. Safety: Assessing the infrastructure risk. CNET News.com, August 26. http://
news.cnet.com/2009-1001_3-954780.html.
Levitskiy, Y. 2005. Kiev hydropower station threatened. Evening News (15): 123. In Russian only.
. , .
Levy, K. 2000. Guatemalan dam massacre survivors seek reparations from nanciers. World Rivers
Review, December, 1213. Berkeley, CA: International Rivers Network.
Livingston, N. C. 1982. The War Against Terrorism. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Lockwood, R. P. 2006. The Battle over the Crusades. http://www.catholicleague.org/research
/battle_over_the_crusades.htm (accessed April 2006).
Macedonia Information Agency. 2001. Humanitarian catastrophe averted in Kumanovo and
Lipkovo. Republic of Macedonia Agency of Information Archive. June 18. http://wwww.relief
web.int/w/rwb.nsf/0/dbd4ef105d93da4ac1256a6f005bc328?OpenDocument.
Makarov, P. 2005. To look in the shameless eyes of ofcials! In Russian only.
! http://www.whp057.narod.ru/nikopol1-st1.htm and http://www.makarov
.nikopol.net/doc/otnoshenie_vlasti.doc.
Makoye, K. 2012. Drought drives Tanzanian herders into conict with farmers. Alert Net, June 12.
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/drought-drives-tanzanian-herders-into-conict-with
-farmers/.
Malik, L. K. 2005. Factors of Risk of Hydro Technical Buildings Damage: Problems of Safety. Moscow:
Nauka. In Russian only. :
.
Mashal, M. 2012. What Iran and Pakistan want from the Afghans: Water. Time, December 2. http://
world.time.com/2012/12/02/what-iran-and-pakistan-want-from-the-afghans-water/.
McDonnell, P. J., and J. Meyer. 2002. Links to terrorism probed in Northwest. /RV$QJHOHV7LPHV, July
13.
McNeish, H. 2012. Refugees in South Sudan face water crisis. Agence France-Press, March 31.
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ho-X1B6kIDKnLCHEUnlrW9665tr
w?docId%3DCNG.91f54df3baaf54aa7554fca3c3d379df.41.
Meissner, R. 2000. Hydropolitical hotspots in southern Africa: Will there be a water war? The case of
the Kunene River. In Water Wars: Enduring Myth or Impending Reality?, edited by H. Solomon and
A. Turton. Africa Dialogue Monograph Series No. 2. Umhlanga Rocks, South Africa: ACCORD.
. 2001. Interaction and existing constraints in international river basins: The case of the
Kunene River Basin. In International Waters in Southern Africa, edited by M. Nakayama. Tokyo:
United Nations University.
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (MJS). 2003. Jordan foils Iraqi plot to poison U.S. troops water, ofcials
say. April 1. http://www.jsonline.com/news/gen/apr03/130338.asp.
215
Mohamed, A. E. 2001. Joint development and cooperation in international water resources: The
case of the Limpopo and Orange River Basins in southern Africa. In International Waters in
Southern Africa, edited by M. Nakayama. Tokyo: United Nations University.
Mohtadi, S. 2012. Climate change and the Syrian uprising. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, August
16. http://thebulletin.org/web-edition/features/climate-change-and-the-syrian-uprising.
Moorehead, A. 1960. The White Nile. London: Penguin Books.
Mroue, B. 2012. Activists: Syrian rebels seize major dam in north. Daily Star, Lebanon, November
26. http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Nov-26/196180-activists-syrian
-rebels-seize-major-dam-in-north.ashx.
MSNBC. 2002. FBI says al-Qaida after water supply. Numerous wire reports; see, for example,
http://www.ionizers.org/water-terrorism.html.
Murphy, I. L., and J. E. Sabadell. 1986. International river basins: A policy model for conict resolution. Resources Policy 12 (1): 133144.
Murphy, K. 2006. Old feud over Lebanese river takes new turn: Israels airstrikes on canals renew
enduring suspicions that it covets water from the Litani. /RV$QJHOHV7LPHV, August 10. http://
articles.latimes.com/2006/aug/10/world/fg-litani10.
Museum of the City of New York (MCNY). n.d. The Greater New York Consolidation Timeline.
http://www.mcny.org/Exhibitions/GNY/timeline.htm.
Nadeem, A. 2001. Bombs in Karachi kill one. Associated Press, June 13.
Naff, T., and R. C. Matson, eds. 1984. :DWHULQWKH0LGGOH(DVW&RQLFWRU&RRSHUDWLRQ" Boulder, CO:
Westview Press.
Nagy, T. J. 2001. The secret behind the sanctions: How the U.S. intentionally destroyed Iraqs water
supply. The Progressive 165 (9): 2226.
National Geographic News. 2001. Ancient Fertile Crescent almost gone, satellite images show.
May 18. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/05/0518_crescent.html.
NewsMax. 2003. Al-Qaida threat to U.S. water supply. NewsMax Wires, May 29. http://www.news
max.com/archives/articles/2003/5/28/202658.shtml.
New York Times. 1941. Act laid to Stalin: Razing of dam reported ordered to bar Nazis path with
ood. August 21.
. 1999. Puerto Ricans protest navys use of water. October 31, 30.
. 2012. Kenya: Clashes over land and water leave 12 dead. September 7. http://www
.nytimes.com/2012/09/08/world/africa/kenya-clashes-over-land-and-water-leave-12-dead
.html.
Njeru, G. 2012. Water shortages driving growing thefts, conicts in Kenya. Alert Net, August 6.
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/water-shortages-driving-growing-thefts-conicts-in
-kenya/.
Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI). 2005. A Brief History of Chemical Warfare. http://www.nti.org
/h_learnmore/cwtutorial/chapter02_02.html.
Okoko, T. O. 2000. Monkeys, humans ght over drinking water. Panafrican News Agency, March 21.
Ooska News. 2012. Egypt water shortage protests are widespread and violent. July 25. http://www
.ooskanews.com/daily-water-brieng/egypt-water-shortage-protests-are-widespread-and
-violent_23549.
Orlenko, I. P. 1981. We are Tallinim. Eesti raamat, Tallinn, Estonia. In Russian only. . .
. 1981.. , , . http://www.bellabs.ru/51
/Book1 /Book1-00.html.
Oxfam. 2007. Gaza siege puts public health at risk as water and sanitation services deteriorate,
warns Oxfam. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/AMMF-796CFU?OpenDocu
ment&rc=3&emid=ACOS-635PFR.
Pagan, A. 2005. Catastrophic dam failures. CE News.com, December 2005. http://www.cenews
.com/magazine-article-cenews.com-december-2005-catastrophic_dam_failures-4617.html.
Pannier, B. 2000. Central Asia: Water becomes a political issue. Radio Free Europe. http://www
.rferl.org/nca/features/2000/08/F.RU.000803122739.html.
Parry, R. L. 2001. UN fears disaster over strikes near huge dam. The Independent, London, November 8.
Perlez, J., and P. Z. Shah. 2008. Confronting the Taliban at home, Pakistan nds itself at war. New
York Times, October 3, 1.
Phys.org. 2012. Trouble at Brazil mega-dam stops construction for now. November 12. http://
phys.org/news/2012-11-brazil-mega-dam.html.
Plant, G. 1995. Water as a Weapon in War. Water and War: Symposium on Water in Armed Conicts,
November 2123, 1994, Montreux, Switzerland. Geneva, Switzerland: International Committee of the Red Cross.
216
Pottinger, M. 2000. Major Chinese lake disappearing in water crisis. Reuters Science News. http://
us.cnn.com/2000/NATURE/12/20/china.lake.reut/.
Pretoria Dispatch. 1999. Dam bomb may be aimed at farmers. July 21. http://www.dispatch.co
.za/1999/07/21/southafrica/RESEVOIR.HTM.
Priscoli, J. D. 1998. Water and Civilization: Conict, Cooperation, and the Roots of a New Eco
Realism. Keynote address, 8th Stockholm World Water Symposium, August 1013. http://
www.genevahumanitarianforum.org/docs/Priscoli.pdf.
Public Services International (PSI). 2003. Urgent action: Bomb blast kills 3 workers at the Cali
water treatment plant. http://www.world-psi.org and http://209.238.219.111/Water.htm.
Purver, R. 1995. Chemical and Biological Terrorism: The Threat According to the Open Literature.
Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Security Intelligence Service. http://www.csis.gc.ca/en/publica
tions/other/c_b_terrorism01.asp.
Rasch, P. J. 1968. The Tularosa ditch war. New Mexico Historical Review 43 (3): 229235.
Rathfelder, E. 2007. Dangerous forces: Dams, dikes, and nuclear stations, in Crimes of War. West
Sussex, England: Random House. http://www.crimesofwar.org/thebook/dangerous-forces
.html.
Reisner, M. 1986/1993. Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water. New York:
Penguin Books.
Reuters. 1999a. NATO builds evidence of Kosovo atrocities. June 17. http://dailynews.yahoo.com
/headlines/ts/story.html?s=v/nm/19990617/ts/yugoslavia_leadall_171.html (accessed June
1999).
. 1999b. NATO keeps up strikes but Belgrade quiet. June 5. http://dailynews.yahoo.com
/headlines/wl/story.html?s=v/nm/19990605/wl/yugoslavia_strikes_129.html (accessed June
1999).
. 1999c. Serbs say NATO hit refugee convoys. April 14. http://dailynews.yahoo.com/head
lines/ts/story.html?s=v/nm/19990414/ts/yugoslavia_192.html. http://www.uia.ac.be/u/car
pent/kosovo/messages/397.html.
. 2004a. Al Qaeda spy chief killed in Pakistani raid. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp
-dyn/articles/A32878-2004Mar29_2.html.
. 2004b. Darfur: 2.5 million people will require food aid in 2005. R. Schoeld. November
22. http://www.medair.org/en_portal/medair_news?news=258.
. 2006. Clashes over water, pasture kill 40 in east Africa. June 7. http://asia.news.yahoo
.com/060606/3/2lk9x.html.
. 2008. Clashes over water kill 4 in drought-hit Kenya. October 17. http://www.reuters.com
/article/latestCrisis/idUSWAL762271.
. 2012a. Power cuts spark protests as India swelters. July 4. http://www.reuters.com/arti
cle/2012/07/04/uk-india-electricity-protest-idUSLNE86300Q20120704.
. 2012b. Update 3Peru clash over Newmont mine kills three. July 3. http://www.reuters
.com/article/2012/07/04/peru-newmont-idUSL2E8I3GB820120704.
. 2012c. Update 3Peru uses emergency rules to try to end anti-mining protest. May 28.
http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/29/xstrata-peru-idUSL1E8GS34F20120529.
Rome Guide. 2004. Fontana di Trevi: History. http://web.tiscali.it/romaonlineguide/Pages/eng
/rbarocca/sBMy5.htm (accessed March 2005).
Rowe, W. T. 1988. Water control and the Qing political process: The Fankou Dam controversy,
18761883. Modern China 14 (4): 353387.
Ryu, A. 2005. Water rights dispute sparks ethnic clashes in Kenyas Rift Valley. Voice of America.
http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-03/2005-03-21-voa28.cfm.
Samson, P., and B. Charrier. 1997. International freshwater conict: Issues and prevention strategies. Green Cross International. http://www.greencrossinternational.net/GreenCrossPro
grams/waterres/gcwater/report.html.
Sandrasagra, M. J. 2000. Development Ethiopia: Relief agencies warn of major food crisis. Inter
Press Service, April 11.
Scheiber, H. N. 1969. Ohio Canal Era, 174175. Athens: Ohio University Press.
Science. 2006. Tallying Mideast Damage. Science 313 (5793): 1549.
Scoeld, C. I., ed. 1967. 1HZ6FRHOG5HIHUHQFH%LEOH$XWKRUL]HG.LQJ-DPHV9HUVLRQ. Oxford, England:
Semann, D. 1950. Die Kriegsbeschdigungen der Edertalsperrmauer, die Wiederherstellungsarbeiten und die angestellten Untersuchungen ber die Standfestigkeit der Mauer. Die
Wasserwirtschaft, 41 Jg., Nr. 1 u. 2.
Shabelle Media Network. 2012. Ethnic ghting renews in Lower Jubba region, South Somalia.
Mogadishu, August 15. http://allafrica.com/stories/201208160039.html.
217
Shah, A. 2012. Ofcials say 7 Afghan children killed by bomb. Associated Press, July 25. http://
news.yahoo.com/ofcials-7-afghan-children-killed-bomb-110922657.html.
Sharife, K. 2008. Tibet: Shifting climates on the roof of the world. The Mail and Guardian Online,
Johannesburg, South Africa. http://www.thoughtleader.co.za/khadijasharife/2008/04/17
/tibet-shifting-climates-on-the-roof-of-the-world-part-one/.
Shultz, J., and M. C. Draper, eds. 2009. 'LJQLW\ DQG 'HDQFH 6WRULHV IURP %ROLYLDV &KDOOHQJH WR
Globalization. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Simons, M. 1999. Serbs refuse to clear bomb-littered river. New York Times, October 24.
Singh, G. 2009. Water wars strike ahead of predictions. EcoWorldly.com, May 16. http://ecoworld
ly.com/2009/05/16/water-wars-strike-ahead-of-predictions/.
Soloman, A. 2001. Policeman dies as blasts rock strike-hit Karachi. Reuters, June 13. http://daily
news.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010613/ts/pakistan_strike_dc_1.html.
Statesman News Service. 2007. Clash takes place over water rights. The Statesman, Sambalpur,
India. http://www.thestatesman.net/page.arcview.php?clid=9&id=202958&usrsess=1.
Steinberg, T. S. 1990. Dam-breaking in the nineteenth-century Merrimack Valley. Journal of Social
History 24 (1): 2545.
Stewart, W. H. n.d. An Analysis of the 1944 Japanese Defense of Saipan. http://saipanstewart
.com/essays/Defense%20of%20Saipan.html (accessed February 11, 2011).
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). 1971. The Rise of CB Weapons: The
Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare. New York: Humanities Press.
Strategy Page. 2006. Biotoxins in Warfare. http://www.strategypage.com/articles/biotoxin_les
/BIOTOXINSINWARFARE.asp (accessed April 2006).
Styran, R. M., and R. R. Taylor. 2001. 7KH *UHDW 6ZLYHO /LQN &DQDGDV :HOODQG &DQDO. Toronto,
Ontario: The Champlain Society.
Sudan Tribune. 2012. Government denies deal with Sudan to strike Ethiopian dam. September 24.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201209250218.html.
Suliman, M. 1998. Resource Access: A Major Cause of Armed Conict in the Sudan. The Case of
the Nuba Mountains. London: Institute for African Alternatives. http://srdis.ciesin.org
/cases/Sudan-Paper.html.
Taha, R. M. 2012. Mali conict spilling over: Inux of refugees from Mali exacerbates political
instability in neighbouring Mauritania. Daily News Egypt, July 1. http://www.dailynews
egypt.com/2012/07/01/mali-conict-spilling-over/.
Thatcher, J. 1827. $0LOLWDU\-RXUQDOGXULQJWKH$PHULFDQ5HYROXWLRQDU\:DUIURPWR 2nd ed.,
revised and corrected. Boston, MA: Cottons and Barnard. http://www.fortklock.com/jour
nal1777.htm.
Tierney, J., and R. F. Worth. 2003. Attacks in Iraq may be signals of new tactics. New York Times,
August 18, 1. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/18/international/worldspecial/18IRAQ
.html?hp.
Times News Network (TNN). 2004. IED was planted in underground pipe. December 5. http://
timesondia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/947432.cms.
Times of India. 2002. Cauvery row: Farmers renew stir. October 20. http://timesondia.indiatimes
.com/cms.dll/html/uncomp/articleshow?art_id=26586125.
Toronto Star. 2007. Man faces attempted murder charge over water. November 6. http://www.the
star.com/printArticle/274128.
Troung, A. G., and T. Cooper. 2003. Laos, 19481989; Part 2. Air Combat Information Group Journal,
November 3. http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_348.shtml.
Tucker, J. B., ed. 2000. Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Turton, A. R. 2005. A Critical Assessment of the River Basins at Risk in the Southern African
Hydropolitical Complex. Paper presented at the Workshop on the Management of
International Rives and Lakes, hosted by the Third World Centre for Water Management and
the Helsinki University of Technology, August 1719, Helsinki, Finland. CSIR Report No.
ENV-P-CONF 2005-001.
Ul Hassan, I. 2012. Militants sabotage works on J&K lake. dna, August 30. http://www.dnaindia
.com/india/report_militants-sabotage-works-on-j-and-k-lake_1734411.
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). 2003. Iraq: Cleaning Up Neglected, Damaged Water
System, Clearing Away Garbage. News Note Press Release, May 27. http://www.unicef.org
/media/media_6998.html.
United Nations Ofce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA). 2007. Burkina
Faso: Innovation and Education Needed to Head Off Water War. http://www.irinnews.org
/PrintReport.aspx?ReportId=74308.
218
United Press International (UPI). 2011. Gadha turns water project into a weapon. September 2.
http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Resources/2011/09/02/Gadha-turns-water
-project-into-a-weapon/UPI-66451314984213/.
United States Army Corps of Engineers (US ACE). 1953. Applications of Hydrology in Military
Planning and Operations and Subject Classication Index for Military Hydrology Data.
Washington, DC: Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Engineering Division, Military
Hydrology R&D Branch.
United States Department of Defense (US DOD). 2004. FY04 Report to Congress on PRC Military
Power, Pursuant to the FY2000 National Defense Authorization Act. Annual Report on the
Military Power of the Peoples Republic of China 2004. http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs
/d20040528PRC.pdf.
US Water News. 2003. Report suggests al-Qaida could poison U.S. water. June. http://www.us
waternews.com/archives/arcquality/3repsug6.html.
Vanderwood, P. J. 1969. 1LJKW 5LGHUV RI 5HHOIRRW /DNH. Memphis, TN: Memphis State University
Press.
Voice of America News (VOA). 2004. Chinas Sichuan Province tense in aftermath of violent antidam protests. Luis Ramirez. November 24.
Wabala, D. 2012. KDF airlifts water to troops as wells poisoned. The Star, Nairobi, September 24.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201209250173.html.
Wallensteen, P., and A. Swain. 1997. International fresh water resources: Conict or cooperation?
In Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World. Stockholm: Stockholm
Environment Institute.
Walters, E. 1948. Joseph Benson Foraker: Uncompromising Republican, 4445. Columbus: Ohio History Press.
Waterman, S. 2003. Al-Qaida threat to U.S. water supply. United Press International (UPI), May 28.
Water Politics. 2012. Central Asias Looming Conict over Water: The Upriver Countries. November
12. http://www.waterpolitics.com/2012/11/12/central-asias-looming-conict-over-water
-the-upriver-countries/.
WaterWeek. 2002. Water facility attacked in Colombia. American Water Works Association. January.
http://www.awwa.org/advocacy/news/020602.cfm.
Wax, E. 2006. Dying for water in Somalias drought: Amid anarchy, warlords hold precious
resource. Washington Post, April 14, A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content
/article/2006/04/13/AR2006041302116.html.
Wikipedia. 2011a. Battle of Alesia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia (accessed
February 10, 2011).
. 2011b. Siege of Jerusalem (1948). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem
_(1948) (accessed February 10, 2011).
. 2013a. Siege of Massilia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Massilia (accessed August
15, 2013).
. 2013b. 20122013 Tana River District Clashes. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index
.php?title=2012-2013_Tana_River_District_clashes&oldid=536856006 (accessed February 25,
2013).
Wolf, A. T. 1995. Hydropolitics along the Jordan River: Scarce Water and Its Impact on the Arab-Israeli
&RQLFW. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.
. 1997. Water Wars and Water Reality: Conict and Cooperation along International
Waterways. Presentation at NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Environmental Change,
Adaptation, and Human Security, October 912, Budapest, Hungary.
Wong, E. 2009. Tibetan area a tinderbox for China-India tensions. New York Times, September 3.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/04/world/asia/04chinaindia.html.
Workman, J. G. 2009. +HDUWRI'U\QHVV+RZWKH/DVW%XVKPHQ&DQ+HOS8V(QGXUHWKH&RPLQJ$JHRI
Permanent Drought. New York: Walker & Company.
World Environment News. 2001. Philippine rebels suspected of water poisoning. October 16.
http://web.archive.org/web/20030708180932/http:/www.planetark.org/avantgo/dailynews
story.cfm?newsid=12807.
World Rivers Review (WRR). 1998. Dangerous dams: Tajikistan. WRR 13 (6) (December): 13. Berkeley,
CA: International Rivers Network.
Worth, R. F. 2010. Earth is parched where Syrian farms thrived. New York Times, October 13. http://
www.nytimes.com/2010/10/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html.
Xinhua News. 2012a. Cape Town hit by continued protest against poor service delivery. August 14.
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2012-08/14/c_131782882.htm.
219
. 2012b. Tribal clash kills 30 along MaliBurkina Faso border. http://news.xinhuanet.com

/english/world/2012-05/25/c_131611541.htm.
Yakubu, A. 2008. Water vendors protest at Nyanya. Daily Trust, Abuja, AllAfrica.com, March 4.
http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200803040513.html.
Yang Lang. 1989/1994. High dam: The sword of Damocles. In Yangtze! Yangtze!, edited by Dai
Qing, 229240. London: Probe International, Earthscan.
Yeager, C. 2012. When gold loses its luster: Four dead in Peru mining protests. Circle of Blue Water
News, July 6. http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2012/commentary/editorial-in-the
-circle-fresh-focus/when-gold-loses-its-luster-four-dead-in-peru-mining-protests/.
Zachary, G. P. 1997. Water pressure: Nations scramble to defuse ghts over supplies. Wall Street
Journal, December 4, A17.
Zakaria, F. 2013. The Coming Water Wars. Fareed Zakaria GPS, CNN World. February 25, 2013.
http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2013/02/25/the-coming-water-wars/?iref=all
search (Accessed March 2, 2013.)
Zemmali, H. 1995. International humanitarian law and protection of water. Water and War,
Symposium on Water in Armed Conicts, November 2123, Montreux, Switzerland. Geneva,
Switzerland: International Committee of the Red Cross.
D A T A
T A B L E
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply

by Country (2013 Update)
Description
Average annual renewable freshwater resources are listed by country, updating data table 1 in the previous versions of The Worlds Water. Data in this table from the AQUASTAT
database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) were
updated to reect the most recent data in that database as of May 2013. However, because these data are typically produced by modeling or estimation, rather than measurement, we continue to use data from other sources where appropriate (even if older than
data in AQUASTAT). For example, most data for European countries come from the Eurostat data set of the European Union. Data for Timor-Leste and for the Occupied Palestinian Territory (as dened by AQUASTAT) were added in this volume.
Data in this table typically comprise both renewable surface water and groundwater
supplies, including surface inows from neighboring countries. The FAO refers to this as
total natural renewable water resources. Flows to other countries are not subtracted
from these numbers. All quantities are in cubic kilometers per year (km3/yr). These data
represent average freshwater resources in a countryactual annual renewable supply
will vary from year to year.
Limitations
These detailed country data should be viewed, and used, with caution. The data come
from different sources and were estimated over different periods. Many countries do not
directly measure or report internal water resources data, so some of these entries were
produced using indirect methods.
Not all of the annual renewable water supply is available for use by the countries to
which it is credited here; some ows are committed to downstream users. For example,
under treaty requirements, Sudan must pass signicant ows downstream to Egypt.
Other countries, such as Turkey, Syria, and France, to name only a few, also pass signicant amounts of water to other users. The annual average gures hide large seasonal,
interannual, and long-term variations.
221
222
Sources
The 2013 update was compiled by P. H. Gleick, Pacic Institute.
When a recent source uses older data previously cited here, we have tried to leave the
original citation date and source.
D 7RWDOQDWXUDOUHQHZDEOHVXUIDFHZDWHUDQGJURXQGZDWHU7\SLFDOO\LQFOXGHVRZVIURPRWKHUFRXQWULHV
(FAO: Natural total renewable water resources.)
E (VWLPDWHVIURP%HO\DHY,QVWLWXWHRI*HRJUDSK\8665
F )UHQNHQ.HG(VWLPDWHVIURP81)$2,UULJDWLRQLQ$IULFDLQ)LJXUHV$TXDVWDW6XUYH\
5RPH,WDO\)RRGDQG$JULFXOWXUH2UJDQL]DWLRQRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV
G (VWLPDWHVIURP:5,6HHWKLVVRXUFHIRURULJLQDOGDWDVRXUFH
H (VWLPDWHVIURP81)$2,UULJDWLRQLQWKH&RXQWULHVRIWKH)RUPHU6RYLHW8QLRQLQ)LJXUHV5RPH
,WDO\)RRGDQG$JULFXOWXUH2UJDQL]DWLRQRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV
I 81 )$2 ,UULJDWLRQ LQ$VLD LQ )LJXUHV 5RPH ,WDO\ )RRG DQG$JULFXOWXUH 2UJDQL]DWLRQ RI WKH
8QLWHG1DWLRQV
J 1L[+:DWHU/DQG/LIH7KH(WHUQDO7ULDQJOH&DQEHUUD$XVWUDOLD:DWHU5HVHDUFK)RXQGDWLRQRI
Australia.
K 81)$2,UULJDWLRQLQ/DWLQ$PHULFDDQGWKH&DULEEHDQ5RPH,WDO\)RRGDQG$JULFXOWXUH2UJDQL]DWLRQRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV
L 81)$2$48$67$7GDWDEDVH5RPH,WDO\)RRGDQG$JULFXOWXUH2UJDQL]DWLRQRIWKH8QLWHG
1DWLRQVKWWSZZZIDRRUJDFFHVVHG0D\
M 0DUJDW -266 /HV UHVVRXUFHV HQ HDX GHV SD\V GH O266 (YDOXDWLRQ XWLOLVDWLRQ HW JHVWLRQ
81(6&22EVHUYDWRLUHGX6DKDUDHWGX6DKHOXSGDWLQJRI
N (VWLPDWHVIURP81)$25HYLHZRI:RUOG:DWHU5HVRXUFHVE\&RXQWU\5RPH,WDO\)RRGDQG
$JULFXOWXUH2UJDQL]DWLRQRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVVHHVSHFLFUHIHUHQFHVLQWKLVGRFXPHQWIRUPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQ
O 8QLWHG6WDWHV*HRORJLFDO6XUYH\UHYLVHGFRQWHUPLQRXV86$ODVND+DZDLL
P (XURVWDW 8 :LHODQG :DWHU 5HVRXUFHV LQ WKH (8 DQG LQ WKH &DQGLGDWH &RXQWULHV 6WDWLVWLFV LQ
)RFXV(QYLURQPHQWDQG(QHUJ$XURSHDQ&RPPXQLWLHV
Q 0DUJDW-DQG'9DOOpH%OXH3ODQ0HGLWHUUDQHDQ9LVLRQRQ:DWHU3RSXODWLRQDQGWKH(QYLURQPHQWIRUWKHVW&HQWXU$UDQFH6RSKLD$QWLSROLV
R *HUHV':DWHU5HVRXUFHVLQ&URDWLD,QWHUQDWLRQDO6\PSRVLXPRQ:DWHU0DQDJHPHQWDQG+\GUDXOLF(QJLQHHULQJ'XEURYQLF&URDWLD6HSWHPEHU
S $48$67$7ZHEVLWHDVRI1RYHPEHU
T 3HDUVH3+)%HUWUDQGDQG-:0DF/DUHQ&XUUHQWVRI&KDQJH)LQDO5HSRUWRI,QTXLU\RQ
)HGHUDO:DWHU3ROLF\2WWDZD&DQDGD(QYLURQPHQW&DQDGD
U &KLQD0LQLVWU\RI:DWHU$QQXDO5HSRUW
V (XURVWDWKWWSHSSHXURVWDWHFHXURSDHXWJPWDEOHGR"WDE WDEOH LQLW SOXJLQ ODQJXDJH HQ
SFRGH WHQDFFHVVHG0D\
W $XVWUDOLDQ*RYHUQPHQW1DWLRQDO:DWHU&RPPLVVLRQ$XVWUDOLDQ:DWHU5HVRXUFHV
X )UHQNHQ.HG(VWLPDWHVIURP81)$2,UULJDWLRQLQWKH0LGGOH(DVW5HJLRQLQ)LJXUHV$48$67$76XUYH\
223
D ATA T A B L E 1
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply by Country (2013 Update)
Region
Country
AFRICA
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Congo, Democratic Republic
(formerly Zaire)
Cte dIvoire
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Runion
Rwanda
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Annual Renewable
Year of
Source of
Water Resources (km3/yr)
Estimate
Estimate
11.6
148.0
25.8
12.2
12.5
12.5
285.5
0.3
144.4
43.0
1.2
832.0
1283
2005
2011
2001
2011
2011
2011
2003
2005
2005
1987
2005
1987
2001
c
i
j
i
i
i
k
c
c
b
c
b
j
81
0.3
57.3
26
6.3
122.0
164.0
8.0
53.2
226.0
31.0
30.7
3.0
232.0
0.6
337.0
17.3
100.0
11.4
2.8
29.0
217.1
17.7
33.7
286.2
5.0
9.5
38.8
160.0
14.2
51.4
64.5
4.5
96.3
2001
2005
2011
2001
2001
2011
1987
2005
2001
1987
2005
2005
2011
1987
2005
2005
2001
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
1988
2005
2011
1987
2005
2011
2005
1987
2011
j
c
i
j
j
i
b
c
j
b
c
c
i
b
c
c
j
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
k
c
i
b
c
i
c
b
i
continues
224
D ATA T A B L E 1
Region
NORTH
AND
CENTRAL
AMERICA
SOUTH
AMERICA
ASIA
continued
Country
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
St. Kitts and Nevis
Trinidad and Tobago
United States of America
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Afghanistan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
India
Indonesia
Iran
Annual Renewable
Year of
Source of
Estimate
Estimate
2001
2005
2005
2001
1987
2000
2011
2003
2000
2011
2000
2000
nd
2000
2001
nd
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
1985
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2011
2000
2000
2000
2003
2000
2000
2011
2008
1999
2011
2011
1999
2008
2011
2011
2008
j
c
c
j
b
h
i
k
h
i
h
h
14.7
4.6
66.0
105.2
20.0
0.1
0.0
0.1
18.6
2902.0
112.4
38.1
nd
21.0
25.2
nd
111.3
14.0
95.9
9.4
457.2
196.7
148.0
0.02
3.8
3069.0
814.0
622.5
8233.0
922.0
2132.0
424.0
241.0
336.0
1913.0
122.0
139.0
1233.2
65.3
0.1
1227.0
78.0
8.5
476.1
2738.8
1911.0
2019.0
137.5
h
j
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
l
h
h
h
h
h
i
h
h
h
k
h
h
i
u
f
i
i
f
r
i
i
u
225
EUROPE
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Korea Democratic Peoples Republic
Korea Republic
Kuwait
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Palestinian Territory, Occupied
Philippines
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syria
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Vietnam
Yemen
Albania
Austria
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Malta
Netherlands
89.9
1.8
430.0
0.9
77.1
69.7
0.02
333.6
4.5
580.0
0.03
34.8
1168.0
210.2
1.4
247.0
0.8
479.0
0.1
2.4
0.6
52.8
16.8
67.0
438.6
211.6
0.2
884.0
2.1
41.7
84.0
20.0
37.5
107.2
105.5
0.3
16.0
16.3
12.3
110.0
186.3
188.0
72.0
116.4
170.0
51.0
175.0
1.6
6.4
0.07
89.7
2011
2008
1999
2008
1999
1999
2008
2003
2008
1999
1999
1999
2011
1999
2008
2011
2011
1999
2008
2008
1975
2011
2008
2000
2011
2011
2008
2011
2008
2001
2007
2007
2003
2010
1998
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2007
2013
2007
2007
2001
2005
2007
i
u
f
u
f
f
u
k
u
f
f
f
i
f
u
i
i
f
u
u
d
i
u
p
i
i
u
i
u
n
s
s
k
s
m, o
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
n
s
s
continues
226
D ATA T A B L E 1
Region
FORMER
SOVIET
UNION
OCEANIA
continued
Country
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Serbia-Montenegro*
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Estonia
Georgia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Lithuania
Moldova
Russia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Australia
Fiji
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Timor-Leste
Annual Renewable
Year of
Source of
Estimate
Estimate
384.0
63.1
73.6
42.3
208.5
80.3
32.1
111.1
186.2
53.5
164.0
7.8
34.7
58.0
12.8
63.3
107.5
23.6
33.7
24.5
11.7
4508.0
21.9
24.8
139.5
48.9
336.1
28.6
397.0
801.0
44.7
8.2
2013
2007
2007
2013
2003
2013
2007
2007
2013
2007
2013
2008
2008
1997
1997
2008
2011
2011
2011
2007
1997
2011
2011
2011
1997
2011
2005
1987
1995
1987
1987
2011
s
s
s
s
k
s
s
s
s
s
s
u
u
e
e
u
i
i
i
s
e
i
i
i
e
i
t
b
g
b
b
i
*Referred to as Yugoslavia in previous volumes of The Worlds Water.
D A T A
T A B L E
Freshwater Withdrawal by Country

and Sector (2013 Update)
Description
As with data table 1, this table on freshwater withdrawals has appeared in some form in
every volume of The Worlds Water and remains highly popular. The use of water varies
greatly from country to country and from region to region. Data on water use by regions
and by different economic sectors are among the most sought after in the water resources area. Ironically, these data are often the least reliable and most inconsistent of all
water resources information. This table includes the data available on total freshwater
withdrawals by country in cubic kilometers per year and cubic meters per person per
year, using national population estimates from 2010. The table also gives the breakdown
of that water use by the municipal, agricultural, and industrial sectors, in both percentage of total water use and cubic meters per person per year. Note that municipal withdrawals were previously called domestic withdrawals and now often include some
estimates of commercial and institutional use in the single category.
Data for a number of countries have been updated in this table since the previous
volume of The Worlds Water. The AQUASTAT database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) continues to provide the bulk of the data, but we
also work to update water-use data using country-specic sources. The data sources are
explicitly identied.
Withdrawal typically refers to water taken from a water source for use. It does not
refer to water consumed in that use. The domestic sector typically includes household
and municipal uses as well as commercial and governmental water use. The industrial
sector includes water used for power plant cooling and industrial production. The agricultural sector includes water for irrigation and livestock.
Limitations
Extreme care should be used when applying these data. They come from a wide variety
of sources and are collected using a wide variety of approaches, with few formal standards. As a result, this table includes data that are actually measured, estimated, modeled using different assumptions, or derived from other data. The data also come from
different years, making direct intercomparisons difcult. For example, some water-use
data are over twenty years old. Also note that the per capita water-use estimates are computed using withdrawals from different years, but population estimates are normalized
for 2010.
227
228
As noted in past volumes of The Worlds Water, the FAO AQUASTAT data set, while the
most comprehensive single database, contains inadequate information on sources and
assumptions and often contains modeled rather than measured values. Data from this
database should be used with great care and with appropriate caveats about their
quality.
Another major limitation of these data is that they do not include the use of rainfall in
agriculturewhat is sometimes referred to as green water. Many countries use a signicant fraction of the rain falling on their territory for agricultural production, but this
water use is neither accurately measured nor reported in this data set. We repeat our
regular call for a systematic reassessment of water-use data and for national and international commitments to collect and standardize this information.
Sources
D :RUOG5HVRXUFHV,QVWLWXWHDQGWorld Resources,QFROODERUDWLRQZLWKWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV
(QYLURQPHQW3URJUDPPHDQGWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV'HYHORSPHQW3URJUDPPH1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHU
VLW\3UHVV
E (XURVWDWDQG6WDWLVWLFVRIWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ(&&6HU*7$OVR6WDWLVWLFVLQ
)RFXVKWWSHXURSDHXLQWFRPPHXURVWDW/X[HPERXUJ
F 81 )$2 ,UULJDWLRQ LQ$VLD LQ )LJXUHV 5RPH ,WDO\ )RRG DQG$JULFXOWXUH 2UJDQL]DWLRQ RI WKH
8QLWHG1DWLRQV
G 81)$2,UULJDWLRQLQ/DWLQ$PHULFDDQGWKH&DULEEHDQ5RPH,WDO\)RRGDQG$JULFXOWXUH2UJDQL]DWLRQRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV
H .HQQ\-)1/%DUEHU66+XWVRQ.6/LQVH\-./RYHODFHDQG0$0DXSLQ(VWLPDWHG8VHRI:DWHULQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVLQ86*HRORJLFDO6XUYH\&LUFXODU5HVWRQ9$86
*HRORJLFDO6XUYH\KWWSSXEVXVJVJRYFLUFSGIFSGI
I 81)$2$48$67$7GDWDEDVH5RPH,WDO\)RRGDQG$JULFXOWXUH2UJDQL]DWLRQRIWKH8QLWHG
1DWLRQVKWWSZZZIDRRUJDFFHVVHG0D\6HHWH[WIRUGHWDLOV
J (QYLURQPHQW&DQDGD:LWKGUDZDO8VHVKWWSZZZHFJFFDHDXZDWHUGHIDXOWDVS"ODQJ (Q Q %
&
K +LGDOJR + :DWHU 5HVRXUFHV LQ &RVWD 5LFD$ 6WUDWHJLF9LHZ 'UDIW FRS\ &LWLQJ 0LQLVWHULR GH
6DOXGHWDO
L 3LQN%$XVWUDOLDQ%XUHDXRI6WDWLVWLFV:DWHU$FFRXQW$XVWUDOLDKWWSZZZDXVVWDWV
DEVJRYDX$XVVWDWVVXEVFULEHUQVI'())(&%&&$(%&)LOHB
SGI
M &KLQD0LQLVWU\RI:DWHU$QQXDO5HSRUW0LQLVWU\RI:DWHU5HVRXUFHV3HRSOHV5HSXEOLFRI
&KLQD$QQXDO5HSRUWKWWSZZZPZUJRYFQHQJOLVKGRFDFFHVVHG-XQH
229
Country
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Chad
Comoros
(formerly Zaire)
Congo, Republic of
Cte dIvoire
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
AFRICA
5.70
0.70
0.13
0.19
0.72
0.29
0.97
0.02
0.07
0.88
0.01
0.68
0.05
1.50
0.02
68.30
0.02
0.58
5.60
0.14
0.09
0.98
0.55
2000
2005
2000
2000
2000
2004
2002
2005
2000
2000
2001
(km3/yr)
2001
2005
2001
2000
2001
2000
2000
2000
2005
2005
1999
2005
Year
13
70
23
809
29
111
66
93
51
40
53
161
37
14
96
44
34
49
39
16
76
14
10
(m3/p/yr)
Total
Per
Freshwater
Capita
Withdrawal Withdrawal
70
41
84
8
79
5
6
61
38
24
38
24
45
32
41
39
17
17
7
83
12
48
68
(%)
Domestic
Use
Freshwater Withdrawal by Country and Sector (2013 Update)
Region
D ATA T A B L E 2
22
21
0
6
15
0
0
10
19
10
9
15
34
23
18
2
6
7
2
17
12
5
21
(%)
9
38
16
86
6
95
94
29
43
66
53
61
21
45
41
59
77
76
91
1
76
47
11
(%)
9
29
19
62
23
6
4
57
20
10
20
39
17
5
39
17
6
8
3
13
9
7
7
m3/p/yr
Industrial Agricultural Domestic

Use
Use
Use
3
15
0
49
4
0
0
9
10
4
5
24
13
3
17
1
2
3
1
3
9
1
2
m3/p/yr
1
26
4
695
2
105
62
27
22
27
28
98
8
6
39
26
26
37
36
0
58
7
1
m3/p/yr
Industrial Agricultural
Use
Use
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
Source
continues
3.76
21.57
0.88
84.47
0.69
5.22
84.98
1.50
1.75
24.33
10.32
35.42
18.99
9.21
1.98
16.29
8.52
19.96
0.51
4.51
11.51
0.69
67.83
(millions)
2010
Population
230
Country
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan and South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania, Republic of
Togo
AFRICA,
cont.
continued
Region
Data Table 2.
2000
2003
2000
2000
2000
2000
2005
2000
2005
2003
2000
2001
2002
2005
2005
2000
2002
2005
2003
2000
2005
2000
2002
2002
Year
0.18
2.74
0.04
0.13
4.30
16.50
1.40
6.50
1.40
0.73
12.60
0.88
0.29
0.98
13.00
0.15
2.22
0.21
3.30
12.50
27.60
1.04
5.20
0.17
(km3/yr)
109
67
19
32
657
819
89
488
416
563
389
38
131
62
82
15
173
36
352
248
639
865
115
25
(m3/p/yr)
Total
Per
Freshwater
Capita
13
17
46
54
14
1
11
9
7
30
10
19
25
30
31
24
4
52
1
31
4
2
10
53
(%)
Domestic
Use
5
4
46
36
3
1
4
1
2
3
3
3
5
3
15
8
3
26
0
6
1
1
0
2
(%)
82
79
9
9
83
98
86
90
91
68
87
78
70
67
54
68
93
22
99
63
95
97
89
45
(%)
14
11
9
17
92
8
10
44
29
169
39
7
33
19
25
4
7
19
4
77
26
17
12
13
m3/p/yr

Use
Use
Use
5
2
9
11
20
8
4
5
8
17
12
1
6
2
12
1
5
9
0
15
4
9
0
1
m3/p/yr
90
53
2
3
545
803
77
439
379
383
339
29
92
41
44
10
161
8
351
156
607
839
103
11
m3/p/yr
Use
Use
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
Source
1.65
40.86
2.08
4.10
6.55
20.15
15.69
13.32
3.37
1.30
32.38
23.41
2.212
15.89
158.26
10.28
12.86
5.84
9.36
50.49
43.19
1.20
45.04
6.78
(millions)
2010
Population
231
SOUTH
AMERICA
NORTH
AND
CENTRAL
AMERICA
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Antigua and Barbuda
Barbados
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
2001
2002
2002
2002
2005
2005
2000
2006
2003
2007
2004
2005
2007
2006
2000
2006
2000
2009
2001
2000
2005
1995
2000
2005
2000
2000
2006
2007
2000
2005
2.85
0.32
1.50
4.21
0.008
0.10
0.22
45.08
0.54
4.40
0.02
5.50
1.80
3.50
1.20
2.10
0.41
80.40
1.40
0.91
0.02
0.01
0.23
482.20
32.60
2.60
58.07
26.70
12.70
9.90
275
9
113
333
90
390
703
1,330
116
393
301
538
291
243
118
276
150
727
240
259
115
92
171
1,518
802
259
297
1,558
274
719
4
14
8
7
21
26
49
69
17
1
14
31
4
23
17
9
2
2
25
46
12
12
17
10
4
6
13
48
18
14
63
20
5
20
27
26
22
15
19
16
34
14
13
23
66
13
22
21
28
4
57
13
5
41
75
5
63
26
67
5
5
43
699
96
31
52
156
10
43
140
64
37
22
44
51
102
31
60
113
193
176
54
83
62
156
93
72
64
54
78
60
49
77
85
76
9
41
66
67
55
86
39
81
56
11
1
9
23
19
101
344
913
0
67
36
5
20
47
57
78
35
260
0
106
82
38
73
79
15
54
46
12
15
626
529
174
162
1340
107
582
387
186
131
92
165
73
557
204
197
225
4
83
263
14
210
323
157
0
220
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
g
h
f
d
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
d
d
f
e
f
f
f
f
f
f
continues
10.37
33.80
13.26
12.64
0.09
0.26
0.313
33.89
4.64
11.20
0.07
10.23
6.19
14.38
10.19
7.62
2.73
110.65
5.82
3.51
0.17
0.11
1.34
317.64
40.67
10.03
195.42
17.13
46.30
13.77
232
Country
continued
SOUTH
Guyana
AMERICA, Paraguay
cont.
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
ASIA
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
Georgia
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Region
Data Table 2.
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2007
2005
2003
2008
2008
1994
2006
2007
2000
2005
2010
2000
2004
2000
2004
2001
2005
2010
Year
1.64
0.49
19.30
0.67
3.70
9.10
20.30
2.90
12.21
0.36
35.87
0.34
0.09
2.20
578.9
0.21
1.80
761.00
113.30
93.30
66.00
1.95
90.00
0.94
21.10
(km3/yr)
2,154
76
654
1,278
1,097
313
697
938
1,367
442
253
480
221
146
425
239
427
627
487
1,243
2,097
268
709
145
1,339
(m3/p/yr)
Total
Per
Freshwater
Capita
2
20
7
4
11
49
1
30
4
50
10
5
nd
4
12
27
20
7
12
7
7
36
19
31
4
(%)
Domestic
Use
1
8
8
3
2
8
1
4
19
6
2
1
nd
2
23
1
22
2
7
1
15
6
18
4
30
(%)
98
71
85
93
87
44
99
66
76
45
88
94
nd
94
64
71
58
90
82
92
79
58
63
65
66
(%)
19
6
52
37
22
25
7
41
260
27
5
5
3
99
3
94
14
34
12
315
16
127
6
402
6
52
65
85
46
58
85
147
97
135
45
54
m3/p/yr
137
272
170
247
567
400
1143
1657
156
446
95
884
2111
54
556
1183
955
138
690
616
1039
199
222
451
m3/p/yr
Use
Use
36
15
46
57
121
154
7
281
55
221
25
24
m3/p/yr

Use
Use
Use
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
c
f
j
b
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
Source
0.76
6.46
29.50
0.52
3.37
29.04
29.12
3.09
8.93
0.81
141.82
0.71
0.41
15.05
1,361.76
0.88
4.22
1,214.46
232.52
75.08
31.47
7.29
127.00
6.47
15.75
(millions)
2010
Population
233
EUROPE
Korea Democratic Peoples

Republic
Korea Republic
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Palestine Territory, Occupied
Philippines
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syria
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
Albania
Austria
Belarus
8.70
25.47
0.91
8.00
3.50
1.31
11.20
0.006
0.55
33.23
9.50
1.32
183.50
0.42
81.6
0.44
23.67
0.19
13.00
16.80
11.50
57.31
40.10
28.00
4.00
56.00
82.00
3.57
1.30
3.70
4.30
2005
2002
2002
2006
2005
2005
2005
2008
2009
2000
2006
2003
2008
2005
2009
2005
2006
1975
2005
2005
2006
2007
2003
2004
2005
2005
2005
2005
2006
2002
2000
525
299
1,441
544
308
401
19
204
658
318
455
993
95
872
294
902
39
637
746
1,625
841
530
5,409
849
2,015
921
147
410
441
448
363
26
44
3
4
29
35
95
13
10
2
10
5
48
8
39
9
45
6
9
6
5
15
3
15
7
1
7
43
18
27
10
12
2
4
5
11
43
5
43
1
0
1
1
7
10
2
3
51
6
4
4
5
11
3
2
3
4
2
18
79
54
13
62
54
93
91
60
22
0
44
89
98
88
94
45
82
59
88
4
87
88
91
90
74
94
83
90
95
91
39
3
19
76
136
132
45
23
89
140
18
26
66
6
45
52
46
70
115
81
18
38
67
98
40
78
162
127
141
9
10
176
79
121
36
63
6
58
27
34
173
1
88
4
0
5
8
7
87
6
27
20
38
30
65
41
58
162
17
60
37
3
74
348
242
47
326
162
1340
495
185
88
0
90
586
312
400
933
43
715
174
793
2
554
657
1479
760
393
5085
705
1813
875
134
160
13
85
276
f
f
f
f
f
f
c
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
b
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
48.50
3.05
5.55
6.44
4.25
27.91
0.31
2.70
50.50
29.85
2.91
184.75
4.41
93.62
1.51
26.25
4.84
20.41
22.51
7.07
68.14
75.71
5.18
4.71
27.79
89.03
24.26
3.17
8.39
9.59
continues
23.99
234
Country
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Malta
Moldova
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
EUROPE
cont.
continued
Region
Data Table 2.
2007
2009
2009
2010
2007
2009
2007
2005
2007
2007
2007
2007
2005
1994
2000
2002
2007
1999
2007
2002
2007
2008
2006
2009
Year
6.20
0.34
6.10
0.63
1.70
0.66
1.80
1.60
31.60
32.30
9.50
5.60
0.17
1.18
45.40
0.40
2.40
0.06
1.00
0.05
1.10
10.60
2.90
12.00
(km3/yr)
580
90
814
143
163
120
1,344
299
504
394
849
562
516
257
755
179
737
116
489
122
308
637
597
315
(m3/p/yr)
Total
Per
Freshwater
Capita
88
68
14
57
5
97
72
69
68
2
83
8
77
36
49
90
37
67
1
83
87
43
60
16
85
41
58
3
25
18
12
9
12
50
23
20
38
7
63
21
63
14
12
28
31
(%)
16
1
2
36
1
3
12
20
89
5
42
0
44
13
3
1
12
35
3
1
29
10
(%)
130
121
67
70
40
75
91
47
76
67
258
58
151
68
52
73
103
77
43
76
167
98
70
m3/p/yr

Use
Use
Use
12
(%)
Domestic
Use
553
20
93
6
1304
215
348
268
17
466
41
198
272
87
664
43
328
1
255
554
257
189
510
m3/p/yr
130
1
3
43
13
8
61
78
756
28
217
0
332
23
22
1
59
43
9
6
173
32
m3/p/yr
Use
Use
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
b
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
b
f
f
f
f
b
f
b, f
Source
10.70
3.76
7.50
4.41
10.41
5.48
1.34
5.35
62.64
82.06
11.18
9.97
0.33
4.59
60.10
2.24
3.26
0.49
2.04
0.41
3.58
16.65
4.86
38.04
(millions)
2010
Population
235
2002
2003
2000
2009
2007
2009
2008
2007
2000
2005
2007
2010
2000
2002
2005
1987
2004
792
307
546
418
128
464
717
280
342
423
210
2,782
94
1,115
57
1,064
8.50
6.50
76.68
4.10
0.69
0.94
32.50
2.60
2.60
19.20
13.00
59.84
0.08
4.80
0.39
1.17
8
22
20
17
47
18
18
37
40
24
57
16
28
21
57
40
8
19
61
60
82
50
82
22
59
58
70
33
11
11
4
43
20
1
73
17
20
2
3
1
61
4
2
6
10
74
61
74
0
40
91
63
67
109
71
60
84
129
103
137
101
120
445
26
234
32
0
85
150
187
328
343
64
381
158
165
199
296
69
306
10
45
24
0
11
578
52
109
8
4
5
437
11
7
25
21
2058
57
825
0
0
968
f
f
b, f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
a, f
i
f
f
a, f
a, f
f
10.73
21.19
140.37
9.80
5.41
2.02
45.32
9.29
7.59
45.43
61.90
21.51
0.85
4.30
6.89
0.54
1.10
Notes:
Figures may not add to totals because of independent rounding.
Population data from Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision. Total
Population, Both Sexes. Estimates 2010 (New York: United Nations, 2009). http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp2008/all-wpp-indicators_components.htm.
US data include freshwater only; previous data included saline water.
China data include Hong Kong.
OCEANIA
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Australia
Fiji
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Timor-Leste
D A T A
T A B L E S
3 A
A N D
3 B
Access to Improved Drinking Water

by Country, 19702008 &
2011 Update
Description
Safe drinking water is one of the most basic human requirements, and one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015 is to reduce by half the proportion of people
unable to reach or afford safe drinking water. As a result, estimates of access to safe
drinking water are a cornerstone of most international assessments of progress, or lack
thereof, toward solving global and regional water problems.
Data are given here in two related tables.
Data table 3A includes the percentage of urban, rural, and total populations, by country, with access to improved drinking water for 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1994, 2000,
2002, 2004, 2005, and 2008similar to data table 3 in the previous volume of The Worlds
Water. In the current volume, however, these previous data are sorted alphabetically by
country rather than separated by regions.
Data table 3B provides an update of the percentage of national, urban, and rural
populations with improved drinking water for 2011, the most recent year for which data
are available. This table also includes the percentage of country populations in urban
and rural categories for 2011.
The World Health Organization (WHO) / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP)
for Water Supply and Sanitation collected the data presented here over various periods.
Most of the data presented were drawn from responses by national governments to WHO
questionnaires. Participants in data collection include the JMP, the United Nations Childrens Fund, and the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, which has continued sector monitoring and aims to support and strengthen the monitoring efforts of
individual countries. The forty largest countries in the developing world account for 90
percent of population in these regions. As a result, the World Health Organization spent
extra effort in collecting comprehensive data for these countries.
Data for 2000 and later reect a signicant change in denition. Data are now reported for populations with and without access to an improved drinking water supply.
An improved drinking water source is dened as one that, by nature of its construction
or through active intervention, is protected from outside contamination, in particular
from contamination with fecal matter.
236
Data Section
237
According to the World Health Organization, the following technologies were included
in the assessment as representing an improved water supply:
Household connection
Public standpipe
Borehole
Protected dug well
Protected spring
Rainwater collection
In comparison, an unimproved drinking water source refers to
Unprotected well
Unprotected spring
Rivers or ponds
Vendor-provided water
Bottled water
Tanker truck water
Limitations
A review of water and sanitation coverage data from the 1980s and 1990s shows that the
denition of safe, or improved, water supply and sanitation facilities differs from one
country to another and for a given country over time. Indeed, some of the data from individual countries often showed rapid and implausible changes in the level of coverage
from one assessment to the next. This indicates that some of the data are also unreliable,
irrespective of the denition used. Countries used their own denitions of rural and
urban.
For the 1996 data, two-thirds of the countries reporting indicated how they dened
access. At the time, the denition most commonly centered on walking distance or
time from household to water source, such as a public standpipe, which varied from 50
to 2,000 meters and 5 to 30 minutes. Denitions sometimes included considerations of
quantity, with the acceptable limit ranging from 15 to 50 liters per capita per day.
WHO/JMP assessments since 2000 have attempted to shift from gathering information from water providers only to including consumer-based information. The current
approach uses household surveys in an effort to assess the actual use of facilities. Reasonable access was broadly dened as the availability of at least 20 liters per person per
day from a source within 1 kilometer of the users dwelling. A drawback of this approach
is that household surveys are not conducted regularly in many countries. Thus, direct
comparisons between countries, and across time within the same country, are difcult.
Direct comparisons are additionally complicated by the fact that these data hide disparities between regions and socioeconomic classes.
Access to water, as reported by WHO/JMP assessments, does not imply that the level
of service or quality of water is adequate or safe. In addition, the household surveys
and censuses on which the JMP relies also measure use and not access. The assess-
238
ment questionnaire did not include any methodology for discounting coverage gures to
allow for intermittence of supply or poor quality of the water supplies. However, the instructions stated that piped systems should not be considered functioning unless they
were operating at over 50 percent capacity on a daily basis and that hand pumps should
not be considered functioning unless they were operating for at least 70 percent of the
time, with a lag between breakdown and repair not exceeding two weeks. These aspects
were taken into consideration when estimating coverage for countries for which national
surveys had not been conducted. More details of the methods used beginning with the
2000 assessment, and their limitations, can be found at http://www.who.int/docstore
/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm.
Sources
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 1989. Environmental Data Report. GEMS
Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
. 19931994. Environmental Data Report. GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Research
Centre in cooperation with the World Resources Institute and the UK Department of the
Environment. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
World Health Organization (WHO). 1996. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report:
1996 (Sector Status as of 1994). In collaboration with the Water Supply and Sanitation
Collaborative Council and the United Nations Childrens Fund, UNICEF, New York.
. 2000. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. http://www.who.int
/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm.
World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). 2004. Meeting
the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-Term Assessment of Progress. http://
www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp2004/en/index.html.
. 2006. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural
Challenge of the Decade. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp
nal.pdf.
. 2010. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation.
http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/.
http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ (2011 data were accessed May 29, 2013).
World Resources Institute (WRI). 1988. World Health Organization data, cited by the World
Resources Institute, World Resources 198889. World Resources Institute and the International
Institute for Environment and Development in collaboration with the United Nations
Environment Programme. New York: Basic Books.
239
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
American
Samoa
Angola
Anguilla
Antigua and
Barbados
Argentina
Armenia
Aruba
Australia
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belize
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Country
Region and
URBAN
RURAL
Percentage of Population with Access to Improved Drinking Water
Access to Safe Drinking Water by Country, 19702008
TOTAL
40
76
61
85
28
63
87
85
38
73
40
69
39
100
85
34
88
100
19
71
78
95
87
83
84 100
85 95
85
97
99
100
100
95
98
100
82
100
100
79
86
95
95
70
19
99
92
98
99
100
100
95
98
100
82
100
100
78
86
95
99
75
60
95
63
99
88
100 100 100

95 96 96
100 100 100 100 98

99
100 100
100 100
13 22 26 24 39 100 99
95 100 99 100 100
100
99 100 95 96 83
83 100 26 80 73 41 74
50
60 75 86
92 81 69 75 76 78 93
69
84 100
18
99
98
98
99
100
100
88
98
100
85
100
97
82
99
95
100
95
54
66
98
88
1
61
99
99
26
28
39
98 12 26
98
99
100
88
98 12 13
100 94 100
85 47 61
100 100 100
99
84 20 20
99
96
2
6
100
95
60
78
96
85
51
40
98
36
15
5
10
17
10
20
19
46
56
88
61
75
100
0
49 89
99 100
26 53
34 43
19 30
13 30
17
15
55
17
31
82
53
54
22
97
15
89
40
11
95
80
89
40
31
94
80
39
33
97
81
38
39
98
79
54
90
58
90
57
90
81
90
84
97 72 72 78 78
100 100 100 100 100
69 82 82 94 100
55 60 57 65 69
60 60 60 88 88
55 68 68 63 67
96 97 98
80 80 80
80 80 89 93
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100
59 59 66 71
86 86 86
30
40
94
100
11
66
77
54
26
56
33
68
17
35
23
29
55
45
72
53
77
91
87
65 65 100 100 90
99 100
100
45 56 39 46 81
98 100 99 99 100
68 64 74
29 34 18 50 54
7
32
33 34 36 43 53
56
72
89
50
64
55
97
32
12
91
50
13
97
87
53
60
91
39
96
85
47
41
97
85
50
48
97
83
87
95
89
95
90
95
97
continues
95
95
97 75 74 80 80
100 100 100 100 100
76 91 91 95 99
63 68 67 72 75
62 62 62 91 92
79 85 85 84 86
97 98 99
96 96 97
92 92 95 96
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100
77 77 77 80
96 97 97
79
38
94
100
13
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
D ATA T A B L E 3 A
240
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
87
87
52 68
100 99 100
100 100
57
100
100 100
42
93 100
98
100
19
42
43
83
98
13
92
43
98
100
100
27
90
100
100
23
85
59
96
37
31 40 41 66 67
99 100 100 99 99
94 92 93 98 98
98 99 99 99 99
98 90 92 91 91
71 72 84 95 95
89 83 82 82 80
100 98 98 97 101
98 100 100 100 100
90 98 97 92 93
99 95 95 95 96
100 100 100 100 100
59
29
15
6
4
28
24
13
21
56
9
12
33
23
28
82
73
17
21
31
20
69
21
70
43
45
21 24
88 100
83
80
91
76
29
50
24
68
82
10
95
100
48
94
93
88
98 100
26
98
100 100 100

84 82 94 91 95
92 96 90 92 85 83
53 58 64 75 81
82 84 86 90 92
100 100 100 100 100
70 64 86 86 86 85
95 95
18 80 93 93 89 92
98
99
81
85
23
17
37
89
48
18
34
49
61
61
50
51
97 100 100
54 65 72
77 71 71
35 51 56
44 48 51
99 99 99
73 82 82
98 100 100
26 32 43 43 44
66 59 58 75 75
66 68 67 78 82
73 71 71 73 73
95 96 82 96 97
17 17 27 34 34
26 29 29 28 28
100 88 88 88
98 92 92 90 91
65 74 74 67 68
82 78 78 83 89
100 100 100 100 100
43
25
42
99
89
44
78
29
41
99
73
98
74
44
56
27
11
63
27
56
32
12
72
38
19
64
26
70
25
90
20
86
84
25
31
23
32
92
91
87
52
32
67
25
71
98
36
73
86
23
44
45
92
72
93
27
24
85
90
76
18
75
75
65
67
99 100 100
51 61 70 76
79 79 72 72
34 41 56 61
63 66 71 74
100 100 100 100
80 80 84 84
27 34 42 49 50
94 95 95 96 96
75 77 77 86 89
91 92 93 92 92
96 94 86 95 95
51 46 58 71 71
45 46 46 45 46
100 95 94 94
98 97 97 96 97
77 84 84 79 80
95 91 91 92 94
100 100 100 100 100
60
30
62
100
51 74
78
52
98 100 100 100
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
continued
British Virgin
Island
Brunei
Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
35 50
Burundi
77
Cambodia
Cameroon
77
Canada
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Central African
Republic
Chad
47 43
Chile
67 78
China
Colombia
88 86
Comoros
Congo
63 81
Congo,
33 38
Cook Islands
Costa Rica
98 100
Cte dIvoire
98
Cuba
82 96
Cyprus
100 94
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 3 A
241
Djibouti
Dominica
Democratic
Republic
Dominican
Republic
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial
Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Fiji
French Guiana
French
Polyneisa
Gabon
Gambia
Gaza Strip
Georgia
Ghana
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
94
85
69
93
82
82
78
88
74
100
63
61
38
90
37
81
70
98
97
72
29
98
46
97
87
97
94
73
80
77
43
88
100
63
89
87
98
77 80 86
97 96 97
99 100 100
94 94 94
45 45
97
95
96
90
93
97
98
100
99
78
79
83
91
99
95
95
95 95 95
95 94 96
94 91 91
96 99 100
88 89 90
97 96 97
98 98 98
100 100 100
99 97 98
78 89 89
79 82 83
83 96 98
52 70 71
95 95 95
74 74 74
100 99 99
81 81 95 98
43
88 88
100 100 100 100
72
73
81 92
96 100
88 91
45 45
83
77 100 82 76
100 100 100
96 100
63
95
87
65
82
97 100
69
68
81
85
50
90 72 92
69 41 100
18 17
100 100 100 100 100
46 51 59 56
99 99 93 56 85
88
68
72
58
89
61
78
86 86
100 100
89
79
88
67
47
85
67
76
94
71
85
97
88
72
50
10
63
12
47
15
7
93
20
14
75
3
13
14
14
77
1
56
28
27
18
2
8
60
8
40
33
66
20
64
40
34
20
14
12
22
65
30
45
39
50
40
31
33
20
67
71
35
48
43
37
48
62
57
45
23
53
49
69 100
44 55
86 50
15 37
18 100
45
56
89
97
70
42
91
59
90
57
86
96
73
42
83
55
93
63
88
98
76
84
52
47
77
47 43 41
77 83 86
88 91 91
67 92 96
64 68 74
93
93
100 100 100
92 88 90
35 57 61
49 48 51
83 90 93
56 53 55
81 74 77
57 57 57
99 97 97
11 11 24 26
51
71 71
100 100 100 100
54
51
77
97
68
42
85
67
90
61
49 68
93 93
94 93
100 100
88 92
36 38
55 49
91 83
45 59
82 82
55
53
13
51
71
100
42
51
94
61
42
70
100 100
100
34
75
38
35
12
6
37
34
93
40
37
84
12
41
39
14
35
8
69
53
36
55
46
15
10
72
19
59
45
77
50
84
50
60
43
37
18
21
76
38
49
56
59
16
51
57
62
45
70
64
55
95
71
81
41
64
62
53
21
60
62
53
61
28
65
56
76
80 100
55
90
47
32
67
58
94
98
84
43
95
73
97
63
92
98
86
43
87
89
95
69
94
99
87
86
92
87
82
continues
88 86 87
82 89 92
92 91 91
82 96 98
75 78 82
95
98
100 100 100
95 92 94
50 68 71
59 58 60
83 92 94
54 60 63
87 94 86
60 60 61
100 98 98
22 22 35 38
47
84 84
100 100 100 100
57
52
86
98
82
44
93
80
97
76
64 79
94 95
94 98
100 100
92 95
48 51
49 59
94 83
46 71
90 90
70
62
24
47
84
100
46
71
95
74
43
79
90 100
100
242
continued
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
55
100
99
86
35
100
100 93
76
43
100
86
86
28
37
95
100
100
65
100 100
76 80
85
93
100
81
65
100
47
90 100
97
91
100 100 100
77
35
82
80
41
76
100
100
81
92
91
99
96
83
100
14
58
40
98
66
98
59
97
100
95
87
99
97
100
98
100
99
97
83
77
100
98
79
100
100 100 100
98 88 92
72 72
72 72
85 75 77
97
97
100
98
67 87
82
100
85
78
89
100
96
89
98
97
100
98
100
91
96
89
77
100
100
100
96
89
98
91
100
98
100
98
99
83
71
71
99 100
99 99
99 99
74 72
100 100
100 100
96 97
80 79
100
95
90
98
93
100
98
100
98
99
85
78
100
1
6
42
1
39
38
59
48
6
1
11
7
82
14
14
32
33
79
18
4
30
11
90
7
11
20
61
100
15
25
65
46
31
19
50
54
95
17
30
23
48
88
93
54
50
36
25
76
63
97
69
33
75
41
96
66
38
71
71
66
43
96
100 100 100
64 88 74 76
8
52 52
68 68
10 31 34 35
66
39 100
71
86 82
65 69
89 83
48 50
100 100
59 87
100
84 91
82 72
49 31 46
25 53
100 100
79
54
77
97
83
69
84
50
100
88
100
91
73
46
53
100
27
29
83 88
100 100
80 85
47 51
96 96
100 100
79 81
48 51
53 55
100 100
88 89
100 100
91 91
91 90
48 52
54
100 100
100 100
81 84
70 71
3
15
58
11
48
58
51
15
77
62
17
3
35
51
87
25
17
41
66
89
17
86
31
11
51
66
96
21
15
21
75
87
26
86
51
42
23
66
31
36
53
75
96
96
86
56
38
29
93
99
73
34
89
78
100
77
90
76
43
92
92
77
51
99
100 100 100
52 91 76 79
30
62 61
72 72
29 47 45 50
39
92
40
41
96 98
99 99
87 90
54 57
99 99
100 100
83 85
67 68
99 100 100
88 86 86 85 88
76 78 77 80 80
95 93 94
85 81 81 80 79
100 100 100 100 100
71 93 93 93 94
100 100 100 100
89 96 91 97 96 96
91 86 86 96 95
53 49 62 61 56 59
47 64 65 65
100 100 100 100 100
81
62
83
44
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
Hong Kong
Hungary
India
60
Indonesia
10
Iran
68
Iraq
83
Israel
Jamaica
100
Japan
Jordan
98
Kazakhstan
Kenya
100
Kiribati
Republic
Korea Republic 84
Kuwait
60
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
97
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
100
Liberia
100
Libya
100
Madagascar
67
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 3 A
243
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Marshall
Islands
Martinique
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Micronesia
Mongolia
Montenegro
Montserrat
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
(Burma)
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
Northern
Mariana
Islands
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
97
96
58
46
96
77
41
100
67
41
72
58 100
37 36
100
75
77
83
85
53
35
92
95
98 100
36 74
52
66
66
85
87 100
90
83
82
100
77
41
96
100
100
76
81 95
35 98 46 70
100 100 63 81
0 100 100
100
70
90
98
81
95
79
96
79
93 96
100 100
100 100
93 90
80 80
72 67
100 100
98 98
98
90
95
78
92
95
99 99
89 88
93 93
100 100
100 100
97 98
89 96
76 75
100 100
98 98
100
52
100
96
97
97
100
100
98
77
75
96 98 94 95
96 100 100 100
99 98 99 99
76 78 77 81
80 82 93 92
100
84 34 63 59 49
95 100 100 100 100
91 94 97 100 96
100
95 95 94
100
77 87 87 94
100
100 100 100
100 100 100 98 100 99 99 97
38
17 86 76 72 76
31 38 36 79 36 88 95 80 75
77
90
11
37
98
80 73
100 100 100 100 100
71 70 90 99 94
29
100 100
16
19
13
28
10
29
29
48
5
14
26
14
22
49
50
76
12
10
66
68
4
45
44
94
86 100
38 61
44
62
94
78
35
95
20
6
32
15
49
27
11
49
20
25
25
9
24
42
97
45
22
34
37
72
18
52
27
55
26
41
42
14
40
39
82
72
30
84
20
72
87
94
82
88
89
94
76
86
98
77
87
89 85 87
97 100 100
100 100 100
63 66 68
36 37 39
31 40 42
100 100 100
97 90 100
81
100 100
56 56
24 26
74 77
100 100
59 65
56 36
39 49
100 100
97
80
67
58
43
60
47
77
99
86
44
98
83 87
94
45 49
96 96
100 100
60 60
29 29
69 69
43
68 70
96 99
76 86
36 40
96 101
85
69 40 45 44
98 100 100 100 100 100 100
40 47
62 63 72 87
38 100
94 94
58
30 30 30
37
49
3
21
35
20
18
51
17
61
54
29
52
25
56
27
17
60
62
34
56
84
21
16
35
39
33
11
21
53
44
48
47
38
28
59
15
27
57
89 100
37 65
45
67
95
84
48
85
55
56
49
38
52
74
56
63
60
61
53
39
44
57
52
32
38
84
80
39
88
79
79
90
84
88
92
91
85
88
90
continues
86
89
84
90 86 88
99 100 100
100 100 100
79 83 85
46 45 48
48 57 58
100 100 100
99 97 98
87
100 100
80 81
42 43
80 78
100 100
79 81
59 46
57 60
100 100
98
81
77
82
60
68
49
93 94
94
73 76
98 98
100 100
80 81
45 47
71 71
45
73 74 80
99 100 100
83 90 91
50 51 56
87 95 94
76 37 56 53
98 100 100 100
83 86 91 97
100
94 94
82
60 62 62
13
79
84
99 100 100
73 83 69
41
63
2
244
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
58
82
74
93
84
28
40
100
97
91
99
97
92
99
37
56
45
87
25
95
7
88
38
45
58
20
26
21
65
31
64
65
65
54
69
88
73
75
46
67
77
100 100 94 100

23 75 75 82 86
100 100 100 100 100
100 100 100
94 94 94 95
48
16
88
86
55
94
79
32
83
33
33
51
98
63
87
81
89
26
52
98
89
62
89
66
61
87
99
85
83
33
97 100 100
65 65
75
46
86
60
69
87
73
16
88
62 68 93
66 65 58
77 82 85
100 100 100
88 88 85
79
32
99
68
23
58
51
80
86
32
99
66
24
77
17
97
92
89
77
9
24
72
20
97
90
80
90
88
8
17
54
64
15
100
92
92
90
89
98
9
18
43
43
62
10
92
91
89
98
5
15
31
83
54
19
60
95
91 91
99 100
5
8
20
75
97
87
95 100 99 98 99
87 87 89 90 90
92 90 87 93 93
100 100 100 100
97 97 96 96
99
88
41
72
99
88
97
87
88
88
12
49
67
17
11
35
36
95
69
70
64
68
43
13
47
50
97
77
20
94
53
45
50
28
55
52
82
26
42
68
34
55
81
32
62
95
14 24 39
100 100 100
90
43
55
21
50
45
71
81
16
34
50
60
85
83
28
90
39
93
40
93
40
93
72
73
88
79
57
96
93
76
74
88
79
57
97
68
99
66
88
85
96
69
99
89
65
96
83 86 83 86
81 83 81 82
85 85 90 91
100 100 100 100
92 92 90 90
91
39
87 88
28 57 57 51 49
100 100 100
99 100 100
71 70 70 70
95
78
41
99
79
77
87
87
42
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
continued
Panama
100 100 100 100
Papua New
44 30 55 95 94
Guinea
Paraguay
22 25 39 53 61
Peru
58 72 68 73 68
Philippines
67 82 49 49 93
Qatar
100 100 76
100
Republic of
Moldova
Romania
Russian
Federation
Rwanda
81 84 48 79 84
Samoa
86 100 97
100
So Tom and
Prncipe
Saudi Arabia 100 97 92 100
Senegal
87 56 77 79 65
Serbia
Serbia and
Montenegro
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
75
50 68 80
Singapore
100 100 100
Slovakia
Solomon Islands
96
82
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 3 A
245
Somalia
17 77
58
South Africa
Sri Lanka
46 36 65 82 80
St. Kitts
St. Lucia
St. Vincent
Sudan
61 96 100
Suriname
100 71
Swaziland
83
100
Syria
98
98
Tajikistan
Tanzania
61 88
90
Thailand
60 69 65 56
Togo
100 49 70 100
Tokelau
Tonga
100 100 86 99 92
Trinidad/
100 79 100 100 100
Tobago
Tunisia
92 93 100 100
Turkey
95
Turkmenistan
Turks/Caicos
87
Islands
Tuvalu
100
Uganda
88 100
37 60
Ukraine
United Arab
95
Emirates
United States
of America
United States
Virgin Islands
Uruguay
100 100 96 95 100
80
89
85
94
86
94
78
98
87
94
93
92
95
80
32
98
99
99
98
78
98
87
98
92
85
98
80
82
94
87
100
99 99
99 100
97 97
97 98
94 100 100
87 89 91
99 99 98
100 100 100
94 99
96 98
93 93
100 100
98
98 100 100 100
100
100 100 100 100 100
100 100
47 72
100
64
97
92
94
94
80
99
87
98 100
97 98
68
97
90
95
93
82
99
86
32 58 67
99 99 99
98 97 98
99 100 100
98 99 97
74
100
100 100 100 100
92 92
41
92
66
43
92
91
36
16
10
29
43
13
22
59
17
17
87
29
53 71
95 100
9
10
5
50
13
14
14
94
7
29
17
62
27
100
18
68
31
42
66
41
100
70 99
93 95
63
31
54
31
79
18
22
44
78
45
47
42
77
38
64
69
96
30
84
27
73
74
99
98
93
64
73
54
87
48
49
100
36
88
100
88
98
84
96
53 52
78 81
56 61
82 84
57 61
45 45
97 98
40 41
83 84
99 100
93 93
11
9
75 78
84 88
99 100
98 98
60 82 84
87 93 92
54 54 72
100 100 100
64
73
42
64
47
62
80
36
89
100
88
27
73
72
99
98
93
93 100
100
100 100 100
94
95 100
94
92 92 99 99
52 56 60 64
94 91 95 97
100 100 100 100 100
95 100
32 46
89
58
100
98 100 100
88
85
55
80
80
92
22
49
63
96
13
17
17
71
19
21
15
98
35
83
93
39
25
16
37
50
19
38
81
60
76
17
97
63
38
74
51
88
28
85
20
77
70
99
98
53
64
54
83
31
40
34
43
85
50
89
33
83
57
93
69
89
70
54
98
60
94
97
84
98
98
94
99
99 100
93 94
59
92
64
89
67
54
98
58
98
99
99
continues
98 100 100 100
100
100 100 100
93 100 100 100

56 60 64 67
98 96 98 98
100 100 100 100 100
82 93
93 96
71 72
100 100
69
92
52
79
58
73
85
51
29 29 28 30
87 88 89 91
78 79 86 90
99 100 100 100
98 98 98 98
70
92
62
80
93
59
54
62
80
99
54
52
88
100 100 100
86 91 91
75
95
86
83
98 100
34 50
99
63
100
96 100
96
60
70
46
246
continued
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
85
76
95
47
64
80
53
74
97
85
85
93
85
88 90
100 100
85
96
63
88
81
90
98
71
86
85
99
87
99
75
98
95
94
97
87
99
72
99
98
95
43
22
38
16
25
94
18
53
53
32
41
32
67
25
54
65
39
80
36
33
27
75
32
64
48
77
64
78
94
58
50
36
74
68
84
52
70
67
40
72
65
42
72
58
82
52 74
70 75
80 85
100 100
46
72
57
92
99
81
79
57
37
75
42
52
31
86
58
69
40
64
89
45
84
36
43
79
36
69
64
85
69
85
88
84
56
55
83
69
89
60
83
73
58
81
67
60
83
85
100
58
82
63
88
79
93
88
60
82
62
94
87
83
Sources: UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (19931994) WHO (1996) WHO (2000) WHO/UNICEF
(2004) WHO/UNICEF (2006) WHO/UNICEF (2010) WHO/UNICEF (2010) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP
(19931994) WHO (1996) WHO (2000) WHO/UNICEF (2004) WHO/UNICEF (2006) WHO/UNICEF (2010) WHO/UNICEF (2010) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI
(1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) Calculated from UNEP (19931994) WHO (1996) WHO (2000) WHO/UNICEF (2004) WHO/UNICEF (2006) WHO/UNICEF
(2010) WHO/UNICEF (2010)
Note: The United Nations considers all European countries, except those shown, to have 100 percent water supply and sanitation coverage.
86
95
93
70
97 75
100 100
65
93
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela
92
Vietnam
Wallis and
Futuna Islands
Western Samoa
Yemen Arab
45
Republic
Yemen Dem
88
Zambia
70
Zimbabwe
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 3 A
247
D ATA T A B L E 3 B
Access to Improved Drinking Water by Country, 2011 Update

2011 Population
Country
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
American Samoa
Andorra
Angola
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Aruba
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bolivia (Plurinational
State of )
Botswana
Brazil
British Virgin Islands
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Chad
Channel Islands
Chile
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Colombia
2011 Fraction of Population

with Access to Improved Drinking Water
Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
76
47
27
7
13
41
0
70
7
36
53
11
32
46
16
11
72
56
25
3
55
55
0
64
33
85
95
85
100
100
66
95
98
100
100
98
100
100
88
96
100
85
100
100
100
97
85
53
94
79
100
100
35
98
95
98
98
100
100
71
96
100
82
100
99
100
100
69
61
95
84
100
100
53
95
98
99
99
98
100
100
80
96
100
83
100
100
100
99
76
100
96
96
72
97
88
52
38
15
59
24
27
73
89
80
48
19
37
0
61
78
69
11
49
0
0
25
100
99
100
98
93
84
99
97
97
100
96
82
90
95
100
91
96
92
71
99
74
73
61
52
99
86
51
44
99
80
74
67
74
100
89
96
67
50
100
98
90
85
98
92
100
72
93
Urban
%
Rural
%
24
53
73
93
87
59
100
30
93
64
47
89
68
54
84
89
28
44
75
97
45
45
100
36
67
48
62
85
41
76
73
27
11
20
52
81
63
100
39
22
31
89
51
100
100
75
continues
248
D ATA T A B L E 3 B
continued
2011 Population
Country
Comoros
Congo
Cook Islands
Costa Rica
Cte dIvoire
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Faeroe Islands
Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
Fiji
Finland
France
French Guiana
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Greenland
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras

Urban
%
Rural
%
Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
28
64
74
65
51
58
75
70
73
60
72
36
26
35
49
42
25
30
27
40
95
100
100
91
100
96
100
100
99
97
32
100
91
68
97
86
100
100
97
72
100
96
80
99
94
100
100
98
34
66
80
29
46
87
77
67
70
67
43
65
39
21
69
17
41
74
52
84
86
76
51
86
57
53
74
52
61
85
39
98
93
50
35
44
28
53
52
13
23
33
30
33
57
35
61
79
31
83
59
26
48
16
14
24
49
14
43
47
26
48
39
15
61
2
7
50
65
56
72
47
48
100
100
96
82
96
100
94
100
67
100
92
81
82
99
81
82
92
99
90
99
97
97
39
99
49
100
100
100
95
100
95
92
100
100
92
100
100
92
100
100
75
100
41
85
96
100
80
99
100
96
100
100
90
100
88
89
98
100
86
100
100
99
99
99
90
94
98
77
96
100
99
89
65
54
93
48
81
99
99
94
74
72
95
64
89
249
2011 Population
Country
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
Iraq
Ireland
Isle of Man
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao Peoples Democratic
Republic
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Martinique
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mayotte
Mexico
Micronesia (Fed. States of )
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Montserrat
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia

Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
31
6
69
49
31
34
38
49
8
32
48
9
17
46
76
56
2
65
66
100
100
96
93
98
94
100
100
100
89
76
90
67
100
100
100
92
84
95
85
100
100
100
97
100
97
99
83
87
99
96
83
100
100
89
100
90
90
54
50
99
85
63
100
100
93
100
96
95
61
66
99
89
70
32
13
72
52
22
86
33
15
67
84
27
59
65
5
28
11
59
58
50
22
77
0
31
37
86
43
69
67
62
100
100
91
89
96
100
73
60
98
100
78
74
98
100
78
95
100
100
89
100
93
100
52
100
100
34
82
99
98
53
100
97
100
48
100
100
48
84
100
99
65
100
94
100
50
100
89
88
94
89
100
85
98
99
82
47
84
93
Urban
%
Rural
%
69
94
31
51
69
66
62
51
92
68
52
91
83
54
24
44
98
35
34
68
87
28
48
78
14
67
85
33
16
73
41
35
95
72
89
41
42
50
78
23
100
69
63
14
57
31
33
38
96
95
100
100
100
99
98
78
94
99
53
95
99
61
33
79
90
continues
250
D ATA T A B L E 3 B
continued
2011 Population
Country
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands
Netherlands Antilles
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
Northern Mariana Islands
Norway
Occupied Palestinian
Territory
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Republic of Korea
Republic of Moldova
Runion
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines Samoa
San Marino
So Tom and Prncipe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
Urban
%
Rural
%
100
17
83
93
62
86
58
18
50
38
91
79
74
0
83
17
7
38
14
42
82
50
62
9
21
26
73
36
84
75
12
62
77
49
61
61
99
99
83
48
94
53
74
19
32
18
49
20
94
63
82
43
56
54
39
100
55
50
20
27
64
16
25
88
38
23
51
39
39
1
1
17
52
6
47
26
81
68
82
51
80
6
37
18
57
44
46
61
0
45
50
80

Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
96
91
100
87
100
96
88
100
98
100
98
100
75
99
97
100
82
98
100
68
39
47
99
97
100
82
98
100
85
50
61
99
97
100
82
95
96
97
97
89
99
91
93
100
100
85
89
86
86
33
92
91
95
94
40
66
92
85
92
100
100
100
100
99
99
99
99
80
98
98
95
97
100
88
93
98
100
98
96
99
92
66
98
93
95
98
97
69
98
94
95
98
99
97
93
99
96
84
100
100
100
93
94
97
59
99
96
40
97
97
73
99
96
57
100
100
100
79
100
99
76
251
2011 Population
Country
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
TFYR Macedonia
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Togo
Tokelau
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Turks and Caicos Islands
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United Republic of Tanzania
United States Virgin Islands
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela (Bolivarian
Republic of )
Vietnam
Western Sahara
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Urban
%
Rural
%
38
62
18
77
15
33
70
21
85
74
56
27
59
34
28
38
0
23
14
66
72
49
94
51
16
69
84
80
27
82
95
93
36
25
94
62
38
82
23
85
67
30
79
15
26
44
73
41
66
72
62
100
77
86
34
28
51
6
49
84
31
16
20
73
18
5
7
64
75
6
31
82
32
39
39
69
18
68
61
61

Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
66
99
63
100
99
66
97
93
100
100
93
92
100
97
93
90
99
98
100
100
89
7
79
55
100
92
50
81
67
100
100
87
57
99
95
60
40
97
99
93
89
99
54
30
91
57
100
93
55
92
72
100
100
90
66
100
96
69
59
97
99
94
96
100
71
98
91
98
100
100
79
100
100
100
98
98
97
72
98
100
100
44
94
100
98
81
88
98
75
98
100
100
53
99
100
100
87
91
99
94
96
72
86
97
47
50
69
55
64
80
D A T A
T A B L E S
4 A
A N D
4 B
Access to Improved Sanitation

by Country, 19702008 &
2011 Update
Description
Adequate sanitation is also a fundamental requirement for basic human well-being, and
improving access to sanitation is one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Data are given here in two related tables.
Data table 4A includes the percentage of urban, rural, and total populations, by country, with access to improved sanitation for 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1994, 2000, 2002,
2004, 2005, and 2008similar to data table 4 in the previous volume of The Worlds Water.
In the current volume, however, these previous data are sorted alphabetically by country
rather than separated by regions.
Data table 4B provides an update of the percentage of national, urban, and rural
populations with improved sanitation for 2011, the most recent year for which data are
available. This table also includes the percentage of country populations in urban and
rural categories for 2011.
The World Health Organization (WHO) / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP)
for Water Supply and Sanitation collected the data presented here over various periods.
Most of the data presented were drawn from responses by national governments to
questionnaires. Participants in data collection include the JMP, the United Nations Childrens Fund, and the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, which has continued sector monitoring and aims to support and strengthen the monitoring efforts of
individual countries. Countries used their own denitions of rural and urban.
For all WHO assessments since 2000, new denitions were provided for improved
sanitation with allowance for acceptable local technologies. For MDG monitoring, an
improved sanitation facility is dened as one that hygienically separates human excreta
from human contact.
The following technologies were included in the 2000 assessment as representing improved sanitation:
Connection to a public sewer
Connection to a septic system
Pour-ush latrine
252
Data Section
253
Simple pit latrine

Ventilated improved pit latrine
In comparison, unimproved sanitation facilities refer to the following:
Public or shared latrine
Open pit latrine
Bucket latrine
Limitations
As is the case with drinking water data, denitions for access to sanitation vary from
country to country and from year to year within the same country. Countries generally
regard sanitation facilities that break the fecal-oral transmission route as adequate. In
urban areas, adequate sanitation may be provided by connections to public sewers or by
household systems such as pit privies, ush latrines, septic tanks, and communal toilets.
In rural areas, pit privies, pour-ush latrines, septic tanks, and communal toilets are
considered adequate. Direct comparisons between countries and across time within the
same country are difcult and are additionally complicated by the fact that these data
hide disparities between regions and socioeconomic classes.
WHO assessments since 2000 have attempted to shift from gathering information
from water providers only to including consumer-based information. The current approach uses household surveys in an effort to assess the actual use of facilities. Access to
sanitation services, as reported by the World Health Organization, does not imply that
the level of service is adequate or safe. The assessment questionnaire did not include
any methodology for discounting coverage gures to allow for intermittence or poor
quality of the service provided. More details of the methods used, and their limitations,
can be found at http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassess
ment/GlobalTOC.htm.
Sources
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 1989. Environmental Data Report. GEMS
Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
. 19931994. Environmental Data Report. GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Research
Centre in cooperation with the World Resources Institute and the UK Department of the
Environment. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
World Health Organization (WHO). 1996. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report:
1996 (Sector Status as of 1994). In collaboration with the Water Supply and Sanitation
Collaborative Council and the United Nations Childrens Fund, UNICEF, New York.
. 2000. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. http://www.who.int
/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm.
World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). 2004. Meeting
the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-Term Assessment of Progress. http://
www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp2004/en/index.html.
. 2006. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural
Challenge of the Decade. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp
nal.pdf.
254
http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table.
http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ (2011 data were accessed May 29, 2013).
World Resources Institute (WRI). 1988. World Health Organization data, cited by the World
Resources Institute, World Resources 198889. World Resources Institute and the International
Institute for Environment and Development in collaboration with the United Nations
Environment Programme. New York: Basic Books.
255
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Anguilla
Antigua and
Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belize
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
British Virgin
Islands
Country
Region and
URBAN
RURAL
Percentage of Population with Access to Improved Sanitation
Access to Sanitation by Country, 19702008
TOTAL
62
48
37
25
85
75
25
13
55
93 100
86 84
100
33
23
54
66
58
77
34
38
76
60
80
38
87
58
88 100 98
100 100
21 24 40
100 100
80
83
87 40
100 100
100 100
87 100
80
29
13 100
40
63
69
85
59
46
65
82
82
100
93
100
89
90
70
25
98
98
98
80
99
98
56
98
86
99
98
60
57 57 72 74
83 83 86 87
100 100 100 100
92 91 91
96 96 95 95
100 100 100 100
73 73 55 51
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100
75 51 57 56
99 99 100 100
93
71 71 89 93
58 59 22 24
65 65 87 87
58 60 33 34
99
49
99
99
56
16
99
99
56
24
13
13
13
79
16
13
13
13
83
50
15
35
40
16
75
4
28
1
10
45
20
100
1
3
35
15
85
32
2
22
35
3
14
2
0
4
2
20
87
6
18
16
30
94
5
81
82
16
29
84
82
16
99
94
86
15
29
88
18
30
25 25 36 39
40 35 37 37 37
94 100 100 100 100
44 39 35 48 52
94 100 100 100 100
61
21 25 25 84 86
6 12 11
3
4
70 70 70 54 54
38 23 22
9
9
92
83 77 77
61 61 79 80
100 100 100 100 100
36 36 34 39
94 100 100 100 100
48
47
30
58
66
12
14
6
66
66
85
21
65
5
65
65
97
67
21
69
57
19
21
66
33
40
63
88 100
18
69
16
88 100
100
3
5
88 100
20
89
71
63
50
45
7
26
10
63
63
21
44
57
20
41
41
35
16
95
8
89
92
30
34
91
92
31
99
95
94
50
35
95
57
37
continues
41 42 57 60
77 75 75 78 80
93 100 100 100 100
53 48 39 50 53
93 100 100 100 100
84
42 47 47 86 90
23 32 33 11 12
69 70 70 64 65
66 45 46 24 25
95
91 90 90
84 83 89 90
100 100 100 100 100
55 54 45 45
93 100 100 100 100
85
73
44
12
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
D ATA T A B L E 4 A
256
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
85
59
71
23
73
82
58
76
30
96
69
96
38
14
43
24
95
69
96
41
28
42
23
98
58
81
49
31
23
23
98
58
81
50
31
23
100 100 100 100 100

98 89 89 95 95
61 46 37 36
96 99 99 92 94
100 100 100 100 100
99
81
98
68
97
98
14
53
100
88 45 42 32 33
79 47 47 49 49
58 53 53 60 67
99 63 58 58 56
100 100 100 100 100
40 95 61 61 65 65
96 96
43 47 47 39 43
42
60
95
92
9
6
6
5
93
13
43
1
11
10
96 100
84
10
10
5
35
76
11
81
18
46
16
100
68
100 100
89
13
9
94
6
56
99
51
51
7
33
10
11
50
0
64
29
54
15
2
23
12
5
35
8
33
99
19
4
62
28
54
29
25
25
12
96
6
35
8
43
99
19
4
83
50
53
29
29
19
23
6
46
15
35
99
34
4
83
52
55
30
29
23
28
6
46
18
35
99
38
100 100 100 100 100

95 97 97 95 96
23 29 11 11
91 95 95 78 81
100 100 100 100 100
97
13
93
24
51
98
23
10
85
99
32
16
95
52
5
6
5
47
1
29
95
93
9
22
48
1
32
96
72 100
91
61
83
11
7
35
100
95
84
10
43
9
58
92
92
98
21
86
64
46
18
29
92
54
66
21
63
21
46
8
92
44
86
23
9
29
27
9
91
44
86
33
27
30
27
9
96
53
74
35
30
20
29
9
96
55
74
36
30
23
34
99
12 13 11 11
36 36 46 46
16 17 24 29
48 51 47 47
100 100 100 100
42 43 52 54
100 100 100 100 100

96 92 92 95 95
40 37 23 23
95 98 98 89 91
100 100 100 100 100
98
20
29
97
38
85
98
31
18
92
100
24 71
18
51
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
continued
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
49 47 38 44
Burundi
96
40 84 64
Cambodia
100
Cameroon
100
Canada
Cape Verde
34 32
Cayman Islands
94 96
Central African 64 100
45
Republic
Chad
7
9
Chile
33 36 100 100
China
100
Colombia
75 73 93 96 84
Comoros
Congo
8 10
Congo,
5 65
46
Democratic
Republic
Cook Islands
100 100 100
Costa Rica
66 94 99 99
Cte dIvoire
23
81
Cuba
57 100
100
Cyprus
100 94
100 96
Czech
Republic
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 4 A
257
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican
63 74
Republic
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
66 71
Equatorial
Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
67 56
Fiji
100 100
French Guiana
French
Polyneisa
Gabon
Gambia
Gaza Strip
Georgia
Ghana
92 95
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guatemala
Guinea
70
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
95 99
Haiti
Honduras
64 53
Hong Kong
Hungary
98
82
73
48
87
20
78
61
76
77
72
45 41
54
21 29
73 100
42 42
49 24
97
44
89
90
63
100
98
42
81
32
53
83
91 100
56
80
85
54
95
51
47
96
41
25
85
78
43
98
94
88
97
50
94
37
72
78
96
27
96
61
98
90
31
57
86
57
87
100 100
99
72
25
57
86
52
89
96
74
96
37
72
25
41
62
96
61
99
58
75
85
99
19
99
34
66
32
97
44
87
57
97
66
94
86
77
60
65
80
84
78
60
70
98
88
60
75
88
86
81
55
86
67
99
34
67
91
96
17
96
95
99
88
31
47
85
28
78
99
28
52
68
95
97
89
60
65
80
86
33
68
91
96
18
96
95
99
89
34
49
85
24
80
99
29
52
86
96
97
89
87
63
92
43
9
11
2
40
8
87
18
54
94
1
13
16
40
8
93
17
16
20
1
13
80
10
26
17
60
17
10
26
20
18
79
13
34
12
16
96
43
29
10
17
81
17
42
50
52
0
60
27
95
65
38
26
38
24
75
16
53
17
36
23
85
34
5
59
48
83
100
76
41
34
81
16
57
64
97
61
4
35
6
12
57
97
37
91
78
46
64
50
85
98
52
6
23
60
23
52
69
46
97
30
46
97
4
98
30
59
56
40
46
27
75
43
85
30
46
61
91
11
97
64
99
82
11
23
60
14
54
3
96
7
55
85
99
33
82
58
39
46
50
75
73
98
69
10
8
78
12
56
30
63
84
94
6
97
97
35
81
90
79
46
18
84
72
98
73
11
9
80
10
62
30
65
84
93
7
97
97
40
84
92
83
74
10
24
93
13
55
14
91
37
58
26
96
56
14
96
39
42
30
11
15
78
19
35
26
70
35
43
15
39
21
86
21
30
24
30
58
65
23
64
86
25
63
88
60
61
44
75
48
50
59
33
87
24
65
70
20
42
37
92
64
11
68
54
78
90
85
58
47
87
28
77
63
97
61
21
37
15
43
79
98
13
59
94
83
53
71
91
95
99
61
13
34
70
34
68
83
58
97
36
53
98
6
98
33
72
68
63
53
50
83
57
95
36
53
73
94
18
96
64
99
86
18
35
70
30
69
9
97
13
72
78
98
36
89
70
62
53
82
84
78
99
81
19
21
81
17
71
33
67
89
95
13
98
98
12
14
50
92
94
87
83
56
continues
98
78
17
20
80
19
66
33
65
89
95
11
97
98
10
13
44
90
93
85
51
58
80
81
258
continued
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
13
51
100 100
9 55
100
100 100 100
94
30
13
10
22
6
67
89
80 100 100
100 100
98
92 100
94
70
73
89
98
73
87
86
93
100
84
75
61
100 100
100 100
75 94 94
67 77 86
82
100 100 100
61 39 40
49 24 25
97 97 97
48 15 15
62 51 51
95 96 96
58 59 54 54
71 73 66 67
86
95 95 76 76
100 100 100 100
90 91 82 82
100 100 100 100
94 94 98 98
87 87 97 97
56 46 27 27
59 59 49
58 58
100 100 100

1 93 61
38
49
97 97
50 70 49
70 96 66
70
76
100
100
69 96
91 100 54
99
92
12
100
44
79
100
100 96
31
33
27
29
96
87
60
100
75
43
10
9
54
45
92
1
4
48
43
69
9
12
48
91
2
5
59
1
81
55
72
14
19
34
1
21
43
60
14
2
90
11
2
38
14
40
37
66
14
52
74
31
94
3
51
100
7
2
13
30
70
98
41
92
96
100
34
98
98
81 81
49 100 44
100
100
3
30
35
87
32
7
96
27
42
98
51
14
85
52
43
22
60
68
18
38
78
48
21
36
61 66
100 100
84 84
100 100
96 97
98 98
31 32
22
18
33
100 100
100 100
51 93 93
20 30 38
71
87 87
32 25 25
7
4
4
96 96 96
26
9 10
61 55 57
93 95 95
87
52
41
22
60
69
48
22
40
59
11
19
67
50
94
18
12
70
47
60
79
13
55
94
20
15
78
47
83
70
88
14
30
70
7
23
69
75
15
91
74
9
37
94
12
100
14
44
72
15
53
100
6
18
24
77
100
95
29
51
67
36
97
42
77
99
92
100
46
99
99
86
48
99
84
31
66
81
79
98
37
26
97
33
46
60
24
93
72
48
39
59
80
30
52
84
80
31
52
71 73
100 100
83 83
100 100
98 98
97 97
30 31
35
28
49
100 100
100 100
59 93 93
30 43 53
78
98 98
37 28 29
27 16 17
97 97 97
34 11 11
61 54 56
94 96 96
93
72
43
40
59
80
79
33
55
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
India
85
Indonesia
50
Iran
100
Iraq
82
Israel
Jamaica
100
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
85
Kiribati
Republic
Korea Republic 59
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
44
Liberia
100
Libya
100
Madagascar
88
Malawi
Malaysia
100
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 4 A
259
Maldives
Mali
Marshall
Islands
Martinique
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Micronesia
Mongolia
Montserrat
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
(Burma)
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
Northern
Mariana
Islands
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New
Guinea
Paraguay
28
95
83
96
87 78
100 100
16
42
100 100
12 21
89
99
99
88
51
35
34
36
30
10
17
16
14
51
75
68
62
61
50
50
60
50
51
64
96
83
38
75
95
50
93
90
31
57
53
95
95
98
94
100
87
82 92
53
94
97
92
96
89
67
94
97
92
96
89
67
88
97
72
96
75
73
90
97
72
96
75
71
34 96 78 56 62 63
71 71 79 43 43 32 34
80 61 85 48 53 36 36
0 100 100 100 100 100 100
100
94 96 94
34
66
50
96
95
45
93
88
61
64
96
83
37
86
95 100 100 100 100 100

58 93 59 59 44 45
93 93 82 83
24
95
81
100
49
95
91
61
75
96
88
53
88
60 100
79 90
5
8
44 64
63 100 100 100 100 100 100
77 77 85 81 87 90
99 100
61
100
46 75
96
62 100 69 100 83
53
70 69 51
38 38 33 50 42 65 96
21
14
45
75
100
51
63
69
5
76
5
24
1
99 100
13 14
80
59
3
90
12
4
10
45
83
61
35
25
6
16
16
12
60
12
100
71
4
11
11
13
20
14
9
99
39
14
37
96
31
14
63
42
38
59
30
13
8
94
41
14
37
96
52
19
72
42
39
58
24
15
9
90
61
15
30
96
50
4
79
88
31
51
27
17
32
96
52
4
79
9
90
68
96
32
53
95
58
61
35
52
51
41
61
41
52
51
41
39
25
52
51
42
40
51
41
29
68 51 34 35 37
5
4
4
4
4
45 30 36 29 28
100 100 100 100 100
92 96 94 96 96
20
17
42
26
39
61
42
100
94
11 80
19
27
4
21
16
18
70
40
19
99
32
26 58
21 100
86 100 100
13
26
46 100
47
2
3
78
14
35
29
7
77
10
77
18
12
6
33
82
86
71
15
13
20
94
55
13
27
44
31
85
81
44
31
19
27
20
24
46
25
17
35
15
22
59
46
82
92
35
72
98
36
73
27
30
35
25
28
31
31
33
42 34 24 26
99 94 91 91
77 79 82 85
28 28 26
59 59 49 50
96 100 100 100
61 73 68 69
27 32 15 17
73 77 81 81
58
45
82
95
78
89
54
83
72
45
80
59
80
73
44
70
69
45
45
continues
69
41
79
68
46
84 66 47 50 52
20 12 13
9
9
63 38 44 32 32
100 100 100 100 100
94 95 94
27
41
75
43
46
30
33
99
73
56
69
92
61
100
86 99
22 82
76
30
31
15
36
20
41
40
92 100 100
58
66
100
78
22
19
260
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
17
61
11
100 100 100 100 100

94 70 79 68 69
97 97
89
93
55
35
35
56
16
40 44
16 100
52
86
93
72 74 79 81
81 80 78 80
100 100 100 100
86 86
12 56 56 47 50
95 100 100 100 100
32 32 29 30
90
92
96 97
23 53 53 23 24
100 100 100 100 100
100
98 98 98 98 98
47 48 50 52
79 99 86 79 83 84
33 91 98 98 87 88
96 96 96 96
89 89
83
62
63
21
50
2
50
0
67
39
10
33
15
55
12
56
45
31
38
17
20
63
85
12
58
40
10
10
70
70
33 32 33 36
61 59 65 69
100 100 100 100
52 52
73
80
18
31
100
48
34
77
18
14
44
89
96
89
98
18
14
46
89
96
89
100 100
30 30
34
77
18
7
64
88
96
36
6
65
92
96
38
8 38 38 49 55
100 100 100 100 100
20 20 17 19
40
71
64
21
53
59
47
47
57
36
57 56
83 100
67
12
80
70
36
51
36
75
44
18
24
99
82
15
56
49
67
50
13
39
46
21
59
70
51
87
87
62 63 66 68
73 72 73 76
100 100 100 100
68 68
100
70
52
87
57
87
32
22
75
88
96
12
49
23
77
91
96
13
51
8 41 42 49 54
100 100 100 100 100
24 25 24 26
76
83
28 39 39
100 100 100
99
34 31 31
25 26
46 86 67 65
52 83 91 91
96 95
89 89
11
58
44
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
continued
Peru
52
57 67 76
Philippines
90 76 81 83 79
Qatar
100 100
100
Republic of
Moldova
Romania
Russian
Federation
Rwanda
83 87 60 77 88
Samoa
100 100 86
100
So Tom
and Prncipe
Saudi Arabia
67 91 81 100
Senegal
100 87 57
Serbia and
Montenegro
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
31 60 55
Singapore
80 99 99
Slovakia
Solomon Islands
80
73
Somalia
77
44
South Africa
Sri Lanka
76 68 80 65 68
St. Kitts
St. Lucia
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 4 A
261
St. Vincent
Sudan
100 100 73 73
79 87 50 50 56 55
4 10
Suriname
100 78
100 99 99 90 90
Swaziland
99
100
36
78 59 61 61
25
Syria
74
77 98 97 99 96 96
Tajikistan
71 70 95 95
Tanzania
88
93
98 54 53 31 32
14
Thailand
65 58 64 78
97 97 98 95 95
8 36
Togo
4 36 24 31
57 69 71 71 24 24
12
Tokelau
100
Tonga
100 100 97 99 88 100
98 98 98 98 100 100
Trinidad/
100
100 100 92 92
Tobago
Tunisia
100
100 84
100
90 96 96 96 34
Turkey
56
98 94 96 97 97
Turkmenistan
77 77 99 99
Turks/Caicos
51 83 96 100
98 94 98 98 96 97
Islands
Tuvalu
100 81
90 100 92 93 87 88
Uganda
84 82
32 32 75 96 53 54 37 38 76 95
Ukraine
100 98
United Arab
93
100 98 98 98
Emirates
United States
100 100 100 100 100
of America
United States
Virgin Islands
Uruguay
97 97 59 59
96 95 100 99 100 13 17
Uzbekistan
100 73 78 99 100
Vanuatu
95 86
100 78 78 63 66
Venezuela
60 57
64 86 71 71 94
45
Vietnam
100
23 43 87 84 92 88 94
2
Wallis and
80
Futuna Islands
73
30
80
59
25
5
6
68
12
55
22
95
16
40
58
46
9
48
25
88
41
10
41
94
28
79
72
10
60
70
86
96
17
81
48
34
89
100
100
30 69
15 70
85
48
42
48
26
99
61
42
48
50
99
95
81
49
64
75
97
26
82
76
81
62
83
94
92
96
18 16 22
66
53
36
95
94
21
17
96 17 40
3
1 15
92
96 100 100
92
96 99
96 100
43 48
57
61 67
96 96
99
80
48
64
73
97
100 100 100
65
72
50
98
96
19
66
50
90
92
22
96
4
82
96
92
95
83
39
97
100
62
62
50
94
96 96
24 24
76 76
44 44
56 81
47 45
41 43
100 99
15 15
74 78
96 96
100 100
84
41
93
95
85 100
55 72
85
13
100
78 100
92
86
37
35
52
51
80
93
19
66
45
13
50
88
40
50
59
30
98
55
52
52
14
62
45
13
57
91
88
90
96
34
90
62
83
88
41
99
100
80
83
62
96
90
43
96
98
85
88
62
96
34
94
48
90
51
47
99
35
78
97 96
100 100
34
93
52
77
53
46
99
34
97
82
47
85
89
98
96
92
34
84
53
93
93
24
96
12
97
81
48
85
90
98
97
92
34
84
55
96
94
24
96
12
95
100
100
58 74
21 73
94 100
57 67
50 50
68 68
41 61
80
continues
99 100
97 100
48 53
91
68 75
100 100 100 100 100
87 100
57 75
96
26
100
82 100
97
36
56
22
262
continued
URBAN
RURAL

TOTAL
70
76
88
83
95
40
99
99
99
99
68
69
76
59
63
86
59
57
89
59
56
94
18
16
15
83
34
15
83
22
10
31
64
51
31
32
51
14
52
47
28
41
37
29
43
37
33
16
42
35
55
84
43
23
45
78
68
45
45
57
30
55
53
43
47
44
46
49
44
52
Sources: UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1993) WHO (1996) WHO (2000) WHO/UNICEF (2004) WHO/
UNICEF (2006) WHO/UNICEF (2010) WHO/UNICEF (2010) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1993) WHO
(1996) WHO (2000) WHO/UNICEF (2004) WHO/UNICEF (2006) WHO/UNICEF (2010) WHO/UNICEF (2010) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) UNEP (1989); WRI
(1988) UNEP (1989); WRI (1988) Calculated from UNEP (1993) WHO (1996) WHO (2000) WHO/UNICEF (2004) WHO/UNICEF (2006) WHO/UNICEF (2010) WHO/UNICEF (2010)
87
86
60
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 2000 2002 2004 2005 2008
Western Samoa
Yemen Arab
Republic
Yemen Dem
Zambia
12
Zimbabwe
Country
Region and
D ATA T A B L E 4 A
263
D ATA T A B L E 4 B
Access to Improved Sanitation by Country, 2011 Update

2011 Population
Country
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
American Samoa
Andorra
Angola
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Aruba
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bhutan
State of )
Botswana
Brazil
British Virgin Islands
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Chad
Channel Islands
Chile
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Colombia
Comoros

with Access to Improved Sanitation
Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
76
47
27
7
13
41
0
70
7
36
53
11
32
46
16
11
72
56
25
3
55
55
0
64
33
46
95
98
97
100
86
98
91
96
96
98
100
100
86
23
93
88
97
100
19
91
98
81
98
100
100
78
28
94
95
97
100
59
98
91
96
90
98
100
100
82
99
55
99
55
99
55
92
100
93
25
97
100
87
5
93
100
90
14
74
57
29
24
45
46
52
38
15
59
24
27
73
89
80
48
19
37
0
61
78
69
11
49
0
0
25
72
100
78
87
98
92
42
48
98
96
64
81
97
100
50
45
76
58
100
74
96
43
31
100
6
51
22
36
99
45
28
6
100
18
50
33
48
100
63
96
34
12
100
74
89
56
99
65
82
65
78
Urban
%
Rural
%
24
53
73
93
87
59
100
30
93
64
47
89
68
54
84
89
28
44
75
97
45
45
100
36
67
48
62
85
41
76
73
27
11
20
52
81
63
100
39
22
31
89
51
100
100
75
28
continues
264
D ATA T A B L E 4 B
continued
2011 Population
Country
Congo
Cook Islands
Costa Rica
Cte dIvoire
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Faeroe Islands
Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
Fiji
Finland
France
French Guiana
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Greenland
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland

Urban
%
Rural
%
Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
64
74
65
51
58
75
70
73
60
36
26
35
49
42
25
30
27
40
19
95
95
36
99
94
100
100
88
15
95
92
11
98
87
100
100
73
18
95
94
24
98
92
100
100
82
34
66
29
31
31
87
77
67
70
67
43
65
39
21
69
17
41
74
52
84
86
76
51
86
57
53
74
52
61
85
39
98
93
50
35
44
28
53
52
69
94
13
23
33
30
33
57
35
61
79
31
83
59
26
48
16
14
24
49
14
43
47
26
48
39
15
61
2
7
50
65
56
72
47
48
31
6
100
73
100
22
100
61
86
96
97
79
74
86
93
53
82
93
95
70
100
27
4
94
19
98
21
92
100
100
95
97
33
70
96
100
19
99
100
82
100
100
76
97
30
65
91
100
8
97
100
87
100
100
90
97
33
68
93
100
13
99
100
97
97
88
32
33
88
34
86
100
100
90
97
72
11
8
82
17
74
100
100
97
97
80
18
19
84
26
81
100
100
265
2011 Population
Country
India
Indonesia
Iran (Islamic Republic of )
Iraq
Ireland
Isle of Man
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao Peoples Democratic
Republic
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Martinique
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mayotte
Mexico
Micronesia (Fed. States of )
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Montserrat
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Urban
%
Rural
%
31
51
69
66
62
51
92
68
52
91
83
54
24
44
98
35
34
69
49
31
34
38
49
8
32
48
9
17
46
76
56
2
65
66
68
87
28
48
78
14
67
85
33
16
73
41
35
95
72
89
41
42
50
78
23
100
69
63
14
57
31
33
38
100
17
32
13
72
52
22
86
33
15
67
84
27
59
65
5
28
11
59
58
50
22
77
0
31
37
86
43
69
67
62
0
83

Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
60
73
100
86
100
24
44
99
80
98
35
59
100
84
99
100
100
100
78
100
98
97
31
51
100
94
87
82
100
98
98
29
30
100
93
48
80
100
98
97
29
39
100
93
62
100
32
30
97
24
7
96
26
18
97
95
100
19
50
96
97
35
100
84
94
51
92
100
11
53
95
98
14
100
55
73
9
90
100
14
53
96
98
22
100
76
92
27
91
87
83
100
64
92
77
47
85
55
100
53
90
83
41
84
57
66
50
52
9
74
17
29
87
32
70
19
77
32
66
35
continues
266
D ATA T A B L E 4 B
continued
2011 Population
Country
Netherlands
Netherlands Antilles
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
Northern Mariana Islands
Norway
Territory
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Republic of Korea
Republic of Moldova
Runion
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines
Samoa
San Marino
So Tom and Prncipe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
Somalia
Urban
%
Rural
%
83
93
62
86
58
18
50
38
91
79
74
17
7
38
14
42
82
50
62
9
21
26
73
36
84
75
12
62
77
49
61
61
99
99
83
48
94
53
74
19
32
18
49
27
64
16
25
88
38
23
51
39
39
1
1
17
52
6
47
26
81
68
82
51
20
94
63
82
43
56
54
39
100
55
50
20
38
80
6
37
18
57
44
46
61
0
45
50
80
62

Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
100
100
100
100
100
100
63
34
33
100
98
100
95
37
4
28
100
98
100
93
52
10
31
100
98
100
94
97
72
100
77
57
95
34
100
54
13
97
47
100
71
19
81
79
96
100
99
100
100
89
98
38
69
72
74
100
99
100
100
83
95
100
99
100
100
86
98
74
61
59
61
70
61
70
64
65
93
91
92
41
100
68
98
97
22
100
100
100
81
52
23
100
39
96
97
7
34
100
51
97
97
13
100
100
100
29
24
100
100
15
6
267
2011 Population
Urban Improved
Total Improved
(%)
Rural Improved
Total Improved
(%)
National Improved
Total Improved
(%)
38
82
23
85
67
30
79
15
26
44
73
41
66
72
62
100
77
86
34
28
51
6
49
84
31
16
20
73
18
5
7
64
75
6
84
16
100
83
44
90
63
100
100
96
95
97
89
68
26
99
92
97
97
100
57
7
100
93
13
66
55
100
100
94
94
83
96
27
3
93
89
92
75
75
98
74
9
100
91
24
83
57
100
100
95
95
91
93
39
11
93
92
92
90
91
99
86
34
96
98
100
24
100
96
99
100
65
80
35
89
95
100
7
99
96
98
100
55
83
35
94
98
100
12
100
96
99
100
58
31
82
32
39
69
18
68
61
93
67
75
93
56
34
33
53
42
39
61
52
33
40
Urban
%
Rural
%
South Africa
South Sudan
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Tajikistan
TFYR Macedonia
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Togo
Tokelau
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Turks and Caicos Islands
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States Virgin Islands
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Republic of )
Vietnam
Western Sahara
Yemen
Zambia
62
18
77
15
33
70
21
85
74
56
27
59
34
28
38
0
23
14
66
72
49
94
51
16
69
84
80
27
82
95
93
36
25
94
Zimbabwe
Country

D A T A
T A B L E
MDG Progress on Access to

Safe Drinking Water by Region
Description
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)adopted by the United Nations in 2000
established a set of targets for improving the lives of the worlds poor, ranging from eradicating extreme hunger to reducing child mortality and ensuring environmental
sustainability. These targets, agreed to by all countries and leading development institutions throughout the world, consist of eight goals and twenty-one targets. This table
presents regional summaries of progress for the years 1990, 2004, 2008, and 2011 (from
the 2013 update) as well as the 2015 target levels, measured as the proportion of the
population using an improved water source (see data tables 3 and 4 for denitions).
In 2010, the human right to safe water and sanitation was formally recognized by the
UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council, but this basic right is not being met universally. In many parts of the world, particularly sub-Saharan Africa and
Oceania, a lack of clean water adversely affects human health and development. Using
1990 as a baseline, one target of goal 7 of the MDGs seeks to reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015.
At the global level, we are on track to meet the target for improving access to safe
drinking water; however, not all regions are performing as well as others.
Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean, and much of Asia have met or are on track to
meet the established targets. But in Oceania, there has been no progress or conditions
have worsened; it is possible that the targets for Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa and
South-Eastern Asia can still be met, but time is running out. The global community must
continue to intensify efforts in these regions if we hope to achieve the established 2015
targets.
Limitations
These data give a good picture of the current lack of access to improved water and sanitation services, but comparison with different assessments should be done with extreme
care, or not at all, because of changing denitions. For the 2011 update (released in
2013), some regional changes in country assignments slightly change the data from previous years. In particular, the region formerly noted as the Commonwealth of Independent States is now Caucasus and Central Asia.
268
Data Section
269
Country-reported data may reect national denitions of improved, unlike survey

data, which were standardized as much as possible. For example, in many African countries the population without access to improved sanitation means people with no access to any sanitary facility. In Latin America and the Caribbean, however, it is more
likely that those without access in fact have a sanitary facility, but the facility is deemed
unsatisfactory by local or national authorities. Low coverage gures for Latin America
and the Caribbean may in part be a reection of the comparatively narrow denitions
used within that region.
Changes in the source of data also complicate comparisons over time. Prior to 2000,
for example, data collected by the World Health Organization was provider based and
was collected from service providers, such as utilities, ministries, and water agencies.
The data shown here, however, are sometimes user based and were collected from
household surveys and censuses. User-based data are more likely to include improvements installed by households or local communities and give a more complete picture
of water supply and sanitation coverage.
Sources
United Nations. 2007a. The Millennium Development Goals Report. http://mdgs.un.org/unsd
/mdg/Resources/Static/Data/2007%20Stat%20Annex%20current%20indicators.pdf.
. 2007b. Millennium Development Goals: 2007 Progress Chart. http://mdgs.un.org/unsd
/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2007/MDG_Report_2007_Progress_Chart_en.pdf.
. 2010a. The Millennium Development Goals Report. http://www.un.org/millennium
goals/pdf/MDG%20Report%202010%20En%20r15%20-low%20res%2020100615%20-.pdf.
. 2010b. Millennium Development Goals: 2010 Progress Chart. http://unstats.un.org
/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2010/MDG_Report_2010_Progress_Chart
_En.pdf.
on Sanitation and Drinking-Water2013 Update. Geneva, Switzerland.
270
82
36
60
59
66
68
70
39
84
99
90
93
94
92
97
Rural
95
82
93
Urban
1990
71
72
76
85
51
92
89
49
83
Total
93
94
89
97
80
99
96
80
96
Urban
67
81
77
79
40
80
86
42
73
Rural
2004
78
85
82
91
51
92
91
56
91
Total
98
95
81
96
92
98
98
83
97
Urban
82
83
92
78
37
87
87
47
80
Rural
2008
89
87
86
90
50
94
92
60
93
Total
98
95
94
96
95
96
95
84
97
Urban
85
88
84
78
45
79
89
76
85
Rural
2011
92
90
89
90
56
86
92
72
94
Total
100
95
97
97
96
99
98
91
97
Urban
80
83
84
85
70
92
91
68
80
Rural
2015 Target
86
86
88
93
76
96
95
75
92
Total
Target met or close to being met

Might meet target
No progress or deterioration
Europe: Progress sufcient to meet
target. Asia: Progress insufcient
to meet target.
Progress insufcient to meet target

Might meet target
On target?
MDG Progress on Access to Safe Drinking Water by Region (Proportion of Population Using an Improved Water Source)
Northern Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Latin America and the
Caribbean
Eastern Asia
Southern Asia
South-Eastern Asia
Western Asia
Oceania
Commonwealth of
Independent States/
Caucasus and Central Asia
D ATA T A B L E 5
D A T A
T A B L E
MDG Progress on Access to

Sanitation by Region
Description
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)adopted by the United Nations in 2000
established a set of targets for improving the lives of the worlds poor, ranging from eradicating extreme hunger to reducing child mortality and ensuring environmental
sustainability. These targets, agreed to by all countries and leading development institutions throughout the world, consist of eight goals and twenty-one targets. This table
presents regional summaries of progress for the years 1990, 2004, 2008, and 2011 (from
the 2013 update) as well as the 2015 target levels, measured as the proportion of the
population using an improved sanitation system (see data tables 3 and 4 for denitions).
Adequate sanitation is also now a recognized human right, but, as with access to safe
drinking water, this basic right is not universal. In many parts of the world, particularly
for the poor in rural and peri-urban areas, a lack of basic sanitation adversely affects human health and development. Using 1990 as a baseline, one target of goal 7 of the MDGs
seeks to reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to sanitation
by 2015.
Meeting the sanitation targets has proven to be more challenging than meeting the
water target. While an estimated 2.6 billion people lacked access to basic sanitation in
1990, experts predict that well over 2 billion will still lack access to this basic right by 2015
(Ki Moon 2008). Some areas are performing better than others, highlighting a growing
regional disparity in access to sanitation. A majority of regions, however, are not on track
to meet established targets, and in Oceania and many former Soviet Union countries,
there has been no progress or conditions have worsened.
Limitations
These data give a good picture of the current lack of access to improved water and sanitation services, but comparison with different assessments should be done with extreme
care, or not at all, because of changing denitions. For the 2011 update (released in
2013), some regional changes in country assignments slightly change the data from previous years. In particular, the region formerly noted as the Commonwealth of Independent States is now Caucasus and Central Asia.
271
272
Country-reported data may reect national denitions of improved, unlike survey

data, which were standardized as much as possible. For example, in many African countries the population without access to improved sanitation means people with no access to any sanitary facility. In Latin America and the Caribbean, however, it is more
likely that those without access in fact have a sanitary facility, but the facility is deemed
unsatisfactory by local or national authorities. Low coverage gures for Latin America
and the Caribbean may in part be a reection of the comparatively narrow denitions
used within that region. For these data, we have not included in the totals the proportion
of the population using shared facilitiesjust improved ones. Those data can be
found in the original source (WHO and UNICEF 2013).
Changes in the source of data also complicate comparisons over time. Prior to 2000,
for example, data collected by the World Health Organization came from service providers, such as utilities, ministries, and water agencies. The data shown here, however, are
sometimes user based and were collected from household surveys and censuses. Userbased data are more likely to include improvements installed by households or local
communities and give a more complete picture of water supply and sanitation
coverage.
Sources
Ki-Moon, B. 2008. United Nations Secretary-General, in message for World Water Day, March 5.
New York: United Nations.
United Nations. 2007a. The Millennium Development Goals Report. http://mdgs.un.org/unsd
/mdg/Resources/Static/Data/2007%20Stat%20Annex%20current%20indicators.pdf.
. 2007b. Millennium Development Goals: 2007 Progress Chart. http://mdgs.un.org/unsd
/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2007/MDG_Report_2007_Progress_Chart_en.pdf.
. 2010a. The Millennium Development Goals Report. http://www.un.org/millennium
goals/pdf/MDG%20Report%202010%20En%20r15%20-low%20res%2020100615%20-.pdf.
. 2010b. Millennium Development Goals: 2010 Progress Chart. http://unstats.un.org
/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2010/MDG_Report_2010_Progress_Chart
_En.pdf.
on Sanitation and Drinking-Water2013 Update. Geneva, Switzerland.
273
36
7
55
46
63
81
64
54
70
97
Latin America and the

Caribbean
Eastern Asia
Southern Asia
South-Eastern Asia
Western Asia
Oceania
80
Commonwealth of
92
Independent States/
40
24
52
Sub-Saharan Africa
47
Rural
84
Urban
1990
54
82
81
49
20
24
68
32
65
Total
80
92
96
81
63
69
86
53
91
Urban
43
67
59
56
27
28
49
28
62
Rural
2004
53
83
84
67
38
45
77
37
77
Total
81
93
94
79
57
61
86
44
94
Urban
45
83
67
60
26
53
55
24
83
Rural
2008
53
85
69
36
56
80
31
89
Total
78
96
96
81
64
76
87
42
94
Urban
24
95
71
62
30
57
63
24
84
Rural
2011
36
96
88
71
41
67
82
30
90
Total
90
96
99
85
77
82
91
76
92
Urban
73
82
78
70
54
54
68
62
74
Rural
2015 Target
77
91
91
75
60
62
84
66
83
Total
Already met the target or very

close to meeting the target.
Progress insufcient to reach the
target if prevailing trends persist.
Already met the target or very
close to meeting the target.
Progress sufcient to reach the
No progress or deterioration.
Europe: No progress or deterioration. Asia: Progress insufcient to
reach the target if prevailing trends
persist.
On target?
MDG Progress on Access to Sanitation by Region (proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility)
Northern Africa
D ATA T A B L E 6
D A T A
T A B L E
Monthly Natural Runoff for

the Worlds Major River Basins,
by Flow Volume
Description
These data come from work done by Arjen Hoekstra and Mesn Mekonnen (2011) to
evaluate the regional, national, and global water footprint of human activity. As part of
that effort, natural runoff was estimated for around 400 river basins, covering some
two-thirds of the global land area (excluding Antarctica) and about 65 percent of the
global population in 2000. Units for runoff are million cubic meters per month. Data are
also provided for the area of the river basin or watershed, in square kilometers.
The natural (undepleted) runoff was estimated by adding the actual runoff data from
the Composite Runoff V1.0 database (of Fekete et al. 2002) to the estimated total blue
water footprint within the river basin. Because runoff varies naturally over time, these
are average estimates. River basin names come from the Global Runoff Data Centre database (GRDC 2007). Note the substantial extremes: just two rivers, the Amazon and
Congo Rivers, account for 28 percent of the natural runoff in the river basins listed here.
Limitations
These data are a combination of measured and estimated or modeled ows. Accurate
long-term measurements of river ow are not available for a variety of reasons, including
the lack of monitoring stations, the complication of estimating undepleted ows in basins where human withdrawals greatly reduce natural ows, and natural variability of
high and low runoff over time. These estimates should be considered only approximate
averages, but they provide estimates using a consistent method described in the original
sources.
The land areas not covered include Greenland; the Sahara Desert in North Africa; the
Arabian Peninsula; the Iranian, Afghan, and Gobi Deserts in Asia; the Mojave Desert in
North America; and the Australian desert. Also excluded are many smaller pieces of land,
often along the coasts, that do not fall within major river basins.
274
Data Section
275
Sources
Fekete, B. M., C. J. Vrsmarty, and W. Grabs. 2002. High-resolution elds of global runoff combining observed river discharge and simulated water balances. Global Biogeochemical Cycles
16 (3). doi:10.1029/1999GB001254. Data available at http://grdc.sr.unh.edu/.
Global Runoff Data Centre (GRDC). 2007. Major River Basins of the World. Koblenz, Germany:
Federal Institute of Hydrology, Global Runoff Data Centre. Data available at http://grdc.bafg
.de/.
Hoekstra, A. Y., and M. M. Mekonnen. 2011. Global Water Scarcity: Monthly Blue Water Footprint
Compared to Blue Water Availability for the Worlds Major River Basins. Value of Water
Research Report Series No. 53. Delft, Netherlands: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.
http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report53-GlobalBlueWaterScarcity.pdf.
276
Yangtze
177
2,023,520
1,408,279
Xi Jiang
Columbia
Magdalena
201
107
235
Volga
Indus
64
168
1,752,002
Zambezi
Mackenzie
293
19
3,078,088
261,205
668,562
362,894
1,139,075
1,388,572
2,117,889
Nile
Niger
194
1,055,021
787,257
207
Amur
St. Lawrence
90
2,701,041
774,718
Ob
Tocantins
25
273
117
2,425,551
Mekong
Lena
187
1,024,463
411,516
Ganges
Irrawaddy
353
199
2,640,486
2,558,237
Yenisei
Paran
302
3,196,605
Brahmaputra
Mississippi
195
518,011
1,745,094
952,173
3,698,918
5,880,855
Area (km2)
122
(Chang Jiang)
Congo
Orinoco
243
Amazonas
259
237
Basin Name
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average
27,118.0
11,960.9
8,372.9
11,918.9
3,091.7
5,637.8
73,279.9
21,778.0
20,724.2
13,835.1
13,098.2
82,937.0
6,930.1
15,771.8
30,683.5
26,908.9
32,182.1
105,979.7
16,135.2
79,924.0
28,402.7
40,746.3
73,559.9
193,908.5
2,782.9
48,340.7
16,110.2
742.2
3,452.3
11,259.5
2,682.6
9,642.7
147.2
86.9
82,019.0
99.0
2,310.3
351.1
58.9
65,826.8
198.1
655.1
405.8
342.4
10,981.6
72,853.1
452.4
16,852.2
6,430.2
20,903.3
4,932.3
18,198.4
55,481.6
71,460.1
56,877.9
41,918.1
45,721.6
9,063.7
32,327.8
1,297.8
16,300.5
14,175.3
38,188.0
10,762.2
21,870.2
34,283.6
59,825.7
27,823.6
34,546.3
21,211.1
55,190.6
25,796.8
18,514.4
51,088.9
79,403.5
18,268.1
4,833.0
18,779.0
51,230.9
57,294.3
24,110.4
18,633.1
36,849.4
44,596.4
18,264.8
28,581.8
79,172.3
10,936.3
14,794.5
21,757.3
31,947.4
53,865.4
14,567.5
68,228.3
87,091.9 124,907.8
5,846.3
10,976.0
12,922.0
39,988.6
18,037.0
64,240.9
27,329.8
93,122.6
96,972.9
19,546.7
48,091.7
18,097.4
15,055.6
18,551.8
41,263.7
32,379.1
17,230.0
46,002.0
6,663.6
38,348.0
48,384.2
19,602.9
45,446.7
8,930.8
36,839.8
84,650.4
15,479.8
11,683.5
42,397.2
40,736.0
10,747.1
24,877.4
4,203.7
80,634.7
80,541.4
13,031.9
49,807.8
5,585.4
23,540.4
63,046.2
18,291.2
7,290.7
25,138.3
31,344.3
6,887.4
15,732.9
2,618.2
90,704.8
66,624.1
15,304.9
50,357.7
3,923.1
18,275.7
53,636.1
85,153.9 107,075.0 107,961.6
98,546.8 111,837.4
78,624.5 128,519.9
22,504.9
97,190.0
36,359.7
31,846.5
5,462.2
14,767.9
19,300.0
6,486.8
10,447.5
1,621.8
47,626.3
36,444.6
21,038.1
28,455.4
3,979.0
14,074.8
23,839.3
64,294.1
59,380.0
47,842.1
24,410.8
24,440.8
12,199.9
58,846.2
67,829.6
31,789.4
6,682.2
8,958.4
10,858.9
3,165.6
5,767.0
1,305.4
23,829.5
22,470.9
22,898.9
14,176.3
16,536.2
6,865.0
14,390.4
35,434.1
30,238.9
32,621.7
32,882.5
14,455.9
20,013.0
31,386.4
41,278.9
77,389.5
20,916.3
7,923.4
5,447.9
6,757.3
1,902.0
3,484.1
21,500.8
14,278.6
14,322.2
9,715.3
8,572.4
44,543.4
4,161.9
8,692.2
20,497.8
17,673.9
19,626.1
57,492.3
8,735.1
38,932.9
18,647.3
25,519.8
46,830.9
18,699.9
19,328.8
19,593.0
19,982.1
22,517.4
23,310.7
26,938.3
28,206.7
29,609.9
30,078.1
30,259.2
32,382.3
34,059.3
39,786.6
41,096.7
42,845.7
43,121.7
45,560.4
50,583.3
54,495.2
55,911.0
76,365.2
84,783.7
90,395.6 111,123.4 108,901.0 123,157.3 105,743.0
46,782.8 103,699.0 127,521.0 128,246.8 107,215.1

83,552.9
80,842.2 148,619.4
361.9
939.8
4,301.3
12,896.7
747.6 140,132.1
53.5
68,514.8
256.2
6,660.0
62,522.2
7,752.7 162,714.9 162,047.8

50,136.2
29,605.6 132,375.7
59.3
71,926.3
135.9
396.4
584.3
994.5
16,447.4
68,346.4
93,475.1
96,502.6 137,370.7 156,922.8 139,130.4 112,036.3 103,445.6
86,583.8 114,954.9 136,756.4 119,291.0 113,382.9 101,024.6
48,197.5
66,571.6 111,936.2 102,147.6
549.4
20,673.1
9,908.6
92,837.8 126,684.3 138,968.9
950,375.6 705,085.8 813,922.6 857,876.6 713,184.6 564,388.1 424,106.1 299,107.1 238,076.7 243,680.0 298,076.1 455,711.2 546,965.9
Jan
Natural runoff (Mm3/month)
Monthly Natural Runoff for the Worlds Major River Basins, by Flow Volume
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
277
793,705
Salween
Tigris and
354
155
Rajang
Sungai
263
385
222,663
652,850
Sepik
So Francisco
281
290
1,099,380
Nelson
Hong (Red
83
355
Northern
48
Cuyuni
Rhine
Sungai Kajan
245
110
384
Dvina)
(Severnaya
Dvina
Fraser
88
River)
311,699
Lake Chad
Godavari
356
213
33,172
190,522
85,635
323,573
239,678
157,657
2,391,219
127,675
Kolyma
Grisalva
13
222
81,120
628,629
Mamberamo
75,416
75,823
49,944
1,233,148
832,579
258,475
312,763
380
Mahakam
Aral Drainage
124
Euphrates
Ogoou
Pechora
265
22
265,505
Uruguay
Sungai Kapuas 84,902
334
829,632
386
Danube
Yukon
118
16
10,769.4
13,179.1
9,798.1
1,021.4
3,955.1
4,779.9
1,698.4
6,805.4
6,870.6
11,859.4
3,721.1
27,716.3
15,375.9
15,446.4
18,606.0
20,497.2
2,546.9
15,514.6
8,366.0
2,459.1
22,726.7
29,491.3
15,702.5
4,850.3
15,369.2
4,092.4
7,657.6
3,136.9
35.1
1,048.3
80.7
40.6
626.4
135.4
1,204.2
160.9
15,251.7
9,555.7
9,453.9
7,876.5
8,513.0
4,161.6
16,609.9
95.5
31.2
7,569.4
13,356.0
5,633.7
252.5
12,969.9
5,488.6
8,094.3
2,829.9
22.2
2,360.7
104.5
35.8
1,240.0
144.7
664.4
97.2
13,981.8
12,665.7
12,610.4
10,134.8
9,657.7
13,784.1
22,140.0
592.3
19.2
15,733.8
15,227.7
8,112.2
152.7
30,056.7
6,619.3
9,602.3
4,268.1
44,567.2
15,356.9
254.5
29,311.7
1,477.3
180.2
610.2
58.8
7,511.4
12,180.9
11,467.8
13,756.5
10,211.2
20,140.9
25,647.8
1,511.4
1,449.0
20,776.5
15,516.0
13,990.4
943.7
34,399.1
27,077.0
6,870.7
8,013.0
9,871.7
19,378.9
26,897.1
1,566.3
20,864.5
1,571.4
263.0
1,646.9
5,342.4
4,656.8
9,397.5
9,723.6
12,600.1
9,935.6
23,937.1
18,735.0
2,846.6
58,305.9
19,147.2
13,513.3
16,949.4
53,166.5
19,150.4
5,795.5
6,055.1
13,477.9
9,541.8
15,496.8
7,439.6
15,143.9
891.7
1,227.0
8,622.6
25,441.2
5,028.4
7,423.9
7,842.7
9,668.4
7,769.6
21,375.9
10,281.7
12,055.4
38,794.9
7,950.2
10,291.5
19,158.1
48,766.9
14,083.1
5,104.8
4,779.6
13,021.6
5,592.3
7,432.2
18,447.1
8,074.5
13,461.6
7,989.1
11,809.7
35,941.4
4,947.7
6,795.9
8,385.4
6,831.4
6,882.1
17,965.9
7,368.3
24,649.1
16,270.2
4,618.0
7,393.4
16,344.5
29,776.4
11,248.0
4,917.8
4,183.7
10,134.4
3,376.1
4,439.9
22,644.5
5,014.9
27,528.4
36,416.6
13,230.5
16,207.8
3,343.7
6,812.5
7,964.6
5,649.9
6,855.9
12,930.4
5,738.1
32,068.1
9,630.9
2,791.3
6,608.1
15,620.3
16,607.0
10,213.5
6,431.1
3,971.9
5,445.8
2,058.6
3,254.0
16,383.8
4,579.4
26,621.8
27,951.2
20,505.5
10,517.4
1,665.4
7,707.7
8,697.3
5,951.6
9,242.6
8,104.3
3,544.0
27,586.6
7,855.7
2,505.1
8,936.3
18,876.7
12,906.1
6,999.8
4,514.6
3,587.1
2,097.6
3,618.6
9,602.6
4,110.0
12,095.3
14,050.2
19,300.8
5,575.9
1,268.7
8,100.4
6,547.6
7,402.7
11,129.0
3,850.2
2,291.3
18,159.4
4,450.1
8,651.3
13,775.6
20,160.7
7,648.1
12,685.9
7,819.9
6,546.6
3,665.6
971.8
3,140.5
5,433.7
1,799.8
7,347.2
7,408.8
10,998.3
3,367.8
4,929.8
8,084.8
7,173.3
11,152.8
11,855.9
1,674.4
3,575.7
9,737.1
2,542.8
23,592.1
17,293.6
12,864.3
4,212.2
15,065.0
6,829.4
8,363.7
6,571.4
587.9
2,506.4
3,149.0
1,090.5
4,834.4
4,490.9
7,877.1
2,034.2
18,730.9
9,182.5
8,630.9
12,616.4
12,276.9
1,541.5
7,623.3
5,522.3
1,536.1
17,443.6
17,622.4
9,587.2
2,544.3
12,575.3
17,907.8
continues
6,478.2
7,080.1
7,150.7
7,437.6
7,458.9
7,490.5
7,647.0
8,708.4
8,927.3
9,027.5
9,038.8
9,086.0
9,440.3
9,495.3
10,187.3
10,402.2
11,001.1
11,589.1
11,932.5
11,945.4
12,792.1
14,085.4
14,416.7
15,152.2
278
Krishna
Sanaga
Huang He
219
249
149
223,310
Neva
Mahanadi
56
210
Saguenay
Taz
Corantijn
Rhone
27
126
(Rivire)
254
112
Alabama River 113,117
and Tombigbee
180
188,419
97,485
65,528
152,086
91,367
294,908
Chao Phraya
42,872
Khatanga
Batang Hari
388
52,820
65,945
218
Maroni
257
135,061
68,788
Cross
248
(Mahahadi)
105,691
Essequibo
Caniapiscau
252
75
118,709
151,949
Nottaway
Rovuma
114
373
34,619
Atrato
Grande Rivire 111,718
244
29,374
988,063
134,252
269,869
Area (km2)
93
Uwimbu
383
(Yellow River)
Basin Name
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
7,316.8
1,313.6
989.9
1,984.2
9,397.8
1,571.7
4,183.6
10,918.4
3,849.5
3,986.4
3,751.2
1,195.2
2,297.2
5,069.1
9,106.2
2,188.3
2,729.2
8,908.3
8,952.7
2,702.4
4,812.3
4,249.9
Jan
3,365.1
829.3
6.0
1.5
10,770.1
58.7
318.1
4,536.0
4,583.6
1.4
108.6
10.6
0.9
1,976.6
15,265.1
0.2
0.9
2,297.1
5,395.2
608.3
3.0
610.7
Feb
5,895.8
1,710.9
3.6
1.5
12,232.8
35.4
519.8
5,450.1
5,326.3
608.2
158.0
8.8
0.5
2,110.6
18,092.1
0.2
0.5
2,736.4
6,379.0
2,320.1
236.5
1,255.2
Mar
6,325.3
3,554.5
2.2
11,245.1
8,612.8
21.4
537.6
6,252.7
7,656.9
1,184.8
151.1
32,169.2
0.3
2,932.1
9,319.0
13,451.3
0.3
4,317.7
5,992.2
5,166.0
2,004.2
1,355.6
Apr
5,588.7
11,297.6
12,922.1
11,251.7
4,829.3
221.2
493.6
4,790.1
11,080.5
2,346.5
158.2
9,560.0
16,170.7
7,163.7
4,605.3
15,987.7
20,738.4
5,624.4
6,010.0
8,177.4
4,068.5
1,400.2
May
4,446.6
13,180.8
23,163.4
8,137.7
2,684.6
25,398.5
1,640.2
2,820.9
10,145.5
4,731.8
157.6
5,468.9
12,475.4
13,057.2
2,779.5
7,640.1
10,192.2
5,876.9
5,432.3
9,102.2
5,840.0
3,256.5
Jun
2,690.2
9,711.4
7,321.6
5,058.6
1,677.7
12,884.8
5,541.8
1,767.2
7,092.8
7,828.2
5,209.0
3,272.4
6,805.5
11,720.0
1,678.9
5,188.1
6,544.7
5,976.7
5,263.6
10,309.3
7,929.0
16,600.9
Jul
2,212.7
6,084.0
4,370.1
4,100.4
1,055.0
6,944.9
9,607.1
1,540.6
4,342.7
9,133.6
21,461.7
1,984.2
6,229.8
7,957.4
1,014.2
4,271.3
6,144.0
6,096.9
5,126.4
9,805.2
9,616.8
15,185.1
Aug
2,277.1
3,012.4
3,193.2
4,665.6
671.1
4,357.0
16,009.4
2,438.0
2,242.1
11,624.3
14,877.9
1,703.3
6,669.5
3,936.3
612.7
5,083.6
7,187.4
6,689.5
5,387.6
9,930.4
13,725.9
11,795.9
Sep
3,477.1
1,811.6
1,738.0
5,748.5
421.7
2,419.0
10,072.0
4,411.4
1,349.5
10,815.8
6,698.9
2,586.4
6,024.1
2,438.8
370.2
6,291.3
7,682.4
7,140.9
4,552.8
5,872.9
13,358.0
6,710.3
Oct
5,232.4
1,094.1
1,049.7
2,173.4
465.0
1,461.0
5,811.4
6,272.8
815.1
4,452.2
4,119.4
1,686.6
2,490.3
1,874.9
223.6
2,438.0
2,959.2
7,032.0
4,357.4
3,052.0
5,383.1
4,670.2
Nov
5,154.7
692.7
634.0
1,301.6
3,348.5
882.4
3,059.8
7,176.5
565.6
2,614.4
2,571.8
773.9
1,504.1
3,105.6
516.4
1,434.9
1,787.3
5,537.1
5,401.7
1,802.8
3,156.1
3,427.8
Dec
4,498.5
4,524.4
4,616.2
4,639.2
4,680.5
4,688.0
4,816.2
4,864.6
4,920.8
4,944.0
4,951.9
5,034.9
5,055.7
5,278.5
5,298.6
5,331.3
5,497.2
5,686.2
5,687.6
5,737.4
5,844.5
5,876.5
Average
279
32,140
Indigirka
San Juan
258
Negro
345
Volta
Rio Doce
Copper
227
314
58
Oyapock
Rio Capim
262
272
(Argentina)
Sittang
Lake Turkana
215
396
Tsiribihina
Susitna
317
54
Narmada
Eilanden
208
382
Po
San Juan
128
232
Kuskokwim
Stikine
51
71
Pacic)
(Columbia-
341,228
Anadyr
21
64,960
86,086
414,004
54,888
27,076
130,062
181,536
34,265
49,470
61,992
20,077
95,818
41,659
73,067
51,147
118,114
13,898
171,276
Rio Araguari
33,771
84,984
266
(Labrador)
Fleuve
Purari
Churchill,
286
95
141,391
510,661
Dniepr
Cuanza
96
366
60,040
70,798
Min Jiang
Rio Jacu
378
337
1,710.0
1,090.8
12,563.7
2,522.1
1,537.9
4,282.0
2,461.3
2,082.5
2,254.3
1,270.7
9,631.8
5,431.2
2,407.1
5,223.3
4,276.6
1,826.9
1,269.5
6,064.5
1,902.5
1,182.1
4,727.0
1,702.6
7,089.0
10,360.7
849.5
5,005.1
2,261.2
0.0
5,298.4
7.7
5,606.4
4,043.5
98.8
9.0
3.3
2.2
9,804.7
3,334.4
430.8
533.6
2,000.0
603.3
1.4
2,203.5
179.7
1.3
5,377.5
0.0
4,200.2
7,565.1
45.1
2,492.1
6,444.7
0.0
4,242.2
80.1
8,799.8
4,817.3
347.1
100.4
6.3
1.4
9,049.7
3,835.7
900.5
282.7
3,536.1
508.0
0.9
2,616.1
108.5
0.8
6,935.9
0.0
5,204.7
10,296.0
9,860.5
2,901.2
6,263.4
17.3
2,461.5
291.8
7,926.1
6,249.8
1,009.8
1,988.3
6.6
3,654.1
4,154.5
3,751.0
1,131.7
261.5
5,530.3
1,656.9
0.5
3,456.3
65.6
0.5
8,461.5
0.0
5,335.2
8,746.9
20,513.6
3,920.9
9,721.2
7,546.7
1,301.4
828.4
5,924.9
6,602.9
4,025.3
3,300.7
16.9
8,319.0
2,354.3
3,567.3
1,138.1
1,036.0
6,397.4
9,699.8
16,620.3
4,124.0
450.9
2,452.2
8,118.0
15,223.9
4,459.8
3,552.8
7,860.1
4,897.0
10,214.6
784.3
2,616.6
3,782.3
5,755.6
5,859.2
4,415.2
3,852.3
8,905.7
1,436.8
3,244.7
445.1
3,952.8
4,452.6
11,933.0
7,998.3
3,912.7
16,809.8
21,998.7
7,123.8
10,971.0
3,535.0
2,127.7
4,484.4
5,793.0
10,643.9
4,850.2
7,440.5
483.1
3,570.8
2,616.7
3,526.6
6,210.5
6,718.5
7,852.6
5,269.7
893.2
3,235.3
7,352.7
4,778.7
2,941.3
5,766.5
5,470.1
3,904.9
14,507.5
10,380.5
4,272.9
6,028.7
2,952.7
1,286.3
2,811.4
5,339.7
3,725.5
4,185.8
302.0
8,402.5
1,569.4
2,069.9
6,075.1
7,827.8
10,043.8
4,095.0
545.1
3,090.1
11,663.1
4,793.9
2,394.4
3,728.6
5,473.3
3,971.2
6,786.0
5,461.5
2,486.6
4,689.5
3,064.9
779.0
1,783.2
5,145.1
2,882.6
3,963.1
187.0
11,296.3
878.6
1,131.7
5,030.4
6,549.2
8,332.3
4,842.3
328.9
3,371.3
8,745.2
6,119.6
2,314.0
3,815.5
5,291.7
4,103.4
3,631.1
4,105.7
1,376.3
4,563.7
3,853.1
472.4
1,063.7
5,743.1
2,049.4
2,215.5
117.8
5,427.0
525.8
683.3
4,368.0
4,135.2
4,900.8
2,738.5
198.3
2,701.3
3,757.6
7,350.0
2,947.8
3,379.2
2,398.6
4,529.7
2,176.2
2,116.1
831.0
4,517.0
3,615.9
307.3
891.9
5,136.4
1,340.9
1,184.1
2,334.5
2,744.7
317.7
412.7
3,162.3
2,501.6
2,492.4
1,370.5
299.2
2,824.9
2,295.3
4,839.9
3,482.3
1,948.6
1,372.5
4,529.1
1,314.4
1,278.1
501.9
1,848.4
3,635.9
304.1
1,449.4
3,405.9
880.7
715.2
9,099.0
1,654.9
205.5
586.7
1,740.6
1,394.5
1,478.4
827.8
2,841.4
3,278.9
1,586.4
3,921.9
2,857.2
1,370.5
829.0
3,905.9
793.9
771.9
398.5
1,116.4
4,215.8
5,458.5
588.9
2,794.2
4,397.8
continues
3,214.5
3,264.6
3,286.9
3,307.6
3,346.8
3,365.7
3,418.6
3,436.7
3,441.4
3,461.5
3,472.2
3,487.8
3,591.2
3,594.2
3,853.1
3,893.8
3,943.4
4,060.5
4,145.8
4,217.6
4,221.8
4,263.5
4,271.4
4,350.1
4,381.1
280
Moose (Trib.
116
Saint John
Manicouagan
127
106
123,081
208,522
Esmeraldas
Ruji
Eastmain
Albany
268
284
105
111
Winisk
94
54,104
Kamchatka
Lake Titicaca
80
399
138,783
Sassandra
Lake Taymur
240
402
106,470
107,215
68,097
24,109
Olenek
Biobio
346
48,838
204,639
19,796
Bei Jiang
52,915
54,205
55,152
69,080
32,103
425,630
174,310
193,764
42,944
77,209
298,505
111,351
105,615
Area (km2)
202
(Rivire)
Dong Jiang
Susquehanna
204
143
Huai He
Don
183
99
Skeena
Wisla
Sacramento
148
82
Churchill
72
98
Pur
31
Hudson Bay)
Basin Name
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
890.2
7,124.5
689.9
723.7
2,261.5
1,512.9
1,231.0
813.0
1,182.9
1,836.2
2,922.0
629.5
1,252.8
1,543.0
2,091.9
861.2
308.1
1,271.4
947.0
1,078.2
5,375.8
789.5
740.7
1,000.2
Jan
0.3
0.6
2.1
5,963.3
0.0
0.0
1.4
29.1
159.8
0.1
0.0
3,827.1
4,238.0
353.9
0.3
1.9
1,240.2
105.2
29.4
1,031.3
37.8
0.2
6,127.3
20.1
Feb
0.3
0.6
1.3
4,974.8
0.0
0.0
3.2
298.7
96.5
0.1
0.0
7,683.8
5,676.0
1,921.9
0.2
1.9
8,814.7
1,116.0
4,138.3
2,377.3
12,812.8
1,041.9
6,249.1
12.3
Mar
3,470.5
2,951.8
0.0
0.0
129.1
919.1
58.3
8,411.8
2,558.1
8,804.4
6,743.2
4,546.4
524.6
13,364.2
5,917.2
3,077.8
14,368.8
4,348.7
6,810.9
4,491.6
5,067.8
3,400.0
0.3
11,334.0
Apr
10,190.2
1,893.3
9,603.9
0.0
309.3
3,736.5
658.3
9,204.2
9,188.6
4,027.1
4,668.6
6,874.5
8,666.6
4,478.5
3,887.6
5,758.0
5,709.0
4,430.9
4,190.9
8,819.6
3,136.9
13,120.8
7,186.7
9,979.0
May
4,433.5
1,052.7
7,199.7
14,735.9
2,250.3
4,786.4
16,431.9
3,827.2
4,899.7
2,129.0
2,504.1
7,013.0
6,924.6
3,060.9
2,447.9
6,467.3
3,280.6
4,375.0
2,577.5
7,160.8
2,369.0
7,724.3
15,161.5
4,300.8
Jun
2,449.4
658.3
5,399.2
6,387.8
3,322.8
5,042.5
5,510.3
2,148.3
2,922.3
1,285.4
1,398.8
3,830.8
3,691.1
1,929.0
1,522.7
4,881.8
2,272.7
4,755.1
1,781.3
3,082.5
2,064.4
3,761.6
4,615.2
2,527.6
Jul
1,479.2
552.1
2,604.2
3,298.4
4,638.5
4,670.4
3,070.3
1,306.1
2,536.0
779.2
876.1
3,230.7
2,983.3
1,260.9
1,002.4
4,699.8
1,517.1
3,800.5
1,243.2
2,010.7
1,708.0
2,131.7
2,795.1
1,594.4
Aug
2,350.9
469.3
1,918.9
2,513.9
8,322.9
4,131.1
1,870.4
1,776.4
2,987.8
473.6
589.2
2,159.0
3,220.2
1,384.3
867.5
3,338.0
801.0
3,689.6
858.0
1,937.6
1,170.4
1,960.1
2,896.5
2,136.5
Sep
2,486.7
688.1
1,546.8
1,300.5
5,416.1
2,973.2
1,106.6
2,432.0
3,379.4
288.1
579.1
1,100.4
3,479.9
2,179.7
1,337.0
1,558.5
444.2
1,900.5
779.6
2,313.5
511.3
1,724.5
1,331.2
3,024.6
Oct
957.9
678.7
749.0
785.5
2,603.4
1,809.7
668.3
882.5
1,284.2
176.3
755.5
668.5
1,358.9
2,871.4
2,499.4
934.6
431.0
1,153.0
1,157.5
1,518.6
343.5
774.9
804.1
1,085.8
Nov
578.6
2,594.8
452.4
474.4
1,487.3
1,045.2
403.7
533.1
775.6
418.8
966.5
413.5
820.8
1,012.4
1,658.8
567.8
212.1
823.3
847.9
707.1
1,439.3
468.2
485.8
656.0
Dec
2,440.9
2,466.8
2,513.7
2,518.3
2,562.2
2,579.6
2,605.5
2,611.2
2,642.9
2,644.1
2,659.8
2,728.5
2,743.6
2,757.4
2,774.0
2,780.5
2,792.7
2,829.7
2,837.0
2,846.9
2,963.6
2,990.7
3,001.5
3,136.7
Average
281
28,004
238,839
60,000
21,212
Thelon
Kouilou
Nass
Brahmani River 51,973
45
274
81
209
Mezen
Negro
39
340
Daule and
Papaloapan
Baker
Douro
221
351
142
Coco
George
364
74
96,125
30,760
39,885
39,054
25,502
85,159
233,479
Yana
Ebro
140
61,172
Coppename
Lurio
24,750
41,993
255
Vinces
70,756
76,715
139,348
30,665
436,981
371
270
Elbe
101
(Uruguay)
Cavally
246
(Bhahmani)
37,698
Senegal
Fuchun Jiang
220
377
1,059,508
Paraiba Do Sul 58,027
Murray
322
28,437
336,584
24,868
115,944
705,056
331
Rio Parnaba
Pahang
276
260
Loire
Suriname
125
398
Mae Klong
Okavango
224
357
1,554.4
3,913.4
1,928.9
1,877.2
758.1
2,767.8
4,220.1
896.1
4,604.7
1,551.1
2,730.9
1,301.6
372.9
2,858.7
2,295.7
1,562.1
1,054.0
4,007.3
478.4
1,253.4
1,629.1
2,868.3
7,384.0
5,776.0
2,039.6
2,186.8
5,691.9
4,075.2
20.9
3,031.8
630.2
12.4
0.0
143.3
2,820.2
72.8
6,185.0
1,394.4
4,080.6
86.9
4.5
2,594.5
105.8
33.6
0.0
2,400.3
0.1
1,966.9
10.0
1,379.7
4,105.7
1,292.5
3,746.9
1,915.0
3,966.2
6,488.8
34.2
4,104.3
1,099.0
16.0
0.0
70.7
2,785.8
44.0
6,089.2
1,540.4
5,260.2
492.1
2.7
4,899.4
221.1
53.2
810.7
3,950.9
0.0
3,249.4
15.2
1,501.2
3,823.9
1,416.5
7,333.0
2,088.7
3,912.1
8,619.1
33.5
2,983.9
1,638.6
15.8
0.0
43.3
2,876.1
26.6
2,522.2
2,071.4
4,696.3
1,499.0
3,916.9
3,701.9
532.9
42.6
3,441.7
5,306.6
0.0
3,037.5
11.7
1,110.5
2,180.1
1,962.1
6,991.8
2,922.6
3,192.9
3,971.7
1,076.4
2,057.4
2,259.5
11.5
4,958.0
48.4
2,619.8
159.2
1,435.2
4,023.6
2,419.3
2,274.1
10,521.7
2,272.5
1,553.0
38.7
6,020.4
3,068.4
6,190.9
4,025.8
12.0
1,279.6
1,239.1
1,937.4
3,124.0
4,729.6
2,280.7
2,041.0
3,580.0
1,252.2
2,536.2
477.3
5,039.7
1,698.7
1,631.9
7,535.9
866.8
4,578.3
1,482.0
3,311.9
3,855.7
1,577.0
3,418.3
549.7
4,634.1
1,426.7
10,749.7
5,573.0
447.8
2,153.4
759.3
1,260.3
1,723.6
5,013.8
1,475.0
1,233.1
1,050.6
2,753.8
2,373.0
3,961.6
3,244.2
1,192.1
6,820.7
523.5
3,861.0
915.4
3,222.8
2,081.0
1,147.9
2,447.3
3,888.5
2,047.3
862.7
3,370.2
2,420.0
3,062.5
2,511.6
470.0
863.4
1,047.6
3,973.9
937.1
745.9
5,254.6
820.4
2,648.6
4,411.2
2,616.4
2,959.2
853.9
3,807.3
316.3
2,331.4
644.8
3,290.1
1,250.6
892.7
1,941.8
7,939.2
1,515.8
522.5
2,026.8
1,437.2
8,464.3
3,164.9
308.5
823.6
641.5
2,420.7
710.2
452.1
5,831.8
404.1
2,149.0
5,780.4
2,618.4
3,280.5
509.9
1,832.6
191.1
1,160.6
472.3
3,379.1
799.5
725.8
4,204.8
6,035.6
1,839.7
316.7
1,686.6
1,282.3
6,863.4
3,371.2
264.6
1,395.6
394.0
1,213.0
546.1
274.8
5,582.5
215.0
1,882.5
4,426.4
1,701.2
3,939.1
561.7
1,106.8
115.4
695.4
447.2
2,823.2
867.4
865.4
4,188.2
3,059.0
2,607.5
191.7
859.5
886.7
3,270.9
3,337.6
590.0
2,714.8
242.4
729.1
804.6
167.1
3,551.6
539.3
1,579.4
2,194.2
823.0
2,788.7
873.7
668.5
69.7
420.0
458.1
1,553.8
386.3
1,454.7
2,935.7
1,695.6
1,420.3
1,130.5
519.1
707.7
1,792.3
2,314.5
1,633.4
3,612.5
157.1
440.4
1,839.3
100.7
1,715.1
1,650.2
1,282.9
1,261.7
497.1
2,041.2
2,424.5
403.8
468.0
321.1
400.9
846.5
233.3
1,857.4
1,654.9
1,049.7
691.1
3,001.1
313.5
572.7
1,076.7
2,000.4
4,400.3
4,175.9
558.8
526.6
3,262.7
882.0
1,031.1
2,438.9
continues
1,835.2
1,865.7
1,904.8
1,914.5
1,918.8
1,947.5
1,947.9
1,948.9
1,995.7
2,000.7
2,006.8
2,024.4
2,070.7
2,125.0
2,162.3
2,173.5
2,182.1
2,182.9
2,201.1
2,221.3
2,249.4
2,263.2
2,269.2
2,333.4
2,346.7
2,384.9
2,421.0
282
Ural
Batang
97
387
Hudson
Colorado
137
138
Santa Cruz
Han-Gang
352
160
Oder
Severn (Trib.
100
89
Panuco
Vuoksi
212
52
(Daugava)
Apalachicola
Western Dvina 89,340
184
76
62,707
82,929
51,413
Klamath
40,040
98,590
116,536
30,742
24,772
30,600
33,527
32,335
141,352
65,096
91,159
640,464
36,893
191,032
139
Hudson Bay)
Han Jiang
379
(Han River)
Rio Gurupi
Ntem
271
264
Tapti
Back
214
35
Cauvery
231
(Pacic Ocean)
Issyk-Kul
392
Kuantan
339,084
Neman
87
16,739
97,300
Basin Name
Area (km2)
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
334.8
1,540.6
772.7
2,889.5
3,010.5
593.2
1,032.5
429.5
814.3
1,652.2
2,055.6
491.7
327.2
1,243.3
2,091.4
323.3
1,000.4
300.5
3,820.3
324.2
740.2
Jan
5.7
3.4
1.2
95.9
2.1
3,847.6
3,574.1
0.0
1,852.6
189.6
12.5
385.0
8.3
2,048.7
0.0
168.4
159.7
99.7
26.3
48.6
1,460.7
Feb
1.2
186.5
2.1
4,385.4
3,546.4
0.0
5,896.3
1,241.1
1,372.3
560.0
442.8
4,647.2
0.0
306.4
385.4
738.0
4,477.0
2,132.1
1,731.9
165.2
2,540.2
Mar
10,528.9
197.5
9,180.8
3,016.0
3,046.4
969.8
3,319.4
2,010.5
1,838.7
1,181.8
1,623.3
4,513.5
0.0
365.6
347.3
3,046.4
4,970.6
3,385.1
2,316.9
10,759.3
8,813.4
Apr
2,968.3
137.9
2,977.1
1,572.5
2,001.6
7,964.8
2,160.7
3,792.4
1,166.9
1,590.7
2,595.7
3,426.0
5,571.3
395.0
350.9
5,903.7
2,745.5
4,295.9
1,825.4
3,817.4
3,141.2
May
1,728.3
362.8
1,713.6
912.7
1,051.5
3,325.3
1,462.2
4,718.0
1,200.5
1,850.7
1,808.1
2,151.5
8,215.3
149.1
1,080.8
4,320.1
1,656.2
3,990.2
1,075.7
2,162.0
1,745.1
Jun
1,039.2
2,013.6
1,016.3
651.6
698.7
1,813.8
947.3
2,447.5
4,312.9
1,577.2
791.1
1,412.8
2,637.8
3,365.4
3,669.7
2,390.6
1,063.5
3,002.3
640.6
1,470.8
1,037.9
Jul
643.3
2,491.4
619.6
531.5
455.6
1,158.6
682.0
2,125.6
3,914.3
2,464.8
470.6
764.6
1,590.9
5,169.5
3,305.4
1,653.7
725.6
1,671.5
525.6
948.2
641.8
Aug
560.3
6,156.6
425.3
402.8
276.0
1,429.9
505.5
1,654.9
2,697.0
3,221.0
1,558.6
450.8
990.4
5,115.9
2,574.1
1,126.8
742.5
1,072.0
838.5
527.8
406.1
Sep
960.4
3,524.7
849.3
235.8
146.5
1,689.2
478.7
782.8
1,388.7
3,226.9
4,430.8
272.3
588.0
2,124.1
2,347.6
740.4
1,044.8
585.2
1,724.9
322.1
467.3
Oct
387.0
1,770.8
1,548.2
202.2
394.9
644.0
627.0
466.3
1,010.5
1,605.8
3,192.8
164.5
355.2
1,333.7
2,777.6
370.5
1,764.9
384.5
2,579.6
587.8
1,597.2
Nov
220.0
1,046.5
507.4
1,034.8
1,495.2
388.9
1,046.2
283.9
540.7
1,042.5
1,428.3
103.1
214.5
886.1
1,849.0
231.4
728.3
205.0
2,602.7
214.5
486.5
Dec
1,614.4
1,627.1
1,634.5
1,640.2
1,641.5
1,664.8
1,667.5
1,678.5
1,689.1
1,696.6
1,700.5
1,703.9
1,707.6
1,718.5
1,744.9
1,745.4
1,745.5
1,756.1
1,761.9
1,775.4
1,801.7
Average
283
423,657
55,825
Hayes (Trib.
84
(Argentina)
Shebelle
Colorado
241
336
Hudson Bay)
Weser
Cunene
103
367
Delaware
Ca
147
217
Damodar
206
(Rivire Aux)
Feuilles
Matagalpa
Pyasina
Grande De
375
230
73
Kura
Mira
145
267
Rio Pindare
Aux Melezes
280
77
Kemijoki
Garonne
18
134
42,863
Bandama
Gloma
238
59
194,436
390,631
805,077
105,372
110,545
43,140
28,747
26,713
43,096
37,425
17,992
63,889
13,265
182,283
41,384
39,112
55,807
98,751
56,687
Liao He
Rio Mearim
133
54,625
282
Balkhash
Nadym
393
37
3,500.8
1,126.2
339.8
1,828.9
3,511.3
1,447.9
1,640.3
1,257.9
673.6
1,788.5
470.7
2,073.0
559.4
637.5
253.4
3,122.4
487.2
563.2
1,337.1
356.4
678.2
383.2
273.5
934.3
1,198.3
27,468
Vaenern-Goeta 51,791
Connecticut
61
132
224.9
71,725
65,894
Mitchell (N. Au) 1,612.8
Onega
306
53
346.2
49.5
7.0
2,579.9
2,008.3
56.1
801.3
111.7
87.6
4.9
1,259.4
187.2
0.1
2,304.7
1,918.1
3.2
1.3
4.0
2,713.7
20.4
0.2
5.8
7.8
3.2
2.8
1,080.2
220.9
54.4
4.3
5,240.5
1,895.7
26.8
4,062.4
160.8
46.4
3.1
1,291.0
708.9
0.1
4,716.9
2,169.4
2.0
12.0
5.7
5,445.6
220.6
0.1
2,199.0
3,116.2
2,259.8
1.8
6,217.0
5,876.8
135.4
2,532.2
2.6
2,925.0
1,397.8
23.3
2,255.7
44.8
30.2
2.0
1,430.0
3,035.7
0.0
4,525.5
2,289.6
594.1
3,439.3
118.4
4,657.5
1,657.1
0.1
4,046.6
4,979.1
5,377.8
10,633.8
373.1
1,755.0
7,011.9
1,322.8
902.7
154.3
1,789.8
15.0
2,539.5
37.4
1.3
2,032.3
4,111.4
5,433.5
2,674.7
1,911.6
8,987.0
3,368.1
306.8
2,321.9
2,266.7
4,504.7
4,089.9
2,528.5
2,297.5
3,402.5
2,616.6
707.2
1,025.3
3,778.4
798.9
617.5
584.1
1,043.1
253.7
5,199.5
1,350.9
8,582.4
1,959.3
2,768.8
3,250.9
1,415.4
1,113.4
2,448.1
3,615.4
1,520.8
1,253.1
2,171.0
7,346.2
2,907.0
1,556.0
1,379.5
1,902.0
1,435.1
859.9
841.7
1,594.0
2,054.7
482.7
504.3
1,876.9
712.5
1,494.8
2,051.0
2,694.3
2,828.9
1,248.7
1,901.8
1,841.6
814.8
759.2
1,458.1
2,048.4
1,055.3
745.7
2,661.2
2,354.4
2,102.5
985.4
819.2
1,125.9
929.8
2,005.1
1,111.5
291.8
484.0
2,678.4
568.2
4,751.2
1,757.3
2,443.9
1,874.0
1,229.1
1,396.6
1,727.2
488.9
594.0
934.7
1,487.9
2,949.0
450.8
3,988.1
1,461.2
1,368.5
660.3
707.0
680.1
521.2
908.5
1,944.7
798.0
176.4
501.8
4,330.1
587.3
4,657.8
1,931.8
2,701.8
1,803.8
1,355.3
913.7
1,787.2
295.4
474.6
1,082.1
1,400.5
5,574.4
272.8
2,606.5
1,502.8
905.0
761.0
791.8
436.9
317.3
2,371.9
1,681.9
731.1
112.8
819.6
2,767.9
762.0
2,147.4
1,773.6
2,950.2
814.2
1,165.3
766.2
1,696.1
178.6
657.6
1,366.4
1,344.1
3,186.6
165.1
1,383.3
687.7
412.3
1,049.6
1,475.7
556.4
194.5
3,152.6
1,610.5
339.8
98.1
1,601.5
1,652.1
1,406.7
1,316.0
731.3
1,748.2
491.9
1,283.2
692.7
691.6
108.0
1,074.9
516.4
677.6
1,473.0
99.9
782.0
415.4
445.2
1,699.4
1,616.9
234.8
119.8
72.3
2,575.4
791.5
205.3
642.6
2,294.1
965.9
1,294.0
850.4
441.7
1,248.2
297.2
912.8
413.7
417.7
65.3
1,915.8
312.0
369.7
881.5
61.7
454.6
250.9
181.7
665.0
1,037.2
141.1
43.0
continues
1,338.6
1,347.5
1,365.4
1,375.0
1,378.2
1,380.3
1,410.3
1,421.8
1,424.9
1,427.3
1,431.2
1,436.6
1,454.7
1,457.0
1,486.8
1,500.0
1,515.9
1,527.3
1,534.4
1,545.3
1,574.1
1,575.6
1,578.1
1,578.5
1,580.3
1,611.9
284
32,372
Shinano,
165
29,514
25,128
9,460
Tranh (Nr
Thu Bon)
225
15,359
Waikato
Jequitinhonha 68,549
347
24,258
1,051,731
58,147
21,169
58,936
309
Tarim
Corubal
358
234
Penobscot
Narva
129
70
Lule
Kuban
23
214,406
131
Little Mecatina 17,903
Yongding He
108
151
13,783
Pee Dee
Ishikari
171
46,531
11,159
44,932
135
Chikuma
Nushagak
Arnaud
67
66
36,238
Kinabatangan 14,102
Mahi
256
74,228
14,420
205
Angerman
Seine
46
119
26,392
Kelantan
Ulua
253
362
145,352
70,352
Chubut
Tejo
34,626
349
Nyong
261
Area (km2)
152
Basin Name
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
2,007.0
4,207.8
1,209.9
882.9
241.9
710.7
655.1
1,008.9
313.1
174.7
444.5
859.4
2,824.5
1,100.6
564.3
517.3
884.2
2,820.1
3,426.9
343.5
1,735.8
3,574.8
2,713.3
837.4
1,269.1
Jan
0.1
45.2
1,648.8
436.0
0.4
77.0
1.2
0.6
1,275.5
1.0
403.8
0.0
2.4
2,381.4
807.7
0.0
157.9
862.7
2,491.0
0.5
77.7
439.2
2,202.2
70.0
Feb
24.6
1,430.8
382.1
0.5
269.6
1.2
482.1
1,664.7
0.6
1,472.8
0.0
2.4
2,346.1
800.2
0.0
246.0
675.4
2,183.7
0.4
42.4
342.5
3,261.5
172.1
386.2
Mar
16.4
860.3
601.3
0.5
593.6
6,018.5
5,554.7
2,123.9
1,119.1
2,529.4
0.0
4,390.2
1,609.2
1,837.3
1,308.4
223.2
672.8
1,663.9
4,027.0
31.4
417.5
2,062.1
336.2
1,153.1
Apr
71.3
471.5
1,271.4
0.4
1,657.0
1,937.0
1,878.0
1,943.7
3,851.3
2,501.8
6,156.3
1,918.3
944.6
1,864.2
632.5
4,936.8
137.5
675.3
1,005.1
3,524.6
19.3
434.1
1,343.3
1,273.9
1,817.1
May
290.8
297.0
1,642.5
293.0
2,845.3
1,079.4
1,224.9
1,594.5
3,784.3
1,275.4
2,178.5
1,080.5
589.6
1,290.9
5,641.8
1,770.2
37.8
1,148.9
594.9
2,685.5
510.5
481.7
834.4
2,263.3
1,504.5
Jun
883.2
203.6
1,617.1
1,767.6
3,326.7
639.7
733.4
1,393.7
1,895.4
1,729.3
1,505.7
793.8
563.3
1,242.1
2,064.4
1,042.6
2,640.9
787.8
402.4
1,232.5
1,791.6
494.1
721.8
2,596.8
698.1
Jul
1,278.8
126.2
1,551.8
3,594.2
2,360.3
420.0
451.5
826.2
1,112.2
2,397.6
1,078.9
776.5
455.2
1,006.9
1,543.3
1,293.2
4,426.7
1,142.6
304.5
833.4
1,997.4
561.2
559.4
3,116.1
677.8
Aug
1,770.6
74.1
1,388.8
3,165.9
1,351.4
372.9
421.6
621.9
951.7
1,071.8
1,004.0
1,178.1
460.3
1,172.1
1,878.6
1,548.5
3,152.3
1,468.5
202.7
764.3
3,135.9
1,352.9
292.8
2,246.4
2,434.6
Sep
2,724.1
60.4
1,356.2
2,080.6
540.9
731.8
684.5
471.0
683.0
442.9
1,263.0
1,434.9
379.9
1,174.8
1,362.9
1,382.8
1,389.2
1,388.6
234.2
954.8
2,748.5
2,084.8
124.7
1,454.2
3,389.9
Oct
2,418.9
675.7
1,080.3
964.3
295.2
1,459.3
1,327.0
528.0
335.9
185.1
482.6
1,481.8
545.7
1,150.4
612.6
561.6
865.8
1,249.3
696.1
371.0
1,916.8
2,431.3
136.5
895.8
1,699.9
Nov
1,615.2
3,152.4
781.6
579.0
164.1
466.4
429.8
626.0
202.9
137.8
291.5
564.3
1,384.2
1,044.7
370.0
339.2
573.5
1,909.0
1,700.9
224.1
1,262.0
2,719.0
1,182.1
580.3
832.3
Dec
1,095.5
1,100.7
1,109.9
1,110.8
1,143.6
1,153.2
1,153.6
1,173.2
1,187.5
1,193.5
1,200.4
1,206.9
1,207.0
1,207.7
1,222.5
1,225.1
1,227.9
1,233.4
1,242.2
1,246.8
1,272.4
1,277.8
1,286.2
1,320.2
1,321.9
Average
285
Solo (Benga-
Rio Ribeira Do 25,698
972,388
Grande Rivire 24,257
Baleine,
78
Oulujoki
Nizhny Vyg
69
43
50
Altamaha
Patacua
186
363
(Soroka)
Kem
Taku
36
Rivire De La
Grande
Santiago
Save
211
315
De La Baleine
92
22,423
24,232
37,117
31,334
30,555
17,968
42,081
22,136
114,958
126,222
69,874
Pearl
Gambia
190
266,264
23,325
52,672
229
Naktong
Salado
167
342
Orange
Rio Itapecuru
326
277
Iguape
329
15,739
18,088
Tone
Lempa
169
56,955
415,623
72,108
130,427
15,146
228
Limpopo
Guadalquivir
320
161
Burdekin
Dniestr
316
wan Solo)
120
289
1,710.9
1,328.3
206.5
230.9
430.1
235.3
379.8
2,203.3
681.2
482.1
750.8
1,984.2
1,011.5
508.2
84.3
1,857.2
2,174.8
888.1
936.2
677.2
1,880.1
407.9
690.0
2,855.5
118.6
2,248.8
0.1
1.1
0.0
0.5
3,356.1
116.1
0.0
0.3
2,012.8
24.7
274.7
1,224.8
2,095.4
1,657.5
2.9
260.8
1,306.6
3,058.9
13.3
3,679.3
2,415.3
53.8
2,575.1
0.1
0.8
0.0
0.4
2,440.7
243.6
0.0
0.3
2,131.6
73.2
755.4
3,260.0
2,246.2
1,425.9
7.6
691.8
3,139.9
2,803.2
3,147.7
3,662.4
2,433.6
32.7
1,555.3
5,451.2
5,398.3
806.8
2,642.5
1,065.6
265.3
0.0
0.3
1,713.4
787.5
983.6
3,253.3
1,402.3
887.3
10.3
1,057.7
1,977.6
1,433.2
2,602.1
1,887.1
1,722.1
19.7
829.5
1,622.9
1,702.8
2,508.0
3,902.2
4,270.1
627.7
168.1
3,057.6
0.3
1,094.2
1,228.1
697.6
1,651.3
807.0
735.4
11.7
983.0
1,055.0
767.0
1,528.5
1,001.1
949.3
70.9
474.6
926.7
939.7
2,296.9
1,352.6
1,505.8
386.7
205.1
1,978.3
145.1
598.0
1,234.8
959.3
883.6
489.5
782.1
547.6
973.7
1,003.9
501.7
1,130.4
597.8
531.7
693.4
313.9
553.6
562.7
1,033.2
781.6
1,122.0
242.8
1,027.8
1,140.9
922.2
392.6
1,105.6
1,987.4
520.8
342.5
538.1
1,582.1
1,058.8
1,110.6
359.2
792.2
363.8
332.1
892.9
232.8
334.4
373.1
783.7
490.1
983.1
173.8
2,651.8
1,097.4
3,078.2
256.9
959.3
1,879.2
314.3
319.8
442.8
1,968.2
1,240.9
955.3
334.0
626.7
227.1
222.4
1,438.3
182.4
420.4
416.6
1,027.7
429.8
1,130.8
130.9
3,112.7
1,241.0
3,466.5
162.9
1,261.2
1,673.3
190.4
311.7
601.1
3,042.2
1,561.5
481.2
330.6
510.8
146.3
171.0
2,176.2
112.6
626.2
710.7
1,263.6
696.2
994.3
85.0
1,413.6
1,368.9
1,537.8
99.8
1,567.9
882.4
115.4
362.3
860.6
2,295.6
1,541.0
185.6
246.8
629.4
95.8
106.2
1,802.4
72.0
224.2
247.3
467.0
253.6
412.3
41.4
791.4
523.3
816.1
148.7
1,418.0
545.1
69.7
534.8
773.8
976.3
979.8
65.2
159.6
702.3
59.5
250.0
1,293.7
424.7
135.5
149.5
282.0
153.2
249.0
348.7
492.4
316.1
492.4
752.9
767.6
344.9
42.3
884.1
987.3
585.2
683.0
160.4
308.4
272.1
32.7
1,099.8
continues
858.6
862.5
875.1
894.5
908.3
911.5
920.6
925.2
930.8
933.8
934.2
945.7
953.3
957.6
967.5
971.1
988.9
993.2
997.3
1,009.9
1,015.2
1,030.3
1,036.9
1,090.8
286
San Joaquin
Natashquan
162
109
16,063
33,623
Daly
Thjorsa
Rio Jaguaribe
300
47
285
Skagit
Cape Fear
123
173
Suwannee
Kiso
192
176
Savannah
Yodo
181
178
Kymijoki
Tenryu
55
174
77,874
Mangoky
Kizilirmak
324
150
9,652
72,804
7,527
53,415
22,653
7,961
5,419
26,401
8,424
27,740
5,769
43,141
15,689
Kitakami
Rapel
158
17,119
10,823
26,801
344
Brantas
Clutha
291
350
Rupert
Roanoke
115
166
12,645
85,016
Anabar
Merrimack
136
32,381
16,948
34,366
28,422
Area (km2)
Potomac
(Rivire)
Alsek
63
156
Basin Name
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
64.1
422.1
783.7
1,592.2
951.3
652.3
1,043.0
1,063.4
1,501.0
584.8
186.3
199.1
1,857.9
1,119.4
690.1
1,029.1
1,795.8
1,844.9
311.4
381.1
525.8
1,355.9
291.0
707.1
286.1
Jan
0.0
11.7
33.1
2,684.1
1,301.8
342.8
218.1
1,262.4
536.0
1,570.4
291.0
1.0
836.5
2,203.9
178.1
172.5
421.2
1,741.1
1,467.9
0.0
8.4
85.3
1,163.5
0.0
829.3
Feb
0.0
1,619.3
91.6
2,482.2
1,225.2
1,452.8
352.4
1,316.2
654.4
1,658.6
511.3
1.0
1,201.8
1,852.5
113.7
1,357.6
482.8
1,762.4
1,460.0
0.0
3,157.8
51.5
1,705.2
0.0
1,285.7
Mar
2,744.3
1,123.0
919.0
817.3
1,747.8
848.3
797.7
713.4
1,058.3
839.0
4,570.7
2,397.1
898.9
66.3
1,082.6
693.8
1,247.5
1,085.8
794.7
1,789.4
31.1
1,374.1
156.2
1,335.3
584.4
Apr
1,562.6
1,723.6
552.0
528.8
975.0
836.4
415.7
583.0
583.9
748.4
1,319.9
1,578.7
518.2
510.5
802.0
684.7
696.8
725.1
3,201.0
1,035.9
18.8
948.5
3,726.8
1,136.9
2,611.7
May
861.9
1,322.4
333.8
353.8
491.1
896.9
300.4
743.8
360.8
861.4
758.1
804.4
330.4
1,373.7
551.9
694.4
395.2
448.3
1,189.1
634.7
4,128.1
624.9
1,620.1
1,098.6
2,770.9
Jun
515.6
662.2
202.0
389.9
287.0
961.9
613.1
675.6
272.1
816.6
456.3
537.4
220.7
1,356.5
581.1
642.0
243.3
316.0
796.1
377.8
2,082.3
370.6
1,208.4
1,267.9
1,100.4
Jul
319.8
584.0
122.6
381.5
173.6
750.1
756.9
510.1
190.7
724.3
277.2
393.4
136.7
1,185.4
590.1
723.7
163.6
238.3
677.5
233.8
1,011.7
255.1
808.1
1,193.7
738.6
Aug
213.3
668.7
74.6
348.4
108.5
967.8
714.7
768.0
187.5
1,026.6
216.4
241.0
83.0
876.8
631.9
898.4
122.2
184.2
758.7
212.7
602.5
188.4
691.2
818.4
961.8
Sep
142.0
840.8
45.3
265.8
409.0
780.0
385.8
820.6
165.1
888.4
308.4
132.0
50.1
701.4
775.8
957.1
71.2
159.1
894.3
361.4
354.9
213.6
792.3
322.2
680.0
Oct
92.4
478.5
27.1
359.7
751.3
608.0
211.7
652.7
238.5
635.8
311.4
83.4
56.6
412.7
828.3
762.4
160.7
332.5
338.0
783.0
214.4
392.6
315.9
74.9
310.6
Nov
60.4
288.8
16.9
725.3
600.5
420.8
527.5
632.7
572.9
438.9
122.5
128.5
333.7
681.5
528.7
659.5
531.2
853.9
204.2
252.8
129.5
752.3
190.8
102.3
187.6
Dec
683.9
686.6
686.9
690.8
690.9
691.1
695.4
696.1
696.6
697.2
710.7
711.1
711.9
714.7
716.1
720.8
744.2
759.7
763.8
769.1
769.6
778.7
816.7
847.7
852.7
Average
287
24,811
27,905
57,545
Daryacheh-Ye 30,336
32,320
Kobuk
28
30,242
79,908
Trinity (Texas) 46,168
Roper
189
299
37,347
Eel (California) 7,450
Muonio
154
15,656
15
Noatak
Tano
20
247
Orumieh
403
23,480
14,527
Pra
Rogue
250
142,915
66,020
141
Colville
Fitzroy
10
325
12,369
Guadiana
Nyanga
157
275
36,201
5,678
Sebou
Oelfusa
179
78,507
49
Buzi
Comoe
318
236
53,440
Kokemaenjoki 26,616
Seal
60
12,774
68
Messalo
Geba
372
233
25,612
Rio Paraguacu 54,607
17,364
Sabine
Dramselv
65
117,853
510,056
59,843
296
Brazos
185
23,528
6,853
191
Oueme
Bravo
239
164
James
Mogami
163
159
211.1
434.9
588.6
143.9
1,366.1
321.4
156.5
156.1
1,090.2
378.6
72.4
185.8
1,159.8
246.7
378.5
1,058.8
447.9
1,304.7
126.4
236.7
537.0
941.3
1,109.9
274.1
259.8
747.2
263.4
458.8
969.3
1,600.5
31.8
1,537.1
822.5
13.1
1,258.1
0.2
0.8
103.1
1,088.4
3.2
1,909.6
1.4
691.5
715.8
0.0
1,081.1
3.4
1,917.2
1.6
1.6
3.5
1,818.6
1,334.8
185.7
0.5
874.4
84.8
1.0
827.6
1,239.3
1,248.0
19.2
1,682.2
766.2
8.0
927.1
32.5
0.5
506.3
909.0
102.6
2,134.9
0.8
941.1
1,619.0
323.1
1,248.4
4.6
1,888.8
1.0
1.5
4.3
2,197.0
1,286.5
300.7
97.0
717.7
204.6
1.1
1,039.4
954.0
11.6
599.2
973.4
213.9
540.6
186.6
0.3
1,527.4
858.5
282.2
885.3
0.5
1,044.4
1,022.7
1,726.6
934.9
105.1
752.6
0.6
3,662.2
4.3
1,098.8
1,307.3
705.2
1,233.4
986.3
657.0
6.9
774.9
670.9
2,063.7
358.4
839.8
2,005.5
304.0
547.1
401.9
1,539.9
622.6
657.8
493.9
45.5
523.6
571.6
690.3
533.2
306.0
437.8
3,534.7
1,092.9
3.5
548.0
936.9
1,494.5
1,458.1
929.9
1,336.3
240.8
556.2
429.1
1,100.6
216.7
365.7
1,110.4
173.7
1,356.6
1,980.3
737.8
302.4
1,316.6
300.8
1,938.0
267.4
571.0
685.2
346.0
923.2
265.0
1,434.9
616.1
79.2
330.8
456.1
1,165.9
1,401.1
587.4
937.5
976.7
376.7
258.7
619.7
131.2
234.6
750.1
105.4
700.0
1,099.7
467.8
190.5
691.0
192.9
1,977.6
161.5
703.0
565.6
284.6
676.9
160.8
728.5
371.5
413.4
199.8
276.7
1,466.7
734.0
962.4
913.3
1,265.1
392.9
169.2
373.5
79.7
152.1
388.4
63.9
337.1
624.3
347.1
120.0
327.9
132.5
1,034.6
97.5
614.9
398.0
201.0
1,018.0
98.8
432.3
225.5
1,814.0
120.7
165.9
878.0
665.9
828.0
1,079.5
1,320.9
356.7
122.7
338.6
48.5
98.0
294.9
38.7
480.9
629.7
213.8
73.0
645.8
101.8
579.1
58.9
301.8
471.2
141.9
1,509.8
61.6
415.7
147.2
2,305.1
72.9
101.9
455.0
720.2
508.3
1,202.6
1,893.3
430.5
160.2
159.6
29.6
66.6
187.3
23.2
810.9
275.6
126.4
41.5
1,039.5
79.8
324.5
35.6
105.4
658.7
76.4
1,021.9
38.5
241.7
152.9
1,207.1
44.1
62.1
267.7
633.0
179.4
640.0
1,037.9
519.9
381.4
96.4
17.7
52.7
101.6
15.6
421.8
166.5
137.4
212.2
483.0
54.4
196.0
692.8
30.3
434.6
197.1
540.3
22.6
130.6
501.9
582.6
26.6
86.8
194.3
304.9
80.2
304.7
499.0
740.8
857.5
58.2
10.5
255.9
61.4
579.5
218.4
100.6
116.8
514.3
247.6
35.2
118.4
805.1
15.9
320.1
563.6
296.4
110.9
78.9
154.8
353.4
16.1
295.2
163.9
170.5
367.2
204.1
301.2
1,023.9
674.3
continues
423.7
428.8
434.7
439.9
449.6
451.1
453.1
498.3
501.9
514.6
532.8
533.5
539.9
543.2
554.3
555.6
571.1
588.3
593.9
597.1
608.9
617.9
618.3
629.3
639.9
647.4
652.3
666.9
667.4
288
Sakarya
Incomati
Escaut
153
330
391
Luan He
Colorado
144
188
16,163
Rio De Contas 56,526
298
46,429
30,938
Gilbert
Maputo
312
30,079
22,489
333
Iijoki
Tugela
40
335
48,954
St. Johns
Popigay
196
376
4,299
16,732
Lorentz
Mucuri
381
18,612
60,121
17,737
31,113
30,457
313
Southern Bug
Majes
121
307
Palyavaam
Van Golu
17
404
Attawapiskat
Great Salt Lake 74,114
104
401
40,035
66,492
Santee
Anderson
175
18,343
110,640
71,071
14,518
21,499
46,296
62,483
Area (km2)
12
Verde
223
(Caribbean Sea)
Tana (NO, FI)
(Schelde)
Basin Name
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
297.0
924.9
183.1
758.7
94.2
84.9
379.1
1,331.8
493.1
893.9
38.8
117.9
106.3
65.3
121.7
54.7
804.8
378.7
466.3
174.3
71.8
1,351.5
1,039.9
348.5
Jan
120.1
719.0
1,374.9
786.8
0.1
0.8
187.4
412.5
445.0
994.8
7.9
0.6
0.0
237.4
0.0
0.4
794.4
2.9
688.6
47.2
0.0
705.9
1,118.5
1,016.9
Feb
258.0
618.4
1,126.1
752.8
0.1
0.5
226.0
315.0
515.7
875.9
1,840.9
127.0
0.0
354.3
0.0
0.2
752.0
6.5
553.1
147.9
0.0
604.0
1,027.4
1,126.0
Mar
556.9
324.5
428.1
372.3
1,326.2
0.3
126.3
254.2
475.1
436.0
967.0
1,118.2
0.0
782.1
0.0
0.1
496.5
6.9
621.2
279.9
0.0
472.4
517.1
888.3
Apr
550.1
179.7
256.1
204.5
997.0
0.2
72.7
167.2
346.5
232.5
519.4
1,378.3
0.0
915.8
2,195.5
2,548.6
298.4
4.5
522.3
408.1
2,851.4
284.9
276.9
508.1
May
447.9
114.6
154.7
126.4
396.0
2,052.3
67.3
113.9
253.8
139.9
311.3
489.2
1,878.7
634.2
613.1
797.3
193.4
10.1
343.0
214.3
778.3
168.8
173.5
345.2
Jun
457.9
75.2
93.5
86.3
232.9
754.1
331.1
88.6
280.8
84.7
205.6
294.9
1,036.4
481.7
355.5
434.9
174.2
365.4
497.7
964.0
457.0
111.6
113.5
273.7
Jul
292.5
58.1
56.5
74.3
151.1
410.5
475.2
50.0
253.8
52.7
138.9
184.2
526.4
350.5
214.7
262.7
169.8
850.4
455.0
1,219.0
276.1
79.8
83.8
242.4
Aug
179.2
46.2
34.2
66.9
155.9
251.2
796.6
28.9
345.8
34.4
77.0
112.7
355.2
213.3
350.3
158.7
140.6
1,648.0
315.6
725.2
217.4
54.8
67.7
156.9
Sep
63.7
43.3
68.9
110.9
33.2
20.8
64.9
299.9
146.9
731.2
21.6
199.3
31.7
43.3
115.2
191.1
121.5
329.0
95.8
124.1
893.8
115.8
357.8
149.0
Oct
26.5
165.1
112.3
12.5
86.0
102.3
88.7
335.3
212.3
277.0
29.3
27.5
230.6
115.4
68.5
132.1
57.9
150.6
414.1
35.9
190.0
77.9
373.3
129.4
Nov
75.1
224.8
467.1
7.6
376.1
61.8
53.6
225.9
1,046.2
262.3
363.0
18.1
77.6
69.7
66.7
79.8
35.0
395.6
250.8
228.7
115.8
47.1
746.1
456.6
Dec
305.0
306.1
312.4
313.0
318.1
320.3
329.5
336.8
345.7
347.4
349.6
353.9
356.6
357.6
366.0
370.5
374.5
402.7
403.6
403.6
410.5
418.1
420.6
423.0
Average
289
Lake Mar
Tweed
Joekulsa A
91
41
Mono
Lake Vattern
Quoich
Spey
242
400
38
79
Fjoellum
Ocona
South Esk
365
348
Trent
Galana
102
374
San Pedro
Thames
203
113
Tana
Santa
269
292
Penner
Ruvu
226
287
Fuerte
Dead Sea
200
397
Rio Prado
Tuloma
304
14
2,942
28,218
11,337
23,899
7,311
4,771
10,843
16,064
51,922
9,053
12,359
29,359
11,883
95,715
17,541
54,976
35,444
36,420
26,058
31,674
14,473
17,158
Kalixaelven
Rio Acarau
3,285
4,639
Lagarjot
St. Croix
44
130
24
85,493
3,949
Alazeya
Gono (Go)
11
182
278
13,186
Thlewiaza
Ponoy
64,400
154,330
62
Chiquita
33
395
478.1
41.6
109.1
122.1
75.0
575.8
186.5
539.4
187.2
691.4
726.2
192.9
455.4
290.5
121.7
568.7
605.0
340.7
94.6
696.0
22.3
78.3
170.5
112.9
457.3
184.1
127.2
91.9
490.2
203.5
0.5
0.3
0.0
239.8
8.9
582.1
7.8
368.2
447.7
2.6
563.1
14.7
122.6
34.4
681.7
90.6
11.6
283.3
31.8
6.6
0.1
0.0
244.7
31.2
0.0
10.3
594.7
174.9
645.9
14.5
0.0
225.1
10.5
517.1
34.8
303.2
361.1
4.4
650.9
38.9
361.9
52.1
454.0
48.7
7.1
357.3
810.4
4.0
0.1
0.0
265.1
18.9
0.0
6.2
1,026.2
136.5
535.8
50.7
5.7
158.2
32.6
245.1
597.5
213.3
237.6
6.2
399.4
512.9
952.4
45.1
289.3
39.8
4.4
417.6
1,076.9
388.6
1,441.8
22.3
275.8
11.4
0.0
3.7
504.2
98.8
246.0
126.1
754.0
110.7
76.3
134.9
654.3
137.6
136.9
7.1
210.8
706.1
722.0
43.8
257.0
35.5
1,732.1
243.4
646.7
1,237.8
475.5
1,190.7
218.2
6.9
1,585.1
1,834.1
261.0
58.1
1,216.3
136.0
330.7
592.9
72.3
208.6
80.9
327.5
80.5
78.4
3.4
125.2
333.2
287.6
41.5
203.5
39.1
547.3
187.0
301.3
757.3
301.5
742.9
354.0
1,896.8
438.1
666.0
162.6
43.8
349.6
81.3
356.9
236.8
54.4
392.9
48.8
177.5
56.5
49.7
137.0
78.5
183.6
174.0
158.5
196.8
166.0
300.0
168.8
179.6
351.5
171.5
324.1
370.2
555.0
255.8
339.5
112.7
52.5
199.5
60.0
319.3
148.0
61.3
471.5
30.6
104.7
51.0
32.4
732.2
57.1
113.4
106.2
151.2
168.4
764.0
180.4
106.4
110.0
203.1
101.8
231.6
191.3
314.2
178.3
204.2
87.1
81.3
128.2
40.2
472.0
147.0
91.1
403.2
19.9
64.5
49.0
21.8
987.8
44.0
69.9
64.9
182.9
96.6
806.9
119.2
58.7
67.9
137.7
88.6
257.6
273.3
189.8
268.5
198.6
80.9
157.4
74.8
82.5
289.3
221.4
172.0
358.1
49.2
40.0
67.1
18.4
369.0
79.5
103.6
39.6
360.5
58.6
406.5
121.3
36.6
42.1
118.6
166.9
309.8
275.9
114.6
394.1
94.1
85.5
246.1
45.2
196.1
132.5
82.3
311.6
217.0
71.2
203.0
198.0
131.8
206.3
128.6
260.5
23.9
1,017.5
31.9
207.8
55.2
137.5
26.2
57.6
352.7
128.1
229.3
69.2
138.1
56.8
95.2
292.1
27.3
85.7
80.1
49.2
366.0
135.7
235.0
196.1
402.5
395.2
130.3
132.8
305.1
73.4
485.3
117.9
249.3
33.5
549.1
16.4
34.8
111.8
74.0
269.2
41.8
83.4
34.3
137.7
continues
168.6
173.5
184.9
191.2
192.7
203.2
208.5
212.9
216.2
218.2
219.8
231.6
243.8
244.4
254.2
261.8
263.4
266.2
267.2
270.1
277.6
281.3
281.9
282.9
285.4
286.2
289.1
295.0
303.2
290
Svarta,
42
18,969
50,365
2,861
Drysdale
Armeria
Gamka
301
216
369
Gudena
Doring
85
368
38,871
Dalinghe
Omoloy
146
94,044
45,676
9,639
26,016
48,856
22,823
5,755
Fitzroy
Canete
311
22,585
22,993
297
Blackwood
343
Arctic Ocean)
Pangani
Hayes (Trib.
279
30
45,249
8,182
Varzuga
Chelif
32
172
16,700
Skjern A
Chira
86
2,818
3,430
12,600
10,228
43,016
283
Skagaroi
Kovda
Ellice
34
26
Rio Paraba
Coppermine
288
29
37,593
15,200
Ferguson
Rio Itapicuru
57
Davo
251
295
8,460
Basin Name
Area (km2)
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 7
65.3
60.6
26.2
44.0
259.3
26.9
58.3
257.6
5.5
79.6
27.0
34.7
234.5
47.2
76.0
351.5
54.9
30.5
30.6
28.9
37.7
56.5
40.3
133.7
Jan
0.0
0.0
0.1
2.0
2.3
0.0
0.2
14.4
8.1
283.6
20.3
115.5
0.7
3.2
233.3
446.6
0.6
22.7
283.5
0.0
208.7
132.9
Feb
0.0
0.1
3.5
2.1
0.0
0.2
28.8
17.0
270.5
25.5
103.3
0.4
6.3
231.1
490.3
0.7
34.9
281.9
0.0
379.5
121.1
29.3
Mar
7.2
0.0
2.0
40.5
28.8
96.7
14.8
77.1
0.2
33.3
128.4
167.3
0.4
203.1
175.3
0.0
341.5
89.0
123.6
0.0
0.0
89.5
Apr
0.0
9.6
41.1
27.6
58.3
4.2
41.9
0.2
66.4
67.0
101.0
0.1
493.3
103.2
683.9
138.2
50.8
363.8
881.9
390.0
253.8
99.2
May
51.1
10.1
35.2
92.2
24.7
426.1
80.0
41.2
61.0
29.9
834.5
239.9
88.2
188.7
86.6
28.9
392.6
958.3
280.3
714.8
514.2
263.0
1,053.5
542.8
Jun
45.0
3.3
21.3
148.6
16.2
277.1
85.0
25.4
36.9
254.5
225.2
152.6
81.1
110.1
62.2
18.4
148.0
248.8
152.3
246.4
396.9
645.3
296.1
283.0
Jul
62.9
40.7
12.8
176.0
10.7
128.9
386.7
17.5
22.3
407.6
133.1
87.1
66.7
66.6
51.9
22.4
89.0
150.3
92.5
139.9
208.3
362.8
171.1
126.7
Aug
111.5
292.2
7.8
136.2
14.8
73.6
210.1
12.9
13.5
301.6
80.4
59.8
44.4
112.4
37.8
70.4
76.1
90.8
71.2
84.5
115.4
169.7
142.1
238.1
Sep
105.9
147.3
4.7
105.1
58.0
43.7
123.7
43.0
8.1
166.9
48.5
38.7
17.2
140.1
21.8
165.2
152.2
54.8
78.0
51.0
73.2
102.3
72.5
288.6
Oct
87.0
71.6
2.8
61.5
124.8
26.4
64.5
62.3
4.9
86.8
29.3
28.7
8.8
51.2
23.1
192.5
68.9
33.1
33.2
30.8
46.6
62.2
43.8
192.8
Nov
36.0
20.0
20.1
18.6
29.6
38.4
26.4
89.5
55.8
48.0
1.7
43.1
157.3
15.9
39.6
113.9
3.0
52.5
17.7
27.5
39.5
30.9
17.1
228.6
Dec
59.1
62.9
68.5
72.6
83.6
85.0
96.4
102.8
113.4
115.1
116.3
118.6
118.7
119.3
120.4
122.6
127.9
132.2
136.7
142.1
147.6
150.9
153.8
158.9
Average
291
Eyre Lake
Durack
Loa
394
303
319
Victoria
Conception
305
361
Groot-Kei
Ord
370
308
Leichhardt
Macarthur
390
310
San Antonio
Flinders
198
389
Groot-Vis
Huasco
341
338
Ozero Sevan
Nueces
405
197
Limari
Salinas
339
170
Hornaday
Yaqui
360
193
50,206
29,363
1,188,841
25,569
78,462
55,686
18,678
19,674
33,399
110,041
10,952
9,872
30,441
43,878
4,765
12,655
11,780
76,182
14,778
23,926
Horton
Rio Vaza-Barris 15,314
359
294
12.4
0.3
0.0
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.0
2.7
0.4
31.9
0.4
12.3
92.1
10.7
4.2
8.6
11.8
118.1
15.8
12.4
17.1
0.3
0.4
1.9
0.3
1.8
20.4
3.9
6.5
1.1
34.8
89.8
13.2
16.5
24.1
8.4
0.7
34.5
101.5
30.2
0.0
1.4
0.2
0.3
1.6
0.6
3.6
14.0
1.5
16.9
55.6
11.9
28.2
14.4
10.1
23.0
21.4
3.8
58.5
40.8
63.2
0.0
1.7
0.1
0.3
0.6
0.5
4.8
5.5
2.7
12.9
14.5
7.2
15.5
23.4
6.1
13.9
28.3
76.9
36.9
21.1
72.9
0.0
1.6
78.8
0.3
0.4
0.5
3.8
3.3
4.2
8.5
8.8
4.4
9.4
25.7
3.7
11.7
35.8
106.9
32.6
12.6
36.0
0.0
61.4
314.9
0.3
0.2
0.4
4.7
2.0
5.2
5.9
5.3
2.6
5.7
19.4
2.4
9.5
41.5
55.9
47.2
27.9
24.2
181.3
151.1
93.6
0.3
0.1
0.4
4.3
1.2
6.4
5.6
3.2
1.6
3.5
25.1
1.6
9.9
66.6
31.2
66.4
18.7
49.0
145.7
177.6
54.9
0.3
0.1
0.6
5.9
0.7
7.5
6.2
1.9
1.0
2.2
18.3
1.4
13.2
49.3
21.0
68.2
17.6
61.5
70.2
102.7
33.2
0.3
0.1
0.7
5.5
0.4
8.1
7.9
1.2
0.6
1.4
9.9
1.6
21.7
24.4
12.9
42.9
14.6
44.6
37.1
49.8
20.0
0.3
0.0
0.7
4.2
0.3
6.6
8.3
0.7
0.4
0.9
5.7
1.5
27.3
10.5
13.1
9.6
15.5
29.0
22.3
30.8
12.1
0.3
0.0
0.5
1.5
0.2
3.6
6.0
0.4
0.2
0.6
4.2
0.6
18.9
5.4
13.9
2.7
11.4
14.8
13.5
18.8
7.3
0.3
0.0
0.4
1.1
0.1
0.2
4.4
0.3
0.1
0.4
8.8
46.0
18.9
3.8
5.9
1.6
31.8
15.8
8.1
11.8
52.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
3.5
4.0
4.2
7.6
7.8
8.1
13.2
15.0
15.3
16.9
25.0
29.2
34.4
36.0
38.1
40.9
52.2
D A T A
T A B L E
Monthly Natural Runoff for

the Worlds Major River Basins,
by Basin Name
Description
These data are the same as those in data table 7 but sorted by river basin name. The data
come from work done by Arjen Hoekstra and Mesn Mekonnen (2011) to evaluate the
regional, national, and global water footprint of human activity. As part of that effort,
natural runoff was estimated for around 400 river basins, covering some two-thirds of
the global land area (excluding Antarctica) and about 65 percent of the global population
in 2000. Units for runoff are million cubic meters per month. Data are also provided for
the area of the river basin or watershed, in square kilometers.
The natural (undepleted) runoff was estimated by adding the actual runoff data from
the Composite Runoff V1.0 database (of Fekete et al. 2002) to the estimated total blue
water footprint within the river basin. Because runoff varies naturally over time, these
are average estimates. River basin names come from the Global Runoff Data Centre database (GRDC 2007). Note the substantial extremes: just two rivers, the Amazon and
Congo Rivers, account for 28 percent of the natural runoff in the river basins listed here.
Limitations
These data are a combination of measured and estimated or modeled ows. Accurate
long-term measurements of river ow are not available for a variety of reasons, including
the lack of monitoring stations, the complication of estimating undepleted ows in basins where human withdrawals greatly reduce natural ows, and natural variability of
high and low runoff over time. These estimates should be considered only approximate
averages, but they provide estimates using a consistent method described in the original
sources.
The land areas not covered include Greenland; the Sahara Desert in North Africa; the
Arabian Peninsula; the Iranian, Afghan, and Gobi Deserts in Asia; the Mojave Desert in
North America; and the Australian desert. Also excluded are many smaller pieces of land,
often along the coasts, that do not fall within major river basins.
292
Data Section
293
Sources
Fekete, B. M., C. J. Vrsmarty, and W. Grabs. 2002. High-resolution elds of global runoff combining observed river discharge and simulated water balances. Global Biogeochemical Cycles
16 (3). doi:10.1029/1999GB001254. Data available at http://grdc.sr.unh.edu/.
Global Runoff Data Centre (GRDC). 2007. Major River Basins of the World. Koblenz, Germany:
Federal Institute of Hydrology, Global Runoff Data Centre. Data available at http://grdc.bafg
.de/.
Hoekstra, A. Y., and M. M. Mekonnen. 2011. Global Water Scarcity: Monthly Blue Water Footprint
Compared to Blue Water Availability for the Worlds Major River Basins. Value of Water
Research Report Series No. 53. Delft, Netherlands: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.
http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report53-GlobalBlueWaterScarcity.pdf.
294
Alabama River
180
Baleine,
78
Balkhash
Bandama
393
238
De La
Grande Rivire
Back
Baker
Attawapiskat
Aux Melezes
104
77
35
Atrato
244
351
Arnaud
66
98,751.1
423,657.4
22,136.1
30,760.3
141,351.9
41,384.1
30,457.4
34,619.5
44,931.9
9,639.1
Aral Drainage 1,233,148.5
51,412.9
Armeria
Apalachicola
184
32,372.0
66,491.7
171,275.8
85,015.5
2,023,520.4
124
Angerman
46
1,328.3
286.1
813.0
184.1
9,397.8
Jan
2,248.8
0.0
0.1
31.2
10,770.1
Feb
2,575.1
0.0
0.1
18.9
12,232.8
Mar
1,555.3
584.4
8,411.8
11.4
8,612.8
Apr
829.5
2,611.7
9,204.2
6.9
4,829.3
May
474.6
2,770.9
3,827.2
1,896.8
2,684.6
Jun
313.9
1,100.4
2,148.3
555.0
1,677.7
Jul
232.8
738.6
1,306.1
314.2
1,055.0
Aug
182.4
961.8
1,776.4
189.8
671.1
Sep
112.6
680.0
2,432.0
114.6
421.7
Oct
72.0
310.6
882.5
69.2
465.0
Nov
424.7
187.6
533.1
41.8
3,348.5
Dec
862.5
852.7
2,611.2
286.2
4,680.5
Average
1,337.1
273.5
379.8
1,928.9
327.2
637.5
121.7
8,908.3
564.3
60.6
2,546.9
2,889.5
343.5
54.7
1,182.1
525.8
13,098.2
4.0
5.8
630.2
0.0
0.1
0.0
2,297.1
8.1
4,161.6
3,847.6
0.5
0.4
1.3
85.3
58.9
5.7
2,199.0
1,099.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
2,736.4
17.0
13,784.1
4,385.4
0.4
0.2
0.8
51.5
59.3
118.4
4,046.6
1,638.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
4,317.7
28.8
20,140.9
3,016.0
4,027.0
0.1
0.5
31.1
41,918.1
306.8
4,089.9
4,270.1
2,259.5
5,571.3
5,433.5
2,195.5
5,624.4
632.5
27.6
23,937.1
1,572.5
3,524.6
2,548.6
2,452.2
18.8
57,294.3
1,520.8
2,907.0
1,505.8
2,536.2
8,215.3
3,250.9
613.1
5,876.9
5,641.8
10.1
21,375.9
912.7
2,685.5
797.3
21,998.7
4,128.1
53,865.4
1,055.3
2,102.5
1,122.0
2,753.8
2,637.8
1,841.6
355.5
5,976.7
2,064.4
3.3
17,965.9
651.6
1,232.5
434.9
10,380.5
2,082.3
45,446.7
2,949.0
1,368.5
983.1
2,648.6
1,590.9
1,727.2
214.7
6,096.9
1,543.3
40.7
12,930.4
531.5
833.4
262.7
5,461.5
1,011.7
49,807.8
5,574.4
905.0
1,130.8
2,149.0
990.4
1,787.2
350.3
6,689.5
1,878.6
292.2
8,104.3
402.8
764.3
158.7
4,105.7
602.5
50,357.7
3,186.6
412.3
994.3
1,882.5
588.0
1,696.1
329.0
7,140.9
1,362.9
147.3
3,850.2
235.8
954.8
95.8
2,116.1
354.9
28,455.4
1,473.0
445.2
412.3
1,579.4
355.2
691.6
132.1
7,032.0
612.6
71.6
1,674.4
202.2
371.0
57.9
1,278.1
214.4
14,176.3
881.5
181.7
249.0
1,282.9
214.5
417.7
79.8
5,537.1
370.0
48.0
1,541.5
1,034.8
224.1
35.0
771.9
129.5
8,572.4
1,534.4
1,578.1
920.6
1,865.7
1,707.6
1,457.0
366.0
5,686.2
1,222.5
62.9
11,001.1
1,640.2
1,246.8
370.5
4,145.8
769.6
30,259.2
5,880,854.9 950,375.6 705,085.8 813,922.6 857,876.6 713,184.6 564,388.1 424,106.1 299,107.1 238,076.7 243,680.0 298,076.1 455,711.2 546,965.9
37,117.5
28,422.0
123,081.0
85,493.3
113,117.4
Area (km2)
216
Anadyr
Anderson
21
12
Amur
Anabar
90
Altamaha
Amazonas
Alsek
63
186
Albany
111
259
Alazeya
11
and Tombigbee
Basin Name
Monthly Natural Runoff for the Worlds Major River Basins, by Basin Name
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
295
Blackwood
Brahmani
343
209
Churchill
Churchill,
72
95
Clutha
Coco
350
364
(Labrador)
Fleuve
Chira
Chubut
283
349
Chao Phraya
Chelif
218
172
Cauvery
Cavally
Cape Fear
173
231
Caniapiscau
75
246
Ca
Canete
217
297
Burdekin
Buzi
316
318
Bravo
Brazos
164
185
Brahmaputra
Brantas
195
291
(Bhahmani)
River
Bei Jiang
Biobio
202
346
Batang Hari
Batang Kuantan
388
387
42,872.4
25,502.0
17,118.9
84,984.3
298,505.0
145,351.9
16,699.6
45,249.3
188,419.1
30,665.2
91,159.4
22,652.7
105,690.6
5,755.2
28,747.0
27,904.7
130,426.5
117,853.1
510,056.3
10,822.6
518,011.4
51,973.4
22,584.8
24,108.6
52,915.4
16,739.0
2,767.8
1,029.1
1,702.6
789.5
837.4
76.0
234.5
4,183.6
2,295.7
2,091.4
1,592.2
2,297.2
257.6
1,447.9
1,304.7
690.0
747.2
263.4
1,795.8
28,402.7
1,562.1
79.6
1,512.9
629.5
3,820.3
10,918.4
4,536.0
143.3
421.2
0.0
20.1
70.0
208.7
283.5
318.1
105.8
159.7
1,301.8
0.9
233.3
56.1
1,917.2
3,679.3
874.4
84.8
1,741.1
549.4
33.6
0.6
29.1
353.9
1,460.7
5,450.1
70.7
482.8
0.0
12.3
172.1
379.5
281.9
519.8
221.1
385.4
1,225.2
0.5
231.1
26.8
1,888.8
3,662.4
717.7
204.6
1,762.4
2,782.9
53.2
0.7
298.7
1,921.9
1,731.9
6,252.7
43.3
693.8
0.0
3,400.0
336.2
341.5
175.3
537.6
532.9
347.3
817.3
0.3
128.4
23.3
752.6
1,887.1
986.3
657.0
1,247.5
16,852.2
42.6
0.4
919.1
4,546.4
2,316.9
4,790.1
2,820.9
549.7
29.9
4,786.4
7,013.0
1,075.7
3,888.5
254.5
5,042.5
3,830.8
640.6
1,767.2
7,939.2
407.6
4,670.4
3,230.7
525.6
1,540.6
6,035.6
301.6
4,131.1
2,159.0
838.5
2,438.0
48.4
684.7
15,223.9
13,120.8
1,273.9
138.2
103.2
493.6
1,553.0
350.9
528.8
16,170.7
67.0
154.3
437.8
1,001.1
929.9
1,336.3
696.8
1,698.7
694.4
10,971.0
7,724.3
2,263.3
86.6
88.2
1,640.2
3,418.3
1,080.8
353.8
12,475.4
41.2
584.1
265.0
597.8
587.4
937.5
395.2
3,244.2
642.0
6,028.7
3,761.6
2,596.8
62.2
81.1
5,541.8
2,447.3
3,669.7
389.9
6,805.5
25.4
1,876.9
160.8
363.8
962.4
913.3
243.3
2,959.2
723.7
4,689.5
2,131.7
3,116.1
51.9
66.7
9,607.1
1,941.8
3,305.4
381.5
6,229.8
17.5
2,678.4
98.8
227.1
828.0
1,079.5
163.6
3,280.5
898.4
4,563.7
1,960.1
2,246.4
37.8
44.4
16,009.4
4,204.8
2,574.1
348.4
6,669.5
12.9
4,330.1
61.6
146.3
508.3
1,202.6
122.2
46,782.8 103,699.0 127,521.0 128,246.8 107,215.1
38.7
0.1
3,736.5
6,874.5
1,825.4
4,411.4
3,939.1
957.1
4,517.0
1,724.5
1,454.2
21.8
17.2
10,072.0
4,188.2
2,347.6
265.8
6,024.1
43.0
2,767.9
38.5
95.8
179.4
640.0
71.2
58,846.2
3,059.0
166.9
2,973.2
1,100.4
1,724.9
6,272.8
2,788.7
762.4
1,848.4
774.9
895.8
23.1
8.8
5,811.4
2,935.7
2,777.6
359.7
2,490.3
62.3
1,652.1
22.6
59.5
80.2
304.7
160.7
31,386.4
1,695.6
86.8
1,809.7
668.5
2,579.6
7,176.5
2,041.2
659.5
1,116.4
468.2
580.3
17.1
39.5
3,059.8
1,654.9
1,849.0
725.3
1,504.1
113.9
965.9
110.9
32.7
367.2
204.1
531.2
18,647.3
1,049.7
52.5
1,045.2
413.5
2,602.7
4,864.6
continues
1,918.8
720.8
4,221.8
2,990.7
1,320.2
120.4
118.7
4,816.2
2,125.0
1,744.9
690.8
5,055.7
102.8
1,380.3
588.3
1,036.9
647.4
652.3
744.2
55,911.0
2,162.3
115.1
2,579.6
2,728.5
1,761.9
296
Daryacheh-Ye
403
Orumieh
Damodar
Danube
206
118
Dalinghe
Daly
146
300
Cunene
Cuyuni
367
245
Cross
Cuanza
Corubal
234
248
Corantijn
254
366
Copper
Coppermine
58
29
Connecticut
Coppename
132
255
Conception
Congo
Comoe
236
361
Colville
10
243
Columbia
(Pacic Ocean)
Colorado
107
138
25,569.5
78,506.9
57,544.7
668,561.9
640,463.6
110,640.3
390,631.1
Area (km2)
0.6
447.9
185.8
11,960.9
323.3
466.3
3,500.8
Jan
30,335.7
793,704.8
43,096.1
53,414.6
22,823.1
85,635.0
110,545.5
141,391.1
52,820.2
24,258.0
65,527.6
43,016.4
64,959.7
24,750.2
27,468.3
156.1
15,369.2
1,257.9
783.7
58.3
9,798.1
1,828.9
10,360.7
3,986.4
882.9
1,313.6
28.9
1,090.8
1,551.1
934.3
3,698,918.1 193,908.5
(Caribbean Sea)
Colorado
(Argentina)
Colorado
336
188
Basin Name
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
3.6
4.6
0.8
20,903.3
738.0
553.1
220.9
Mar
4.8
105.1
0.5
38,188.0
3,046.4
621.2
135.4
Apr
103.1
12,969.9
111.7
2,684.1
3.2
3,136.9
2,579.9
7,565.1
1.4
0.4
829.3
0.1
0.0
1,394.4
7.8
506.3
30,056.7
160.8
2,482.2
6.3
2,829.9
5,240.5
10,296.0
608.2
0.5
1,710.9
0.1
0.0
1,540.4
3,116.2
1,527.4
34,399.1
44.8
919.0
33.3
4,268.1
2,925.0
8,746.9
1,184.8
0.5
3,554.5
0.0
17.3
2,071.4
4,979.1
92,837.8 126,684.3 138,968.9
1.8
3.4
1.4
11,259.5
99.7
688.6
346.2
Feb
1,539.9
27,077.0
15.0
552.0
66.4
9,871.7
1,322.8
3,552.8
2,346.5
0.4
11,297.6
390.0
7,546.7
4,023.6
2,528.5
93,475.1
3.8
306.0
45.5
55,190.6
5,903.7
522.3
373.1
May
737.8
19,150.4
253.7
333.8
80.0
13,477.9
798.9
2,127.7
4,731.8
293.0
13,180.8
714.8
10,214.6
4,578.3
1,556.0
62,522.2
4.7
923.2
1,938.0
36,849.4
4,320.1
343.0
707.2
Jun
467.8
14,083.1
1,494.8
202.0
85.0
13,021.6
482.7
1,286.3
7,828.2
1,767.6
9,711.4
246.4
7,440.5
3,861.0
985.4
55,481.6
4.3
676.9
1,977.6
18,551.8
2,390.6
497.7
841.7
Jul
347.1
11,248.0
4,751.2
122.6
386.7
10,134.4
291.8
779.0
9,133.6
3,594.2
6,084.0
139.9
4,185.8
2,331.4
660.3
71,460.1
5.9
1,018.0
1,034.6
11,683.5
1,653.7
455.0
929.8
Aug
4.2
1,021.9
324.5
5,462.2
740.4
115.8
2,371.9
Oct
1.5
540.3
196.0
6,682.2
370.5
35.9
3,152.6
Nov
1.1
296.4
118.4
7,923.4
231.4
228.7
2,575.4
Dec
3.5
571.1
533.5
19,328.8
1,745.4
403.6
1,338.6
Average
213.8
10,213.5
4,657.8
74.6
210.1
5,445.8
176.4
472.4
11,624.3
3,165.9
3,012.4
84.5
3,963.1
1,160.6
761.0
126.4
12,685.9
2,147.4
45.3
123.7
3,587.1
112.8
307.3
10,815.8
2,080.6
1,811.6
51.0
2,215.5
695.4
1,049.6
137.4
15,065.0
1,316.0
27.1
64.5
3,665.6
98.1
304.1
4,452.2
964.3
1,094.1
30.8
1,184.1
420.0
1,699.4
116.8
12,575.3
850.4
16.9
39.6
6,571.4
642.6
5,458.5
2,614.4
579.0
692.7
18.6
715.2
321.1
665.0
498.3
17,907.8
1,421.8
686.9
96.4
7,150.7
1,375.0
4,271.4
4,944.0
1,110.8
4,524.4
142.1
3,214.5
1,995.7
1,578.5
90,395.6 111,123.4 108,901.0 123,157.3 105,743.0
5.5
1,509.8
579.1
7,290.7
1,126.8
315.6
908.5
Sep
297
Daule and
Escaut
391
Feuilles
73
Fitzroy
Fitzroy
325
311
(Rivire Aux)
Eyre Lake
Ferguson
394
57
Esmeraldas
Essequibo
268
252
(Schelde)
Elbe
Ellice
101
26
Eel (California)
Eilanden
154
382
Eastmain
Ebro
Durack
303
105
Drysdale
301
140
Douro
Dramselv
142
65
Dong Jiang
Doring
204
368
Dniestr
Don
120
99
Delaware
Dniepr
147
96
Davo
Dead Sea
251
Vinces
397
270
94,043.9
142,915.3
37,425.3
15,200.4
1,188,841.3
68,788.3
19,796.2
21,498.7
12,599.6
139,347.6
20,077.5
7,449.9
85,158.6
48,837.5
29,363.2
26,015.9
17,364.0
96,125.4
48,855.5
32,102.9
425,629.6
72,108.2
510,661.3
26,713.4
35,444.0
8,460.3
41,993.5
5.5
72.4
673.6
40.3
0.2
5,069.1
2,922.0
1,351.5
30.5
2,858.7
5,431.2
1,366.1
4,220.1
1,182.9
0.0
26.2
259.8
3,913.4
44.0
861.2
308.1
407.9
849.5
1,640.3
605.0
133.7
2,730.9
446.6
1,909.6
0.0
0.3
1,976.6
4,238.0
705.9
2,594.5
3,334.4
1,258.1
2,820.2
0.0
1.9
283.6
0.5
3,031.8
20.3
105.2
29.4
13.3
45.1
801.3
681.7
0.2
4,080.6
490.3
2,134.9
0.0
0.6
2,110.6
5,676.0
604.0
4,899.4
3,835.7
927.1
2,785.8
0.0
1.6
270.5
97.0
4,104.3
25.5
1,116.0
4,138.3
3,147.7
9,860.5
4,062.4
454.0
0.2
5,260.2
167.3
885.3
0.0
0.5
2,932.1
6,743.2
472.4
3,701.9
3,751.0
540.6
2,876.1
2,558.1
0.6
96.7
1,233.4
2,983.9
14.8
3,077.8
14,368.8
2,602.1
20,513.6
2,255.7
289.3
2.0
4,696.3
101.0
493.9
2,539.5
0.0
0.5
7,163.7
4,668.6
284.9
2,272.5
3,567.3
304.0
2,619.8
9,188.6
0.4
58.3
1,458.1
2,057.4
4.2
5,758.0
5,709.0
1,528.5
7,860.1
1,789.8
257.0
9.6
2,419.3
61.0
300.8
5,199.5
1,053.5
0.4
13,057.2
2,504.1
168.8
958.3
1,577.0
3,244.7
173.7
1,631.9
4,899.7
0.2
35.2
1,401.1
1,252.2
92.2
6,467.3
3,280.6
1,130.4
4,484.4
1,043.1
203.5
542.8
1,482.0
36.9
192.9
2,051.0
296.1
0.4
11,720.0
1,398.8
111.6
248.8
1,147.9
3,235.3
105.4
1,192.1
2,922.3
0.1
21.3
734.0
1,050.6
148.6
4,881.8
2,272.7
792.2
2,811.4
712.5
196.8
283.0
915.4
22.3
132.5
1,757.3
171.1
0.6
7,957.4
876.1
79.8
150.3
892.7
3,090.1
63.9
853.9
2,536.0
0.1
12.8
665.9
820.4
176.0
4,699.8
1,517.1
626.7
1,783.2
568.2
168.4
126.7
644.8
13.5
101.8
1,931.8
142.1
0.7
3,936.3
589.2
54.8
90.8
725.8
3,371.3
38.7
509.9
2,987.8
0.1
7.8
720.2
404.1
136.2
3,338.0
801.0
510.8
1,063.7
587.3
96.6
238.1
472.3
8.1
79.8
1,773.6
72.5
0.7
2,438.8
579.1
63.7
54.8
865.4
2,701.3
23.2
561.7
3,379.4
0.0
4.7
633.0
215.0
105.1
1,558.5
444.2
629.4
891.9
762.0
58.6
288.6
447.2
4.9
54.4
731.3
43.8
0.5
1,874.9
755.5
373.3
33.1
1,454.7
2,824.9
15.6
873.7
1,284.2
0.0
2.8
304.9
539.3
61.5
934.6
431.0
702.3
1,449.4
1,406.7
31.9
192.8
458.1
3.0
35.2
441.7
26.4
0.4
3,105.6
966.5
746.1
20.0
1,857.4
3,278.9
579.5
2,424.5
775.6
0.0
1.7
170.5
1,650.2
43.1
567.8
212.1
272.1
588.9
1,294.0
117.9
89.5
400.9
continues
113.4
532.8
1,424.9
153.8
0.5
5,278.5
2,659.8
418.1
132.2
2,070.7
3,472.2
449.6
1,947.5
2,642.9
0.4
68.5
639.9
1,835.2
72.6
2,780.5
2,792.7
1,030.3
4,350.1
1,410.3
263.4
158.9
2,000.7
298
Grande De
230
Grisalva
Groot-Kei
Groot-Vis
Guadalquivir
Guadiana
222
370
341
161
157
Great Salt Lake
401
De La Baleine
Grande Rivire
Grande Rivire
93
92
Matagalpa
Godavari
Gono (Go)
213
182
Gilbert
Gloma
312
59
Geba
George
Garonne
134
233
Ganges
353
74
Gambia
Gamka
229
369
Fuerte
Galana
200
374
66,020.0
56,954.8
30,441.2
18,678.3
127,675.5
74,114.4
24,256.7
111,718.4
17,991.9
3,949.5
311,698.7
42,862.7
46,429.1
39,054.1
12,774.4
55,807.2
1,024,462.6
45,676.2
69,874.3
51,921.7
36,419.8
37,697.9
239,678.4
Fraser
Fuchun Jiang
88
Flinders
389
377
110,041.3
Basin Name
Area (km2)
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
0.4
246.7
677.2
10.7
2.7
11,859.4
65.3
482.1
2,729.2
1,788.5
457.3
6,805.4
563.2
183.1
758.1
537.0
3,122.4
32,182.1
65.3
750.8
187.2
340.7
1,253.4
3,955.1
Jan
715.8
1,306.6
24.1
6.5
1,204.2
237.4
0.0
0.9
87.6
244.7
626.4
1.3
1,374.9
0.0
3.5
1,918.1
10,981.6
14.4
0.3
7.8
90.6
1,966.9
1,048.3
89.8
Feb
1,619.0
3,139.9
23.0
16.9
664.4
354.3
0.0
0.5
46.4
265.1
1,240.0
12.0
1,126.1
0.0
4.3
2,169.4
16,447.4
28.8
0.3
34.8
48.7
3,249.4
2,360.7
28.2
Mar
1,022.7
1,977.6
13.9
12.9
610.2
782.1
0.0
0.3
30.2
275.8
1,477.3
3,439.3
428.1
0.0
4.3
2,289.6
12,896.7
40.5
0.3
597.5
39.8
3,037.5
15,356.9
15.5
Apr
9.4
571.6
1,055.0
11.7
8.5
1,646.9
915.8
3,057.6
20,738.4
37.4
218.2
1,571.4
3,368.1
256.1
4,958.0
3.5
1,911.6
12,922.0
41.1
0.3
654.3
35.5
4,025.8
26,897.1
May
5.7
571.0
1,003.9
9.5
5.9
8,622.6
634.2
1,978.3
10,192.2
1,350.9
354.0
891.7
3,615.4
154.7
5,039.7
79.2
1,113.4
27,823.6
51.1
145.1
327.5
39.1
5,573.0
15,496.8
Jun
3.5
2.2
62.9
3,078.2
104.7
764.0
1,437.2
4,439.9
Aug
703.0
1,110.6
9.9
5.6
11,809.7
481.7
1,140.9
6,544.7
2,694.3
370.2
13,461.6
2,048.4
93.5
3,961.6
413.4
759.2
614.9
955.3
13.2
6.2
13,230.5
350.5
1,097.4
6,144.0
2,443.9
191.3
27,528.4
1,487.9
56.5
2,616.4
1,814.0
594.0
78,624.5 128,519.9
45.0
922.2
177.5
166.0
2,420.0
7,432.2
Jul
1.4
301.8
481.2
21.7
7.9
20,505.5
213.3
1,241.0
7,187.4
2,701.8
273.3
26,621.8
1,400.5
34.2
2,618.4
2,305.1
474.6
96,972.9
111.5
3,466.5
64.5
806.9
1,282.3
3,254.0
Sep
0.9
105.4
185.6
27.3
8.3
19,300.8
121.5
1,368.9
7,682.4
2,950.2
275.9
12,095.3
1,344.1
20.8
1,701.2
1,207.1
657.6
47,842.1
105.9
1,537.8
40.0
406.5
886.7
3,618.6
Oct
0.6
30.3
65.2
18.9
6.0
10,998.3
68.5
523.3
2,959.2
1,748.2
229.3
7,347.2
677.6
12.5
823.0
582.6
1,074.9
32,621.7
87.0
816.1
203.0
207.8
707.7
3,140.5
Nov
0.4
15.9
160.4
18.9
4.4
7,877.1
66.7
316.1
1,787.3
1,248.2
269.2
4,834.4
369.7
7.6
497.1
353.4
1,915.8
19,626.1
55.8
492.4
196.1
249.3
572.7
2,506.4
Dec
543.2
1,009.9
16.9
7.6
9,027.5
357.6
933.8
5,497.2
1,427.3
285.4
8,708.4
1,527.3
312.4
1,914.5
608.9
1,500.0
43,121.7
59.1
934.2
216.2
266.2
2,201.1
7,458.9
13.2
Average
299
Hayes (Trib.
Huai He
Huang He
183
149
Joekulsa A
41
Kalixaelven
Kamchatka
Kelantan
24
80
253
Fjoellum
James
Jequitinhonha
163
309
Ishikari
Issyk-Kul
135
392
Indus
Irrawaddy
168
199
Incomati
Indigirka
Iijoki
40
330
Hudson
137
Huasco
338
(Yellow River)
Hornaday
Horton
360
(Red River)
Hong
Hudson Bay)
Hayes (Trib.
Arctic Ocean)
359
355
84
30
Han-Gang
160
(Han River)
Gudena
Han Jiang
85
379
2,860.9
14,419.9
54,103.9
17,157.6
7,311.0
68,548.9
23,528.4
191,032.5
13,783.3
411,516.3
1,139,075.4
341,227.8
46,295.7
16,163.3
36,892.8
9,871.6
988,062.6
174,309.9
23,926.2
14,778.0
157,656.9
105,371.9
22,992.8
24,771.5
30,741.5
259.3
3,574.8
689.9
78.3
75.0
4,207.8
1,600.5
300.5
859.4
26,908.9
11,918.9
1,902.5
1,039.9
94.2
1,000.4
92.1
2,702.4
1,271.4
12.4
12.4
4,779.9
339.8
27.0
814.3
429.5
115.5
439.2
0.0
6.6
0.0
1,648.8
1,239.3
48.6
2.4
342.4
9,642.7
179.7
1,118.5
0.1
26.3
16.5
608.3
1,031.3
0.3
0.0
80.7
7.0
12.5
189.6
103.3
342.5
0.0
4.0
0.0
1,430.8
1,248.0
2,132.1
2.4
994.5
18,198.4
108.5
1,027.4
0.1
4,477.0
10.1
2,320.1
2,377.3
0.2
0.0
104.5
4.3
1,372.3
1,241.1
77.1
417.5
0.0
388.6
5.7
860.3
954.0
3,385.1
4,390.2
4,301.3
21,870.2
65.6
517.1
1,326.2
4,970.6
6.1
5,166.0
4,348.7
0.1
0.0
254.5
2.6
1,838.7
2,010.5
41.9
434.1
9,603.9
1,237.8
754.0
471.5
670.9
4,295.9
1,918.3
10,976.0
18,514.4
450.9
276.9
997.0
2,745.5
3.7
8,177.4
4,430.9
78.8
0.0
1,566.3
7,011.9
1,166.9
3,792.4
24.7
481.7
7,199.7
757.3
592.9
297.0
429.1
3,990.2
1,080.5
59,825.7
18,264.8
16,809.8
173.5
396.0
1,656.2
2.4
9,102.2
4,375.0
314.9
181.3
7,439.6
3,778.4
834.5
1,200.5
4,718.0
16.2
10.7
40,736.0
6,786.0
83.8
151.1
725.6
1.4
9,805.2
3,800.5
54.9
70.2
22,644.5
1,111.5
133.1
3,914.3
2,125.6
494.1
5,399.2
351.5
236.8
203.6
258.7
3,002.3
793.8
561.2
2,604.2
203.1
148.0
126.2
169.2
1,671.5
776.5
98,546.8 111,837.4
32,379.1
14,507.5
113.5
232.9
1,063.5
1.6
10,309.3
4,755.1
93.6
145.7
18,447.1
2,054.7
225.2
4,312.9
2,447.5
14.8
1,352.9
1,918.9
137.7
147.0
74.1
122.7
1,072.0
1,178.1
93,122.6
31,344.3
3,631.1
67.7
155.9
742.5
1.6
9,930.4
3,689.6
33.2
37.1
16,383.8
798.0
80.4
2,697.0
1,654.9
58.0
2,084.8
1,546.8
118.6
221.4
60.4
160.2
585.2
1,434.9
59,380.0
19,300.0
2,176.2
43.3
299.9
1,044.8
1.5
5,872.9
1,900.5
20.0
22.3
9,602.6
731.1
48.5
1,388.7
782.8
124.8
2,431.3
749.0
57.6
82.3
675.7
381.4
384.5
1,481.8
30,238.9
10,858.9
1,314.4
129.4
102.3
1,764.9
0.6
3,052.0
1,153.0
12.1
13.5
5,433.7
339.8
29.3
1,010.5
466.3
157.3
2,719.0
452.4
34.8
49.2
3,152.4
857.5
205.0
564.3
17,673.9
6,757.3
793.9
456.6
61.8
728.3
46.0
1,802.8
823.3
7.3
8.1
3,149.0
205.3
17.7
540.7
283.9
83.6
continues
1,277.8
2,513.7
281.3
192.7
1,100.7
674.3
1,756.1
1,206.9
42,845.7
19,982.1
4,060.5
420.6
318.1
1,745.5
15.3
5,737.4
2,829.7
52.3
40.9
7,490.5
1,365.4
116.3
1,689.1
1,678.5
300
Lake Chad
Lake Mar
356
395
Lake Taymur
Lake Titicaca
Lake Turkana
Lake Vattern
402
399
396
400
Chiquita
Kymijoki
Lagarjot
55
44
Kura
Kuskokwim
145
51
Krishna
Kuban
219
131
Kouilou
Kovda
274
34
Kokemaenjoki
Kolyma
60
13
Klamath
Kobuk
139
28
Kitakami
Kizilirmak
158
150
Kinabatangan
Kiso
256
176
Kemijoki
Khatanga
18
Kem
36
Basin Name
11,336.5
181,536.0
107,215.3
138,782.9
154,330.1
2,391,218.9
3,285.3
33,623.1
118,114.0
182,283.3
58,935.7
269,869.0
10,227.6
60,000.0
652,850.5
26,615.9
30,242.4
40,040.1
77,873.6
9,652.4
5,419.1
14,101.7
294,907.5
55,824.7
42,080.8
Area (km2)
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
109.1
2,082.5
7,124.5
723.7
490.2
6,870.6
112.9
186.3
1,269.5
559.4
1,008.9
4,249.9
30.6
4,007.3
3,721.1
236.7
211.1
3,010.5
199.1
690.1
652.3
2,820.1
1,571.7
487.2
235.3
Jan
3.2
0.5
0.5
9.0
5,963.3
0.0
594.7
135.4
0.0
1.0
1.4
187.2
1,275.5
610.7
0.0
2,400.3
160.9
1.6
31.8
3,574.1
836.5
172.5
218.1
862.7
58.7
Feb
2.0
0.4
645.9
100.4
4,974.8
0.0
1,026.2
144.7
0.0
1.0
0.9
708.9
1,664.7
1,255.2
0.0
3,950.9
97.2
1.5
19.2
3,546.4
1,201.8
1,357.6
352.4
675.4
35.4
Mar
535.8
1,988.3
2,951.8
0.0
504.2
180.2
22.3
4,570.7
0.5
3,035.7
2,123.9
1,355.6
0.0
5,306.6
58.8
3,662.2
11.6
3,046.4
2,397.1
1,082.6
848.3
672.8
21.4
594.1
2,642.5
Apr
246.0
3,300.7
1,893.3
0.0
261.0
263.0
1,190.7
1,319.9
16,620.3
4,111.4
1,943.7
1,400.2
881.9
3,068.4
5,342.4
1,092.9
2,063.7
2,001.6
1,578.7
802.0
836.4
675.3
221.2
8,987.0
3,902.2
May
136.0
4,415.2
1,052.7
14,735.9
162.6
1,227.0
742.9
758.1
7,998.3
2,768.8
1,594.5
3,256.5
280.3
1,426.7
25,441.2
616.1
1,100.6
1,051.5
804.4
551.9
896.9
1,148.9
25,398.5
2,448.1
1,352.6
Jun
81.3
6,718.5
658.3
6,387.8
112.7
7,989.1
324.1
456.3
5,470.1
1,901.8
1,393.7
16,600.9
152.3
862.7
35,941.4
371.5
619.7
698.7
537.4
581.1
961.9
787.8
12,884.8
1,458.1
781.6
Jul
60.0
7,827.8
552.1
3,298.4
87.1
36,416.6
231.6
277.2
5,473.3
1,396.6
826.2
15,185.1
92.5
522.5
16,207.8
225.5
373.5
455.6
393.4
590.1
750.1
1,142.6
6,944.9
934.7
490.1
Aug
40.2
6,549.2
469.3
2,513.9
80.9
27,951.2
257.6
216.4
5,291.7
913.7
621.9
11,795.9
71.2
316.7
10,517.4
147.2
338.6
276.0
241.0
631.9
967.8
1,468.5
4,357.0
1,082.1
429.8
Sep
82.5
4,135.2
688.1
1,300.5
85.5
14,050.2
309.8
308.4
2,398.6
766.2
471.0
6,710.3
78.0
191.7
5,575.9
152.9
159.6
146.5
132.0
775.8
780.0
1,388.6
2,419.0
1,366.4
696.2
Oct
196.1
2,501.6
678.7
785.5
95.2
7,408.8
128.1
311.4
1,372.5
692.7
528.0
4,670.2
33.2
1,130.5
3,367.8
501.9
96.4
394.9
83.4
828.3
608.0
1,249.3
1,461.0
516.4
253.6
Nov
85.7
1,394.5
2,594.8
474.4
137.7
4,490.9
74.0
122.5
829.0
413.7
626.0
3,427.8
20.1
3,001.1
2,034.2
154.8
58.2
1,495.2
128.5
528.7
420.8
1,909.0
882.4
312.0
153.2
Dec
184.9
3,418.6
2,466.8
2,518.3
303.2
8,927.3
282.9
710.7
3,893.8
1,454.7
1,173.2
5,876.5
136.7
2,182.1
9,038.8
597.1
423.7
1,641.5
711.1
716.1
691.1
1,233.4
4,688.0
1,515.9
911.5
Average
301
Mahanadi
210
Majes
Mamberamo
Mangoky
Manicouagan
307
380
324
106
Merrimack
Messalo
Mezen
136
372
39
Maroni
Mekong
257
187
Maputo
333
(Rivire)
Mahi
205
(Mahahadi)
Magdalena
235
1,752,001.5
Mackenzie
Mae Klong
19
224
19,673.6
Lurio
Macarthur
371
310
71,071.5
76,715.3
24,810.9
12,645.1
787,256.9
65,944.9
30,937.8
54,205.4
43,141.1
75,416.0
18,612.1
36,237.7
135,061.1
261,204.9
28,004.2
61,172.2
25,127.6
Luan He
4,299.3
Lule
Lorentz
381
115,943.6
50,206.4
17,902.9
415,623.1
11,780.3
194,436.5
2,425,551.1
144
Loire
125
33,399.2
18,088.5
23
Little Mecatina
Loa
Limpopo
320
108
Limari
339
319
Lena
Liao He
133
Leichhardt
Lempa
390
228
31.9
372.9
941.3
381.1
30,683.5
3,849.5
924.9
1,252.8
1,857.9
15,446.4
893.9
884.2
3,751.2
27,118.0
1,554.4
5,637.8
0.4
4,604.7
313.1
174.3
493.1
5,691.9
0.3
444.5
1,880.1
118.1
678.2
15,771.8
888.1
4.5
1,818.6
8.4
405.8
4,583.6
719.0
0.3
2,203.9
9,453.9
994.8
157.9
108.6
3,452.3
20.9
86.9
1.1
6,185.0
1.0
47.2
445.0
3,966.2
0.4
0.0
3,058.9
101.5
20.4
655.1
2.9
34.8
2.7
2,197.0
3,157.8
584.3
5,326.3
618.4
0.2
1,852.5
12,610.4
875.9
246.0
158.0
6,430.2
34.2
53.5
55.6
6,089.2
0.6
147.9
515.7
3,912.1
0.3
0.0
2,803.2
40.8
220.6
396.4
7.6
11.9
7.2
3,916.9
1,098.8
1,789.4
939.8
7,656.9
324.5
524.6
898.9
11,467.8
436.0
223.2
151.1
14,175.3
33.5
9,063.7
14.5
2,522.2
1,119.1
279.9
475.1
3,192.9
0.3
0.0
1,433.2
21.1
1,657.1
361.9
10.3
4.4
2.6
547.6
10,521.7
548.0
1,035.9
5,846.3
11,080.5
179.7
8,666.6
518.2
9,723.6
232.5
137.5
158.2
21,211.1
1,076.4
79,403.5
8.8
1,435.2
3,851.3
408.1
346.5
2,280.7
0.3
6,156.3
767.0
12.6
2,266.7
3,855.7
330.8
634.7
34,283.6
10,145.5
114.6
6,924.6
330.4
7,842.7
139.9
37.8
157.6
18,633.1
3,580.0
79,172.3
5.3
866.8
3,784.3
214.3
253.8
1,475.0
0.3
2,178.5
501.7
27.9
2,171.0
87,091.9 124,907.8
11.7
1.6
1.0
4,342.7
58.1
2,983.3
136.7
7,964.6
52.7
4,426.7
21,461.7
15,479.8
5,831.8
24,877.4
1.9
316.3
1,112.2
1,219.0
253.8
710.2
0.3
1,078.9
334.0
17.6
3,988.1
63,046.2
1,968.2
0.6
2,242.1
46.2
3,220.2
83.0
8,697.3
34.4
3,152.3
14,877.9
18,291.2
5,582.5
15,732.9
1.2
191.1
951.7
725.2
345.8
546.1
0.3
1,004.0
330.6
14.6
2,606.5
53,636.1
3,042.2
2,081.0
199.8
377.8
1,250.6
120.7
233.8
799.5
72.9
212.7
85,153.9 107,075.0 107,961.6
7,092.8
75.2
3,691.1
220.7
8,385.4
84.7
2,640.9
5,209.0
15,055.6
5,254.6
46,002.0
3.2
523.5
1,895.4
964.0
280.8
937.1
0.3
1,505.7
359.2
18.7
2,661.2
84,650.4
1,582.1
0.4
867.4
44.1
361.4
64,294.1
1,349.5
33.2
3,479.9
50.1
6,547.6
31.7
1,389.2
6,698.9
31,846.5
3,551.6
10,447.5
0.7
115.4
683.0
357.8
199.3
804.6
0.3
1,263.0
246.8
15.5
1,383.3
23,839.3
2,295.6
0.2
386.3
26.6
783.0
35,434.1
815.1
112.3
1,358.9
56.6
7,173.3
29.3
865.8
4,119.4
31,789.4
1,715.1
5,767.0
0.4
69.7
335.9
190.0
277.0
1,839.3
0.3
482.6
159.6
11.4
782.0
14,390.4
976.3
0.1
233.3
16.1
252.8
20,497.8
565.6
467.1
820.8
333.7
8,630.9
363.0
573.5
2,571.8
20,916.3
1,031.1
3,484.1
0.3
468.0
202.9
115.8
262.3
3,262.7
0.3
291.5
308.4
31.8
454.6
8,692.2
585.2
8.1
continues
2,024.4
617.9
769.1
41,096.7
4,920.8
306.1
2,743.6
711.9
9,495.3
347.4
1,227.9
4,951.9
18,699.9
2,438.9
23,310.7
7.8
1,948.9
1,187.5
403.6
345.7
2,384.9
0.3
1,200.4
1,015.2
36.0
1,574.1
39,786.6
993.2
302
Mitchell
306
Moose (Trib.
116
Negro
Nelson
Neman
Neva
83
56
(Uruguay)
Negro
(Argentina)
87
340
345
Natashquan
109
(Rivire)
Narva
Nass
70
81
Naktong
Narmada
167
208
Murray
Nadym
331
37
Mucuri
Muonio
313
15
Hudson Bay)
Mogami
Mono
159
242
(N. Au)
Mira
Mississippi
267
Min Jiang
378
122
Basin Name
223,309.5
97,299.9
1,099,380.3
70,756.4
130,062.1
16,948.2
21,211.7
58,147.0
95,818.2
23,325.2
54,624.7
1,059,507.7
37,346.5
16,732.2
105,615.2
23,899.0
6,853.1
71,725.2
3,196,605.4
13,264.8
60,039.7
Area (km2)
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
1,195.2
740.2
1,698.4
1,301.6
2,461.3
291.0
1,054.0
710.7
2,407.1
508.2
383.2
2,868.3
143.9
1,331.8
1,000.2
122.1
969.3
1,080.2
79,924.0
2,073.0
1,710.0
Jan
1,291.0
6,444.7
Mar
1,430.0
6,263.4
Apr
10.6
3.4
40.6
86.9
98.8
0.0
0.0
1.2
430.8
274.7
0.2
1,379.7
13.1
412.5
0.6
0.3
827.6
6,217.0
8.8
2,540.2
35.8
492.1
347.1
0.0
810.7
1.2
900.5
755.4
0.1
1,501.2
8.0
315.0
0.6
14.5
1,039.4
5,876.8
32,169.2
8,813.4
29,311.7
1,499.0
1,009.8
156.2
3,441.7
6,018.5
1,131.7
983.6
0.1
1,110.5
213.9
254.2
11,334.0
50.7
774.9
2,616.6
66,571.6 111,936.2 102,147.6
1,259.4
2,261.2
Feb
9,560.0
3,141.2
20,864.5
2,274.1
4,025.3
3,726.8
6,020.4
1,937.0
1,138.1
697.6
4,504.7
1,279.6
2,005.5
167.2
9,979.0
126.1
556.2
1,435.1
83,552.9
2,032.3
9,721.2
May
5,468.9
1,745.1
15,143.9
3,311.9
5,859.2
1,620.1
4,634.1
1,079.4
445.1
959.3
7,346.2
2,153.4
1,110.4
113.9
4,300.8
330.7
376.7
859.9
56,877.9
1,959.3
10,643.9
Jun
3,272.4
1,037.9
8,074.5
3,222.8
6,210.5
1,208.4
2,047.3
639.7
7,352.7
1,987.4
2,354.4
2,511.6
750.1
88.6
2,527.6
356.9
392.9
521.2
36,359.7
1,248.7
4,850.2
Jul
1,984.2
641.8
5,014.9
3,290.1
6,075.1
808.1
1,515.8
420.0
11,663.1
1,879.2
1,461.2
3,164.9
388.4
50.0
1,594.4
319.3
356.7
317.3
27,329.8
1,229.1
3,725.5
Aug
1,703.3
406.1
4,579.4
3,379.1
5,030.4
691.2
1,839.7
372.9
8,745.2
1,673.3
1,502.8
3,371.2
294.9
28.9
2,136.5
472.0
430.5
194.5
18,097.4
1,355.3
2,882.6
Sep
2,586.4
467.3
4,110.0
2,823.2
4,368.0
792.3
2,607.5
731.8
3,757.6
882.4
687.7
3,337.6
187.3
21.6
3,024.6
289.3
519.9
119.8
12,199.9
1,165.3
2,049.4
Oct
1,686.6
1,597.2
1,799.8
1,553.8
3,162.3
315.9
1,420.3
1,459.3
2,295.3
545.1
415.4
2,314.5
101.6
212.3
1,085.8
132.5
740.8
72.3
20,013.0
1,283.2
1,340.9
Nov
773.9
486.5
1,090.5
846.5
1,740.6
190.8
691.1
466.4
1,586.4
344.9
250.9
2,000.4
61.4
1,046.2
656.0
80.1
1,023.9
43.0
38,932.9
912.8
880.7
Dec
5,034.9
1,801.7
7,647.0
2,006.8
3,365.7
816.7
2,173.5
1,153.2
3,487.8
957.6
1,575.6
2,249.4
439.9
336.8
3,136.7
191.2
667.4
1,612.8
54,495.2
1,436.6
4,397.8
Average
303
Nizhny Vyg
50
38,871.3
Orinoco
Oueme
Oulujoki
Oyapock
Ozero Sevan
237
239
43
262
405
Orange
Ord
326
308
Omoloy
Onega
53
208,522.0
Okavango
Olenek
357
5,678.3
4,765.3
27,075.7
30,554.5
59,842.6
952,173.4
55,686.1
972,388.4
65,894.0
705,055.7
222,662.7
Oelfusa
Ogoou
116,536.3
16,063.9
2,701,040.7
34,626.2
12,369.1
29,513.6
43,877.9
33,526.9
118,709.0
323,573.1
32,319.5
31,334.1
49
Ocona
Oder
365
100
2,117,888.7
3,078,088.1
265
Nyong
Ob
Nyanga
275
261
Nushagak
67
25
Ntem
Nueces
264
197
Nottaway
114
Dvina)
(Severnaya
Dvina
Noatak
Northern
20
48
(Soroka)
Niger
Nile
207
194
21,778.0
8.6
4,282.0
230.9
458.8
73,559.9
0.0
1,857.2
224.9
26.9
1,231.0
4,075.2
22,726.7
378.5
1,032.5
539.4
6,930.1
1,269.1
1,159.8
517.3
4.2
2,055.6
2,188.3
1,021.4
156.5
206.5
20,724.2
99.0
0.7
4,043.5
1.1
1.0
9,908.6
3.9
2,095.4
2.8
0.7
159.8
6,488.8
7,569.4
0.0
1,852.6
582.1
198.1
0.1
691.5
0.0
8.4
8.3
0.2
35.1
0.8
0.1
2,310.3
256.2
3.8
4,817.3
0.8
1.1
16,110.2
1.5
2,246.2
1.8
0.4
96.5
8,619.1
15,733.8
323.1
5,896.3
517.1
135.9
386.2
941.1
0.0
21.4
442.8
0.2
22.2
0.5
0.1
6,660.0
1,297.8
4,833.0
1,817.1
523.6
4,936.8
35.8
2,595.7
15,987.7
19,378.9
401.9
1,622.9
18,779.0
76.9
6,249.8
5,398.3
6.9
48,197.5
2.7
1,402.3
10,633.8
0.2
58.3
3,971.7
20,776.5
1,726.6
3,319.4
245.1
14,794.5
5.2
489.5
1,902.0
426.1
16,431.9
1,233.1
7,950.2
685.2
1,462.2
80.9
68,228.3
1,504.5
267.4
1,770.2
41.5
1,808.1
7,640.1
9,541.8
1,980.3
926.7
21,757.3
38,348.0
6.4
342.5
1,125.9
277.1
5,510.3
745.9
4,618.0
565.6
947.3
48.8
36,839.8
698.1
161.5
1,042.6
66.6
791.1
5,188.1
5,592.3
1,099.7
553.6
48,384.2
80,634.7
7.5
319.8
680.1
128.9
3,070.3
452.1
2,791.3
398.0
682.0
30.6
23,540.4
677.8
97.5
1,293.2
49.3
470.6
4,271.3
3,376.1
624.3
334.4
80,541.4
90,704.8
8.1
311.7
436.9
73.6
1,870.4
274.8
2,505.1
471.2
505.5
19.9
18,275.7
2,434.6
58.9
1,548.5
24.4
1,558.6
5,083.6
2,058.6
629.7
420.4
66,624.1
47,626.3
6.6
362.3
556.4
43.7
1,106.6
167.1
8,651.3
658.7
478.7
49.2
14,074.8
3,389.9
35.6
1,382.8
10.5
4,430.8
6,291.3
2,097.6
275.6
626.2
36,444.6
106.9
6,602.9
1,702.8
240.8
55.9
5,755.6
939.7
976.7
31.2
3,526.6
562.7
1,265.1
21.0
2,069.9
373.1
1,320.9
12.9
1,131.7
416.6
1,893.3
13.1
683.3
710.7
1,037.9
96,502.6 137,370.7 156,922.8 139,130.4 112,036.3 103,445.6
4.2
807.0
3,402.5
0.2
658.3
2,041.0
19,147.2
690.3
2,160.7
134.9
80,842.2 148,619.4
1,153.1
1,044.4
1,308.4
28.3
1,623.3
13,451.3
44,567.2
0.3
5,451.2
16,300.5
23,829.5
13.9
412.7
247.3
499.0
77,389.5
3.6
534.8
234.8
26.4
668.3
100.7
23,592.1
434.6
627.0
71.2
6,865.0
1,699.9
692.8
561.6
5.4
3,192.8
2,438.0
971.8
166.5
224.2
22,470.9
14,278.6
5.9
586.7
149.5
301.2
46,830.9
0.2
884.1
141.1
15.9
403.7
882.0
17,443.6
320.1
1,046.2
235.0
4,161.9
832.3
805.1
339.2
3.8
1,428.3
1,434.9
587.9
100.6
135.5
14,322.2
28,206.7
continues
29.2
3,346.8
894.5
666.9
84,783.7
4.2
971.1
1,611.9
85.0
2,605.5
2,421.0
12,792.1
554.3
1,667.5
212.9
34,059.3
1,321.9
539.9
1,225.1
25.0
1,700.5
5,331.3
7,437.6
453.1
875.1
29,609.9
304
24,232.4
28,217.6
Rapel
Rhine
Rhone
344
110
126
Quoich
Rajang
38
263
63,888.8
Purari
Pyasina
286
375
23,479.8
97,485.2
190,522.1
15,689.5
49,943.5
32,139.9
111,351.3
Pra
32,380.6
48,954.2
13,186.0
73,066.6
21,168.9
54,976.4
46,531.3
312,763.3
22,423.0
Pur
Potomac
156
58,027.2
7,384.0
1,877.2
1,540.6
34.7
106.3
5,776.0
Jan
7,316.8
13,179.1
1,119.4
20,497.2
41.6
470.7
7,089.0
740.7
378.6
1,355.9
84.9
127.2
4,276.6
655.1
568.7
2,824.5
2,459.1
1,984.2
1,710.9
2,640,486.1 105,979.7
250
Popigay
376
82,929.1
39,885.1
31
Po
Ponoy
Penobscot
129
128
Penner
226
33
Pechora
Pee Dee
22
Patacua
Pearl
363
190
171
Paraiba Do Sul
Paran
322
302
Panuco
Papaloapan
212
221
50,364.8
31,112.8
Palyavaam
Pangani
17
Pahang
260
279
28,436.7
Basin Name
Area (km2)
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
3,365.1
7,657.6
178.1
8,513.0
4.9
4,200.2
0.3
3.2
1,163.5
0.8
0.0
2,000.0
0.6
34.4
2,381.4
31.2
2,012.8
118.6
72,853.1
4,105.7
12.4
95.9
22.7
0.0
1,292.5
Feb
5,895.8
8,094.3
113.7
9,657.7
3.1
5,204.7
0.3
102.6
1,705.2
0.5
0.0
3,536.1
482.1
52.1
2,346.1
19.2
2,131.6
53.8
68,346.4
3,823.9
16.0
186.5
34.9
0.0
1,416.5
Mar
6,325.3
9,602.3
66.3
10,211.2
2.0
5,335.2
0.3
282.2
1,374.1
0.3
0.0
5,530.3
5,554.7
45.1
1,609.2
1,449.0
1,713.4
32.7
50,136.2
2,180.1
15.8
197.5
203.1
0.0
1,962.1
Apr
5,588.7
8,013.0
510.5
9,935.6
1.3
4,459.8
7,186.7
657.8
948.5
0.2
1,585.1
6,397.4
1,878.0
43.8
944.6
58,305.9
1,094.2
19.7
39,988.6
1,239.1
11.5
137.9
493.3
0.0
1,937.4
May
4,446.6
6,055.1
1,373.7
7,769.6
1,216.3
8,582.4
3,535.0
15,161.5
1,316.6
624.9
2,052.3
438.1
4,452.6
1,224.9
41.5
589.6
38,794.9
598.0
70.9
34,546.3
759.3
477.3
362.8
239.9
1,878.7
1,260.3
Jun
2,690.2
4,779.6
1,356.5
6,882.1
349.6
2,828.9
2,952.7
4,615.2
691.0
370.6
754.1
255.8
2,941.3
733.4
158.5
563.3
16,270.2
392.6
693.4
22,504.9
470.0
2,373.0
2,013.6
152.6
1,036.4
863.4
Jul
2,212.7
4,183.7
1,185.4
6,855.9
199.5
1,874.0
3,064.9
2,795.1
327.9
255.1
410.5
178.3
2,394.4
451.5
151.2
455.2
9,630.9
256.9
892.9
18,037.0
308.5
4,411.2
2,491.4
87.1
526.4
823.6
Aug
2,277.1
3,971.9
876.8
9,242.6
128.2
1,803.8
3,853.1
2,896.5
645.8
188.4
251.2
268.5
2,314.0
421.6
182.9
460.3
7,855.7
162.9
1,438.3
19,546.7
264.6
5,780.4
6,156.6
59.8
355.2
1,395.6
Sep
3,477.1
4,514.6
701.4
11,129.0
74.8
814.2
3,615.9
1,331.2
1,039.5
213.6
146.9
394.1
2,947.8
684.5
360.5
379.9
4,450.1
99.8
2,176.2
24,410.8
590.0
4,426.4
3,524.7
38.7
191.1
2,714.8
Oct
5,232.4
6,546.6
412.7
11,855.9
45.2
491.9
3,635.9
804.1
483.0
392.6
88.7
138.1
3,482.3
1,327.0
1,017.5
545.7
2,542.8
148.7
1,802.4
32,882.5
1,633.4
2,194.2
1,770.8
28.7
115.4
3,612.5
Nov
5,154.7
8,363.7
681.5
12,276.9
27.3
297.2
4,215.8
485.8
247.6
752.3
53.6
83.4
2,857.2
429.8
485.3
1,384.2
1,536.1
752.9
1,293.7
57,492.3
4,400.3
1,261.7
1,046.5
27.5
69.7
4,175.9
Dec
4,498.5
7,080.1
714.7
10,402.2
173.5
1,431.2
4,263.5
3,001.5
514.6
778.7
320.3
289.1
3,594.2
1,153.6
261.8
1,207.0
11,945.4
945.7
858.6
45,560.4
2,263.2
1,904.8
1,627.1
118.6
356.6
2,269.2
Average
305
Rio Ribeira
329
127
Saguenay
112
Saint John
(Rivire)
Sabine
Sacramento
191
148
Rupert
Ruvu
115
287
Rovuma
Ruji
373
284
Rogue
Roper
141
299
Rio Vaza-Barris
Roanoke
294
166
Do Iguape
Rio Pindare
Rio Prado
Rio Parnaba
276
280
Rio Paraba
288
304
Rio Mearim
Rio Paraguacu
282
296
Rio Jacu
Rio Jaguaribe
337
285
Rio Itapecuru
Rio Itapicuru
Rio Gurupi
271
277
Rio Doce
314
295
Rio Capim
Rio De Contas
272
298
Rio Acarau
Rio Araguari
278
266
14,472.9
55,151.8
91,366.9
77,208.9
25,611.8
17,541.2
16,063.4
204,638.8
151,948.6
79,907.5
14,526.6
26,801.0
15,314.2
25,697.5
31,673.7
39,112.0
336,584.2
18,969.1
54,607.1
56,687.0
72,804.3
70,798.0
37,593.4
52,672.0
32,335.3
86,085.9
56,526.5
54,888.3
33,771.5
22.3
1,543.0
1,984.2
5,375.8
1,109.9
121.7
311.4
1,836.2
9,106.2
434.9
1,090.2
1,844.9
17.1
2,174.8
696.0
253.4
2,039.6
37.7
274.1
356.4
64.1
5,005.1
56.5
84.3
491.7
12,563.7
297.0
1,537.9
4,727.0
31.8
1.9
1.5
6,127.3
1,334.8
122.6
0.0
3,827.1
15,265.1
1,537.1
1,088.4
1,467.9
1.4
1,657.5
283.3
2,304.7
3,746.9
2.0
185.7
2,713.7
11.7
2,492.1
2.3
1,224.8
2,048.7
5,298.4
120.1
5,606.4
5,377.5
810.4
1.9
1.5
6,249.1
1,286.5
361.9
0.0
7,683.8
18,092.1
1,682.2
909.0
1,460.0
1.7
1,425.9
357.3
4,716.9
7,333.0
3.5
300.7
5,445.6
1,619.3
2,901.2
2.1
3,260.0
4,647.2
4,242.2
258.0
8,799.8
6,935.9
1,076.9
13,364.2
11,245.1
5,067.8
1,307.3
952.4
794.7
8,804.4
9,319.0
599.2
858.5
1,085.8
1.6
887.3
417.6
4,525.5
6,991.8
89.5
705.2
4,657.5
2,744.3
3,920.9
7.2
3,253.3
4,513.5
2,461.5
556.9
7,926.1
8,461.5
646.7
4,478.5
11,251.7
3,136.9
936.9
722.0
3,201.0
4,027.1
4,605.3
358.4
622.6
725.1
61.4
735.4
243.4
2,674.7
3,124.0
253.8
1,494.5
2,321.9
1,562.6
4,897.0
99.2
1,651.3
3,426.0
1,301.4
550.1
5,924.9
8,118.0
301.3
3,060.9
8,137.7
2,369.0
456.1
287.6
1,189.1
2,129.0
2,779.5
216.7
302.4
448.3
151.1
782.1
187.0
1,415.4
1,723.6
514.2
1,165.9
1,253.1
861.9
5,793.0
263.0
883.6
2,151.5
784.3
447.9
3,782.3
7,123.8
179.6
1,929.0
5,058.6
2,064.4
276.7
174.0
796.1
1,285.4
1,678.9
131.2
190.5
316.0
177.6
538.1
168.8
814.8
1,047.6
396.9
1,466.7
745.7
515.6
5,339.7
645.3
520.8
1,412.8
483.1
457.9
2,616.7
4,272.9
110.0
1,260.9
4,100.4
1,708.0
165.9
106.2
677.5
779.2
1,014.2
79.7
120.0
238.3
102.7
442.8
106.4
488.9
641.5
208.3
878.0
450.8
319.8
5,145.1
362.8
314.3
764.6
302.0
292.5
1,569.4
2,486.6
67.9
1,384.3
4,665.6
1,170.4
101.9
64.9
758.7
473.6
612.7
48.5
73.0
184.2
49.8
601.1
58.7
295.4
394.0
115.4
455.0
272.8
213.3
5,743.1
169.7
190.4
450.8
187.0
179.2
878.6
1,376.3
42.1
2,179.7
5,748.5
511.3
62.1
39.6
894.3
288.1
370.2
29.6
41.5
159.1
30.8
860.6
36.6
178.6
242.4
73.2
267.7
165.1
142.0
5,136.4
102.3
115.4
272.3
117.8
110.9
525.8
831.0
26.2
2,871.4
2,173.4
343.5
86.8
23.9
338.0
176.3
223.6
17.7
212.2
332.5
18.8
773.8
137.5
108.0
157.1
46.6
194.3
99.9
92.4
3,405.9
62.2
69.7
164.5
2,334.5
165.1
317.7
501.9
16.4
1,012.4
1,301.6
1,439.3
295.2
73.4
204.2
418.8
516.4
10.5
514.3
853.9
11.8
987.3
549.1
65.3
558.8
29.6
163.9
61.7
60.4
2,794.2
38.4
42.3
103.1
9,099.0
224.8
205.5
398.5
277.6
continues
2,757.4
4,639.2
2,963.6
618.3
254.2
763.8
2,644.1
5,298.6
428.8
501.9
759.7
52.2
988.9
270.1
1,486.8
2,333.4
147.6
629.3
1,545.3
683.9
4,381.1
150.9
967.5
1,703.9
3,264.6
305.0
3,307.6
4,217.6
306
San Juan
258
Severn (Trib.
89
Hudson Bay)
Senegal
Sepik
220
281
Sebou
Seine
Seal
68
179
Save
315
119
Sassandra
Savannah
So Francisco
290
240
Santiago
211
181
Santa Cruz
Santee
Santa
292
352
Sanaga
249
175
San Pedro
203
Pacic)
(Columbia-
San Joaquin
San Juan
San Antonio
198
162
Salween
354
232
Salado
Salinas
342
Sakarya
153
170
Basin Name
98,590.5
81,119.7
436,981.1
74,227.9
36,201.3
53,439.9
114,957.8
27,740.4
68,097.5
628,629.1
126,222.3
40,035.3
30,599.9
11,882.5
134,252.0
29,358.8
13,898.0
41,659.4
34,365.6
10,952.4
258,475.2
12,654.6
266,263.9
62,482.7
Area (km2)
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
593.2
15,375.9
1,629.1
3,426.9
1,058.8
126.4
2,203.3
1,501.0
2,261.5
27,716.3
681.2
804.8
1,652.2
455.4
4,812.3
192.9
6,064.5
5,223.3
707.1
12.3
8,366.0
11.8
1,011.5
348.5
Jan
0.0
9,555.7
10.0
2,491.0
1,081.1
1.6
3,356.1
1,570.4
1.4
15,251.7
116.1
794.4
385.0
563.1
3.0
2.6
2,203.5
533.6
829.3
13.2
95.5
34.5
24.7
1,016.9
Feb
0.0
12,665.7
15.2
2,183.7
1,248.4
1.0
2,440.7
1,658.6
3.2
13,981.8
243.6
752.0
560.0
650.9
236.5
4.4
2,616.1
282.7
1,285.7
14.4
592.3
58.5
73.2
1,126.0
Mar
969.8
12,180.9
11.7
1,663.9
934.9
0.6
1,065.6
1,058.3
129.1
7,511.4
265.3
496.5
1,181.8
399.4
2,004.2
6.2
3,456.3
261.5
1,335.3
23.4
1,511.4
36.9
787.5
888.3
Apr
7,964.8
9,397.5
12.0
1,005.1
533.2
3,534.7
627.7
583.9
309.3
4,656.8
168.1
298.4
1,590.7
210.8
4,068.5
7.1
4,124.0
1,036.0
1,136.9
25.7
2,846.6
32.6
1,228.1
508.1
May
3,325.3
7,423.9
447.8
594.9
346.0
1,434.9
386.7
360.8
2,250.3
5,028.4
205.1
193.4
1,850.7
125.2
5,840.0
3.4
3,912.7
3,952.8
1,098.6
19.4
12,055.4
47.2
1,234.8
345.2
Jun
1,813.8
6,795.9
3,062.5
402.4
284.6
728.5
242.8
272.1
3,322.8
4,947.7
1,027.8
174.2
1,577.2
78.5
7,929.0
137.0
3,904.9
4,778.7
1,267.9
25.1
24,649.1
66.4
1,105.6
273.7
Jul
1,158.6
6,812.5
8,464.3
304.5
201.0
432.3
173.8
190.7
4,638.5
3,343.7
2,651.8
169.8
2,464.8
57.1
9,616.8
732.2
3,971.2
4,793.9
1,193.7
18.3
32,068.1
68.2
959.3
242.4
Aug
1,429.9
7,707.7
6,863.4
202.7
141.9
415.7
130.9
187.5
8,322.9
1,665.4
3,112.7
140.6
3,221.0
44.0
13,725.9
987.8
4,103.4
6,119.6
818.4
9.9
27,586.6
42.9
1,261.2
156.9
Sep
68.9
1,689.2
8,100.4
3,270.9
234.2
76.4
241.7
85.0
165.1
5,416.1
1,268.7
1,413.6
124.1
3,226.9
79.5
13,358.0
369.0
4,529.7
7,350.0
322.2
5.7
18,159.4
9.6
1,567.9
Oct
26.5
644.0
8,084.8
1,792.3
696.1
197.1
130.6
41.4
238.5
2,603.4
4,929.8
791.4
150.6
1,605.8
128.6
5,383.1
206.3
4,529.1
4,839.9
74.9
4.2
9,737.1
2.7
1,418.0
Nov
75.1
388.9
9,182.5
1,076.7
1,700.9
563.6
78.9
348.7
572.9
1,487.3
18,730.9
492.4
395.6
1,042.5
132.8
3,156.1
130.3
3,905.9
3,921.9
102.3
8.8
5,522.3
1.6
767.6
Dec
1,664.8
9,440.3
2,221.3
1,242.2
555.6
593.9
925.2
696.6
2,562.2
9,086.0
930.8
374.5
1,696.6
243.8
5,844.5
231.6
3,943.4
3,591.2
847.7
15.0
11,932.5
34.4
953.3
423.0
Average
307
2,817.6
Skeena
Skjern A
Solo (Benga-
82
86
289
Sungai Kajan
Sungai Kapuas
Sungai
384
386
385
Svarta,
42
Tapti
214
65,096.3
15,656.1
14,518.1
Tana (NO, FI)
Tano
247
95,715.0
Taku
Tana
69
17,967.6
3,429.6
26,400.9
69,080.1
49,470.3
24,867.7
75,822.7
84,902.3
33,171.8
51,147.5
1,055,021.5
22,489.2
4,638.6
2,942.2
60,121.0
10,842.5
15,146.1
269
Skagaroi
Susquehanna
Suwannee
143
192
Suriname
Susitna
398
54
Mahakam
St. Lawrence
Stikine
117
71
St. Croix
St. Johns
130
196
Southern Bug
Spey
121
79
South Esk
348
wan Solo)
42,944.4
Skagit
123
7,961.0
Sittang
34,265.3
11,158.8
805,077.0
215
Chikuma
Shebelle
Shinano,
241
165
1,126.2
1,243.3
321.4
71.8
290.5
430.1
54.9
1,043.0
2,091.9
1,270.7
2,186.8
18,606.0
29,491.3
10,769.4
1,826.9
13,835.1
379.1
170.5
478.1
38.8
186.5
2,855.5
351.5
1,078.2
951.3
2,254.3
1,100.6
49.5
168.4
0.2
0.0
14.7
0.0
0.0
1,262.4
1,240.2
2.2
1,915.0
7,876.5
13,356.0
4,092.4
603.3
351.1
187.4
0.1
203.5
7.9
8.9
2,415.3
132.9
0.2
342.8
3.3
807.7
54.4
2,532.2
126.3
1,441.8
136.5
967.0
32.6
1,722.1
89.0
4,491.6
1,747.8
6.6
1,837.3
306.4
32.5
0.0
38.9
0.0
29.3
1,316.2
8,814.7
1.4
2,088.7
10,134.8
15,227.7
5,488.6
508.0
365.6
186.6
0.0
512.9
806.8
123.6
797.7
5,917.2
3,654.1
2,922.6
13,756.5
15,516.0
6,619.3
1,656.9
29,605.6 132,375.7
226.0
0.1
174.9
1,840.9
10.5
2,433.6
121.1
1,041.9
1,452.8
6.3
800.2
1,755.0
395.0
547.1
2,851.4
706.1
2,508.0
363.8
415.7
3,887.6
8,319.0
4,729.6
12,600.1
13,513.3
6,870.7
9,699.8
51,230.9
72.7
475.5
98.8
519.4
76.3
949.3
50.8
8,819.6
975.0
16.9
1,864.2
1,025.3
149.1
1,356.6
778.3
333.2
2,296.9
392.6
300.4
2,447.9
8,905.7
5,013.8
9,668.4
10,291.5
5,795.5
11,933.0
31,947.4
67.3
301.5
58.1
311.3
208.6
531.7
28.9
7,160.8
491.1
3,852.3
1,290.9
1,594.0
3,365.4
700.0
457.0
183.6
1,033.2
148.0
613.1
1,522.7
5,269.7
3,973.9
6,831.4
7,393.4
5,104.8
5,766.5
19,602.9
331.1
171.5
43.8
205.6
392.9
332.1
18.4
3,082.5
287.0
7,852.6
1,242.1
2,005.1
5,169.5
337.1
276.1
113.4
783.7
89.0
756.9
1,002.4
4,095.0
2,420.7
5,649.9
6,608.1
4,917.8
3,728.6
13,031.9
475.2
101.8
52.5
138.9
471.5
222.4
22.4
2,010.7
173.6
10,043.8
1,006.9
1,944.7
5,115.9
480.9
217.4
69.9
1,027.7
76.1
714.7
867.5
4,842.3
1,213.0
5,951.6
8,936.3
6,431.1
3,815.5
15,304.9
796.6
88.6
81.3
77.0
403.2
171.0
70.4
1,937.6
108.5
8,332.3
1,172.1
1,681.9
2,124.1
810.9
149.0
103.6
1,263.6
152.2
385.8
1,337.0
2,738.5
729.1
7,402.7
13,775.6
6,999.8
3,379.2
21,038.1
731.2
166.9
157.4
43.3
358.1
106.2
165.2
2,313.5
409.0
4,900.8
1,174.8
1,610.5
1,333.7
421.8
77.9
260.5
467.0
68.9
211.7
2,499.4
1,370.5
440.4
11,152.8
17,293.6
7,819.9
1,948.6
22,898.9
335.3
352.7
246.1
27.5
217.0
250.0
192.5
1,518.6
751.3
2,492.4
1,150.4
791.5
886.1
218.4
47.1
305.1
282.0
36.0
527.5
1,658.8
827.8
526.6
12,616.4
17,622.4
6,829.4
1,370.5
9,715.3
225.9
111.8
292.1
18.1
135.7
1,099.8
228.6
707.1
600.5
1,478.4
1,044.7
1,347.5
continues
1,718.5
451.1
410.5
244.4
908.3
127.9
695.4
2,774.0
3,441.4
2,346.7
10,187.3
14,085.4
6,478.2
3,853.1
30,078.1
329.5
281.9
168.6
349.6
208.5
1,090.8
122.6
2,846.9
690.9
3,436.7
1,207.7
308
Thlewiaza
Tigris and
62
155
Tone
Tranh (Nr
169
225
339,084.2
Uwimbu
Vaenern-Goeta
Van Golu
383
61
404
Ural
Tweed
Ulua
91
362
Uruguay
Tugela
Tuloma
335
14
97
4,770.9
26,392.0
Tsiribihina
317
334
26,057.7
Trinity (Texas)
189
17,736.8
51,791.5
29,373.9
265,504.6
30,079.3
61,991.9
46,168.2
Trent
9,052.9
9,459.9
15,739.3
774,718.3
832,578.6
64,399.6
7,527.1
238,839.0
12,358.9
5,769.0
70,351.7
152,086.0
1,051,731.4
Area (km2)
102
Thu Bon)
Tocantins
273
Euphrates
Thelon
Thjorsa
45
47
Tenryu
Thames
174
113
Taz
Tejo
27
Tarim
358
152
Basin Name
continued
Basin ID
D ATA T A B L E 8
117.9
1,198.3
8,952.7
15,702.5
324.2
1,735.8
575.8
94.6
758.7
9,631.8
588.6
691.4
2,007.0
936.2
82,937.0
15,514.6
91.9
422.1
478.4
726.2
584.8
2,713.3
989.9
241.9
Jan
0.6
3.2
5,395.2
5,633.7
5.7
77.7
239.8
11.6
786.8
9,804.7
822.5
368.2
45.2
260.8
65,826.8
16,609.9
10.3
33.1
0.1
447.7
291.0
2,202.2
6.0
77.0
Feb
127.0
2,259.8
6,379.0
8,112.2
165.2
42.4
225.1
7.1
752.8
9,049.7
766.2
303.2
24.6
691.8
71,926.3
22,140.0
6.2
91.6
0.0
361.1
511.3
3,261.5
3.6
269.6
Mar
1,118.2
5,377.8
5,992.2
13,990.4
10,759.3
31.4
158.2
4.4
372.3
4,154.5
973.4
213.3
16.4
1,057.7
45,721.6
25,647.8
3.7
1,123.0
0.0
237.6
839.0
2,062.1
2.2
593.6
Apr
1,378.3
2,297.5
6,010.0
16,949.4
3,817.4
19.3
110.7
1,732.1
204.5
2,354.3
839.8
137.6
71.3
983.0
24,110.4
18,735.0
1,834.1
1,723.6
6,190.9
136.9
748.4
1,343.3
12,922.1
1,657.0
May
489.2
1,379.5
5,432.3
19,158.1
2,162.0
510.5
72.3
547.3
126.4
1,436.8
365.7
80.5
290.8
973.7
14,567.5
10,281.7
666.0
1,322.4
10,749.7
78.4
861.4
834.4
23,163.4
2,845.3
Jun
294.9
819.2
5,263.6
16,344.5
1,470.8
1,791.6
54.4
300.0
86.3
893.2
234.6
56.5
883.2
1,058.8
8,930.8
7,368.3
339.5
662.2
3,370.2
49.7
816.6
721.8
7,321.6
3,326.7
Jul
184.2
707.0
5,126.4
15,620.3
948.2
1,997.4
61.3
180.4
74.3
545.1
152.1
51.0
1,278.8
1,240.9
5,585.4
5,738.1
204.2
584.0
2,026.8
32.4
724.3
559.4
4,370.1
2,360.3
Aug
112.7
791.8
5,387.6
18,876.7
527.8
3,135.9
91.1
119.2
66.9
328.9
98.0
49.0
1,770.6
1,561.5
3,923.1
3,544.0
198.6
668.7
1,686.6
21.8
1,026.6
292.8
3,193.2
1,351.4
Sep
115.2
1,475.7
4,552.8
20,160.7
322.1
2,748.5
172.0
121.3
64.9
198.3
66.6
67.1
2,724.1
1,541.0
3,979.0
2,291.3
94.1
840.8
859.5
18.4
888.4
124.7
1,738.0
540.9
Oct
230.6
1,616.9
4,357.4
12,864.3
587.8
1,916.8
311.6
55.2
86.0
299.2
52.7
198.0
2,418.9
979.8
16,536.2
3,575.7
56.8
478.5
519.1
131.8
635.8
136.5
1,049.7
295.2
Nov
77.6
1,037.2
5,401.7
9,587.2
214.5
1,262.0
366.0
33.5
376.1
2,841.4
255.9
402.5
1,615.2
683.0
44,543.4
7,623.3
34.3
288.8
313.5
395.2
438.9
1,182.1
634.0
164.1
Dec
353.9
1,580.3
5,687.6
14,416.7
1,775.4
1,272.4
203.2
267.2
313.0
3,461.5
434.7
218.2
1,095.5
997.3
32,382.3
11,589.1
295.0
686.6
2,182.9
219.8
697.2
1,286.2
4,616.2
1,143.6
Average
309
Western Dvina
76
Yangtze
177
8,182.2
214,406.5
829,632.3
Yodo
Yongding He
Yukon
Zambezi
178
151
16
293
1,388,572.2
8,424.2
2,558,237.3
Yaqui
Yenisei
193
76,181.7
1,745,094.4
233,479.4
362,894.3
193,764.0
106,470.3
89,340.3
43,140.2
15,358.7
62,707.4
414,004.1
1,408,278.9
78,462.4
18,342.8
(Chang Jiang)
Xi Jiang
Yana
201
Winisk
Wisla
94
98
(Daugava)
Waikato
Weser
347
103
Volta
Vuoksi
227
52
Victoria
Volga
305
64
Varzuga
Verde
32
223
47.2
73,279.9
4,850.3
174.7
1,063.4
16,135.2
15.8
40,746.3
896.1
8,372.9
947.0
890.2
772.7
3,511.3
1,209.9
334.8
2,522.1
3,091.7
0.1
378.7
0.0
82,019.0
252.5
403.8
536.0
742.2
30.2
20,673.1
72.8
2,682.6
37.8
2.1
2.1
2,008.3
436.0
1.2
7.7
147.2
20.4
2.9
0.0
0.0
5.5
6.9
68,514.8
152.7
1,472.8
654.4
452.4
63.2
48,340.7
44.0
4,932.3
12,812.8
1.3
2.1
1,895.7
382.1
1.2
80.1
159.2
25,796.8
4,190.9
10,190.2
2,977.1
902.7
1,271.4
2,968.3
828.4
51,088.9
3.3
4.5
683.9
7,535.9
44,596.4
2,577.5
4,433.5
1,713.6
617.5
1,642.5
1,728.3
2,616.6
28,581.8
2.0
10.1
188.7
110.1
6,820.7
41,263.7
1,781.3
2,449.4
1,016.3
504.3
1,617.1
1,039.2
3,570.8
17,230.0
1.2
365.4
66.6
3,807.3
42,397.2
1,243.2
1,479.2
619.6
484.0
1,551.8
643.3
8,402.5
10,747.1
0.7
850.4
112.4
1,832.6
25,138.3
858.0
2,350.9
425.3
501.8
1,388.8
560.3
11,296.3
6,887.4
0.4
1,648.0
36.0
24.2
32,327.8
943.7
2,529.4
713.4
18,268.1
53,166.5
2,501.8
583.0
10,936.3
48,766.9
1,275.4
743.8
7,752.7 162,714.9 162,047.8
72.9
6,663.6
29,776.4
1,729.3
675.6
97,190.0
49.0
4,203.7
16,607.0
2,397.6
510.1
64,240.9
61.5
2,618.2
12,906.1
1,071.8
768.0
48,091.7
44.6
86,583.8 114,954.9 136,756.4 119,291.0 113,382.9 101,024.6
26.6
10,762.2
6,810.9
3,470.5
9,180.8
1,397.8
601.3
10,528.9
291.8
747.6 140,132.1
14.0
6.5
140.1
1,621.8
7,648.1
442.9
820.6
24,440.8
29.0
67,829.6
1,106.8
14,767.9
779.6
2,486.7
849.3
819.6
1,356.2
960.4
5,427.0
6,486.8
0.3
893.8
51.2
1,305.4
4,212.2
185.1
652.7
14,455.9
14.8
41,278.9
668.5
8,958.4
1,157.5
957.9
1,548.2
1,601.5
1,080.3
387.0
2,744.7
3,165.6
0.2
414.1
30.9
21,500.8
2,544.3
137.8
632.7
8,735.1
15.8
25,519.8
403.8
5,447.9
847.9
578.6
507.4
2,294.1
781.6
220.0
1,654.9
1,902.0
0.1
250.8
119.3
26,938.3
15,152.2
1,193.5
696.1
50,583.3
38.1
76,365.2
1,947.9
19,593.0
2,837.0
2,440.9
1,634.5
1,378.2
1,109.9
1,614.4
3,286.9
22,517.4
4.0
402.7
D A T A
T A B L E
Area Equipped for Irrigation

Actually Irrigated
Description
The area equipped for agricultural irrigation that is actually irrigated is listed here by
major country, in thousands of hectares (1,000 ha), for different ve-year periods. The
periods are 19881992, 19931997, 19982002, 20032007, and 20082012. Within each of
these periods, data are typically available for only a single year, listed in the column labeled Actual Year of Data. Thus, for Afghanistan (the rst entry), three data points are
available, for the years 1990, 2002, and 2011, as noted.
The area actually irrigated is typically less than the area capable of being irrigated (or
equipped for irrigation), since actual water availability, climatic conditions, economic
factors, and decisions about cropping and fallowing patterns vary annually.
Countries not included on this list either have no irrigation or no reported datatheir
absence from the list is not an indication of which condition applies.
Limitations
Data are collected by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),
usually through country reports and information about crop production. Different
methods of collecting these data are used in different regions. All of the data are made
available through the FAOs AQUASTAT database, as noted below. For some countries,
data are available for only a single year.
Sources
UN FAO. 2013. AQUASTAT database. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. http://www.fao.org (accessed February 6, 2013).
310
311
2,660
366
1,340
2,738
1
2,700
24
1990
1992
1992
1989
1992
1989
1992
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Period
19881992
of Data
Actual Year
Period
46
1995
1995
1997
1995
1
43
27
173
1995
1994
35
19931997
1996
of Data
Actual Year
Area Equipped for Irrigation Actually Irrigated (1,000 ha)
Country
D ATA T A B L E 9
2002
1999
2002
2002
2002
2001
2002
of Data
Actual Year
Period
31
128
1,352
1,356
453
1,732
19982002
2007
2006
2007
2007
2007
2004
2006
2007
of Data
Actual Year
Period
73
4,454
28
43
1,356
176
107
20032007
2011
2008
2011
2010
2011
2009
of Data
Actual Year
Period
41
17
31
1,358
1,896
205
continues
20082012
312
continued
Period
2
13
44,418
2,585
1988
1992
1989
1990
19881992
1988
of Data
Actual Year
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo
Costa Rica
Cte dIvoire
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Country
D ATA T A B L E 9
Period
13
2
1993
1995
1995
613
3,246
103
67
738
33
1997
1994
1997
1994
1997
1993
45,017
242
19931997
1995
1997
1993
of Data
Actual Year
1999
1999
2000
2002
2000
2002
2001
of Data
Actual Year
Period
0
270
620
3,422
26
255
19982002
Period
254
31
20
2007
2007
2007
102
1,094
54,219
317
20032007
2006
2007
2006
2006
of Data
Actual Year
2010
of Data
Actual Year
Period
20082012
313
Ethiopia
Finland
France
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Iran (Islamic Republic of )
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao Peoples Democratic Republic
65
55
47,430
1,935
2,697
3,012
67
1991
1991
1991
1990
1990
1990
1992
127
933
1990
1990
1991
23
1996
1994
1994
1995
1993
1997
1993
5
1,077
138
2,649
25
3,128
7,264
4
1,163
130
1994
1997
1997
1993
274
1996
2000
2000
1998
296
2,453
67
58,130
95
2001
2000
2001
28
1,161
2000
2000
2003
2003
2005
2005
2006
2006
2007
2006
2006
2007
2005
2007
2003
2006
2007
97
7
1,021
271
2,600
182
2,666
6,423
61
88
59,206
1,280
312
235
1,512
2011
2010
2008
2010
2010
1,021
1,265
62,286
30
15
continues
314
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Lithuania
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Malta
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Oman
Panama
Peru
Country
D ATA T A B L E 9
continued
Period
240
895
27
1
5,150
1,056
6
172
1992
1992
1990
1989
1990
1992
1991
19881992
1990
of Data
Actual Year
Period
51
1997
62
28
1,109
45
1,582
1995
1995
1993
1997
1994
5,505
63
27
19931997
1997
1993
1994
1994
of Data
Actual Year
Period
2000
2000
2000
2002
2000
2001
27
65
222
384
1,407
40
21
176
2000
2002
550
316
90
0
19982002
2000
2000
1998
1999
of Data
Actual Year
Period
66
219
55
202
509
2007
2007
2005
2004
2007
2,110
1,448
5,439
3
23
20032007
2004
2004
2007
2007
2004
2007
2007
of Data
Actual Year
of Data
Actual Year
Period
20082012
315
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Slovakia
Somalia
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan and South Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Tajikistan
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Togo
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
631
6
225
1,608
2
322
1990
1990
1992
1992
1990
1991
719
1994
1994
3,098
6
3
1,197
1995
1996
1997
69
4,095
1994
1997
8
210
1,471
1993
1994
1993
2000
393
29
1,210
2000
2002
800
51
45
111
65
1,498
1,191
2000
1998
2002
2000
2000
2000
1999
2001
2006
2007
4,320
5,060
54
463
2006
2007
0
39
72
422
16
6
32
173
2003
2007
2007
2007
2007
2004
2007
2007
2008
2008
2010
2011
2009
2011
2008
5,280
674
36
1,601
3,093
34
continues
316
continued
of Data
Actual Year
Turkmenistan
Uganda
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
Vietnam
1990
Zambia
1992
Zimbabwe
Country
D ATA T A B L E 9
Period
2,100
46
19881992
Period
22,779
4,202
1997
1994
2,100
1,845
54
1995
1993
1994
1,744
19931997
1994
of Data
Actual Year
2002
1999
1998
2002
1998
1998
2002
of Data
Actual Year
Period
156
124
308
22,384
181
6
730
19982002
Period
2005
2005
4,585
3,700
22,905
138
2007
2007
731
1,991
20032007
2003
2006
of Data
Actual Year
2008
2008
2010
2010
of Data
Actual Year
Period
979
22,229
76
12
20082012
D A T A
T A B L E
1 0
Overseas Development Assistance

for Water Supply and Sanitation,
by Donating Country, 20042011
Description
The annual overseas development assistance, or ofcial development assistance (ODA),
for water supply and sanitation is listed here, by donating country (and European Union
institutions), for the years 2004 through 2011. Shown are the total amounts committed,
in current US dollars in millions.
ODA is the term given to funding that ows from governments or multilateral institutions for the purpose of providing aid to countries. This funding is usually provided for
the purpose of promoting economic development and welfare and is concessional in
character and conveys a grant element of at least 25 percent. ODA can take a number of
forms, including technical assistance, investment projects, debt forgiveness or rescheduling, equity investments, and other assistance. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Developments (OECDs) Development Assistance Committee (DAC)
identies eleven subsectors in the water supply and sanitation category:
Water resources policy and administrative management
Water resources protection
Water supply and sanitationlarge systems
Water supplylarge systems
Sanitationlarge systems
Basic drinking water supply and basic sanitation
Basic drinking water supply
Basic sanitation
River development
Waste management and disposal
Education and training in water supply and sanitation
Data table 11 provides a breakdown of ODA for water supply and sanitation by these
subsectors.
317
318
Limitations
ODA does not constitute all the funding that ows to developing countries, such as other
public sector or private sector ows; hence, these numbers do not reect all funding for
water projects. In addition, not all ODA described as related to water supply and sanitation may ow to purely water projects.
Source
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2013. Query Wizard for
International Development Statistics. http://stats.oecd.org/qwids/.
319
D ATA T A B L E 10 Overseas Development Assistance for Water Supply and Sanitation,

by Donating Country, 20042011
Current (Millions US$)
Country/Agency
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Australia
30.19
34.50
6.43
15.01
13.90
44.68
171.38
230.33
Austria
20.08
16.77
20.40
24.15
36.58
23.16
17.99
26.57
Belgium
24.70
37.79
55.16
47.98
102.96
61.33
48.93
69.84
Canada
79.76
41.09
18.54
24.33
46.96
73.85
19.47
44.99
245.43
98.90
144.62
31.66
19.01
164.95
140.81
88.07
6.05
43.34
44.17
30.59
51.18
54.32
99.35
122.20
Denmark
Finland
France
175.50
114.85
237.42
391.23
359.65
802.77
495.60
323.02
Germany
435.75
382.26
497.14
593.96
906.44
820.47
750.81
1,040.71
Greece
1.39
0.52
1.03
2.78
0.76
2.99
0.12
Iceland
0.39
Ireland
19.15
16.83
16.91
22.80
28.15
17.47
9.97
10.70
5.89
69.00
54.50
59.69
163.41
55.94
63.29
13.92
Japan
709.47
2,128.66
1,250.89
1,930.07
1,668.24
2,786.04
1,933.26
1,711.10
Korea
78.31
101.56
80.76
74.52
269.70
70.71
283.15
172.13
Italy
Luxembourg
14.38
12.43
10.27
12.95
19.02
22.29
20.30
21.54
Netherlands
146.50
191.69
455.15
359.27
373.08
196.51
69.28
129.53
New Zealand
Norway
Portugal
1.76
2.16
2.77
3.58
3.21
2.58
1.53
5.83
32.26
42.53
28.02
46.60
44.65
40.66
50.86
17.76
2.17
2.48
0.63
1.57
0.32
0.42
0.99
0.63
Spain
78.47
58.02
69.03
121.45
577.07
577.77
308.44
155.11
Sweden
43.77
68.73
64.32
46.72
76.90
75.37
45.31
66.30
Switzerland
31.57
35.77
31.74
34.31
49.28
43.06
49.26
331.51
United Kingdom
29.46
44.26
51.16
104.88
160.66
114.32
156.94
170.45
United States
954.69
1,023.27
817.79
432.14
846.78
461.91
431.34
465.40
EU Institutions
413.17
687.16
726.55
490.50
170.28
528.11
678.11
603.69
43.27
40.22
Multilateral, Total
1,476.04
1,346.75
1,807.02
1,955.88
1,676.51
1,682.27
2,326.53
3,141.53
All Donors Total
5,055.91
6,601.32
6,492.42
6,858.62
7,664.70
8,723.95
8,216.29
9,003.47
Kuwait (KFAED)
D A T A
T A B L E
1 1

for Water Supply and Sanitation,
by Subsector, 20072011 (Total of
All Donating Countries)
Description
The allocation of total overseas development assistance (ODA) commitments for water
supply and sanitation by all donating countries is provided in this table, from 2007 to
2011, in millions of dollars. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developments (OECDs) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) recently expanded the categories from previous years, and it now identies the following eleven subsectors in the
water supply and sanitation category:
Water resources policy and administrative management
Water supply and sanitationlarge systems
Basic drinking water supply and basic sanitation
Basic sanitation
River development
Education and training in water supply and sanitation
By far the largest expenditure is for large-scale water supply and sanitation projects;
basic water supply and sanitation projects generally receive less than half as much funding as large-scale projects. One concern of many analysts is that much ODA is directed
to serving wealthier populations, or to improving services to populations that are already
at least partly served by existing systems, and hence does not contribute to meeting the
water- and sanitation-related Millennium Development Goals.
320
Data Section
321
Limitations
ODA does not constitute all of the funding that ows to developing countries, such as
other public sector or private sector ows; hence, these numbers do not reect all funding for water projects. These data do not readily compare with those published in the
previous volume of The Worlds Water as a result of changes in categorizations by the
OECD. The development statistics provided by the OECD do not clearly differentiate
where there might be double-counting of assistance in multiple categories.
Source
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2013. Query Wizard for
International Development Statistics. http://stats.oecd.org/qwids/.
322
D ATA T A B L E 11 Overseas Development Assistance for Water Supply and Sanitation,

by Subsector, 2007 to 2011 (Total of All Donating Countries)
Amount Committed in Millions of Dollars
Water Sector(s)
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Water resources policy and

administrative management
Water supply and sanitation
large systems
and basic sanitation
Basic sanitation
River development
Education and training in
water supply and sanitation
Water Supply and Sanitation
Total
762.04
927.19
795.70
980.29
842.79
128.65
3,980.24
247.58
4,555.75
172.47
4,163.96
69.95
2,146.08
193.92
1,417.39
978.62
1,170.90
3,027.27
1,333.36
639.25
962.34
1,504.10
1,506.55
1,067.98
282.18
414.94
16.17
411.89
155.04
67.02
219.74
255.07
16.70
664.46
409.87
234.88
270.26
69.35
402.73
160.46
377.62
373.46
76.82
6,562.82
7,535.37
8,650.92
7,780.09
7,923.82
D A T A
T A B L E
1 2
Per Capita Water Footprint of

National Consumption, by Country,
19962005
Description
Conventional estimates of national water use have historically been restricted to statistics on water withdrawals within national boundaries. In recent years, a new approach
has been developed and applied to calculate water footprints, which include water use
(typically withdrawals and consumption, estimated separately), the use of green water
and grey water, and information about water used in other countries to produce imported products. Quantifying these national water footprints is an evolving eld.
The data here include the per capita water footprint for internal and external water
consumption by country, measured in cubic meters per person per year (m3/cap/yr),
averaged over the decade 19962005. Data on population assumptions are also shown. A
distinction is made between green and blue water. In addition, the authors include
the grey water footprint in the estimation of the water footprint in each sector, an estimate of the footprint of farm animal products, and details on the water footprints of
national imports and exports.
Freshwater footprints are reported in terms of water volumes consumed (evaporated
or incorporated into a product) or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint has three
components: green, blue, and grey. The blue water footprint refers to use of surface
water and groundwater. The green water footprint is the volume of rainwater consumed, which is particularly relevant in agricultural production. The grey water footprint is a measure of freshwater pollution and is dened as the volume of freshwater
required to assimilate a load of pollutants.
Limitations
While the concept of the water footprint is an extremely valuable one, the process for
computing footprints continues to evolve, and data sets continue to improve. For example, water withdrawal numbers are often not accurately or consistently reported (see,
e.g., the description of data table 2). Estimates of agricultural water use depend on a mix
of implicit and explicit assumptions about actual irrigation levels, climatic data for certain crop types, and irrigation technologies. Some consumer categories are not included
323
324
or accurately estimated. Estimates of the water footprint of imported goods are produced using global averages because of constraints on information of the location of
exported goods. The grey water footprint estimates are based on a limited set of pollutantsleaching and runoff of nitrogen fertilizersand exclude the potential effects of
other agricultural chemicals, including pesticides.
See the original source for far more detail on the fundamental assumptions and limitations of the footprint approach.
Source
Mekonnen, M. M., and A. Y. Hoekstra. 2011. National Water Footprint Accounts: The Green, Blue
and Grey Water Footprint of Production and Consumption. Value of Water Research Report
Series No. 50. Delft, Netherlands: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. http://www
.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report50-NationalWaterFootprints-Vol1.pdf.
325
Total
(Thousands)
3,084.9
30,767.4
14,609.8
77.4
37,060.0
3,089.5
19,320.0
8,057.3
8,155.3
306.3
141,966.7
253.0
10,030.1
10,401.0
254.6
6,820.0
63.0
8,408.8
3,631.7
1,725.8
175,307.6
336.8
7,988.3
11,950.2
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Population
602.2
634.6
798.4
391.2
1,288.3
516.3
1,716.9
396.3
510.0
200.8
477.9
553.0
1,091.2
34.5
1,154.7
1,020.2
6.8
3,063.9
659.0
1,202.0
1,644.8
25.5
1,478.9
1,600.1
Green
106.4
93.8
14.2
5.3
104.3
134.6
194.9
16.2
176.6
57.3
19.9
19.3
21.7
39.2
1.9
2.0
47.4
4.7
13.9
57.7
0.0
35.1
16.7
Blue
Internal
218.9
43.6
8.2
44.0
152.8
237.1
130.7
92.9
198.3
99.8
255.5
223.4
148.9
585.9
14.5
4.8
29.2
33.2
54.9
137.5
0.0
352.7
28.5
Grey
492.7
700.6
108.4
828.0
35.0
450.2
136.3
738.1
310.6
1,348.9
98.1
941.3
215.8
1,181.2
120.9
67.3
1,706.9
295.9
408.2
561.7
159.6
2,796.4
330.3
37.4
Green
78.7
51.2
14.7
100.9
5.6
41.8
21.5
82.5
26.0
167.4
22.5
117.3
44.2
120.5
38.5
20.3
230.2
15.3
28.8
179.8
12.7
334.1
47.6
14.6
Blue
External
56.4
65.7
14.3
198.5
20.7
58.8
114.3
271.5
23.3
415.8
13.0
202.9
123.8
380.7
71.0
11.9
1,044.7
16.2
122.2
38.9
14.8
264.5
52.2
5.7
Grey
Water Footprint of National Consumption
Per Capita Water Footprint of National Consumption, by Country, 19962005 (m3/cap/yr)
Country
D ATA T A B L E 12
1,094.9
1,335.2
906.8
1,219.2
1,323.4
966.5
1,853.3
1,134.4
820.6
1,549.7
576.0
1,494.2
1,306.9
1,215.7
1,275.7
1,087.5
1,713.7
3,359.9
1,067.3
1,763.7
1,804.4
2,821.9
1,809.2
1,637.5
Green
185.0
145.0
28.9
106.2
109.9
176.4
216.3
98.7
202.6
167.4
79.8
137.2
63.5
142.2
77.8
22.1
232.1
62.7
33.4
193.7
70.4
334.1
82.6
31.2
Blue
Total
275.3
109.4
22.6
242.6
173.5
295.8
245.0
364.4
221.6
415.8
112.8
458.4
347.2
529.6
656.9
26.5
1,049.5
45.3
155.5
93.8
152.3
264.5
405.0
34.2
Grey
continues
1,555.2
1,589.5
958.3
1,567.9
1,606.8
1,438.8
2,314.6
1,597.5
1,244.9
2,132.9
768.6
2,089.9
1,717.6
1,887.5
2,010.4
1,136.1
2,995.3
3,467.9
1,256.1
2,051.2
2,027.1
3,420.6
2,296.8
1,702.9
Total
326
continued
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo, Republic
Costa Rica
Cte dIvoire
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Dominica
Dominican Republic
East Timor
Ecuador
Country
D ATA T A B L E 12
Total
6,651.7
12,834.1
16,080.9
30,889.0
442.6
3,772.3
8,614.3
15,492.1
1,277,208.3
40,093.6
710.2
52,052.6
3,096.2
3,962.9
17,422.3
4,520.8
11,090.9
790.9
10,228.3
5,339.5
68.1
8,900.7
868.1
12,367.9
(Thousands)
Population
677.3
955.7
1,144.8
1,345.1
599.3
1,147.8
1,425.0
451.5
614.3
894.5
1,107.4
529.8
506.6
687.7
1,158.5
892.7
1,189.6
364.4
818.6
512.7
2,169.8
740.4
1,748.0
1,388.6
Green
15.0
54.1
10.5
79.7
22.9
19.3
20.3
150.8
106.3
48.0
2.9
2.1
7.5
60.5
8.2
1.1
93.1
229.3
15.2
13.3
105.3
43.0
136.3
Blue
Internal
9.8
6.5
21.9
426.1
4.1
5.3
4.2
166.5
243.7
158.8
6.7
4.0
10.6
277.0
31.1
143.0
179.6
91.0
203.2
97.1
23.9
105.9
244.8
Grey
13.2
47.7
37.5
254.9
495.1
14.4
7.7
327.3
86.2
227.0
102.1
10.2
191.3
348.5
45.5
462.3
175.2
1,317.9
418.2
709.4
361.8
366.6
48.1
199.2
Green
1.3
8.3
21.2
73.8
65.0
2.9
2.6
20.0
11.2
18.7
84.9
3.4
47.9
49.8
36.6
36.6
12.6
120.0
64.5
82.2
83.5
25.2
10.6
11.8
Blue
External
2.0
5.6
9.1
153.6
57.8
3.3
1.9
38.5
9.4
28.0
21.1
2.7
22.3
66.9
15.6
152.1
37.0
262.8
130.9
219.9
77.4
57.9
13.6
26.0
Grey
690.5
1,003.5
1,182.3
1,600.0
1,094.4
1,162.3
1,432.7
778.8
700.5
1,121.5
1,209.5
540.0
697.9
1,036.2
1,204.0
1,355.0
1,364.9
1,682.3
1,236.7
1,222.1
2,531.7
1,107.0
1,796.1
1,587.9
Green
16.3
62.4
31.7
153.6
87.9
22.2
23.0
170.8
117.5
66.6
87.9
5.4
55.4
110.3
44.8
37.7
105.7
349.3
79.7
95.5
83.5
130.5
53.6
148.0
Blue
Total
11.8
12.1
31.0
579.7
61.8
8.6
6.1
205.0
253.1
186.8
27.8
6.6
32.9
343.9
46.7
295.0
216.6
353.8
334.2
317.0
101.3
163.8
13.6
270.9
Grey
718.6
1,077.9
1,245.0
2,333.3
1,244.1
1,193.1
1,461.7
1,154.6
1,071.1
1,374.9
1,325.2
552.1
786.2
1,490.4
1,295.5
1,687.8
1,687.2
2,385.4
1,650.6
1,634.6
2,716.5
1,401.3
1,863.2
2,006.8
Total
327
Egypt
El Salvador
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Fiji Islands
Finland
France
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Ireland
Israel
Italy
70,957.6
5,944.5
3,786.8
1,372.7
66,511.7
803.6
5,181.9
59,435.5
237.9
1,245.3
1,324.9
4,719.9
82,138.8
19,784.5
10,937.4
101.5
11,412.4
8,463.3
1,325.7
759.1
8,719.4
6,299.4
10,199.8
282.2
1,051,289.5
206,706.2
67,157.7
3,868.6
6,134.0
57,520.5
150.8
578.9
533.1
712.5
1,107.7
1,195.0
651.0
735.3
907.3
1,020.4
541.9
1,219.7
311.4
1,091.4
890.9
1,267.2
713.0
1,492.1
1,028.8
1,046.5
780.9
913.5
1,547.2
14.5
685.5
854.8
749.4
278.8
207.4
629.3
506.6
13.6
2.7
8.0
23.3
2.8
18.0
48.4
2.6
15.0
1.8
97.0
18.0
3.3
218.6
2.2
15.0
6.6
65.0
101.0
26.4
19.4
24.5
31.7
216.7
48.8
568.1
9.7
145.2
66.7
301.3
115.4
8.1
110.4
9.8
51.0
79.4
156.4
6.2
52.9
12.2
282.3
116.2
19.3
142.1
68.8
16.3
19.7
159.6
6.0
71.4
303.5
195.9
159.0
107.0
215.6
79.9
72.9
209.5
333.8
249.3
494.1
601.9
20.4
415.6
406.2
618.1
630.6
271.1
246.4
587.4
741.9
57.7
761.1
636.9
136.1
52.7
31.2
165.2
141.0
123.3
369.2
1,468.9
22.4
77.8
289.5
660.8
1,583.1
1,091.2
20.1
37.4
27.1
148.5
1.8
59.1
61.5
86.8
146.9
55.2
52.4
35.3
67.2
21.0
107.4
94.5
18.8
26.4
40.2
23.4
49.9
28.0
41.2
102.3
2.2
24.3
20.7
99.0
108.1
126.1
28.5
37.9
23.8
138.4
4.2
43.8
197.7
140.6
182.8
36.2
32.2
45.7
171.6
14.2
218.0
153.3
31.0
11.4
12.7
52.7
25.6
21.9
98.4
295.5
3.0
10.8
23.2
173.2
186.1
180.3
484.5
828.2
1,027.2
1,314.4
1,128.1
1,610.6
1,057.2
1,353.4
1,537.9
1,291.5
788.2
1,807.1
1,053.3
1,149.0
1,652.0
1,904.1
849.0
1,544.9
1,060.0
1,211.7
921.9
1,036.7
1,916.3
1,483.4
707.9
932.7
1,038.9
939.6
1,790.5
1,720.5
526.7
51.0
29.8
156.5
25.1
61.9
79.5
135.2
149.5
70.2
54.2
132.3
85.1
24.3
326.0
96.7
33.8
33.0
105.2
124.5
76.3
47.4
65.7
133.9
218.9
73.1
588.8
108.7
253.3
192.7
329.8
153.3
31.9
248.8
14.0
94.7
277.2
297.0
189.0
89.1
44.4
328.0
287.8
33.5
360.1
153.3
99.8
27.7
32.4
212.2
31.6
93.3
401.8
491.4
162.0
117.7
238.7
253.2
259.0
389.8
continues
1,341.0
1,032.5
1,088.9
1,719.7
1,167.2
1,767.3
1,413.9
1,785.7
1,876.4
1,450.8
886.9
2,267.5
1,426.3
1,206.9
2,338.1
2,154.0
982.7
1,605.6
1,197.6
1,548.4
1,029.8
1,177.5
2,383.9
2,108.7
1,088.8
1,123.5
1,866.5
1,301.4
2,302.7
2,302.9
328
Total
2,578.4
126,741.3
4,956.1
15,160.4
31,935.3
85.0
22,867.1
46,443.0
2,251.5
4,961.6
5,431.9
2,368.7
3,816.5
1,890.3
2,790.3
5,411.9
3,501.4
450.5
2,010.5
15,529.4
12,005.8
23,458.2
273.5
10,701.0
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Korea, Democratic Peoples Rep
Korea, Republic
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Population
(Thousands)
continued
Country
D ATA T A B L E 12
838.5
176.6
112.5
1,710.6
875.1
2,341.6
542.5
252.4
6.6
495.4
891.0
1,036.6
303.4
1,533.5
1,064.7
301.2
1,048.4
508.9
602.2
1,329.4
804.1
1,240.6
221.8
1,769.6
Green
23.8
29.3
82.0
355.5
10.9
70.1
25.9
40.9
249.7
67.8
8.6
186.6
4.2
2.6
283.6
6.7
7.2
49.6
148.4
13.8
56.5
5.3
145.6
Blue
Internal
83.9
112.9
43.8
175.7
24.1
149.6
78.6
170.8
99.1
43.2
150.2
82.3
15.5
15.4
129.0
58.9
110.2
182.4
38.7
59.9
128.6
15.6
54.5
Grey
585.7
832.8
1,126.3
81.1
155.8
314.7
91.0
1,032.7
1,412.9
593.5
27.3
289.9
1,245.0
40.2
64.8
981.3
218.3
1,432.2
382.7
36.2
48.4
503.3
813.5
54.8
Green
66.2
61.7
167.3
17.9
23.6
148.8
17.0
85.4
251.0
27.9
4.3
55.5
148.0
33.0
33.2
227.7
47.7
96.3
43.0
16.2
3.1
96.3
164.2
11.1
Blue
External
98.0
165.8
146.2
35.6
11.9
54.1
18.2
154.2
190.2
33.8
7.9
256.0
146.2
13.1
53.8
115.6
135.9
359.5
88.0
7.2
6.9
78.1
140.6
8.2
Grey
1,424.2
1,009.4
1,238.8
1,791.7
1,031.0
2,656.3
633.4
1,285.2
1,419.5
1,088.9
918.3
1,326.5
1,548.4
1,573.7
1,129.5
1,282.5
1,266.7
1,941.2
984.8
1,365.6
852.6
1,743.9
1,035.3
1,824.4
Green
90.0
91.0
249.3
373.4
34.4
148.8
87.1
111.3
291.9
277.6
72.1
64.1
334.7
37.2
35.8
511.3
54.4
103.5
92.6
164.6
17.0
152.8
169.5
156.7
Blue
Total
181.9
278.7
189.9
211.3
35.9
54.1
167.9
232.8
361.0
132.9
51.1
406.2
228.5
28.7
69.3
244.5
194.8
469.6
270.4
45.9
66.8
206.7
156.2
62.7
Grey
1,696.2
1,379.0
1,678.0
2,376.4
1,101.3
2,859.2
888.4
1,629.3
2,072.4
1,499.4
1,041.4
1,796.8
2,111.5
1,639.5
1,234.6
2,038.3
1,516.0
2,514.3
1,347.8
1,576.1
936.3
2,103.3
1,361.1
2,043.8
Total
329
Malta
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Moldova
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Occupied Palestinian Territory
Pakistan
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
391.0
2,648.1
1,199.6
99,810.4
4,051.3
2,409.3
28,961.9
18,560.9
46,626.5
1,839.1
24,707.0
15,946.9
216.8
3,905.5
5,125.0
11,272.1
126,648.8
4,501.6
3,221.2
149,801.8
2,979.1
5,406.5
26,157.7
78,472.9
38,408.0
10,278.4
22,089.3
146,082.3
7,735.9
46.4
74.1
1,262.0
371.9
840.0
983.2
1,316.3
981.3
1,022.6
1,124.8
1,169.4
944.6
43.6
550.6
477.3
682.6
3,351.9
1,147.3
344.7
788.8
535.5
747.2
1,789.1
502.4
994.4
778.0
696.3
1,183.2
1,374.8
775.2
593.4
20.1
84.4
26.8
101.7
105.9
40.7
171.1
8.3
42.2
22.9
115.1
12.7
0.2
90.3
30.2
64.5
12.3
21.6
120.4
406.6
37.2
41.9
135.4
51.9
18.6
161.9
39.4
55.9
3.0
0.2
88.6
62.1
153.6
195.3
138.3
87.0
69.2
9.9
27.7
53.1
20.9
22.9
35.8
104.9
53.8
12.6
19.1
86.3
68.1
172.3
162.5
66.6
97.2
145.2
262.4
146.1
217.0
191.7
6.0
1.2
1,600.7
1,036.8
1,238.9
661.1
55.7
2,207.8
424.2
61.8
18.0
339.6
94.9
1,012.3
1,100.4
720.0
104.6
59.1
43.9
678.8
30.1
191.7
311.5
26.1
307.8
133.0
232.6
1,157.9
161.5
174.1
24.4
706.7
186.6
85.0
219.2
88.5
14.8
54.6
37.7
9.3
1.3
68.4
9.9
116.2
128.2
58.4
20.2
22.6
11.6
100.9
6.7
15.2
34.6
12.2
16.1
26.2
40.2
201.3
37.3
39.1
5.4
127.9
245.7
34.9
150.3
91.4
29.0
68.1
41.2
7.2
3.0
28.9
15.2
258.0
179.6
137.8
20.8
7.9
8.1
190.5
40.5
10.0
70.7
18.3
29.2
27.1
73.6
141.9
50.3
16.1
7.0
202.3
1,674.8
2,298.8
1,610.8
1,501.1
1,038.9
3,524.1
1,405.5
1,084.4
1,142.8
1,509.0
1,039.5
1,055.9
1,651.0
1,197.3
787.2
3,411.0
1,191.2
1,023.5
819.0
727.2
1,058.7
1,815.2
810.2
1,127.3
1,010.6
1,854.2
1,344.8
1,548.9
799.6
1,300.1
206.7
169.4
246.0
190.2
120.7
95.3
208.8
17.6
43.5
91.3
125.0
128.9
128.4
148.7
50.4
87.1
23.9
122.5
127.1
421.8
71.8
54.1
151.5
78.1
58.8
363.2
76.7
95.0
8.4
128.1
334.3
96.9
303.9
286.7
167.2
155.2
110.4
17.2
30.7
82.0
36.1
280.9
215.4
242.7
74.6
20.5
27.2
276.8
108.6
182.2
233.2
84.9
126.3
172.2
336.0
288.1
267.3
207.8
13.0
203.5
continues
2,215.8
2,565.1
2,160.6
1,978.0
1,326.8
3,774.6
1,724.8
1,119.2
1,217.0
1,682.2
1,200.6
1,465.7
1,994.7
1,588.8
912.1
3,518.7
1,242.3
1,422.8
1,054.6
1,331.3
1,363.7
1,954.1
1,088.0
1,377.7
1,405.4
2,505.5
1,688.8
1,851.6
821.0
1,631.6
330
continued
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent/Grenadines
Samoa
So Tom and Prncipe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia and Montenegro
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Country
D ATA T A B L E 12
Total
157.5
108.2
176.1
141.5
21,114.2
10,055.0
10,729.5
80.6
4,408.0
5,377.2
1,986.5
421.9
45,183.8
40,840.6
18,883.5
35,224.9
470.8
1,073.1
8,911.5
7,232.5
16,859.5
6,201.4
34,719.2
62,968.7
(Thousands)
Population
56.4
878.8
1,811.4
1,459.9
126.3
757.9
1,224.5
657.7
1,132.2
704.2
373.8
530.2
786.8
1,004.9
771.5
1,428.1
749.1
491.4
535.5
183.6
1,187.6
647.8
913.4
939.0
Green
8.0
0.7
343.4
33.2
58.5
50.8
11.5
21.8
20.0
85.8
232.2
107.7
199.4
122.1
49.1
18.2
15.5
348.4
458.6
24.6
140.1
Blue
Internal
71.4
0.5
157.9
16.5
928.1
126.6
5.5
141.3
351.8
106.3
167.1
78.4
40.4
155.4
28.7
129.5
71.9
236.4
177.7
18.5
123.7
Grey
1,145.2
594.5
168.3
155.8
1,004.9
264.7
107.5
1,010.5
248.5
310.0
971.8
138.8
240.5
797.3
207.7
56.4
260.3
655.7
502.7
851.4
270.8
1,069.1
52.9
148.8
Green
115.1
96.9
64.3
59.5
104.1
53.9
27.9
155.1
22.9
51.6
77.2
22.0
11.8
88.9
54.5
4.8
18.5
146.4
61.9
98.8
38.7
15.4
10.0
25.1
Blue
External
162.9
119.1
37.9
52.0
112.7
24.9
43.3
191.0
16.9
106.4
217.7
31.8
24.1
170.8
35.9
6.7
41.6
26.4
180.1
307.1
25.3
18.6
6.7
30.7
Grey
1,201.6
1,473.3
1,979.7
1,615.8
1,131.2
1,022.6
1,332.1
1,668.1
1,380.7
1,014.3
1,345.6
668.9
1,027.3
1,802.1
979.3
1,484.5
1,009.4
1,147.0
1,038.1
1,035.0
1,458.5
1,716.8
966.3
1,087.8
Green
123.2
96.9
64.3
60.2
447.5
87.1
86.3
205.9
34.4
73.4
97.2
22.0
97.6
321.2
162.2
204.1
140.6
195.5
80.0
114.4
387.0
474.0
34.6
165.2
Blue
Total
234.4
119.1
38.4
52.0
270.6
41.3
971.3
317.6
22.5
247.7
569.5
31.8
130.4
338.0
114.2
47.1
196.9
55.0
309.6
379.0
261.7
196.2
25.3
154.4
Grey
1,559.1
1,689.3
2,082.4
1,728.0
1,849.3
1,151.1
2,389.7
2,191.6
1,437.6
1,335.4
2,012.4
722.7
1,255.4
2,461.3
1,255.7
1,735.7
1,346.9
1,397.5
1,427.8
1,528.4
2,107.2
2,387.1
1,026.2
1,407.4
Total
331
Togo
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Uganda
UK
Ukraine
Uruguay
USA
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
World
5,303.9
1,296.6
9,482.7
66,848.5
4,544.7
24,961.9
59,334.4
48,737.6
3,329.8
3,307.1
288,958.2
24,895.6
193.8
24,640.2
79,188.2
18,502.1
10,573.6
12,357.4
6,154,564.2
845.6
83.4
1,299.7
933.8
1,239.2
1,019.2
243.5
1,117.6
412.7
1,567.4
1,600.4
509.9
1,264.0
874.6
637.7
71.4
754.0
958.7
796.6
2.9
17.6
130.9
178.6
729.3
1.0
8.6
46.3
159.3
56.4
190.0
359.7
64.6
81.0
127.8
30.8
63.3
117.8
20.7
159.0
68.7
182.3
90.7
7.7
59.3
305.9
188.7
70.6
476.6
135.7
184.5
271.0
20.1
45.7
92.7
170.5
94.5
1,224.9
504.7
216.0
185.2
35.9
672.0
55.9
1,508.5
388.7
367.9
255.6
45.5
527.0
52.4
551.2
76.2
81.1
218.8
15.2
92.4
137.3
74.2
10.3
10.0
84.1
9.7
411.3
6.5
48.9
3.6
75.0
23.1
6.8
90.4
8.0
6.8
35.5
11.3
138.7
75.7
57.0
18.9
5.2
190.5
39.2
455.5
43.0
158.7
13.9
46.6
36.6
9.6
40.4
6.5
7.7
46.0
940.0
1,308.3
1,804.4
1,149.9
1,424.4
1,055.1
915.5
1,173.6
1,921.2
1,956.2
1,968.3
765.5
1,309.5
1,401.6
690.0
622.6
830.2
1,039.7
1,015.4
18.0
110.0
268.2
252.8
739.6
11.0
92.7
56.0
570.6
62.9
238.9
363.3
75.0
87.7
87.8
218.2
38.9
70.1
153.3
32.0
297.7
144.4
239.3
109.6
12.9
249.8
345.1
644.2
113.6
635.3
149.5
46.6
221.1
280.6
60.5
52.2
100.4
216.5
990.1
1,716.0
2,217.0
1,641.9
2,273.6
1,079.0
1,258.1
1,574.6
3,136.0
2,132.6
2,842.5
1,278.3
1,431.2
1,710.3
1,058.5
901.3
921.3
1,210.2
1,385.2
D A T A
T A B L E
1 3
Per Capita Water Footprint of

National Consumption, by Sector
and Country, 19962005
Description
Like data table 12, this table includes estimates of water footprints by country, but here
they are split into sectoral data on agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses, for blue,
green, and grey water, in cubic meters per person per year (m3/cap/yr).
Conventional estimates of national water use have historically been restricted to statistics on water withdrawals within national boundaries. In recent years, a new approach
has been developed and applied to calculate water footprints, which include water use
(typically withdrawals and consumption, estimated separately), the use of green water
and grey water, and information about water used in other countries to produce imported products. Quantifying these national water footprints is an evolving eld.
The data here include the water footprints for crop production, industrial production,
and domestic water supply, with a distinction made between green and blue water. In
addition, the authors include the grey water footprint in the estimation of the water footprint in each sector, an estimate of the footprint of farm animal products, and details on
the water footprints of national imports and exports. The data are reported as per capita
water consumption, measured in cubic meters per person per year and averaged over
the decade 19962005. Data on population assumptions are also shown.
Limitations
332
Data Section
333
Source
334
3,084.9
30,767.4
14,609.8
77.4
37,060.0
3,089.5
19,320.0
8,057.3
8,155.3
306.3
141,966.7
253.0
10,030.1
10,401.0
254.6
6,820.0
63.0
8,408.8
3,631.7
1,725.8
175,307.6
336.8
7,988.3
11,950.2
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Population
(Thousands)
602.2
634.6
798.4
391.2
1,288.3
516.3
1,716.9
396.3
510.0
200.8
477.9
553.0
1,091.2
34.5
1,154.7
1,020.2
6.8
3,063.9
659.0
1,202.0
1,644.8
25.5
1,478.9
1,600.1
Green
88.9
88.8
13.6
1.0
87.9
105.6
172.0
2.0
160.2
54.4
1.4
7.5
0.1
16.3
1.0
2.0
44.8
4.7
8.5
48.5
0.0
7.5
15.8
Blue
36.5
9.6
2.4
45.4
26.7
80.9
52.4
17.5
72.9
24.9
199.3
10.0
246.6
5.2
4.8
7.9
33.2
55.4
0.0
124.7
20.2
Grey
492.7
700.6
108.4
828.0
35.0
450.2
136.3
738.1
310.6
1,348.9
98.1
941.3
215.8
1,181.2
120.9
67.3
1,706.9
295.9
408.2
561.7
159.6
2,796.4
330.3
37.4
Green
77.4
50.6
14.6
87.8
3.9
40.7
12.0
64.2
25.1
140.1
22.4
108.3
37.4
92.6
34.2
20.0
150.1
14.8
24.3
179.4
11.8
327.3
45.2
14.4
Blue
External
39.5
59.7
13.1
74.8
3.0
41.0
10.1
81.0
9.1
136.7
11.2
120.5
10.8
97.3
25.7
8.6
128.5
11.6
63.0
34.3
6.1
169.2
19.7
4.0
Grey
2.6
0.7
0.1
0.5
3.1
1.6
4.6
5.1
10.1
0.1
6.6
5.3
14.4
19.1
0.2
0.5
0.7
2.4
13.7
0.0
Blue
48.2
6.4
0.9
9.2
33.9
19.4
10.4
8.0
132.1
1.4
123.8
4.6
112.1
306.5
3.9
5.8
13.7
33.5
139.6
0.5
Grey
Internal
1.3
0.6
0.1
13.1
1.7
1.1
9.4
18.3
0.9
27.3
0.1
9.0
6.8
27.9
4.3
0.3
80.1
0.5
4.5
0.4
0.8
6.8
2.3
0.1
Blue
17.0
6.1
1.2
123.7
17.7
17.8
104.2
190.5
14.2
279.2
1.8
82.4
113.1
283.4
45.3
3.3
916.2
4.6
59.3
4.6
8.7
95.3
32.5
1.7
Grey
External
of Industrial Products
of Agricultural Products
Internal
Water Footprint of Consumption
Per Capita Water Footprint of National Consumption, by Sector and Country, 19962005 (m3/cap/yr)
Country
D ATA T A B L E 13
14.9
4.3
0.5
3.9
13.2
27.3
18.2
9.2
6.4
2.8
11.9
6.5
7.1
3.9
0.6
2.1
4.6
6.9
13.8
0.9
Blue
134.2
27.7
4.9
34.9
73.5
191.0
39.5
32.5
48.6
25.5
106.7
19.5
26.9
32.8
5.4
15.4
41.2
48.6
88.5
7.8
Grey
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
335
Burundi
6,651.7
Cambodia
12,834.1
Cameroon
16,080.9
Canada
30,889.0
Cape Verde
442.6
3,772.3
Chad
8,614.3
Chile
15,492.1
China
1,277,208.3
Colombia
40,093.6
Comoros
710.2
Congo, Democratic Republic 52,052.6
Congo, Republic
3,096.2
Costa Rica
3,962.9
Cte dIvoire
17,422.3
Croatia
4,520.8
Cuba
11,090.9
Cyprus
790.9
Czech Republic
10,228.3
Denmark
5,339.5
Dominica
68.1
Dominican Republic
8,900.7
East Timor
868.1
Ecuador
12,367.9
Egypt
70,957.6
El Salvador
5,944.5
Eritrea
3,786.8
Estonia
1,372.7
Ethiopia
66,511.7
Fiji Islands
803.6
677.3
955.7
1,144.8
1,345.1
599.3
1,147.8
1,425.0
451.5
614.3
894.5
1,107.4
529.8
506.6
687.7
1,158.5
892.7
1,189.6
364.4
818.6
512.7
2,169.8
740.4
1,748.0
1,388.6
150.8
578.9
533.1
712.5
1,107.7
1,195.0
14.1
53.6
9.2
24.9
22.5
18.8
19.9
135.6
98.5
34.1
2.2
1.7
6.5
37.4
6.7
0.6
74.9
220.6
1.0
3.7
92.8
43.0
116.4
496.7
7.1
1.9
0.2
22.7
1.0
0.8
2.1
8.5
172.4
0.0
0.0
122.3
170.0
30.5
0.3
1.0
43.1
15.0
136.0
41.4
27.6
149.2
75.3
23.9
40.3
189.5
45.5
0.5
77.8
5.0
29.6
13.2
47.7
37.5
254.9
495.1
14.4
7.7
327.3
86.2
227.0
102.1
10.2
191.3
348.5
45.5
462.3
175.2
1,317.9
418.2
709.4
361.8
366.6
48.1
199.2
333.8
249.3
494.1
601.9
20.4
415.6
1.2
8.0
21.0
60.5
63.8
2.9
2.6
18.0
10.9
17.8
84.6
3.4
47.7
47.1
36.3
28.6
11.7
106.7
56.2
66.4
80.1
23.7
10.6
10.8
19.6
36.1
27.0
139.0
1.8
57.1
1.3
4.2
6.8
30.8
46.6
3.0
1.4
16.9
5.3
19.9
18.2
2.6
21.4
42.6
12.1
49.7
26.7
96.7
40.8
58.9
45.6
44.2
13.6
16.1
22.7
25.2
22.0
35.0
3.1
18.0
0.1
0.0
0.2
25.7
0.0
0.0
6.0
2.5
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.1
0.3
0.5
4.2
0.2
3.9
1.9
0.2
2.7
2.4
1.2
0.0
1.2
0.0
0.5
2.4
0.2
3.3
140.8
0.8
0.5
20.1
31.7
7.3
0.6
0.4
0.3
57.0
4.8
6.9
48.6
2.4
15.0
4.6
4.0
50.3
44.6
21.4
0.2
4.3
0.3
10.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
13.3
1.2
0.0
0.1
2.1
0.3
0.8
0.3
0.0
0.1
2.7
0.3
8.1
0.8
13.3
8.3
15.8
3.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
1.2
0.2
9.5
0.1
2.1
0.7
1.4
2.2
122.8
11.2
0.2
0.5
21.6
4.2
8.1
2.9
0.1
0.9
24.3
3.5
102.4
10.3
166.1
90.1
161.0
31.8
13.8
9.9
5.8
12.7
1.9
103.4
1.0
25.8
0.7
0.5
1.1
29.1
0.4
0.5
0.5
9.2
5.3
13.4
0.7
0.4
1.0
19.9
1.3
14.1
8.5
10.3
7.7
12.2
17.1
7.5
5.4
0.8
6.6
0.5
1.2
continues
6.6
4.2
10.1
112.9
3.3
4.8
4.2
24.1
41.9
121.0
6.1
3.3
9.3
176.9
11.4
89.6
61.0
39.1
17.3
101.9
154.3
67.2
48.4
7.4
28.2
4.5
11.2
336
Finland
France
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Country
D ATA T A B L E 13
5,181.9
59,435.5
237.9
1,245.3
1,324.9
4,719.9
82,138.8
19,784.5
10,937.4
101.5
11,412.4
8,463.3
1,325.7
759.1
8,719.4
6,299.4
10,199.8
282.2
1,051,289.5
206,706.2
67,157.7
3,868.6
6,134.0
57,520.5
(Thousands)
Population
continued
651.0
735.3
907.3
1,020.4
541.9
1,219.7
311.4
1,091.4
890.9
1,267.2
713.0
1,492.1
1,028.8
1,046.5
780.9
913.5
1,547.2
14.5
685.5
854.8
749.4
278.8
207.4
629.3
Green
1.2
23.1
2.6
10.1
1.2
76.2
1.0
1.9
206.0
2.2
13.0
5.1
63.1
96.6
25.8
18.0
7.2
210.5
45.5
558.3
0.1
134.2
43.9
Blue
17.5
63.2
6.2
6.7
5.4
42.6
85.9
4.8
88.0
50.3
2.5
114.9
55.6
200.0
5.8
91.6
77.1
122.9
37.7
54.3
94.2
Grey
406.2
618.1
630.6
271.1
246.4
587.4
741.9
57.7
761.1
636.9
136.1
52.7
31.2
165.2
141.0
123.3
369.2
1,468.9
22.4
77.8
289.5
660.8
1,583.1
1,091.2
Green
47.9
77.0
135.7
54.6
52.2
34.2
56.9
20.6
96.4
90.1
17.7
26.3
40.0
22.1
49.8
27.4
34.6
82.3
2.1
24.0
20.1
90.9
98.9
117.0
Blue
External
Grey
40.3
35.0
82.7
30.2
29.4
29.4
62.3
9.7
78.2
113.7
19.8
10.2
11.1
39.6
23.9
16.1
24.5
88.1
1.8
7.5
14.9
65.5
89.1
82.4
10.2
14.7
0.1
0.1
5.6
9.9
0.2
1.0
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.0
0.3
10.3
14.0
1.2
0.1
0.6
2.9
0.6
8.7
Blue
32.3
55.9
2.9
2.0
102.5
10.4
3.8
2.7
10.1
1.4
4.1
9.1
0.8
5.8
66.2
114.3
22.7
1.4
9.6
11.9
1.3
47.7
Grey
Internal
13.6
9.8
11.2
0.6
0.2
1.1
10.3
0.4
11.0
4.4
1.1
0.1
0.1
1.3
0.2
0.7
6.6
20.0
0.1
0.3
0.6
8.1
9.3
9.1
Blue
157.4
105.7
100.2
6.1
2.8
16.3
109.4
4.6
139.9
39.6
11.2
1.3
1.6
13.1
1.7
5.8
73.9
207.4
1.2
3.3
8.2
107.7
97.0
97.8
Grey
External
Internal
6.6
10.6
4.8
0.5
15.3
7.1
1.2
11.6
1.1
1.4
1.7
4.0
0.6
1.1
7.0
17.7
5.0
3.2
9.2
6.7
10.3
14.0
Blue
29.6
37.4
43.4
4.8
137.3
19.9
10.7
51.4
8.4
12.4
15.6
35.6
5.2
10.0
37.3
75.7
44.7
28.5
83.1
30.3
17.2
67.7
Grey
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
337
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Korea, Democratic Peoples
Republic
Korea, Republic
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Moldova
838.5
176.6
112.5
1,710.6
875.1
2,341.6
542.5
252.4
6.6
495.4
891.0
1,036.6
303.4
1,533.5
1,064.7
301.2
1,048.4
508.9
602.2
1,329.4
804.1
1,240.6
221.8
1,769.6
74.1
1,262.0
371.9
840.0
983.2
2,578.4
126,741.3
4,956.1
15,160.4
31,935.3
85.0
22,867.1
46,443.0
2,251.5
4,961.6
5,431.9
2,368.7
3,816.5
1,890.3
2,790.3
5,411.9
3,501.4
450.5
2,010.5
15,529.4
12,005.8
23,458.2
273.5
10,701.0
391.0
2,648.1
1,199.6
99,810.4
4,051.3
9.8
22.9
240.8
64.2
0.2
174.8
2.9
1.2
271.7
0.3
0.0
35.5
145.1
12.4
49.0
4.2
139.8
9.8
78.1
8.4
86.7
90.0
17.3
11.0
75.8
344.2
9.3
58.1
24.3
6.4
14.4
0.2
107.3
33.7
0.7
16.1
28.5
101.1
42.4
2.7
45.0
57.1
8.7
0.0
7.0
0.0
3.3
88.1
29.6
16.2
16.6
10.1
16.5
8.5
1,032.7
1,412.9
593.5
27.3
289.9
1,245.0
40.2
64.8
981.3
218.3
1,432.2
382.7
36.2
48.4
503.3
813.5
54.8
1,600.7
1,036.8
1,238.9
661.1
55.7
585.7
832.8
1,126.3
81.1
155.8
314.7
91.0
79.7
246.0
26.9
3.9
39.6
142.7
32.8
30.5
226.7
39.2
68.0
38.5
16.0
3.0
93.9
160.8
10.9
176.4
84.6
215.3
84.9
13.2
63.8
54.7
163.8
16.4
23.3
148.2
16.7
91.9
138.2
16.8
2.4
24.5
76.7
11.0
22.6
105.1
27.5
87.3
30.7
4.8
5.2
56.7
89.0
5.7
130.0
30.4
103.8
59.6
4.7
75.7
83.0
103.7
13.0
8.7
48.0
14.6
1.9
0.2
2.4
1.2
1.7
1.8
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.4
1.6
3.4
0.6
0.2
1.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.6
0.6
1.3
10.5
1.0
4.6
0.3
7.4
0.1
4.2
6.6
4.3
32.3
21.5
9.8
11.0
5.3
5.8
11.4
1.8
1.7
46.8
11.7
3.7
13.2
4.8
0.6
11.1
6.9
16.8
72.9
18.8
26.8
2.3
124.1
2.4
79.2
5.7
4.9
1.0
0.3
15.9
5.4
0.2
2.7
1.0
8.5
28.3
4.5
0.2
0.1
2.4
3.4
0.2
10.2
0.4
3.9
3.6
1.5
2.5
7.0
3.5
1.5
0.2
0.5
0.2
62.4
51.9
17.0
5.4
231.5
69.4
2.1
31.2
10.5
108.4
272.2
57.3
2.4
1.7
21.4
51.6
2.5
115.7
4.5
46.5
31.8
24.3
22.3
82.9
42.4
22.6
3.2
6.2
3.7
14.3
17.8
6.4
2.4
6.8
10.0
1.1
1.1
11.3
6.0
5.6
10.7
2.7
1.2
6.5
1.1
5.5
10.2
5.7
17.8
13.6
5.4
5.4
13.7
5.9
3.9
1.5
7.8
continues
47.7
160.1
52.5
21.5
33.0
37.7
9.5
9.7
101.4
28.7
7.3
93.2
24.3
11.2
58.3
6.9
49.6
81.0
51.0
143.4
90.4
35.8
48.9
69.5
31.4
35.0
13.1
70.5
338
1,316.3
981.3
1,022.6
1,124.8
1,169.4
944.6
43.6
550.6
477.3
682.6
3,351.9
1,147.3
344.7
788.8
535.5
747.2
1,789.1
502.4
994.4
778.0
696.3
1,183.2
1,374.8
2,409.3
28,961.9
18,560.9
46,626.5
1,839.1
24,707.0
15,946.9
216.8
3,905.5
5,125.0
11,272.1
126,648.8
4,501.6
3,221.2
149,801.8
2,979.1
5,406.5
26,157.7
78,472.9
38,408.0
10,278.4
22,089.3
146,082.3
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Territory
Pakistan
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Green
(Thousands)
Population
continued
Country
D ATA T A B L E 13
403.6
18.2
39.7
126.1
42.8
1.7
147.2
24.0
43.1
35.5
166.4
7.9
41.2
18.7
113.8
2.8
0.2
62.1
26.2
63.7
10.9
2.0
114.0
Blue
136.7
53.3
45.9
55.8
47.4
151.8
61.0
58.6
49.7
30.2
45.8
6.2
17.5
11.8
8.3
15.1
35.8
23.0
16.0
4.9
5.5
12.1
Grey
191.7
311.5
26.1
307.8
133.0
232.6
1,157.9
161.5
174.1
2,207.8
424.2
61.8
18.0
339.6
94.9
1,012.3
1,100.4
720.0
104.6
59.1
43.9
678.8
30.1
Green
15.0
32.1
11.0
15.4
25.7
36.2
196.9
34.9
38.7
53.6
36.7
9.3
1.1
67.9
9.8
99.5
118.1
49.1
19.4
22.6
11.5
87.7
6.6
Blue
External
Grey
8.1
44.1
4.4
21.7
21.7
23.6
95.6
17.5
10.5
52.7
29.6
6.6
1.2
24.0
12.3
85.3
79.5
35.3
12.2
7.4
7.4
55.8
39.7
0.8
0.5
0.3
2.8
1.7
11.4
4.2
7.7
3.6
1.4
0.4
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.1
6.9
2.1
0.2
0.0
0.1
8.5
1.1
Blue
15.9
3.7
5.4
13.9
30.7
80.2
25.7
99.8
59.4
23.2
1.6
0.3
2.3
5.6
1.6
1.2
8.1
4.4
0.4
1.6
33.5
20.1
Grey
Internal
0.1
2.5
1.2
0.7
0.4
4.0
4.4
2.5
0.4
1.1
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.2
16.7
10.1
9.3
0.8
0.1
0.1
13.2
0.1
Blue
1.8
26.6
13.9
7.5
5.3
50.0
46.4
32.8
5.6
15.4
11.5
0.7
1.8
4.9
2.9
172.8
100.1
102.5
8.6
0.5
0.7
134.7
0.8
Grey
External
Internal
2.2
18.5
1.8
6.4
7.5
5.5
10.5
7.7
9.2
3.7
4.2
0.4
0.9
4.0
1.2
3.1
26.1
3.7
0.8
1.3
11.1
5.3
Blue
19.6
105.5
15.3
27.5
67.1
30.4
59.4
58.5
82.6
33.6
21.9
3.4
7.9
35.7
10.9
6.5
73.8
33.4
7.2
12.0
40.7
48.0
Grey
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
339
Rwanda
Saint Lucia
Samoa
So Tom and Prncipe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
7,735.9
46.4
157.5
108.2
176.1
141.5
21,114.2
10,055.0
10,729.5
80.6
4,408.0
5,377.2
1,986.5
421.9
45,183.8
40,840.6
18,883.5
35,224.9
470.8
1,073.1
8,911.5
7,232.5
16,859.5
6,201.4
34,719.2
62,968.7
5,303.9
1,296.6
9,482.7
66,848.5
775.2
593.4
56.4
878.8
1,811.4
1,459.9
126.3
757.9
1,224.5
657.7
1,132.2
704.2
373.8
530.2
786.8
1,004.9
771.5
1,428.1
749.1
491.4
535.5
183.6
1,187.6
647.8
913.4
939.0
845.6
83.4
1,299.7
933.8
2.5
0.2
0.1
0.7
332.4
32.0
10.8
39.0
11.0
11.0
0.5
76.7
214.5
105.6
196.3
114.7
46.4
1.5
0.1
338.9
447.7
23.0
134.5
1.1
0.1
126.7
167.9
0.5
1.2
0.5
52.8
4.9
98.4
0.2
75.7
205.2
49.9
142.2
54.9
10.2
79.1
85.7
45.2
148.7
47.8
4.3
64.3
5.1
0.4
42.3
103.3
24.4
706.7
1,145.2
594.5
168.3
155.8
1,004.9
264.7
107.5
1,010.5
248.5
310.0
971.8
138.8
240.5
797.3
207.7
56.4
260.3
655.7
502.7
851.4
270.8
1,069.1
52.9
148.8
94.5
1,224.9
504.7
216.0
5.3
116.7
110.7
94.1
63.2
59.0
101.8
53.5
25.7
146.8
22.8
44.4
65.8
21.5
10.7
79.3
53.8
4.6
17.0
146.0
50.9
78.8
38.1
14.8
9.9
23.5
15.0
89.0
135.5
71.2
6.1
86.4
122.8
92.5
24.9
48.0
89.7
19.9
10.7
91.1
15.4
32.8
93.6
26.0
12.5
68.1
26.7
4.4
27.8
21.5
53.5
82.6
17.4
9.2
5.0
10.9
8.9
108.5
57.8
17.4
0.1
0.8
0.3
40.4
2.0
0.1
2.8
9.4
0.5
6.0
0.5
0.3
1.0
0.5
4.4
6.9
1.0
3.8
0.0
1.2
0.0
1.3
0.3
2.4
1.3
14.3
3.6
764.3
37.1
1.5
17.0
79.1
4.1
9.2
5.0
18.9
8.6
13.3
4.4
15.5
66.0
0.6
20.3
0.4
16.9
3.2
24.6
0.1
11.2
4.4
2.8
1.2
0.4
2.3
0.4
2.2
8.3
0.1
7.2
11.5
0.4
1.1
9.7
0.6
0.2
1.4
0.4
11.0
20.1
0.6
0.6
0.1
1.7
0.2
3.4
1.8
3.0
0.9
115.9
40.1
26.7
13.1
3.9
23.0
5.0
32.6
99.9
1.5
73.6
124.2
5.8
11.6
102.7
9.2
2.3
13.8
4.8
126.6
224.6
7.9
9.4
1.7
19.8
2.4
30.1
17.9
39.5
0.5
7.9
10.1
1.0
7.3
9.9
0.5
8.0
10.1
8.6
11.7
1.6
2.8
6.4
2.2
12.2
8.6
8.5
7.1
1.5
4.3
1.7
16.2
3.8
8.3
continues
4.2
71.4
90.8
7.9
65.4
89.3
4.1
48.7
67.5
52.4
25.0
14.3
25.3
57.3
20.1
30.5
22.3
72.2
63.9
13.7
39.1
15.1
141.7
23.2
54.4
340
4,544.7
24,961.9
59,334.4
48,737.6
3,329.8
3,307.1
288,958.2
24,895.6
193.8
24,640.2
79,188.2
18,502.1
10,573.6
12,357.4
6,154,564.2
(Thousands)
Population
continued
Turkmenistan
Uganda
UK
Ukraine
Uruguay
USA
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
World
Country
D ATA T A B L E 13
1,239.2
1,019.2
243.5
1,117.6
412.7
1,567.4
1,600.4
509.9
1,264.0
874.6
637.7
71.4
754.0
958.7
796.6
Green
719.3
0.4
0.9
28.2
140.1
53.4
136.5
346.7
48.5
68.0
126.2
27.8
57.7
107.1
Blue
0.1
1.1
53.3
62.0
12.3
39.1
223.5
0.0
33.2
94.2
5.1
16.0
34.5
90.3
Grey
185.2
35.9
672.0
55.9
1,508.5
388.7
367.9
255.6
45.5
527.0
52.4
551.2
76.2
81.1
218.8
Green
9.4
9.8
71.9
7.7
386.2
4.0
37.5
3.1
73.9
22.2
6.4
90.2
7.9
6.6
33.2
Blue
External
Grey
11.6
3.4
61.0
4.4
185.3
11.9
31.7
5.8
33.5
28.7
4.2
38.4
4.9
5.5
21.4
0.8
0.1
4.1
8.8
0.6
0.5
30.9
1.9
0.7
6.1
0.1
0.3
0.8
3.8
Blue
7.4
1.9
2.0
159.7
9.7
9.7
164.7
35.5
12.2
113.8
1.8
5.1
15.3
34.3
Grey
Internal
0.9
0.1
12.2
2.0
25.1
2.5
11.3
0.5
1.1
0.9
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.2
2.3
Blue
7.3
1.8
129.6
34.8
270.2
31.0
127.0
8.1
13.2
7.9
5.4
2.0
1.5
2.2
24.6
Grey
External
Internal
9.2
0.5
3.5
9.4
18.5
2.4
22.6
11.1
15.5
7.0
1.5
2.7
4.8
6.8
Blue
83.2
4.7
4.1
84.2
166.8
21.8
88.4
100.1
139.2
63.0
13.1
24.7
42.9
45.8
Grey
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
D A T A
T A B L E
1 4
Total Water Footprint of National

Consumption, by Country,
19962005
Description
The data in this table are similar to those in data table 12 on both internal production
and external imports, but on a total (rather than a per capita) basis. Conventional estimates of national water use have historically been restricted to statistics on water withdrawals within national boundaries. In recent years, a new approach has been developed
and applied to calculate water footprints, which include water use (typically withdrawals and consumption, estimated separately), the use of green water and grey water,
and information about water used in other countries to produce imported products.
Quantifying these national water footprints is an evolving eld.
The data here include the total water footprint for internal and external water consumption by country, measured in millions of cubic meters per year (Mm3/yr) and averaged over the decade 19962005. Data on population assumptions are also provided. A
distinction is made between green water and blue water. In addition, the authors include
the grey water footprint in the estimation of the water footprint in each sector, an estimate of the footprint of farm animal products, and details on the water footprints of
national imports and exports. The nal column presents the external water footprint as
a fraction of the total national water footprint.
Limitations
341
342
See the original source for more detail on the fundamental assumptions and limitations of the footprint approach.
Source
343
1,857.8
19,523.7
11,663.8
30.3
47,746.2
1,595.1
33,170.9
3,192.9
4,158.9
61.5
67,849.0
139.9
10,944.5
359.2
294.0
6,957.5
0.4
25,764.0
2,393.3
2,074.4
288,345.2
8.6
11,814.2
19,121.3
4,505.5
Green
328.1
2,886.1
207.7
0.4
3,864.9
415.7
3,764.5
130.7
1,440.6
8,130.3
5.0
193.6
225.6
10.0
12.6
0.1
398.7
17.0
23.9
10,119.8
0.0
280.2
199.1
99.6
Blue
675.2
1,342.2
120.1
3.4
5,661.8
732.5
2,525.7
748.7
1,617.2
14,168.5
64.6
2,240.4
1,549.2
149.2
99.1
0.3
245.3
120.6
94.8
24,109.3
0.0
2,817.7
340.2
65.4
Grey
Internal (WFcons, nat, int)
1,519.8
21,555.6
1,584.0
64.1
1,298.1
1,391.0
2,634.0
5,947.3
2,533.4
413.2
13,923.7
238.1
2,164.1
12,285.4
30.8
458.9
107.5
2,488.5
1,482.6
969.4
27,980.8
941.8
2,638.3
447.0
87.5
Green
242.7
1,573.9
215.2
7.8
207.5
129.3
414.9
664.6
212.0
51.3
3,196.3
29.7
443.6
1,253.6
9.8
138.4
14.5
128.4
104.5
310.3
2,222.0
112.5
379.9
174.1
8.6
Blue
174.1
2,022.6
209.6
15.4
767.8
181.5
2,208.2
2,187.5
190.2
127.4
1,848.8
51.3
1,241.9
3,959.4
18.1
81.4
65.8
136.0
444.0
67.1
2,596.5
89.1
417.2
68.5
13.2
Grey
External (WFcons, nat, ext)

Green
3,377.6
41,079.4
13,247.8
94.4
49,044.3
2,986.0
35,804.9
9,140.2
6,692.3
474.7
81,772.7
378.0
13,108.5
12,644.6
324.8
7,416.4
108.0
28,252.5
3,876.0
3,043.8
316,326.0
950.4
14,452.5
19,568.3
4,593.0
Total Water Footprint of National Consumption
Total Water Footprint of National Consumption, by Country, 19962005 (Mm3/yr)
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Country
D ATA T A B L E 14
570.8
4,459.9
422.9
8.2
4,072.3
545.0
4,179.4
795.3
1,652.6
51.3
11,326.6
34.7
637.2
1,479.2
19.8
151.0
14.6
527.1
121.4
334.2
12,341.8
112.5
660.1
373.2
108.2
Blue
Total (WFcons, nat)
849.3
3,364.9
329.7
18.8
6,429.6
914.0
4,733.9
2,936.2
1,807.4
127.4
16,017.3
116.0
3,482.3
5,508.6
167.3
180.4
66.1
381.3
564.6
161.9
26,705.8
89.1
3,234.9
408.7
78.6
Grey
continues
40.4
51.4
14.3
71.9
3.8
38.3
11.8
68.4
28.9
90.6
17.4
60.4
22.3
89.1
11.5
8.8
99.5
9.4
44.5
38.0
9.2
99.3
18.7
3.4
2.3
Footprint (%)
Ratio of
External/
Total Water
344
continued
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo, Republic
Costa Rica
Cte dIvoire
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Dominica
Dominican Republic
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Country
D ATA T A B L E 14
12,266.0
18,409.0
41,548.5
265.2
4,329.9
12,275.2
6,994.0
784,627.8
35,863.2
786.5
27,577.5
1,568.7
2,725.2
20,184.3
4,035.7
13,194.0
288.2
8,372.5
2,737.5
147.8
6,589.8
1,517.4
17,174.5
10,697.6
3,441.3
Green
694.5
169.0
2,463.0
10.1
72.9
175.2
2,336.0
135,713.2
1,922.5
2.1
108.6
23.3
239.8
142.7
5.0
1,033.0
181.4
155.4
71.0
937.2
37.3
1,685.4
35,944.2
81.1
Blue
84.0
352.7
13,161.6
1.8
20.2
36.0
2,579.5
311,238.1
6,365.5
4.8
206.1
32.7
1,097.8
542.5
646.4
1,991.4
72.0
2,078.7
518.7
1.6
942.3
3,028.1
21,381.6
685.9
Grey
612.6
603.7
7,874.8
219.1
54.5
66.2
5,070.5
110,077.5
9,100.9
72.5
530.4
592.2
1,381.0
792.2
2,089.9
1,943.7
1,042.3
4,277.0
3,787.8
24.6
3,263.2
41.8
2,464.1
23,682.2
1,482.0
Green
105.9
340.9
2,280.4
28.8
11.0
22.5
310.4
14,298.3
748.7
60.3
175.0
148.2
197.4
637.2
165.6
139.4
94.9
660.1
438.8
5.7
224.0
9.2
145.6
1,426.2
222.1
Blue
71.3
145.5
4,746.0
25.6
12.4
16.1
597.1
12,048.7
1,122.2
15.0
139.6
69.1
265.0
271.6
687.4
410.5
207.8
1,339.2
1,174.1
5.3
515.7
11.8
321.9
2,023.7
225.3
Grey

Green
12,878.6
19,012.7
49,423.3
484.4
4,384.4
12,341.4
12,064.5
894,705.3
44,964.1
859.0
28,107.9
2,160.9
4,106.2
20,976.5
6,125.6
15,137.7
1,330.5
12,649.6
6,525.3
172.4
9,853.0
1,559.2
19,638.6
34,379.8
4,923.3
800.4
509.9
4,743.4
38.9
83.9
197.7
2,646.4
150,011.5
2,671.2
62.4
283.6
171.5
437.2
779.9
170.6
1,172.4
276.3
815.5
509.8
5.7
1,161.3
46.5
1,831.0
37,370.4
303.2
Blue
Grey
155.3
498.2
17,907.6
27.4
32.6
52.1
3,176.6
323,286.9
7,487.7
19.8
345.8
101.8
1,362.8
814.1
1,333.8
2,401.9
279.8
3,417.9
1,692.7
6.9
1,458.0
11.8
3,350.0
23,405.3
911.2
Total (WFcons, nat)
5.7
5.4
20.7
49.7
1.7
0.8
33.4
10.0
19.9
15.7
2.9
33.3
31.2
7.5
38.6
13.3
71.3
37.2
61.9
19.2
32.1
3.9
11.8
28.5
31.4
Footprint (%)
Ratio of
External/
Total Water
345
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Fiji Islands
Finland
France
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
2,018.6
978.1
73,675.2
960.3
3,373.3
43,704.2
215.8
1,270.7
717.9
5,756.9
25,576.8
21,592.2
9,744.3
128.6
8,136.5
12,628.3
1,363.8
794.4
6,808.8
5,754.3
15,780.8
4.1
720,644.0
176,695.4
50,325.3
1,078.6
1,272.1
36,197.9
2,162.1
22,377.2
10.2
11.0
1,546.7
2.3
93.1
2,879.3
0.6
18.7
2.4
457.8
1,474.5
65.3
2,391.0
0.2
171.7
55.7
86.2
76.7
230.0
122.3
249.4
8.9
227,832.7
10,092.3
38,153.7
37.3
890.4
3,834.6
61.3
3,711.7
30.7
151.5
654.5
41.0
411.6
9,295.2
1.5
65.8
16.2
1,332.6
9,542.0
381.7
1,553.7
785.0
137.7
26.2
121.1
52.4
449.8
3,095.4
55.3
167,199.4
22,107.9
14,477.1
309.2
447.1
12,049.7
216.4
14,306.8
1,871.0
826.2
1,357.8
334.0
2,105.0
36,738.7
150.0
337.6
326.4
2,772.6
60,940.9
1,140.8
8,324.7
64.6
1,552.9
446.4
41.4
125.4
1,229.8
776.5
3,765.5
414.5
23,546.0
16,089.3
19,445.0
2,556.3
9,710.6
62,764.0
1,510.2
105,550.2
102.7
203.8
121.9
47.5
318.7
5,156.5
34.9
68.8
69.5
166.7
5,518.2
416.1
1,174.3
9.6
214.6
223.6
53.3
17.8
435.5
176.4
420.4
28.9
2,277.7
5,026.9
1,391.1
383.0
663.2
7,251.0
170.8
7,819.5
90.2
190.0
276.2
35.2
1,024.7
8,358.0
43.5
45.1
42.7
215.7
14,099.1
281.2
2,384.6
15.6
354.0
96.8
16.8
40.0
222.9
137.9
1,003.4
83.4
3,105.3
2,226.8
1,556.1
670.1
1,141.4
10,369.2
252.8
21,013.9
3,889.7
1,804.3
75,033.0
1,294.3
5,478.3
80,443.0
365.9
1,608.3
1,044.3
8,529.5
86,517.7
22,733.0
18,069.0
193.3
9,689.4
13,074.7
1,405.2
919.8
8,038.5
6,530.8
19,546.4
418.6
744,190.0
192,784.7
69,770.3
3,634.9
10,982.7
98,961.9
3,672.3
127,927.4
112.9
214.8
1,668.6
49.8
411.8
8,035.8
35.6
87.4
71.9
624.5
6,992.7
481.4
3,565.2
9.8
386.3
279.4
139.5
94.5
665.5
298.8
669.8
37.8
230,110.4
15,119.2
39,544.8
420.4
1,553.6
11,085.6
232.1
11,531.1
120.9
341.5
930.7
76.1
1,436.3
17,653.1
45.0
111.0
58.9
1,548.3
23,641.1
662.9
3,938.4
15.6
1,139.0
234.5
43.0
161.1
275.3
587.7
4,098.8
138.7
170,304.7
24,334.7
16,033.2
979.4
1,588.4
22,418.9
469.1
35,320.7
continues
50.1
51.7
2.3
29.3
47.1
47.3
51.2
25.0
37.3
29.5
68.8
7.7
46.5
41.1
18.9
5.6
7.0
15.6
21.0
14.7
21.3
88.5
2.5
10.1
17.9
71.7
81.5
60.7
44.2
76.9
346
continued
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Korea, Democratic Peoples Republic
Korea, Republic
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Mauritania
Mauritius
Country
D ATA T A B L E 14
557.6
25,933.0
27,947.7
199.0
12,405.1
11,724.0
14.9
2,458.1
4,839.6
2,455.4
1,158.0
2,898.7
2,970.9
1,630.0
3,670.9
229.3
1,210.6
20,644.5
9,654.3
29,102.0
60.7
18,936.7
29.0
3,341.8
446.1
Green
406.2
5,389.4
346.8
1,603.0
1,202.9
92.2
1,238.9
368.2
20.5
712.2
8.0
7.2
1,534.6
23.5
3.2
99.7
2,305.2
166.1
1,324.2
1.5
1,557.7
7.9
223.4
32.1
Blue
217.0
2,663.2
768.4
3,421.6
3,650.6
384.6
491.9
234.8
355.7
314.2
29.3
43.1
697.9
206.4
49.6
366.7
601.3
719.5
3,016.9
4.3
583.0
34.6
164.3
184.3
Grey
5,582.1
1,229.6
4,976.8
26.8
2,080.0
47,962.4
3,181.1
2,944.6
148.4
686.6
4,751.5
76.0
180.7
5,310.9
764.3
645.2
769.4
562.6
581.6
11,805.6
222.5
586.4
625.9
2,745.6
1,486.1
Green
829.2
271.5
752.8
12.6
387.7
3,967.4
565.0
138.4
23.3
131.4
565.0
62.3
92.7
1,232.4
167.1
43.4
86.5
251.1
37.5
2,259.8
44.9
119.1
72.9
225.0
263.0
Blue
724.4
539.8
378.8
4.6
417.2
7,162.4
428.1
167.7
42.7
606.3
557.8
24.8
150.2
625.5
475.8
161.9
176.9
111.5
82.3
1,831.4
38.5
87.9
96.1
92.4
180.3
Grey
6,139.7
27,162.6
32,924.5
225.8
14,485.0
59,686.4
3,196.0
5,402.7
4,988.0
3,142.0
5,909.5
2,974.7
3,151.6
6,940.9
4,435.2
874.5
1,980.0
21,207.1
10,235.8
40,907.6
283.2
19,523.1
654.9
6,087.4
1,932.3
Green
1,235.4
5,660.9
1,099.6
12.6
1,990.8
5,170.3
657.2
1,377.3
391.5
151.9
1,277.2
70.3
99.9
2,767.1
190.6
46.6
186.2
2,556.3
203.6
3,584.0
46.4
1,676.8
80.8
448.5
295.1
Blue
Total (WFcons, nat)
941.4
3,203.0
1,147.2
4.6
3,838.8
10,813.1
812.8
659.6
277.6
962.1
872.0
54.2
193.3
1,323.4
682.2
211.6
543.6
712.7
801.8
4,848.3
42.7
670.9
130.7
256.7
364.6
Grey
85.8
5.7
17.4
18.1
14.2
78.1
89.5
43.7
3.8
33.5
72.9
5.3
12.3
65.0
26.5
75.1
38.1
3.8
6.2
32.2
82.2
3.6
91.7
45.1
74.4
Footprint (%)
Ratio of
External/
Total Water
347
Mexico
Moldova
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Occupied Palestinian Territory
Pakistan
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Lucia
Samoa
83,840.7
3,983.3
3,171.4
28,420.2
18,980.3
52,447.8
2,150.6
23,338.5
695.2
119.4
1,864.3
3,498.2
37,783.4
145,305.7
1,551.9
2,540.9
80,221.9
2,226.0
9,672.6
13,141.8
78,032.3
29,880.5
7,156.9
26,137.0
200,827.8
5,996.7
27.5
8.9
95.1
319.0
10,147.9
429.1
98.0
4,955.5
153.1
1,968.7
42.2
2,843.7
202.6
0.0
352.8
154.6
727.5
1,557.3
97.2
387.9
60,913.3
110.7
226.3
3,541.9
4,074.0
713.8
1,664.0
869.6
8,160.5
23.1
0.0
1.3
19,492.1
560.3
209.6
2,005.4
183.8
1,291.8
97.6
515.9
365.0
7.8
409.6
275.5
141.7
2,417.6
388.6
219.4
25,806.7
484.1
360.3
2,541.3
11,392.0
10,078.3
1,502.1
4,793.2
28,000.3
46.4
0.1
11.3
0.1
65,986.0
225.6
5,319.3
12,286.8
1,147.6
837.9
624.5
2,344.9
16,142.5
238.6
2,811.9
536.3
666.2
5,557.1
3,055.6
97.1
28,718.7
928.0
141.1
8,050.4
10,433.7
8,934.8
11,901.3
3,567.9
25,437.2
189.1
32.8
180.4
64.3
29.6
8,833.4
59.8
131.6
1,092.0
173.0
58.6
125.7
245.8
1,852.5
27.8
228.0
103.5
254.8
1,468.0
454.2
21.4
2,274.2
103.1
65.9
421.8
2,054.9
1,544.9
2,069.1
824.9
5,711.1
41.8
5.9
18.1
10.5
11.3
9,124.9
117.3
164.2
1,192.7
134.5
140.7
53.1
374.8
4,115.1
38.9
538.3
106.6
89.5
1,030.0
857.5
130.4
1,494.2
210.7
98.7
763.0
2,123.4
2,827.6
1,458.9
1,111.8
2,353.6
53.9
9.4
25.7
12.9
6.7
149,826.7
4,208.9
8,490.7
40,707.0
20,128.0
53,285.7
2,775.1
25,683.4
16,837.7
357.9
4,676.2
4,034.5
38,449.6
150,862.8
4,607.5
2,638.0
108,940.6
3,154.0
9,813.7
21,192.2
88,466.0
38,815.3
19,058.2
29,704.8
226,265.0
6,185.8
60.3
189.3
159.4
348.6
18,981.3
488.9
229.7
6,047.5
326.1
2,027.3
168.0
3,089.5
2,055.1
27.8
580.8
258.1
982.3
3,025.3
551.4
409.3
63,187.5
213.8
292.2
3,963.7
6,128.9
2,258.8
3,733.1
1,694.5
13,871.5
64.9
5.9
19.4
10.5
11.3
28,617.1
677.6
373.8
3,198.1
318.4
1,432.5
150.7
890.7
4,480.1
46.7
947.9
382.1
231.2
3,447.6
1,246.1
349.8
27,300.9
694.7
459.0
3,304.3
13,515.4
12,905.9
2,960.9
5,905.0
30,353.9
100.3
9.4
36.9
12.9
6.8
continues
42.5
7.5
61.7
29.2
7.0
1.8
26.0
10.0
94.6
70.6
57.7
16.0
2.5
5.1
68.2
7.3
16.3
30.6
2.9
32.4
13.5
24.7
59.9
14.8
12.4
4.5
63.5
91.3
48.0
13.0
348
continued
So Tom and Prncipe

Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Country
D ATA T A B L E 14
206.6
2,667.5
7,620.5
13,138.5
53.0
4,990.7
3,786.8
742.6
223.7
35,551.6
41,038.9
14,569.5
50,305.0
352.7
527.3
4,772.0
1,328.1
20,023.1
4,017.0
31,712.9
59,129.4
4,484.9
108.2
12,324.7
62,426.0
Green
0.1
7,250.0
333.8
627.2
4.1
50.7
117.1
39.7
3,879.0
9,484.6
2,033.7
7,022.6
57.5
52.7
161.8
112.5
5,873.0
2,844.1
853.0
8,821.3
15.1
22.8
1,241.4
11,937.3
Blue
3,334.7
165.5
9,957.7
10.2
24.4
759.9
698.8
4,804.7
6,826.5
1,479.7
1,424.7
73.1
30.8
1,154.2
519.9
3,984.9
1,101.7
644.0
7,791.3
109.7
206.2
651.2
12,186.7
Grey
22.1
21,217.6
2,662.0
1,153.9
81.4
1,095.2
1,667.2
1,930.4
58.5
10,867.1
32,561.5
3,922.7
1,985.8
122.5
703.6
4,479.4
6,157.6
4,566.1
6,629.8
1,836.6
9,367.2
501.0
1,588.2
4,785.7
14,441.1
Green
8.4
2,198.0
542.4
299.3
12.5
101.0
277.7
153.5
9.3
532.1
3,631.8
1,028.5
168.4
8.7
157.1
551.5
714.9
652.3
95.7
348.4
1,582.5
80.5
119.8
1,302.0
4,959.3
Blue
7.4
2,378.7
250.2
464.2
15.4
74.7
572.1
432.5
13.4
1,089.1
6,976.7
677.6
234.3
19.6
28.3
1,605.3
2,221.3
426.9
115.2
233.1
1,931.9
60.1
179.8
718.2
3,807.2
Grey
228.6
23,885.1
10,282.4
14,292.3
134.5
6,085.9
5,454.0
2,673.1
282.2
46,418.8
73,600.4
18,492.2
52,290.8
475.2
1,230.9
9,251.4
7,485.7
24,589.2
10,646.9
33,549.5
68,496.6
4,985.9
1,696.4
17,110.5
76,867.2
Green
8.5
9,448.1
876.1
926.5
16.6
151.7
394.8
193.2
9.3
4,411.1
13,116.4
3,062.2
7,191.1
66.2
209.8
713.3
827.3
6,525.3
2,939.8
1,201.4
10,403.7
95.7
142.6
2,543.4
16,896.7
Blue
Total (WFcons, nat)
7.4
5,713.4
415.6
10,421.8
25.6
99.1
1,332.0
1,131.3
13.4
5,893.8
13,803.2
2,157.3
1,659.0
92.7
59.1
2,759.4
2,741.2
4,411.8
1,216.9
877.1
9,723.2
169.8
386.0
1,369.4
15,994.0
Grey
15.5
66.1
29.8
7.5
61.9
20.1
35.1
62.9
26.6
22.0
42.9
23.7
3.9
23.8
59.3
52.2
82.3
15.9
46.2
6.8
14.5
12.2
84.8
32.4
21.1
Footprint (%)
Ratio of
External/
Total Water
349
Turkmenistan
Uganda
UK
Ukraine
Uruguay
USA
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
World
5,631.8
25,440.5
14,449.5
54,470.5
1,374.4
5,183.7
462,444.5
12,695.0
245.0
21,550.6
50,495.0
1,320.7
7,972.4
11,846.5
4,902,626.4
3,314.7
412.3
841.6
26.2
191.9
897.1
508.6
3,519.8
39,873.5
2,255.0
14,907.4
2,726.0
530.3
628.3
5,023.0
186.4
233.4
1,285.6
54,907.2 137,709.8 106,318.7
8,954.8
3,377.1
6,362.5
8.8
1,591.2
4,545.8
12,984.8
6,415.2
21,459.5
4,146.3
2,364.8
371.0
10,199.2
326.2
483.6
805.8
782.2
1,145.2
1,002.0
724,848.3 1,049,238.3 1,346,910.7
46.7
248.5
4,989.5
474.5
1,369.5
21.5
14,116.8
88.8
14.5
568.6
537.6
1,672.5
85.0
84.2
218,476.3
85.9
6,473.3
129.9
26,337.5
11,304.8
54,323.0
1,911.0
57,196.5
1,516.8
6,397.3
142.1
6,469.3
45,856.7 568,763.2
345.9
19,057.5
9.0
253.8
901.0
34,535.4
764.1
54,641.2
747.6
11,520.0
68.3
8,778.1
95.3
12,848.5
282,963.7 6,249,537.1
3,361.3
498.2
274.7
321.8
5,498.1
14,824.6
2,729.5
16,818.4
1,899.8
2,145.1
207.9
375.5
69,024.0 183,566.5
9,043.6
3,723.0
14.5
9.0
2,159.8
5,446.9
6,952.8
22,223.6
4,037.3
1,118.5
411.1
551.8
866.4
1,240.5
943,324.6 1,332,202.1
9.4
4.7
75.2
6.7
75.7
20.5
20.2
21.4
11.7
34.3
6.5
75.7
9.8
7.9
21.7
D A T A
T A B L E
1 5
Total Water Footprint of National

Consumption, by Sector and
Country, 19962005
Description
The data in this table are similar to those for data table 14 on both internal production
and external imports by economic sector. Conventional estimates of national water use
have historically been restricted to statistics on water withdrawals within national
boundaries. In recent years, a new approach has been developed and applied to calculate water footprints, which include water use (typically withdrawals and consumption, estimated separately), the use of green water and grey water, and information
on water used in other countries to produce imported products. Quantifying these national water footprints is an evolving eld.
The data here include the total water footprint for internal and external water consumption by country and sector (agricultural, industrial, domestic), measured in millions of cubic meters per year (Mm3/yr) and averaged over the decade 19962005. Data
on population assumptions are also provided. A distinction is made between green water and blue water. In addition, the authors include the grey water footprint in the estimation of the water footprint in each sector, an estimate of the footprint of farm animal
products, and details on the water footprints of national imports and exports.
Limitations
350
Data Section
351
Source
352
274.1
2,731.4
198.9
0.1
3,258.0
326.4
3,323.8
16.0
1,306.1
7,717.2
0.4
75.5
1.2
4.1
7.1
0.1
376.8
17.0
14.7
8,497.8
0.0
60.1
2,074.4
288,345.2
8.6
11,814.2
Blue
1,857.8
19,523.7
11,663.8
30.3
47,746.2
1,595.1
33,170.9
3,192.9
4,158.9
61.5
67,849.0
139.9
10,944.5
359.2
294.0
6,957.5
0.4
25,764.0
2,393.3
Green
9,704.9
0.0
995.8
112.5
294.4
34.9
1,682.4
82.4
1,562.8
422.4
143.1
10,353.4
6.3
1,998.8
103.6
62.8
35.3
0.3
66.4
120.6
Grey
Internal (WFcons, nat, int, agr)
969.4
27,980.8
941.8
2,638.3
1,519.8
21,555.6
1,584.0
64.1
1,298.1
1,391.0
2,634.0
5,947.3
2,533.4
413.2
13,923.7
238.1
2,164.1
12,285.4
30.8
458.9
107.5
2,488.5
1,482.6
Green
309.6
2,074.9
110.2
361.3
238.8
1,555.6
213.1
6.8
146.0
125.8
232.4
517.2
205.1
42.9
3,177.6
27.4
375.3
963.5
8.7
136.5
9.5
124.4
88.3
Blue
59.3
1,074.5
57.0
157.2
121.7
1,835.6
192.0
5.8
111.2
126.6
195.2
652.8
74.2
41.9
1,587.5
30.5
108.0
1,012.3
6.6
58.7
8.1
97.3
228.7
Grey
External (WFcons, nat, ext, agr)
Water Footprint of Consumption of Agricultural Products
1.3
420.1
109.6
7.9
21.7
0.9
0.0
115.9
5.0
88.7
40.8
82.4
11.6
1.7
53.0
150.1
4.9
1.4
3.8
Blue
23.7
5,878.7
1,115.3
148.6
196.8
13.2
0.7
1,255.5
60.0
200.5
64.6
1,077.5
200.8
31.3
46.2
1,165.5
78.0
26.8
49.0
Grey
(WFcons, nat, int, ind)
Internal
0.7
147.1
2.3
18.6
3.9
18.3
2.0
1.0
61.5
3.5
182.4
147.4
6.9
8.4
18.6
2.3
68.3
290.0
1.1
1.9
5.0
4.0
16.2
Blue
7.9
1,522.0
32.1
260.0
52.4
187.1
17.6
9.6
656.5
54.9
2,013.0
1,534.7
116.1
85.5
261.2
20.8
1,133.9
2,947.2
11.5
22.7
57.7
38.7
215.3
Grey
(WFcons, nat, ext, ind)
External
Water Footprint of Consumption of Industrial Products
Total Water Footprint of National Consumption, by Sector and Country, 19962005 (Mm3/yr)
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bolivia
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Country
D ATA T A B L E 15
7.9
1,202.0
110.6
46.0
133.0
8.0
0.3
491.0
84.3
352.0
74.0
52.1
401.6
3.0
65.0
74.3
1.0
4.1
18.0
Blue
71.1
8,525.7
706.6
414.0
851.1
72.0
2.7
2,724.0
590.0
762.5
261.7
396.6
3,614.4
27.0
195.5
280.0
8.3
36.9
129.9
Grey
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
353
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Central African
Republic
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo, Democratic
Republic
Congo, Republic
Costa Rica
Cte dIvoire
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Dominica
Dominican Republic
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Eritrea
592.2
1,381.0
792.2
2,089.9
1,943.7
1,042.3
4,277.0
3,787.8
24.6
3,263.2
41.8
2,464.1
23,682.2
1,482.0
1,871.0
147.8
186.7
631.8
129.1
130.0
84.4
574.8
354.6
5.5
210.5
9.2
133.9
1,394.1
214.7
102.1
3.1
170.9
260.9
615.0
458.9
21.8
1,525.8
401.8
1.6
498.3
13,446.0
270.5
1.9
1,568.7
2,725.2
20,184.3
4,035.7
13,194.0
288.2
8,372.5
2,737.5
147.8
6,589.8
1,517.4
17,174.5
10,697.6
3,441.3
2,018.6
20.0
148.3
116.2
2.6
830.5
174.5
10.2
19.6
826.1
37.3
1,440.2
35,246.2
42.1
7.1
22.0
278.1
13,906.1
715.6
60.1
174.4
12,275.2
171.2
0.0
66.2
6,994.0
2,100.8
1,895.0
5,070.5
784,627.8 125,741.5 217,182.4 110,077.5
35,863.2
1,367.9
1,223.2
9,100.9
786.5
1.6
72.5
27,577.5
88.6
15.5
530.4
241.1
5.6
26.9
137.4
5,326.5
0.1
172.3
8.3
103.3
337.6
1,868.5
28.2
10.9
188.4
93.8
688.1
148.1
769.7
9.9
70.8
447.0
87.5
612.6
603.7
7,874.8
219.1
54.5
19,121.3
4,505.5
12,266.0
18,409.0
41,548.5
265.2
4,329.9
66.4
168.8
211.4
224.6
296.2
76.5
417.3
314.6
3.1
393.1
11.8
198.9
1,609.1
150.0
83.2
11.9
261.8
6,719.4
798.6
12.9
133.3
47.7
8.6
53.8
109.9
952.3
20.6
11.5
0.1
12.4
4.5
2.5
46.5
0.1
40.2
10.4
2.1
33.3
168.0
7.0
0.0
93.2
3,218.7
15.7
0.0
1.1
0.3
0.8
0.4
2.9
794.3
0.0
0.1
0.8
226.1
83.6
31.4
539.1
1.9
153.1
24.3
35.4
621.8
3,165.7
127.4
0.9
311.5
40,523.2
291.3
0.4
19.6
5.5
15.7
3.1
53.3
4,348.1
0.4
2.0
0.4
10.6
5.5
36.4
9.4
10.5
85.3
84.2
0.2
13.5
11.8
32.2
7.4
0.6
0.5
32.3
392.2
33.1
0.2
0.6
1.8
0.4
2.6
3.3
411.9
0.5
0.1
2.7
96.2
60.2
462.9
114.3
131.3
921.9
859.5
2.2
122.6
123.0
414.6
75.3
7.1
4.2
335.3
5,329.3
323.6
2.1
6.3
20.8
4.6
17.5
35.6
3,793.7
5.0
0.9
3.2
79.0
22.0
156.0
6.8
105.0
41.0
109.0
212.0
530.0
32.0
3.1
4.0
142.0
6,753.0
539.0
0.5
19.0
10.4
4.9
6.0
18.0
899.0
0.2
2.0
continues
28.8
700.9
198.0
993.4
48.2
399.8
92.5
906.9
1,908.0
4,770.0
288.0
27.9
36.0
373.0
53,532.5
4,851.0
4.3
171.0
93.6
44.1
54.0
162.0
3,487.0
1.4
18.0
354
Estonia
Ethiopia
Fiji Islands
Finland
France
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Country
D ATA T A B L E 15
Blue
978.1
0.3
73,675.2
1,512.4
960.3
0.8
3,373.3
6.2
43,704.2
1,375.0
215.8
0.6
1,270.7
12.5
717.9
1.6
5,756.9
359.4
25,576.8
83.9
21,592.2
37.7
9,744.3
2,253.0
128.6
0.2
8,136.5
148.6
12,628.3
43.0
1,363.8
83.6
794.4
73.3
6,808.8
224.6
5,754.3
113.2
15,780.8
73.7
4.1
720,644.0 221,346.8
176,695.4
9,413.1
50,325.3
37,496.5
Green
106.9
335.5
23.8
90.8
3,753.5
1.5
8.3
7.2
200.9
7,055.1
94.8
962.0
573.9
21.4
87.2
350.1
2,039.6
1.6
96,332.9
15,941.2
8,253.6
Grey
826.2
1,357.8
334.0
2,105.0
36,738.7
150.0
337.6
326.4
2,772.6
60,940.9
1,140.8
8,324.7
64.6
1,552.9
446.4
41.4
125.4
1,229.8
776.5
3,765.5
414.5
23,546.0
16,089.3
19,445.0
Green
190.8
116.8
45.8
248.4
4,576.9
32.3
68.0
69.1
161.5
4,672.9
408.5
1,053.9
9.1
201.8
222.7
53.1
16.8
433.9
172.3
353.3
23.2
2,179.1
4,969.0
1,347.5
Blue
48.0
209.2
14.4
208.9
2,077.9
19.7
37.6
39.0
138.7
5,116.2
191.2
854.9
11.5
226.0
86.3
14.7
30.1
208.3
101.2
249.8
24.9
1,885.5
1,553.2
1,002.6
Grey
continued
1.7
1.0
0.4
52.9
876.3
0.2
0.1
26.4
809.5
4.1
11.0
10.1
0.8
0.3
0.4
0.4
2.2
104.7
3.9
1,261.9
17.2
37.1
Blue
5.9
19.2
8.2
167.3
3,320.4
3.6
2.7
483.7
854.9
75.4
29.9
114.8
11.7
5.5
6.9
7.4
36.7
674.9
32.3
23,850.5
280.0
643.5
Grey
Internal
13.0
5.1
1.7
70.3
579.5
2.7
0.7
0.3
5.2
845.4
7.6
120.3
0.4
12.9
1.0
0.2
1.0
1.6
4.1
67.1
5.6
98.5
57.9
43.6
Blue
142.0
67.0
20.7
815.8
6,280.1
23.8
7.5
3.7
77.0
8,982.9
90.0
1,529.7
4.0
128.0
10.6
2.1
9.9
14.6
36.7
753.6
58.5
1,219.8
673.6
553.4
Grey
External
9.0
33.3
1.0
34.0
628.0
6.0
0.7
72.0
581.0
23.5
127.0
13.0
12.0
2.3
3.0
5.0
7.0
71.0
5.0
5,224.0
662.0
620.0
Blue
38.8
299.7
9.0
153.5
2,221.3
54.0
6.3
648.0
1,632.0
211.5
561.8
96.3
104.6
20.7
27.0
45.0
63.0
380.9
21.4
47,016.0
5,886.7
5,580.0
Grey
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
355
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Korea, Democratic
Peoples Republic
Korea, Republic
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Mauritania
0.2
823.4
2,526.9
44.7
1,388.0
375.7
5,218.5
295.5
1,328.4
454.3
51.6
1,194.9
348.8
0.5
667.3
5.4
3.3
1,470.3
1.1
0.0
71.4
2,253.5
148.7
1,148.7
1.2
1,496.0
3.8
206.8
1,078.6
1,272.1
36,197.9
2,162.1
22,377.2
557.6
25,933.0
27,947.7
199.0
12,405.1
11,724.0
14.9
2,458.1
4,839.6
2,455.4
1,158.0
2,898.7
2,970.9
1,630.0
3,670.9
229.3
1,210.6
20,644.5
9,654.3
29,102.0
60.7
18,936.7
29.0
3,341.8
1,130.6
14.4
71.3
0.8
254.2
128.7
1.3
87.3
99.6
45.6
85.3
41.5
539.9
1,338.6
2.4
0.3
2.7
0.0
47,962.4
3,181.1
2,944.6
148.4
686.6
4,751.5
76.0
180.7
5,310.9
764.3
645.2
769.4
562.6
581.6
11,805.6
222.5
586.4
625.9
2,745.6
145.7
2,556.3
333.3
9,710.6
5,416.4
62,764.0
41.8
1,510.2
2,109.0 105,550.2
50.0
5,582.1
250.7
1,229.6
273.0
4,976.8
26.8
2,080.0
3,700.9
553.9
133.6
21.4
93.9
544.5
62.0
85.2
1,226.9
137.3
30.7
77.4
247.9
36.0
2,202.7
44.0
116.8
69.0
224.0
351.6
606.4
6,727.6
164.5
6,930.0
812.0
249.1
744.8
12.6
382.1
4,266.6
311.3
83.5
13.2
58.0
292.8
20.9
63.2
568.8
96.3
39.3
61.7
74.4
62.4
1,329.5
24.3
60.7
50.8
80.6
253.5
546.4
4,740.8
195.2
10,513.4
514.0
197.6
277.2
4.1
333.3
86.6
0.5
12.1
6.4
4.0
6.9
0.6
0.8
3.4
1.4
0.7
6.8
9.6
2.4
23.6
0.0
2.7
0.0
1.6
11.1
4.0
500.7
2.6
583.7
1.4
111.9
4.3
95.7
306.0
9.8
160.2
117.0
23.3
41.8
10.0
16.1
61.6
6.3
0.8
94.1
181.8
44.6
310.3
51.7
0.2
29.3
46.1
8.1
2,741.5
48.6
3,392.7
11.5
1,881.6
76.5
1,810.6
266.5
11.1
4.8
1.8
37.5
20.5
0.3
7.5
5.5
29.8
12.7
9.0
3.2
1.5
57.1
0.9
2.3
4.0
1.1
31.4
56.8
523.4
6.3
889.4
17.2
22.4
8.0
0.0
5.7
2,895.8
116.9
84.2
29.6
548.3
265.1
4.0
87.1
56.7
379.4
122.6
115.1
37.1
19.9
502.0
14.1
27.2
45.2
11.8
416.6
595.0
5,628.4
57.5
10,500.5
210.4
342.2
101.6
0.5
83.9
662.0
40.1
32.0
13.0
16.0
38.0
2.0
3.0
61.0
21.0
2.5
21.5
42.0
15.0
152.0
0.3
59.0
4.0
15.0
26.0
63.0
807.0
14.0
1,740.0
29.1
59.0
47.0
179.0
continues
2,214.1
360.5
260.3
117.0
78.2
143.7
18.0
27.0
549.0
100.5
3.3
187.4
378.0
135.0
1,368.0
1.9
531.0
31.7
135.0
117.4
105.7
3,891.9
126.0
8,805.1
155.5
531.0
418.9
1,611.0
356
10.0
8,654.2
364.6
85.6
4,819.7
145.8
1,921.6
34.3
2,811.3
44.0
0.0
242.4
134.4
718.2
1,375.3
8.8
367.3
60,459.4
54.4
214.5
3,299.5
3,356.3
65.3
80,221.9
2,226.0
9,672.6
13,141.8
78,032.3
29,880.5
Blue
446.1
83,840.7
3,983.3
3,171.4
28,420.2
18,980.3
52,447.8
2,150.6
23,338.5
695.2
119.4
1,864.3
3,498.2
37,783.4
145,305.7
1,551.9
2,540.9
Green
20,480.7
158.8
248.3
1,458.4
3,722.9
5,829.9
4.0
8,796.4
119.8
72.8
1,326.6
115.9
815.6
21.7
206.1
241.5
7.8
89.9
82.2
55.8
699.1
54.3
Grey
28,718.7
928.0
141.1
8,050.4
10,433.7
8,934.8
1,486.1
65,986.0
225.6
5,319.3
12,286.8
1,147.6
837.9
624.5
2,344.9
16,142.5
238.6
2,811.9
536.3
666.2
5,557.1
3,055.6
97.1
Green
2,252.7
95.5
59.5
404.0
2,020.2
1,391.5
258.2
8,475.0
53.6
129.0
1,062.2
171.8
52.5
124.9
241.2
1,586.3
25.6
191.6
99.5
254.3
1,459.0
394.7
21.3
Blue
1,220.2
131.4
23.6
567.8
1,704.4
906.6
124.5
5,950.0
18.9
127.0
858.5
122.4
57.8
44.1
302.9
1,359.8
17.2
137.8
62.8
83.3
941.5
251.0
127.8
Grey
continued
Mauritius
Mexico
Moldova
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Territory
Pakistan
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Country
D ATA T A B L E 15
126.9
1.4
1.8
74.5
132.9
438.5
0.7
134.6
42.5
3.5
12.8
0.3
6.1
0.6
2.3
109.7
8.4
1.2
0.3
13.0
38.3
3.4
Blue
2,383.0
10.9
29.4
362.4
2,405.8
3,080.7
8.3
1,674.0
295.3
55.8
45.9
4.9
107.2
10.2
39.9
19.2
31.6
22.3
5.0
197.6
150.9
64.7
Grey
Internal
21.5
7.6
6.5
17.8
34.7
153.4
4.7
358.5
6.3
2.6
29.8
1.2
6.1
0.9
4.6
266.2
2.2
36.4
4.0
0.6
9.0
59.5
0.2
Blue
274.0
79.2
75.1
195.1
419.0
1,921.1
55.7
3,174.9
98.4
37.2
334.2
12.1
82.9
8.9
71.9
2,755.3
21.7
400.5
43.9
6.2
88.5
606.5
2.6
Grey
External
327.0
55.0
10.0
168.0
584.8
210.0
21.4
1,359.0
22.0
9.0
123.0
7.0
41.0
7.3
30.0
49.0
102.0
19.0
9.0
169.0
50.0
17.2
Blue
2,943.0
314.4
82.6
720.5
5,263.2
1,167.7
172.1
9,021.8
145.2
81.0
632.9
63.0
369.0
65.7
270.0
104.4
288.0
171.0
81.0
1,521.0
183.4
154.7
Grey
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
357
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent/
Grenadines
Samoa
So Tom and
Prncipe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia and
Montenegro
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Tajikistan
1,513.3
529.9
6,300.2
19.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
7,019.4
321.4
116.0
3.1
48.3
59.2
1.1
3,466.1
8,759.6
1,993.7
6,914.0
54.0
49.8
13.8
0.7
5,713.0
2,776.2
7,156.9
26,137.0
200,827.8
5,996.7
27.5
8.9
95.1
319.0
206.6
2,667.5
7,620.5
13,138.5
53.0
4,990.7
3,786.8
742.6
223.7
35,551.6
41,038.9
14,569.5
50,305.0
352.7
527.3
4,772.0
1,328.1
20,023.1
4,017.0
0.0
406.8
407.6
2,253.2
5,805.6
1,036.6
358.3
37.2
764.1
326.8
2,506.6
296.5
1,115.7
49.5
1,055.6
0.1
627.4
1,295.1
7,257.7
4.0
0.1
81.4
1,095.2
1,667.2
1,930.4
58.5
10,867.1
32,561.5
3,922.7
1,985.8
122.5
703.6
4,479.4
6,157.6
4,566.1
6,629.8
21,217.6
2,662.0
1,153.9
29.6
22.1
11,901.3
3,567.9
25,437.2
189.1
32.8
180.4
64.3
11.8
100.4
238.8
130.7
9.1
483.9
3,237.5
1,016.3
162.6
8.0
156.6
453.9
569.7
642.1
92.0
2,149.9
538.0
275.5
11.1
8.4
2,023.9
770.2
5,649.8
41.3
5.4
17.4
10.2
7.3
68.0
176.5
185.9
11.0
566.2
2,782.2
504.2
155.0
13.1
23.1
477.2
597.2
293.0
56.9
1,893.1
200.0
114.6
4.4
6.8
982.3
387.0
1,528.4
47.2
4.0
19.3
10.0
0.2
0.4
15.1
18.6
22.6
246.0
10.0
9.6
0.5
0.5
39.1
49.8
17.4
23.9
17.7
2.5
433.1
42.7
170.7
520.3
0.5
3.0
6.4
91.4
157.1
183.2
173.1
175.4
8.9
9.2
118.5
32.1
261.5
409.3
302.0
36.1
8,200.1
264.4
2,205.2
8,682.6
10.0
0.7
0.6
38.8
22.8
0.2
48.3
394.3
12.3
5.8
0.7
0.4
97.6
145.2
10.2
3.6
48.1
4.4
23.8
0.2
0.1
45.3
54.7
61.3
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.3
8.1
6.6
395.5
246.6
2.4
522.9
4,194.6
173.4
79.3
6.5
5.2
1,128.1
1,624.1
133.9
58.2
485.6
50.1
349.5
2.3
0.6
476.5
724.8
825.2
6.7
5.4
6.3
2.9
0.8
2.0
42.8
20.1
390.4
479.0
30.0
99.0
3.0
2.4
109.0
62.0
142.6
44.0
213.0
9.8
78.0
108.0
169.0
1,340.0
3.6
1.3
continues
7.2
18.0
261.7
134.1
2,368.3
1,020.9
270.0
891.0
27.0
21.6
271.6
161.0
1,216.9
396.0
1,917.0
79.9
702.0
610.2
1,292.9
12,060.0
32.4
11.3
358
Green
Blue
Grey
Green
Blue
Grey
continued
Tanzania
31,712.9
799.1
147.6
1,836.6
344.1
174.9
Thailand
59,129.4
8,471.4
4,050.3
9,367.2
1,477.0
683.8
Togo
4,484.9
6.1
27.3
501.0
79.4
47.4
Trinidad and Tobago
108.2
0.1
0.5
1,588.2
115.5
140.7
Tunisia
12,324.7
1,201.5
400.8
4,785.7
1,285.0
548.3
Turkey
62,426.0
11,221.3
6,903.6
14,441.1
4,756.7
1,165.3
Turkmenistan
5,631.8
3,269.1
0.7
841.6
42.7
52.8
Uganda
25,440.5
10.7
28.4
897.1
245.5
85.9
UK
14,449.5
56.0
3,160.0
39,873.5
4,264.0
3,617.4
Ukraine
54,470.5
1,372.2
3,022.2
2,726.0
375.2
214.9
1,374.4
466.5
40.9
5,023.0
1,285.9
617.1
Uruguay
5,183.7
176.6
129.4
1,285.6
13.1
39.5
USA
462,444.5
39,447.3
64,568.7 106,318.7
10,839.9
9,160.3
Uzbekistan
12,695.0
8,630.3
0.3
6,362.5
76.8
145.3
Vanuatu
245.0
8.8
14.3
6.5
Venezuela
21,550.6
1,194.1
817.3
12,984.8
547.2
706.6
Vietnam
50,495.0
5,381.6
7,459.0
4,146.3
507.5
334.6
Yemen
1,320.7
2,335.5
94.1
10,199.2
1,669.4
709.8
Zambia
7,972.4
294.1
169.0
805.8
83.6
52.0
Zimbabwe
11,846.5
713.2
426.4
1,002.0
81.7
68.6
World
4,902,626.4 659,210.5 555,954.8 1,346,910.7 204,557.4 131,506.6
Country
D ATA T A B L E 15
Grey
1.2
22.1
76.0
1,275.9
0.1
2.3
1.7
21.9
3.3
30.2
160.1
1,646.4
3.6
33.6
2.5
46.5
245.6
117.0
426.7
7,781.3
2.1
32.2
1.7
32.0
8,915.9
47,583.7
47.5
883.8
16.1
299.5
479.7
9,014.5
2.0
34.2
3.0
53.6
10.1
188.7
23,614.9 211,278.3
Blue
Internal
Grey
4.3
58.2
105.5
1,248.1
1.1
12.7
4.4
39.1
17.0
169.9
202.6
2,642.0
4.0
33.1
3.0
44.1
725.5
7,687.4
99.4
1,696.1
83.6
899.7
8.4
102.6
3,276.9
36,696.4
12.1
200.6
0.2
2.6
21.4
194.4
30.1
429.5
3.1
37.8
1.4
16.2
2.5
26.7
13,918.9 151,457.2
Blue
External
Grey
52.7
474.3
273.9
2,465.1
8.9
80.1
21.0
183.8
36.5
220.2
556.0
3,636.7
42.0
378.0
13.0
117.0
207.0
242.8
456.0
4,104.0
61.7
555.3
8.0
72.0
6,544.0
25,557.4
277.0
2,493.0
381.0
3,429.0
554.0
4,986.0
27.2
242.6
29.0
261.0
58.9
530.1
42,022.9 282,005.3
Blue
Water Consumption
of Domestic
Water Footprint
D A T A
T A B L E S
1 6 A
A N D
1 6 B
Global Cholera Cases Reported

to the World Health Organization,
by Country, 19492011
Description
Annual cases of cholera are shown here for all reporting countries. Cholera is one of
many waterborne diseases that are a consequence of the lack of sanitation services and
access to clean drinking water. Some data on cholera cases and deaths are available as
early as 1922 from reports to the League of Nations, but consistent reports are available
from the World Health Organization only since 1949. The data here are given annually
from 1949 to 2011.
In 2011, a total of fty-eight countries from all continents reported approximately
590,000 cases of cholera to the World Health Organization, of which 32 percent were in
Africa and 61.2 percent were in the Americas (dened as North, Central, and South
America and the Caribbean). These data reect a massive upsurge in the Americas from
previous years. A particularly severe outbreak started in Haiti at the end of October 2010
and also affected the Dominican Republic.
These data also show the rapid and severe spread of cholera in Latin America during
the seventh pandemic, starting with the appearance of cholera in Peru in 1991 and
spreading rapidly. That sharp spike in cholera was the rst manifestation of the seventh
pandemic in the Americas and was the rst time that the Americas had seen more than
a handful of indigenous cases in over a century.
Limitations
There are serious problems with the reporting of cholera. In particular, the data here
represent only the cases identied and reported to the World Health Organization and
do not include undiagnosed or unreported cases. The true number of cholera cases is
known to be much higher than reported here. Many countries refuse to report cholera
cases, or dene many severe diarrheal diseases as something other than cholera, often
as acute watery diarrhea. As many as 500,000 to 700,000 cases of acute watery diarrhea
occur annually in areas of Central and Southeast Asia and in some African countries.
As a result, the totals shown in the table are likely to seriously underrepresent total
cholera cases.
359
360
Sources
World Health Organization (WHO). 2011. Number of Reported Cholera Cases. Global Health
Observatory. http://www.who.int/gho/epidemic_diseases/cholera/cases_text/en/index.html
(accessed June 1, 2013).
. 2013. Cholera Data Portal. http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.175.
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1958
1959
887
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
218
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
Cameroon
Cambodia
Burundi
Burkina Faso
Brunei Darussalam
Brazil
Botswana
State of)
Bhutan
Benin
Belize
Belgium
Belarus
Bangladesh
Bahrain
Bahamas
Azerbaijan
Austria
Australia
Armenia
Argentina
10
57
24
11
52
187
198
62
15,631 16,915 15,618 2,663 2,524 3,975 3,333 1,123 3,154
74
40
268
646
1972
37
263
605
1973
1975
934
88
738 1,165
1974
8
2,167
1 1,761
24
175 2,133
362
206
159
1 1,118
250
83
145
632
73
66
45
664 3,156 7,411 7,419 2,342 1,059 1,969 5,614 4,888
8,054
1957
Angola
29,809 20,894 21,154 27,631 15,617 16,642 23,699
1950
1,332
1949
Global Cholera Cases Reported to the World Health Organization, by Country, 19491979
Algeria
Albania
Afghanistan
Country
D ATA T A B L E 16 A
361
726
262
1977
1979
906
39
220 2,513
1978
continues
135
146
8,297
27
16
915
957 10,403 5,576 2,154
286
1976
362
Germany
Georgia
Gambia
Gabon
France
Finland
Ethiopia
Estonia
Eritrea
Equatorial Guinea
El Salvador
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Djibouti
Denmark
1949
1950
continued
Democratic Republic of
the Congo
Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea
Czech Republic
Cte dIvoire
Costa Rica
Congo
Comoros
Colombia
China
Chile
Chad
Central African
Republic
Cape Verde
Canada
Country
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
384
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
440
668
8,230
1971
850 2,187
868
1970
1972
1973
338
303
1974
2,675
20
1975
219
1976
1977
85
1979
3,481 5,515
51
1978
363
677
483
187
102 6,565 1,853 1,783
31
16
535
326
5,037
227
162
204
221
700
135
448
557
185
19,663
627 5,997
Madagascar
Libya
Liberia
Lesotho
Lebanon
Lao Peoples
Democratic Republic
Kyrgyzstan
1,151
168
54
606
239
344
278
55
947 1,336
51
11
322
6
152
512
646
21
427
52
133
10,836
512
30
continues
704
402 1,093 1,359
304 2,966 2,100
141
11
422
494
438
673 1,070
34
96
264 1,856
23,555 44,383 52,042 41,474 48,387 41,264 17,112 10,683 18,817
13
428
1,307
41 1,742
86,787 101,493 213,225 22,146 23,533 39,829 54,961 66,849 14,852 14,621 47,637 51,082 44,839 53,011 42,677 13,052 13,708 22,587 19,280 15,067 71,386 20,435 41,611 30,903 22,049 14,946 8,376 10,585 5,073
625
Kuwait
625
2,000
2,733 13,048
Kiribati
Kenya
Kazakhstan
Jordan
Japan
Italy
Israel
Ireland
Iraq
Iran (Islamic Republic

of )
Indonesia
India
Hungary
Honduras
Haiti
Guyana
Guinea-Bissau
Guinea
Guatemala
Greece
Ghana
364
1951
22
1953
1954
42
1955
13
1956
10
1957
1958
1959
259
1960
1961
1962
349
1963
512
1964
16
1965
1966
1967
15
1968
70
1969
106
1970
53
1971
864
1972
1973
922
207
263
205
911
1,293
21
3,932
34
717
226
391
Poland
Philippines
Peru
Paraguay
Papua New Guinea
Panama
Pakistan
Oman
Norway
51
180
157
121
286
9,923 13,015 3,979 16,464 4,581 5,261 1,629 2,787 1,541 1,095 3,585 5,601 2,840 1,730
2 1,185
22,931 1,363
15
16 9,265
6,704
727
Nigeria
366
2,706
Niger
Nicaragua
New Zealand
Netherlands
Nepal
Nauru
Namibia
378
130
11
144
112
185
263
1978
38
3,551
12
376
197
428 1,662
18
11,336
444 1,635
577
1977
293
22
50
874
4,564
502
1979
680 1,258 1,363 1,408 1,268
38
260
2
453 1,018
1 3,019
150
219
246
19
1976
386 2,363 2,942 1,519
35
148
110
1975
Myanmar
56
1,139
2,665 4,792
349
1974
Mozambique
Morocco
Mongolia
Micronesia (Federated
States of)
Mexico
Mauritius
Mauritania
Marshall Islands
Mali
Maldives
371
347
1952
369
4,212 6,753
1950
Malaysia
1949
continued
Malawi
Country
365
Tonga
Togo
Thailand
Tajikistan
Switzerland
Sweden
Swaziland
Suriname
Sudan
Sri Lanka
Spain
South Africa
Somalia
Slovenia
Singapore
Sierra Leone
Seychelles

(former)
Senegal
Saudi Arabia
So Tom and Prncipe
Samoa
Rwanda
Russian Federation
Romania
Republic of Moldova
Republic of Korea
Qatar
Portugal
16
10,201 4,368
2,230
27
415
960
24
11
65
401
148
404
961
11
1,538
75
49
43
293
266
720
475
335
22
89
211
265
64
16
505
114
379
303
37
11
10
67
58
11
12
18
48
83
315
30
838
689
845
46
267
10
103
23
132
383 4,183 1,788
795 2,362
728
50
continues
844 1,475 1,335
10
118 4,559 1,453
91
2,467 1,066
366
7
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
20,186 1,738 8,353 7,664 1,097 2,573
1964
1970
Global Total
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Yemen
Vietnam
Republic of)
Uzbekistan
United States of
America
215
146 1,495
190 1,064
270
656
1973
37
139
10
1974
1976
615
144
5 1,068
1975
1,120
1978
940
1979
32
365
263
12
414 1,953
297 6,608 2,559
17
1977
34,665 114,518 123,025 240,927 37,804 40,218 63,542 63,031 95,763 36,138 38,130 61,966 68,727 59,437 95,938 56,609 31,146 24,748 34,164 36,173 63,994 176,058 80,248 108,788 97,635 93,055 68,622 63,276 77,678 57,645
82
United Republic of
Tanzania
2
3
1972
United Kingdom
757
1971
Ukraine
Uganda
Tuvalu
Turkmenistan
27
26
1951
384
1950
Turkey
17
1949
continued
Tunisia
Country
367
218
1983
45
1984
1985
243
1986
94
17,601
15,500
16,222
1989
699 393
1988
1,507
1987
3,608
9,527
1992
69
8,590
1991
1,299
1990
3,295
19,903
1995
1,306
1996
Cameroon
Cambodia
Burundi
Burkina Faso
Brunei Darussalam
Brazil
Botswana
2,191
1,149
55 392
1,158
582 415 512 180 259
229 243
2,039
165
474
56
47
82
7,474
413
94
4,026
5 770
16
30,317
1,268
1,229
3 479
537
2,103
22,260
206
State of )
1
422 494
1
6
19
2,297
49,455
2,710
3,085
4,190
2,297
1,451
15,915
2,293
648 527 615
2,252
78 562
59,212
10,134
25
10 187 203
159 135
Bhutan
Benin
Belize
78 562
1
8 479
Belgium
82
1
18
523 571
3,918
5,762
3,264
1,592
3,918
1,274
8,340
1997
5,796
3,418
740 310
418
425
5,522
2,847
6,190
26
418
889 188 474
3,443
118
626
38,735
1994
Belarus
Bangladesh
Bahrain
Bahamas
Azerbaijan
Austria
2,350
37,046
1993
12
20,000
1998
9,206
2,394
2,134
2,072
5,142
466
19
412
56
2,134
10
1982
25
1981
Australia
614
1980
3,168
3,422
6,880
186
93
8,990
1,710
12
6,880
49,278
1999
Global Cholera Cases Reported to the World Health Organization, by Country, 19802011
Armenia
Argentina
Angola
Algeria
Albania
Afghanistan
Country
D ATA T A B L E 16 B
2,006
954
14
7,886
8,998
2001
82
2003
1,154
864
540 868
10
2002
246 518 132 414
2,042
1,234
1,430
936
1,021
8,660
2000
16,010
114
1,638
42
1,284
2004
5,694
2,618
2,100
1,498
66
2005
1,844
1,772
182
134,514
2006
24
2,955
31,533
13,152
2008
1,484
2,369
2010
15
1,608
10,759
78 588
continues
20
1,810
3,733
2011
22,433
12
1,072
20
148 983 755
4,038
1,324
2009
730 702 710 333
36,844
2007
368
2,977
1983
1985
162 740
1984
1986
1987
1989
7,267 5,628
1988
1990
1991
China
Djibouti
1,059 1,150
295
99 468
37
Germany
18
24
19
1,122
58,057
553
11,745
15
2,923
550
182
130
4,848
7,886 4,842
1,108 4,993 1,345
6,833 1,785 2,160 1,059
8,717 6,573
31,870
10,055
986
Georgia
Gambia
France
Gabon
20
Finland
Ethiopia
Estonia
Eritrea
Equatorial Guinea
46,320
947
El Salvador
404 108
115
4,066 1,949
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
1,051 2,379
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Denmark
170
Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea
10,328
37 724
Cte dIvoire
Czech Republic
12
Costa Rica
38
434
10
2000
884
180
25,422
54
3,656
29,990
10
10
16 268 631
7,448
328
69,798
18
2,360 6,594
84
2,354 9,284 9,178 3,692
24
8,190
1999
14,600
14
316
17,602
1,922 4,428 3,016
10,337
7,830
44
4
266
1998
2
886
1997
428
1996
6,444 9,626
604
34,877
230 996
12,913
1995
Congo
15,129
11,673
11,979
644 210 583
1,094
128
1994
Comoros
Colombia
1993
32
1992
73
41
34
1982
13,915
1981
Chile
88
1980
continued
Chad
Central African
Republic
Cape Verde
Canada
Country
18
11,456
11,824
452
280
10,488
12
2001
12
63,316
11,062
640
2004
112
1,258
50
54,544
32
118
15,330
210
446 488
110
10
2003
8,376 2,068
3,134
2002
428
12,782
2,174
56,538
16
15,570
3,110
108,140
24
48,242
238
41,284
78 828
26,860
2007
2008
67
2009
6,395
2010
11,586
90,450
21
468
63,018
45,798
10
93
1,682
191
2,047
13,884
32
322 336 522 170 157
3,336
2006
350
1,960
180
14
2005
20,851
127
21,700
1,261
26
17,267
117
2011
369
2,527
1,015
5,808
60
1
7,921
35
55
36
4,208
11,934
659
50
17,162
26
Madagascar
Libya
Liberia
Lesotho
Lebanon
Lao Peoples
Democratic
Republic
Kyrgyzstan
Kuwait
Kiribati
Kenya
Kazakhstan
2,690
2,808
1,582
2,424
870
1,049
14
113
1,352
670 183 492 355
3,498
59
38
33
839 255
34
68
33
20 295 486
11,915
3,583
95
5,222
73
178
67 155
5,640
90
877
1,892
6,202
6,993
1,347
3,564
12,084
15
47
4,973
2,177
3,315
46
89
28
133
918
132
3,388
344
5,521
74
764
9,660
880
16
22
3,420
1,365
1,547
41,110
2,526
758
252
1,762
11,940
6,852
1,198
4,154
18,864
5,536
106
540
14,302
8,922
720
482
182
34,400
4,246
44,864
39 178 120
2,212
66 132
4,396
19,946
7,228
1,122
8,162
1
6,910
1,684
784 122
26
10,974
3,032
5,786
9,390
580 310
12
408 814
2,314
68
1,064
58,610
14,438
2,124
2,002
22
1,120
54
2,230
582
54
1,436
70
10
69,480
5,572
1,740
32 132
374
690 210 236 192 188
8,106
16
1,038
1,224
6,662
430 730
22,078
80
3,970
2,738
7,678
708 200 612 112
8,397
4,717
287
6,506
1,568
1,665
119
7,970
4,698
97 280 838 820
97
25
6,911
5,049
15,296
31,415
5,282
2,267
91 321
Jordan
16
1,208
4,732
4,013
66
30,604
1,448
Japan
19
13,832
427 270 531
10,391
576
15,395
228
17 407
3,674
13,172
12
23
6,034
18,354
6,000
2,937
Italy
Israel
Ireland
Iraq
1,599
5,541
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
8,344
India
Indonesia
Hungary
Honduras
Haiti
Guyana
200
8,542
14,160
286
4,656
11,051
Guinea-Bissau
4,681
260 943
Guinea
Guatemala
Greece
Ghana
7,646
1,632
86
2,266
2,676
6,310
50,222
7,642
6,332
17,092
358
9,858
1,740
68
3,878
6,182
1,850
72
1,007
5,360
28,646
1,539
3,669
2,472
2,140
22,850
12
42
2,588
continues
6,126
338 402
2,412
9,394
38
5,270
74 306
6,484
6,714
1,546
237
3,188
5,155
179,379
438
1,146
74
12
1,187
340,311
10,628
370
Poland
Philippines
Peru
Paraguay
Papua New Guinea
Panama
Pakistan
Oman
Norway
Nigeria
Niger
Nicaragua
New Zealand
Netherlands
Nepal
Nauru
Namibia
Myanmar
Mozambique
Morocco
Mongolia
Micronesia (Federated States of)
Mexico
Mauritius
Mauritania
Marshall Islands
Mali
Maldives
24
28
989
10,745
2,195
487
1983
836 864 930
138 107 248 178
1,018
1,212 1,753 2,301
261
1982
97 469 516
1981
Malaysia
1980
continued
Malawi
Country
52
1985
55
1986
1,667
3,788
521
10
30
166 259
91
1988
352
1,290
393
8,351
1989
137
1,078
166
141
597
371
575 700
1,168 1,324
1987
3,734 1,578
1,795 3,759 1,916
67
1984
23,888
298
1992
25,193
1993
107
1994
322,562
31
1,758
19,803
10,712
1,296
16,430
924
12
177
17,478
1,088 4,712
4,534
2,191 5,723
778
1
2
32 157 274 490
421
692
4,059
1997
1 260
1996
2,209 1,486
1995
53,016
1999
3,490
85,344
142
88,658
12
2,608 1,070
3,490
1998
72,404
345 708
242,237
42
12,092
23,887
3,340
518
4,518 6,966
1,402 1,210 1,458
83,434
2,644 6,928
22,397
12,374
3,957
847
8,687 4,160 2,859 1,059
732 264
2001
17,588
28
134
1,114
48,750
160
36
65,236
2002
660 550 348
988
14
5,598 4,624
16
10,858
2004
2005
2006
27,516
68
12,612
370
4,452
50
14
474
48
528
28
5,244
950
2007
1,066
278 132
3,866 6,372 8,954 4,056 3,322
4,356 1,106 2,464
40,160
8,264
2,910 5,678 2,356
32
5,472 1,350 2,210 8,296
2003
450 162 472 584
12
35,298
6,904
10
300
3,770
248
4,782 4,790
2000
3,092 1,868
52,716
2,372
3,067 6,631 7,821 8,825 2,813 2,566 2,874 1,104
798
1,178 2,416
59,478
3,238
30,648
924 826
30,802
2,690 8,162
506 474 995 534
8,088
1991
4,152 7,847
4,573
34
2,071
13,457
1990
10,820
1,944
6,992
45
18,174
153
1,662
2008
1,155
2010
120
2011
12
23,377
164 527
44,456
1,154 2,324
1,790
16
7,430 1,279
5
33 120
3,914 8,997 1,535
27,382
164
159
39,358
46
2,220
374 443 586
11,502
2009
371
14
11,968
Togo
Thailand
Tajikistan
Switzerland
Sweden
4,331
39 638
1,497
645 899 213
4,457
120
154
19
39
11
26
11
17
2,396
70 121
10
34
6,353 3,418
753
12
37
63
557
2,281
238 538
86
4,715 1,182 2,742
15,980
27
8,957
78
23
19
165
78
24
679 503 568
Swaziland
17
104 574 309
10,199
27
804
49
Suriname
Sudan
Sri Lanka
Spain
South Africa
4,180
40
390
3,953
74
47
3,487
10
28,334
41
9,709
10
1,048
22
20
10,274
19
16,107
65 146
9,255
14
10,285
3,332
84
860
13,628
38
742
3 106 548
80 118
8 240
34
20
35,514
22
39,334
14,992
676
14 282
216
6,434 1,334
14
3,072
40 136
8,834
62
20
38
5,102
11,224
212,318
8,980
11
1,026
2,454
1,172
20
12
63,438
64
70
36
2,160 2,640 2,318
2,150
61,324
19
13,681
10,520
872 630
34,482
7,814
416
67
continues
130 794 436
2,856
27,462
2,562
62
7,968 2,566
5,120 4,438
46
180 119
2,906
356
730
3,932 1,852
178 810
7,802 5,534 7,006
22,040
24
514 768
268
20,008
5,134 5,550
16
106
314
2,470
16
654
4,192 1,726
6,440
276
34
3,150
70
15
83,286
859
31
476
428
74
2,988
21 226 101
13
728
54 161
Somalia
18
24 201
270 226
113
Slovenia
Singapore
Sierra Leone
Seychelles
Serbia and Montenegro (former)
Senegal
Saudi Arabia
Samoa
So Tom and
Prncipe
30
145
Rwanda
Russian Federation
Romania
Republic of Moldova
Republic of Korea
Qatar
Portugal
72
1,974
3,510
279
77,636
372
4,241
12
1981
1,816
1983
1,984
1985
1,231
11
1986
1,892
140
1987
5,267
10
1988
2,150
1989
2,230
42
1990
64,925
65,251
233
29,324
45,279
51,633
1,403
144
42,776
14
Zimbabwe
57
Global Total
720
Yemen
Zambia
2
52,738
56,105
53,920
54,108
44
74,764
3,717
18,526
5,072
293
1992
595,334
13,154
492,964
2,048
11,659
4,260
2,842
26 103
5,676
75
279
1991
52
22 502 525 216 343 143 358
2,600
1984
Vietnam
57 392
4,071
190
1982
15
978 157
5,196
1,539
1980
continued
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
Uzbekistan
United States of
America
United Republic of
Tanzania
United Kingdom
United Arab
Emirates
Ukraine
Uganda
Tuvalu
Turkmenistan
Turkey
Tunisia
Tonga
Country
380,714
5,385
6,766
3,361
409
385,408
5,776
47
2,240
792
214,802
6,088
19
2,957
10
813 525
18
19
1995
1996
144,727
298,829
12
24,532
10,358
1999
9,274
66
5,614
2000
596,982
1,990
526,065
11,274
27,022
26 338
285,783
3,350
9,008
626 752 141
34
28,976
36
99,028
1998
72 342
566
2,172
5,102
80,498
12
5,220
110
1997
269
1,464
13
704 538 291
1994
13
1993
372,077
1,300
6,218
2,600
494
1,122
145
2001
2003
2004
2005
284,513
6,250
678
23,840
223,137
2,018
2,098
1,420
18
263,745
1,032
238
202,744
3,006
24
5,890
24,298
10
20,638
26
4,548 8,754 6,760 9,848
30
2002
473,544
1,578
10,720
16
28,594
98
10,388
2006
357,351
130
4,572
3,892
14
3,218
64
552
2007
2009
2010
430,991
120,110
4,122
1,706
10
5,822
16
15
4,469
417,778
136,306
9,424
317,528
951
6,794
110 300
942 606
20
15,400
32
7,452 2,190 2,341
2008
589,104
1,220
330
31,789
49
42
942
32
33
2011
D A T A
T A B L E S
1 7 A
A N D
1 7 B
Global Cholera Deaths Reported

to the World Health Organization,
by Country, 19492011
Description
Annual deaths from cholera are shown here for all reporting countries. Cholera is one of
many waterborne diseases that are a consequence of the lack of sanitation services and
access to clean drinking water. Some data on cholera cases and deaths are available as
early as 1922 from reports to the League of Nations, but consistent reports are available
from the World Health Organization only since 1949. The data here are given annually
from 1949 to 2011.
Since 2006, between 7,500 and 15,000 people have died each year from cholera, not
counting unreported or misreported data. Particularly hard hit in 2011 were Haiti and
Somalia.
In 2011, a total of fty-eight countries from all continents reported approximately
590,000 cases of cholera to the World Health Organization, of which 32 percent were in
Africa and 61.2 percent were in the Americas (dened as North, Central, and South
America and the Caribbean). These data reect a massive upsurge in the Americas from
previous years. A particularly severe outbreak started in Haiti at the end of October 2010
and also affected the Dominican Republic.
These data also show the rapid and severe spread of cholera in Latin America during
the seventh pandemic, starting with the appearance of cholera in Peru in 1991 and
spreading rapidly. That sharp spike in cholera was the rst manifestation of the seventh
pandemic in the Americas and was the rst time that the Americas had seen more than
a handful of indigenous cases in over a century.
Limitations
There are serious problems with the reporting of cholera. In particular, the data here
include only the deaths identied and reported to the World Health Organization and do
not include undiagnosed or unreported cases. The true number of cholera deaths is
known to be much higher than reported here. Many countries refuse to report cholera as
such, or dene many severe diarrheal diseases as something other than cholera, often as
acute watery diarrhea. As many as 500,000 to 700,000 cases and an unknown number
of deaths from acute watery diarrhea occur annually in vast areas of Central and Southeast Asia and in some African countries.
373
374
As a result, the totals shown in the table are likely to seriously underrepresent total
cholera deaths.
Sources
World Health Organization (WHO). 2011. Number of Reported Cholera Cases. Global Health
Observatory. http://www.who.int/gho/epidemic_diseases/cholera/cases_text/en/index.html
(accessed June 1, 2013).
. 2013. Cholera Data Portal. http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.175.
Cameroon
Cambodia
Burundi
Burkina Faso
Brunei Darussalam
Brazil
Botswana
State of)
Bhutan
Benin
Belize
Belgium
Belarus
Bangladesh
Bahrain
Azerbaijan
Austria
Australia
Armenia
Argentina
Angola
Andorra
Algeria
Albania
Afghanistan
Country
375
1949
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
199
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
40
10
13
27
12,947 12,372 12,884 16,904 9,443 9,802 15,310 5,134 10,119 11,056 6,272 1,703 1,304 1,248 2,419
1950
1966
683 1,234
55
1965
369
1967
Global Cholera Deaths Reported to the World Health Organization, by Country, 19481979
1969
1970
37
614 1,556 1,889
1968
336
495
274
386
110
1971
27
29
201
24
71
1972
16
14
249
369
74
1973
16
66
173
34
50
1974
117
118
1975
354
31
1977
continues
27
14
62
30
1976
248
81
13
1978
31
21
94
1979
376
Germany
Georgia
Gambia
Gabon
France
Finland
Ethiopia
Estonia
Eritrea
Equatorial Guinea
El Salvador
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Djibouti
Denmark
1949
1950
continued
Democratic Republic of
the Congo
Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea
Czech Republic
Cte dIvoire
Costa Rica
Congo
Comoros
Colombia
China
Chile
Chad
Central African
Republic
Cape Verde
Canada
Country
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
24
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
72
39
1970
124
81
2,411
1971
1972
1973
87
1974
238
1975
17
1976
1977
183
14
1978
511
1979
377
18
22
474
80
83
69
20
36
26,946 27,141 16,357 17,035 12,664 2,799
139
22
37
10
662
21
10
28
Malawi
Madagascar
27
Libya
Liberia
Lesotho
Lebanon
Lao Peoples
Democratic Republic
Kyrgyzstan
106
38
28
27
23
20
12
20
10
59
780
289
353
18
continues
16
74
262 1,257 3,607 6,956 3,058 3,920 3,715 2,665
3,420 10,478 2,845 5,406 2,289 2,330
39
19,368 7,662 17,206 49,715 49,818 7,696
32
Kuwait
41,543 58,252
641
21
396
60
180
Kiribati
Kenya
Kazakhstan
Jordan
Japan
Italy
Israel
Iraq
Iran (Islamic Republic

of)
Indonesia
India
Hungary
Honduras
Haiti
Guyana
Guinea-Bissau
Guinea
Guatemala
Greece
Ghana
24
17
507
246
120
56
769
113
113
378
1951
1953
19
1954
12
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
200
1960
1961
1962
783
24
1963
171
143
1964
1965
17
1966
1967
1968
34
1969
1971
76
22
32
17
1973
1,107
464
433 1,518
52
17
173
1976
12
1977
372
220
64
1978
86
273
55
17
Portugal
Poland
Philippines
Peru
Paraguay
Papua New Guinea
Panama
Pakistan
Oman
1,405 1,682
448
89
106
38
109
43
4 2,945
Nigeria
Norway
8 2,344
Niger
Nicaragua
New Zealand
Netherlands
78
96
12
447
27
16
48
33
75
15
160
25
180
10
122
20
0
0
172
1975
10
97
203
138
21
1974
Nepal
384
24
11
1972
Nauru
Namibia
42
53
201 1,321
1970
24
245
1952
Myanmar
2,785 4,685
1950
87
1949
continued
Mozambique
Morocco
Mongolia
Micronesia (Federated
States of)
Mexico
Mauritius
Mauritania
Marshall Islands
Mali
Maldives
Malaysia
Country
408
75
547
10
1979
379
Tunisia
Tonga
Togo
Thailand
Tajikistan
Switzerland
Sweden
Swaziland
Suriname
Sudan
Sri Lanka
Spain
South Africa
Somalia
Slovenia
Singapore
Sierra Leone
Seychelles

(former)
Senegal
Saudi Arabia
So Tom and Prncipe
Samoa
Rwanda
Russian Federation
Romania
Republic of Moldova
Republic of Korea
Qatar
1,426
613
156
38
30
21
21
40
137
10
74
14
23
26
10
13
60
25
37
16
33
13
64
333
11
16
12
66
continues
88
67
48
123
48
44
30
176
380
6
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
872
1964
29
1965
167
1966
71
1967
1968
26
1969
52
1970
30
1971
1972
Total
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Yemen
Vietnam
Republic of)
Uzbekistan
United States of
America
United Republic of
Tanzania
16,133 58,661 71,397 141,173 28,835 17,476 32,523 54,853 61,836 19,367 7,800 30,528 30,695 19,137 22,289 13,996 4,572
637
830 2,209 7,533
1
140
23
18
1973
1974
33
1975
1976
26
1977
36
12
733
110
1978
11
45
28
305
60
1979
26,132 10,658 10,081 7,649 7,079 3,950 2,177 3,354 3,478
26
21
1951
United Kingdom
1950
1949
continued
Ukraine
Uganda
Tuvalu
Turkmenistan
Turkey
Country
381
1983
1984
1985
13
1986
1987
30
1988
1989
20
1990
1991
1992
1994
23
29
41
15
28
11
35
117 156
17
18
60 103
12
23
15
Cameroon
10
55
Cambodia
Burundi
Burkina Faso
Brunei Darussalam
29
41
113
0 491
66
19
61
20
58
50
0
14
52 126
104
54 166
14
70
0 132 260
190
74
36
52 126
21 485 360 632
97 120 104 211 123
61
33
68
32
2000
2001
34
22 142
32
16
26
2002
36
22
14
2003
18
2004
22
2005
58
32
28
14
40
14
16
36
72 274 220
28
32
85
54
1999
0 304 396 228
1998
0
33 363 644 452
0
12 203
24
0 190
42
250
1997
Brazil
46
20
61
187 248
1996
Botswana
12 395 254
State of )
17
0
19
Bhutan
259
Benin
Belize
43
34
15
925 809 582 184
Belgium
1,542
1,403
Belarus
Bangladesh
Bahrain
Azerbaijan
Austria
Australia
Armenia
Argentina
Angola
Andorra
1995
931 118 624
1993
1982
25
1981
Algeria
18
1980
Global Cholera Deaths Reported to the World Health Organization, by Country, 19802011
Albania
Afghanistan
Country
70
14
5,444
2006
22
2009
0 178
10
486 176
44
2008
continues
1,026
2007
44
2011
1,314
16
783
60 110
20
2010
382
1985
1986
1987
89
1988
59
1989
1990
1991
0
30 125 218
32
0
0
45
72
14
38
16
15
4,181
Germany
Georgia
Gambia
Gabon
150
1997
23
1998
22
70
120
64
58
12
100
74
5,852
44
136
14
448 886 288
1996
22 638 652
34
697 208
99
59 175
35
88
55 184
14
31
61 294
43
France
81 800 693 245
42
1995
12 240
1994
94 319
1993
Finland
Ethiopia
Estonia
Eritrea
Equatorial Guinea
El Salvador
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Djibouti
Denmark
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea
Czech Republic
0
7
Cte dIvoire
116
207 158
1992
Costa Rica
Congo
Comoros
Colombia
1984
China
1983
1982
1,344
1981
Chad
1980
continued
Chile
Central African
Republic
Cape Verde
Canada
Country
2000
1,566
40
64
1,882
84 182
36
1999
92
2002
780
3,958
96
2004
1,978
2006
12
26
66
58
2007
30
1,150
544
18
54
1,200
20 266
28 142
2005
456 488 852
18
14 544
2003
610 286 100
452
2001
2010
15
2011
24
42
0 336
38
474 364 584
6 350 458
2009
46 868
1,096
2008
383
819
27 155
92
0
Jordan
85
32
55
25
51
32
12
0 102
45
12
32
40
28
0
39
23
33
14
17 126 169
255 606 174
16 481 245
11
0
49
Madagascar
Malawi
Libya
8 524
100
34
1,110
18
32
34
2,474
18
22
26
106
40
64
12
12
44
20
700 156 110
60
42
12
56
12
20
20
12
22
30 148
1,296
1,098
826
84
3,344
112
0
1,822
36
76
30
14
42
22
38
12
6 798
0
68
34
22 110
48
22
54
16 450
64
50
18
18
7,980
52 250
continues
10
14
34
12
2,869
6 105
22 134 226 528 126
2 234 214 438 622
12 102 214
36
53
59
1,810
Liberia
33
91
15
55
14
84
17
0 114
24 216 520 148 320 130
55
42 108
83 149
77
14
70
Lesotho
Lebanon
Lao Peoples Democratic Republic
Kyrgyzstan
Kuwait
Kiribati
Kenya
Kazakhstan
93
17 102 102
285
95
93
671 565
36
54
18
70 240 380
85 391
38
Japan
59
68
23
50 207 306
60 409
Italy
Israel
Iraq
32 108
150 463 535 346
Indonesia
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
307 150 213 309
India
Hungary
Honduras
Haiti
Guyana
50
1,225
58
62
Guinea-Bissau
21
Guinea
Guatemala
Greece
Ghana
384
38
1983
Portugal
Poland
Philippines
Peru
Paraguay
Papua New Guinea
Panama
Pakistan
Oman
Norway
Nigeria
Niger
Nicaragua
New Zealand
Netherlands
Nepal
Nauru
Namibia
61
25
51
18
31
18
1985
1986
308
11
15
84
18
1987
23 111
20 113 101
406 838 151
1984
2 185
29
50
17
1982
Myanmar
14
1981
85 132 199 447
1980
continued
Mozambique
Morocco
Mongolia
Micronesia (Federated States of)
Mexico
Mauritius
Mauritania
Marshall Islands
Mali
Maldives
Malaysia
Country
10
38
32
1988
137
38
1990
34
1991
13
1993
99 193
1992
39
61
22
2,909
29
7,654
367
2 495 873
11
52
27
1996
87
10
27
14
21
1,193
15 206
801 575 199 171
49
206
686 266 313
83
14
1997
58
34
2,706
38
1998
58
34
1,136
268 374
26
72
0 518
12
148
231 761
27
1995
56 137
1994
46 220 134 164 107
15
50
12 194 328 727 507
27
14
1989
2000
12
4,170
170
14
2,388
18
22
2001
2003
2004
16
24
10
58
22 114 110 162
48
140
2006
12
12
0
6
86 238 308 174 370 348 254
76
2005
4 238 410 152
2002
476 204 684 204 220
40
12
6 102
1999
10
2008
2009
12
2010
76
742
60
95
10
2011
0 219
3,424
132
18
90 190
96 494 862
4 140
44 204 310 234
2007
385
0
0
0
6
30
0
41
Tonga
Togo
Thailand
Tajikistan
Switzerland
Sweden
85
16
19
14
239
1,589
1,945
11
81
0
3
36
0
41
53
30
13
20
Swaziland
21
63
17
57
52 224
Suriname
Sudan
Sri Lanka
16
Spain
South Africa
Somalia
Slovenia
Singapore
4
10
160 765
1,206
22
114
32 148
17
98
14 442
24
191 464 504 392
623 447
15
10
98
16
66
84
20 916
20
18
42
48
42
1,126
62
10
46 260
32 214
28
64
56
26
90
186 318 112

4 136 464
1,386
66
32
70
52
30
56
50
2,022
236 104
30
6 206
44 114
32
40
continues
14
1,000
2,364
0 198 168
669
34
3
63 288
35
Sierra Leone
94 474
64
35
Seychelles
Serbia and Montenegro (former)
Senegal
Saudi Arabia
So Tom and
Prncipe
Samoa
Rwanda
13
Russian Federation
Romania
0
0
4
0
Republic of Korea
Republic of Moldova
Qatar
1,130
386
1981
48
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
50
1987
1988
1989
Zimbabwe
Total
1,954
2,441
3,821
0 131
2,668
19
1,830
6
4,114
3,966
3,009
2,855
1,711
1,091
2,802 19,302
44 315
10
8,214
6,761 10,750
105 332
68
5,045
45
96
74 155
10
66
1995
20
39
1994
1993
913 426
17
20
Zambia
68
Yemen
1 110
2,173
49
Vietnam
1992
28 104
1991
81 572
1990
587 330 324 127 338 250 215 232 580 232
181
1980
continued
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of )
Uzbekistan
United States of
America
United Republic of
Tanzania
United Kingdom
United Arab
Emirates
Ukraine
Uganda
Tuvalu
Turkmenistan
Turkey
Tunisia
Country
1997
4,462
2000
1,070
16
1,168
2002
24
5,794
9,128
28 384
606 330
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
6 240
2007
2010
46 156
2009
3,788
70
4,690
18
58 746
4,544 12,600
52 122
14 366
9,886 15,086
5,412
7,781
2
5,856
42
8 134
11
2011
78 160 124
8,066 10,286
70
64 544 188 508 130 176 226 118
8 266 258 182 196 212
12
2001
312 104 594
456 344
1999
88 770 446
14
1,216
4,128
1998
6,418 12,742 21,664 18,442 10,538
42
9 118
36
40 376
1996
D A T A
T A B L E
1 8 A
Perceived Satisfaction with Water

Quality in Sub-Saharan Africa
Description
In 2012, the Gallup Organization released the results of a survey on perceived satisfaction with water quality taken in cities and other areas of sub-Saharan Africa (and in other
regions; see data table 18B). The question asked was, In the city or area where you live,
are you satised or dissatised with the quality of water?
This table summarizes the results of that survey, which may be the rst of its kind. The
complete survey was done worldwide. The results shown here are only for sub-Saharan
Africa. Perceived water quality is generally lowest in this region, the Middle East, and
countries that were formerly in the Soviet Union. The summary provided by Gallup
notes, Seven of the 10 countries where residents are least satised are in sub-Saharan
Africa, where residents sometimes have to walk miles for water, and waterborne and
water-related diseases such as cholera are common.
Limitations
Like any poll, this one has limitations. As described by Gallup, the results presented here
are based on telephone and face-to-face interviews with 1,000 adults, aged fteen and
older, conducted in more than 140 countries in 2011. The maximum margin of sampling
error is described as ranging from a low of 2 percentage points to a high of 5.1 percentage points. In addition to sampling error, one challenge with polls such as this involves
the wording and interpretation of the questions asked. For example, what does satised mean?
Moreover, perceived levels of satisfaction say nothing about actual water quality.
Many people may perceive problems where none exist and, conversely, may not perceive
problems when major contamination exists.
Source
Gallup. 2012. Air Quality Rated Better Than Water Quality Worldwide: Residents of Sub-Saharan
Africa Rate Their Water the Worst. Report by A. Pugliese and J. Ray. May 14. http://www.gallup
.com/poll/154646/Air-Quality-Rated-Better-Water-Quality-Worldwide.aspx (accessed June 3,
2013).
387
388
D ATA T A B L E 18 A Perceived Satisfaction with Water

Quality in Sub-Saharan Africa
Country or City
Satised (%)
Dissatised
88
70
64
62
62
62
62
61
61
61
61
59
58
57
56
56
53
52
51
50
49
48
48
47
47
47
47
46
46
43
42
41
41
39
36
35
31
30
12
30
36
38
38
38
38
39
39
39
39
41
42
43
44
44
47
48
49
50
51
52
52
53
53
53
53
54
54
57
58
59
59
61
64
65
69
70
(%)
Mauritius
Rwanda
Zimbabwe
South Africa
Mozambique
Botswana
Malawi
Ghana
Kenya
Somaliland region
Uganda
Benin
Swaziland
Niger
Senegal
Burundi
Madagascar
Djibouti
Angola
Mali
Zambia
Guinea
Cameroon
Mauritania
Comoros
Liberia
Conga Brazzaville
Burkina Faso
Chad
Nigeria
Gabon
Togo
Lesotho
Tanzania
Sudan
Congo Kinshasa
Sierra Leone
D A T A
T A B L E
1 8 B
Regional Assessment of
Satisfaction with Water
(and Air) Quality
Description
In 2012, the Gallup Organization released the results of a survey on perceived satisfaction with water quality taken in cities and other areas around the world. The question
asked was, In the city or area where you live, are you satised or dissatised with the
quality of [air or water]?
This table summarizes the results of that survey for different regions of the world. In
general, with the exception of Europe, air quality in all regions was thought to be better
than water quality. Ratings of water quality are highest in the richer countries of North
America, much of Europe, and developed regions in Asia. Perceived water quality is generally lowest in sub-Saharan Africa (see data table 18A), the Middle East, and countries
of the former Soviet Union. The summary provided by Gallup notes, Seven of the 10
countries where residents are least satised are in sub-Saharan Africa, where residents
sometimes have to walk miles for water, and waterborne and water-related diseases such
as cholera are common.
Limitations
389
390
Source
.com/poll/154646/Air-Quality-Rated-Better-Water-Quality-Worldwide.aspx (accessed May
28, 2013).
391
Regional Assessment of Satisfaction with Water (and Air) Quality
Region
Global
Sub-Saharan Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Former Soviet Union
Middle East and North Africa
Satised with Air Quality (%)
Satised with Water Quality (%)
75
78
78
84
75
68
68
68
51
73
78
79
61
63
D A T A
T A B L E
1 8 C
Countries Most and Least

Satised with Water Quality
Description
In 2012, the Gallup Organization released the results of a survey on perceived satisfaction with water quality taken in cities and other areas around the world. The question
asked was, In the city or area where you live, are you satised or dissatised with the
quality of [air or water]?
This table presents the countries most and least satised with water quality. Ratings of water quality are highest in the richer countries of the Americas, much of Europe,
and parts of developed regions in Asia. Perceived water quality is generally lowest in subSaharan Africa (see data table 18A), the Middle East, and parts of the former Soviet
Union.
Limitations
Source
.com/poll/154646/Air-Quality-Rated-Better-Water-Quality-Worldwide.aspx (accessed May
28, 2013).
392
393
D ATA T A B L E 18 C Countries Most and Least

Satised with Water Quality
Most Satised with Water Quality
Country
United Kingdom
Germany
Sweden
Denmark
Singapore
Finland
Austria
Netherlands
Australia
Luxembourg
Uruguay
97
96
96
96
95
94
94
93
92
91
91
Least Satised with Water Quality
Country
Congo (Kinshasha)
Sierra Leone
Iraq
Haiti
Lesotho
Togo
Tanzania
Ukraine
Gabon
24
30
32
32
39
41
41
41
42
42
Water Units, Data Conversions,

and Constants
Water experts, managers, scientists, and educators work with a bewildering array of different
units and data. These vary with the eld of work: engineers may use different water units
than hydrologists; urban water agencies may use different units than reservoir operators;
academics may use different units than water managers. But they also vary with regions:
water agencies in England may use different units than water agencies in France or Africa;
hydrologists in the eastern United States often use different units than hydrologists in the
western United States. And they vary over time: todays water agency in California may sell
water by the acre-foot, but its predecessor a century ago may have sold miners inches or
some other now arcane measure.
These differences are of more than academic interest. Unless a common language is
used, or a dictionary of translations is available, errors can be made or misunderstandings
can ensue. In some disciplines, unit errors can be more than embarrassing; they can be
expensive, or deadly. In September 1999, the $125 million Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft
was sent crashing into the face of Mars instead of into its proper safe orbit above the surface
because one of the computer programs controlling a portion of the navigational analysis
used English units incompatible with the metric units used in all the other systems. The
failure to translate English units into metric units was described in the ndings of the preliminary investigation as the principal cause of mission failure.
This table is a comprehensive list of water units, data conversions, and constants related
to water volumes, ows, pressures, and much more. Most of these units and conversions
were compiled by Kent Anderson and initially published in P. H. Gleick, 1993, Water in
Crisis: A Guide to the Worlds Fresh Water Resources, Oxford University Press, New York.
395
396
Water Units, Data Conversions, and Constants
Prex (Metric)
dekahectokilomegagigaterapetaexaLENGTH (L)
1 micron ()
1 millimeter (mm)
1 centimeter (cm)
1 meter (m)
1 kilometer (km)
10 millimeters
10 centimeters
10 decimeters
(dm)
10 meters
10 dekameters
(dam)
Abbreviation
da
h
k
M
G
T
P
E
Multiple
10
100
1000
106
109
1012
1015
1018
= 1 10-3 mm
= 1 10-6 m
= 3.3937 10-5 in
= 0.1 cm
= 1 10-3m
= 0.03937 in
= 10 mm
= 0.01 m
= 1 10-5 km
= 0.3937 in
= 0.03281 ft
= 0.01094 yd
= 1000 mm
= 100 cm
= 1 10-3 km
= 39.37 in
= 3.281 ft
= 1.094 yd
= 6.21 10-4 mi
= 1 105cm
= 1000 m
= 3280.8 ft
= 1093.6 yd
= 0.621 mi
= 1 centimeter
= 1 decimeter
= 1 meter
= 1 dekameter
= 1 hectometer
Prex (Metric)
decicentimillimicronanopicofemtoatto-
Abbreviation
d
c
m
n
P
f
a
10 hectometers
1 mil
1 inch (in)
1 foot (ft)
1 yard (yd)
1 mile (mi)
1 fathom (nautical)
1 league (nautical)
1 league (land)
1 international
nautical mile
Multiple
0.1
0.01
0.001
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
= 1 kilometer
= 0.0254 mm
= 1 10-3 in
= 25.4 mm
= 2.54 cm
= 0.08333 ft
= 0.0278 yd
= 30.48 cm
= 0.3048 m
= 3.048 10-4 km
= 12 in
= 0.3333 yd
= 1.89 10-4 mi
= 91.44 cm
= 0.9144 m
= 9.144 10-4 km
= 36 in
= 3 ft
= 5.68 10-4 mi
= 1609.3 m
= 1.609 km
= 5280 ft
= 1760 yd
= 6 ft
= 5.556 km
= 3 nautical miles
= 4.828 km
= 5280 yd
= 3 mi
= 1.852 km
= 6076.1 ft
= 1.151 mi
397
Water Units, Data Conversions, and Constants (continued)
AREA (L2)
1 square centimeter
(cm2)
1 square meter
(m2)
1 are
1 hectare (ha)
1 square kilometer
(km2)
1 square inch (in2)
= 1 10-4m2
= 0.1550 in2
= 1.076 10-3 ft2
= 1. 196 10-4 yd2
= 1 10-4 hectare
= 1 10-6 km2
= 1 centare
(French)
= 0.01 are
= 1550.0 in2
= 10.76 ft2
= 1.196 yd2
= 2.471 10-4 acre
= 100 m2
= 1 104 m2
= 100 are
= 0.01 km2
= 1.076 105 ft2
= 1. 196 104 yd2
= 2.471 acres
= 3.861 10-3 mi2
= 1 106 m2
= 100 hectares
= 1.076 107 ft2
= 1. 196 106 yd2
= 247.1 acres
= 0.3861 mi2
= 6.452 cm2
= 6.452 10-4 m2
= 6.944 10-3 ft2
= 7.716 10-4 yd2
1 square foot (ft2)
1 square yard (yd2)
1 acre
1 square mile (mi2)
1 feddan (Egyptian)
= 929.0 cm2
= 0.0929 m2
= 144 in2
= 0.1111 yd2
= 2.296 10-5 acre
= 3.587 10-8 mi2
= 0.8361 m2
= 8.361 10-5
hectare
= 1296 in2
= 9 ft2
= 2.066 10-4 acres
= 3.228 10-7 mi2
= 4046.9 m2
= 0.40469 ha
= 4.0469 10-3 km2
= 43,560 ft2
= 4840 yd2
= 1.5625 10-3 mi2
= 2.590 106 m2
= 259.0 hectares
= 2.590 km2
= 2.788 107 ft2
= 3.098 106 yd2
= 640 acres
= 1 section (of land)
= 4200 m2
= 0.42 ha
= 1.038 acres
(continues)
398
VOLUME (L3)
1 cubic centimeter
(cm3)
1 liter (1)
1 cubic meter (m3)
1 cubic decameter
(dam3)
1 cubic hectometer
(ha3)
1 cubic kilometer
(km3)
1 cubic inch (in3)
1 gallon (gal)
= 1 10-3 liter
= 1 10-6 m3
= 0.06102 in3
= 2.642 10-4 gal
= 3.531 10-3 ft3
= 1000 cm3
= 1 10-3 m3
= 61.02 in3
= 0.2642 gal
= 0.03531 ft3
= 1 106 cm3
= 1000 liter
= 1 10-9 km3
= 264.2 gal
= 35.31 ft3
= 6.29 bbl
= 1.3078 yd3
= 8.107 10-4
acre-ft
= 1000 m3
= 1 106 liter
= 1 10-6 km3
= 2.642 105 gal
= 3.531 104 ft3
= 1.3078 103 yd3
= 0.8107 acre-ft
= 1 106 m3
= 1 103 dam3
= 1 109 liter
= 2.642 108 gal
= 3.531 107 ft3
= 1.3078 106 yd3
= 810.7 acre-ft
= 1 1012 liter
= 1 109 m3
= 1 106 dam3
= 1000 ha3
= 8.107 105
acre-ft
= 0.24 mi3
= 16.39 cm3
= 0.01639 liter
= 4.329 10-3 gal
= 5.787 10-4 ft2
= 3.785 liters
= 3.785 10-3 m3
= 231 in3
= 0.1337 ft3
= 4.951 10-3 yd3
1 cubic foot (ft3)
1 cubic yard (yd3)
1 acre-foot
(acre-ft or AF)
1 Imperial gallon
1 cfs-day
1 inch-mi2
1 barrel (of oil)

(bbl)
1 million gallons
1 pint (pt)
1 quart (qt)
1 morgen-foot
(S. Africa)
1 board-foot
1 cord
= 2.832 104 cm3

= 28.32 liters
= 0.02832 m3
= 1728 in3
= 7.481 gal
= 0.03704 yd3
= 0.7646 m3
= 6.198 10-4
acre-ft
= 46656 in3
= 27 ft3
= 1233.48 m3
= 3.259 105 gal
= 43560 ft3
= 4.546 liters
= 277.4 in3
= 1.201 gal
= 0.16055 ft3
= 1.98 acre-feet
= 0.0372 in-mi2
= 1.738 107 gal
= 2.323 106 ft3
= 53.3 acre-ft
= 26.9 cfs-days
= 159 liter
= 0.159 m3
= 42 gal
= 5.6 ft3
= 3.069 acre-ft
= 0.473 liter
= 28.875 in3
= 0.5 qt
= 16 uid ounces
= 32 tablespoons
= 96 teaspoons
= 0.946 liter
= 57.75 in3
= 2 pt
= 0.25 gal
= 2610.7 m3
= 2359.8 cm3
= 144 in3
= 0.0833 ft3
= 128 ft3
= 0.453 m3
399
VOLUME/AREA (L3/L2)
1 inch of rain
MASS (M)
1 gram (g or gm)
1 kilogram (kg)
1 hectogram (hg)
1 metric ton (tonne
or te or MT)
1 dalton (atomic
mass unit)
1 grain (gr)
TIME (T)
1 second (s or sec)
1 minute (min)
1 hour (hr or h)
DENSITY (M/L3)
1 kilogram per
cubic meter
(kg/m3)
1 gram per cubic
centimeter
(g/cm3)
= 5.610 gal/yd2
= 2.715 104
gal/acre
1 box of rain
= 3,154.0 lesh
= 0.001 kg
= 15.43 gr
= 0.03527 oz
= 2.205 10-3 lb
= 1000 g
= 0.001 tonne
= 35.27 oz
= 2.205 lb
= 100 gm
= 0.1 kg
= 1000 kg
= 2204.6 lb
= 1. 102 ton
= 0.9842 long ton
= 1.6604 10-24 g
1 ounce (oz)
= 28.35 g
= 437.5 gr
= 0.0625 lb
= 453.6 g
= 0.45359237 kg
= 7000 gr
= 16 oz
= 907.2 kg
= 0.9072 tonne
= 2000 lb
= 1016.0 kg
= 1.016 tonne
= 2240 lb
= 1.12 ton
= 6.35 kg
= 14 lb
1 pound (lb)
1 short ton (ton)
1 long ton
1 long ton
1 stone (British)
= 2.286 10-3 oz
= 1.429 10-4 lb
= 0.01667 min
= 2.7778 10-4 hr
= 60 s
= 0.01667 hr
= 60 min
= 3600 s
1 day (d)
= 10-3 g/cm3
= 0.062 lb/ft3
1 metric ton per

cubic meter
(te/m3)
1 year (yr or y)
= 1000 kg/m3
= 62.43 lb/ft3
1 pound per cubic
foot (lb/ft3)
= 24 hr
= 86400 s
= 365 d
= 8760 hr
= 3.15 107 s
= 1.0 specic
gravity
= density of H2O at
4C
= 8.35 lb/gal
= 16.02 kg/m3
(continues)
400
VELOCITY (L/T)
1 meter per
second (m/s)
1 kilometer per
hour (km/h
or kph)
1 mile per hour
(mph or mi/h)
= 3.6 km/hr
= 2.237 mph
= 3.28 ft/s
= 0.62 mph
= 0.278 m/s
1 foot per second

(ft/s)
velocity of light in
vacuum (c)
1 knot
= 1.609 km/h
= 0.45 m/s
= 1.47 ft/s
= 0.68 mph
= 0.3048 m/s
= 2.9979 108 m/s
= 186,000 mi/s
= 1.852 km/h
= 1 nautical
mile/hour
= 1.151 mph
= 1.688 ft/s
VELOCITY OF SOUND IN WATER AND SEAWATER

(assuming atmospheric pressure and sea water salinity of 35,000 ppm)
Temp, C
0
10
20
30
Pure water,
(meters/sec)
1,400
1,445
1,480
1,505
FLOW RATE (L3/T)

1 liter per second
(1/sec)
1 cubic meter per

second (m3/sec)
1 cubic meter per

day (m3/day)
Sea water,
(meters/sec)
1,445
1,485
1,520
1,545
= 0.001 m3/sec
= 86.4 m3/day
= 15.9 gpm
= 0.0228 mgd
= 0.0353 cfs
= 0.0700 AF/day
= 1000 1/sec
= 8.64 104 m3/day
= 1.59 104 gpm
= 22.8 mgd
= 35.3 cfs
= 70.0 AF/day
= 0.01157 1/sec
= 1.157 10-5
m3/sec
= 0.183 gpm
= 2.64 10-4 mgd
= 4.09 10-4 cfs
= 8.11 10-4
AF/day
1 cubic decameters
= 11.57 1/sec
3
per day (dam /day) = 1.157 10-2
m3/sec
= 1000 m3/day
= 1.83 106 gpm
= 0.264 mgd
= 0.409 cfs
= 0.811 AF/day
1 gallon per minute = 0.0631 1/sec
(gpm)
= 6.31 10-5
m3/sec
= 1.44 10-3 mgd
= 2.23 10-3 cfs
= 4.42 10-3
AF/day
1 million gallons
= 43.8 1/sec
per day (mgd)
= 0.0438 m3/sec
= 3785 m3/day
= 694 gpm
= 1.55 cfs
= 3.07 AF/day
401
FLOW RATE (L3/T) (continued)

1 cubic foot per
= 28.3 1/sec
second (cfs)
= 0.0283 m3/ sec
= 2447 m3/day
= 449 gpm
= 0.646 mgd
= 1.98 AF/day
1 acre-foot per
= 14.3 1/sec
day (AF/day)
= 0.0143 m3/sec
= 1233.48 m3/day
= 226 gpm
= 0.326 mgd
= 0.504 cfs
1 miners inch
= 0.025 cfs (in
Arizona, California,
Montana, and
Oregon: ow of
water through 1 in2
aperture under
6-inch head)
ACCELERATION (L/T2)
standard acceleration
of gravity
1 miners inch
1 weir
1 quinaria
(ancient Rome)
= 0.02 cfs (in Idaho,

Kansas, Nebraska,
New Mexico, North
Dakota, South
Dakota, and Utah)
= 0.026 cfs
(in Colorado)
= 0.028 cfs
(in British Columbia)
= 0.02 garcia
= 0.470.48 1/sec
= 9.8 m/s2
= 32 ft/s2
FORCE (ML/T2 = Mass Acceleration)

1 newton (N)
= kg-m/s2
= 105 dynes
= 0.1020 kg force
= 0.2248 lb force
1 dyne
1 pound force
= g.cm/s2
= 10-5 N
= lb mass acceleration of gravity
= 4.448 N
(continues)
402
PRESSURE (M/L2 = Force/Area)

1 pascal (Pa)
= N/m2
1 bar
= 1 105 Pa
= 1 106 dyne/cm2
= 1019.7 g/cm2
= 10.197 te/m2
= 0.9869 atmosphere
= 14.50 lb/in2
= 1000 millibars
1 atmosphere (atm)
= standard
pressure
= 760 mm of
mercury at 0C
= 1013.25 millibars
= 1033 g/cm2
= 1.033 kg/cm2
= 14.7 lb/in2
= 2116 1b/ft2
= 33.95 feet of
water at 62F
= 29.92 inches of
mercury at 32F
TEMPERATURE
degrees Celsius or
Centigrade (C)
Kelvins (K)
= (F32) 5/9
= K273.16
= 273.16 + C
= 273.16 + ((F- 32)
5/9)
1 kilogram per sq.

centimeter
(kg/cm2)
1 inch of water
at 62F
1 foot of water
at 62F
1 pound per sq.

inch (psi or
lb/in2)
1 inch of mercury
at 32F
degrees Fahrenheit
(F)
= 14.22 lb/in2
= 0.0361 lb/in2
= 5.196 lb/ft3
= 0.0735 inch of
mercury at 62F
= 0.433 lb/in2
= 62.36 lb/ft2
= 0.833 inch of
mercury at 62F
= 2.950 10-2
atmosphere
= 2.309 feet of
water at 62F
= 2.036 inches of
mercury at 32F
= 0.06804
atmosphere
= 0.07031 kg/cm2
= 0.4192 lb/in2
= 1.133 feet of
water at 32F
= 32 + (C x 1.8)
= 32 + ((K273.16)
1.8)
403
ENERGY(ML2/T2 = Force Distance)

1 joule (J)
= 107 ergs
= N.m
= W .s
= kg.m2/s2
= 0.239 calories
= 9.48 10-4 Btu
1 calorie (cal)
= 4.184 J
= 3.97 10-3 Btu
(raises 1 g H2O
lC)
1 British thermal
= 1055 J
unit (Btu)
= 252 cal (raises
1 lb H2O lF)
= 2.93 10-4 kWh
1 erg
= 10-7 J
= g.cm2/s2
= dyne .cm
1 kilocalorie (kcal)
= 1000 cal
= 1 Calorie (food)
POWER (ML2/T3 = rate of ow of energy)
1 watt (W)
= J/s
= 3600 J/hr
= 3.412 Btu/hr
1 TW
= 1012 W
= 31.5 1018 J
= 30 quad/yr
1 kilowatt (kW)
= 1000W
= 1.341 horsepower
= 0.239 kcal/s
= 3412 Btu/hr
106 bbl (oil) /day
2 quads/yr
(Mb/d)
70 GW
1 quad/yr
= 33.45 GW
0.5 Mb/d
1 horsepower
= 745.7W
(H.R or hp)
= 0.7457 kW
1 kilowatt-hour
(kWh)
l quad
1Q
1 foot-pound (ft-lb)
1 therm
1 electron-volt (eV)
1 kiloton of TNT
1 106 te oil equiv.
(Mtoe)
1 horsepower
(H.P. or hp)
H.P. input
Water H.P.
= 3.6 106 J
= 3412 Btu
= 859.1 kcal
= 1015 Btu
= 1.055 1018J
= 293 109 kWh
= 0.001 Q
= 33.45 GWy
= 1000 quads
1021 J
= 1.356 J
= 0.324 cal
= 105 Btu
= 1.602 10-19 J
= 4.2 1012 J
= 7.33 106 bbl oil
= 45 1015 J
= 0.0425 quad
= 0.178 kcal/s
= 6535 kWh/yr
= 33,000 ft-lb/min
= 550 ft-lb/sec
= 8760 H.P.-hr/yr
= 1.34 kW input
to motor
= horsepower
input to motor
= H.P. required to
lift water at a
denite rate to
a given distance
assuming 100%
efciency
= gpm total head
(in feet)/3960
(continues)
404
EXPRESSIONS OF HARDNESSa
1 grain per gallon
= 1 grain CaCO3
per U.S. gallon
1 part per million
= 1 part CaCO3 per
1,000,000 parts
water
1 English, or Clark,
= 1 grain CaCO3
degree
per Imperial
gallon
CONVERSIONS OF HARDNESS
1 grain per U.S.
= 17.1 ppm, as
gallon
CaCO3
1 English degree
= 14.3 ppm, as
CaCO3
WEIGHT OF WATER
1 cubic inch
1 cubic foot
1 gallon
= 0.0361 lb
= 62.4 lb
= 8.34 lb
DENSITY OF WATERa
Temperature
Density
C
0
1.667
4.000
4.444
10.000
15.556
21.111
26.667
32.222
37.778
48.889
60.000
71.111
82.222
93.333
100.000
gm/cm3
0.99987
0.99996
1.00000
0.99999
0.99975
0.99907
0.99802
0.99669
0.99510
0.99318
0.98870
0.98338
0.97729
0.97056
0.96333
0.95865
F
32
35
39.2
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
212
1 French degree
= 1 part CaCO3 per

100,000 parts water
1 German degree
= 1 part CaO per

100,000 parts water
1 French degree
= 10 ppm, as
CaCO3
= 17.9 ppm, as
CaCO3
1 German degree
1 imperial gallon
1 cubic meter
= 10.0 lb
= 1 tonne
Note: Density of Sea Water: approximately 1.025 gm/cm3 at 15C.

a
Source: van der Leeden, F., Troise, F. L., and Todd, D. K., 1990. The Water Encyclopedia, 2d edition. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, Michigan.
Comprehensive Table of Contents

Volume 1
The Worlds Water 19981999: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources
Foreword by Anne H. and Paul R. Erhlich
Acknowledgments
Introduction
ONE
ix
xi
The Changing Water Paradigm 5

Twentieth-Century Water-Resources Development
The Changing Nature of Demand 10
Economics of Major Water Projects 16
Meeting Water Demands in the Next Century 18
Summary: New Thinking, New Actions 32
References 33
TWO
Water and Human Health 39

Water Supply and Sanitation: Falling Behind 39
Basic Human Needs for Water 42
Water-Related Diseases 47
Update on Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm) 50
Update on Cholera 56
Summary 63
References 64
THREE The Status of Large Dams: The End of an Era? 69

Environmental and Social Impacts of
Large Dams 75
New Developments in the Dam Debate 80
The Three Gorges Project, Yangtze
River, China 84
The Lesotho Highlands Project, Senqu River
Basin, Lesotho 93
References
101
FOUR
Conict and Cooperation Over Fresh Water 105

Conicts Over Shared Water Resources 107
Reducing the Risk of Water-Related Conict 113
The Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty of 1994 115
The Ganges-Brahmaputra Rivers: Conict and Agreement 118
Water Disputes in Southern Africa 119
405
406
Summary 124
Appendix A
Chronology of Conict Over Waters in the Legends,
Myths, and History of the Ancient Middle East 125
Appendix B
Chronology of Conict Over Water:
1500 to the Present 128
References
132
FIVE
Climate Change and Water Resources:

What Does the Future Hold? 137
What Do We Know? 138
Hydrologic Effects of Climate Change 139
Societal Impacts of Changes in Water Resources 144
Is the Hydrologic System Showing Signs of Change? 145
Recommendations and Conclusions 148
References 150
SIX
New Water Laws, New Water Institutions 155

Water Law and Policy in New South Africa: A Move Toward
Equity 156
The Global Water Partnership 165
The World Water Council 172
The World Commission on Dams 175
References 180
SEVEN Moving Toward a Sustainable Vision for the Earths

Fresh Water 183
Introduction 183
A Vision for 2050: Sustaining Our Waters
185
WATER BRIEFS
The Best and Worst of Science: Small Comets and the New
Debate Over the Origin of Water on Earth 193
Water Bag Technology 200
Treaty Between the Government of the Republic of India and
the Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh
on Sharing of the Ganga/Ganges Waters at Farakka 206
United Nations Conventions on the Law of the NonNavigational Uses of International Watercourses 210
Water-Related Web Sites 231
DATA SECTION
Table 1
Table 2
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply by Country 235

Freshwater Withdrawal by Country and Sector 241
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
Table 19
Summary of Estimated Water Use in the United States, 1900

to 1995 245
Total and Urban Population by Country, 1975 to 1995 246
Percentage of Population with Access to Safe Drinking Water
by Country, 1970 to 1994 251
Percentage of Population with Access to Sanitation by
Country, 1970 to 1994 256
Access to Safe Drinking Water in Developing Countries by
Region, 1980 to 1994 261
Access to Sanitation in Developing Countries by Region,
1980 to 1994 263
Reported Cholera Cases and Deaths by Region,
1950 to 1997 265
Reported Cholera Cases and Deaths by Country, 1996 and
1997 268
Reported Cholera Cases and Deaths in the Americas, 1991 to
1997 271
Reported Cases of Dracunculiasis by Country,
1972 to 1996 272
Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in the United States by Type
of Water Supply System, 1971 to 1994 274
Hydroelectric Capacity and Production by Country,
1996 276
Populations Displaced as a Consequence of Dam
Construction, 1930 to 1996 281
Desalination Capacity by Country (January 1, 1996) 288
Desalination Capacity by Process (January 1, 1996) 290
Threatened Reptiles, Amphibians, and Freshwater
Fish, 1997 291
Irrigated Area by Country and Region, 1961 to 1994 297
Index 303
407
408
Volume 2
The Worlds Water 20002001: The Biennial Report on Freshwater
Resources
Foreword by Timothy E. Wirth
Acknowledgments
Introduction
ONE
xiii
xv
xvii
The Human Right to Water 1

Is There a Human Right to Water? 2
Existing Human Rights Laws, Covenants, and Declarations
Dening and Meeting a Human Right to Water 9
Conclusions 15
References 15
TWO
How Much Water Is There and Whose Is It? The Worlds Stocks
and Flows of Water and International River Basins 19
How Much Water Is There? The Basic Hydrologic Cycle
International River Basins: A New Assessment 27
The Geopolitics of International River Basins 35
Summary 36
References 37
20
THREE Pictures of the Future: A Review of Global Water Resources

Projections 39
Data Constraints 40
Forty Years of Water Scenarios and Projections
Analysis and Conclusions 58
References 59
FOUR
42
Water for Food: How Much Will Be Needed? 63

Feeding the World Today 63
Feeding the World in the Future: Pieces of the Puzzle
How Much Water Will Be Needed to Grow Food? 78
Conclusions 88
Referencess 89
FIVE
65
Desalination: Straw into Gold or Gold into Water 93

History of Desalination and Current Status
Desalination Technologies 98
Other Aspects of Desalination 106
The Tampa Bay Desalination Plant 108
Summary 109
References 110
94
SIX
The Removal of Dams: A New Dimension to an Old Debate 113

Economics of Dam Removal 118
Dam Removal Case Studies: Some Completed Removals 120
Some Proposed Dam Removals or Decommissionings 126
Conclusion 134
References 134
SEVEN Water Reclamation and Reuse: Waste Not, Want Not 137
Wastewater Uses 139
Direct and Indirect Potable Water Reuse 151
Health Issues 152
Wastewater Reuse in Namibia 155
Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse in Japan 158
Wastewater Costs 159
Summary 159
References 161
WATER BRIEFS
Arsenic in the Groundwater of Bangladesh and West Bengal,
India 165
Fog Collection as a Source of Water 175
Environment and Security: Water Conict Chronology
Version 2000 182
Water-Related Web Sites 192
DATA SECTION
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
409
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply, by Country 197

Freshwater Withdrawal, by Country and Sector 203
World Population, Year 0 to A.D. 2050 212
Population, by Continent, 1750 to 2050 213
Renewable Water Resources and Water Availability, by
Continent 215
Dynamics of Water Resources, Selected Countries,
1921 to 1985 218
International River Basins of the World 219
Fraction of a Countrys Area in International
River Basins 239
International River Basins, by Country 247
Irrigated Area, by Country and Region, 1961 to 1997 255
Irrigated Area, by Continent, 1961 to 1997 264
Human-Induced Soil Degradation, by Type and Cause, Late
1980s 266
Continental Distribution of Human-Induced Salinization
268
Salinization, by Country, Late 1980s 269
Total Number of Reservoirs, by Continent and Volume 270
410
Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
Table 19
Table 20
Table 21
Table 22
Table 23
Table 24
Table 25
Number of Reservoirs Larger than 0.1 km3, by Continent,

Time Series 271
Volume of Reservoirs Larger than 0.1 km3, by Continent,
Time Series 273
Dams Removed or Decommissioned in the United States,
1912 to Present 275
Desalination Capacity, by Country, January 1999 287
Total Desalination Capacity, by Process, June 1999 289
Desalination Capacity, by Source of Water, June 1999 290
Number of Threatened Species, by Country/Area, by Group,
1997 291
Countries with the Largest Number of Fish Species 298
Countries with the Largest Number of Fish Species per Unit
Area 299
Water Units, Data Conversions, and Constants 300
Index 311
411
Volume 3
Resources
Foreword by Amory B. Lovins
Acknowledgments
Introduction
ONE
xiii
xv
xvii
The Soft Path for Water 1

by Gary Wolff and Peter H. Gleick
A Better Way 3
Dominance of the Hard Path in the Twentieth Century
Myths about the Soft Path 9
One Dimension of the Soft Path: Efciency of Use 16
Moving Forward on the Soft Path 25
Conclusions 30
References 30
TWO
Globalization and International Trade of Water 33

by Peter H. Gleick, Gary Wolff, Elizabeth L. Chalecki, and
Rachel Reyes
The Nature and Economics of Water, Background and
Denitions 34
Water Managed as Both a Social and Economic Good
The Globalization of Water: International Trade 41
The Current Trade in Water 42
The Rules: International Trading Regimes 47
References 54
38
THREE The Privatization of Water and Water Systems 57

by Peter H. Gleick, Gary Wolff, Elizabeth L. Chalecki, and
Rachel Reyes
Drivers of Water Privatization 58
History of Privatization 59
The Players 61
Forms of Privatization 63
Risks of Privatization: Can and Will They Be Managed?
Principles and Standards for Privatization 79
Conclusions 82
References 83
67
412
FOUR
Measuring Water Well-Being: Water Indicators and Indices 87

by Peter H. Gleick, Elizabeth L. Chalecki, and Arlene Wong
Quality-of-Life Indicators and Why We Develop Them 88
Limitations to Indicators and Indices 92
Examples of Single-Factor or Weighted Water Measures 96
Multifactor Indicators 101
Conclusions 111
References 112
FIVE
Pacic Island Developing Country Water Resources and

Climate Change 113
by William C.G. Burns
PIDCs and Freshwater Sources 113
Climate Change and PIDC Freshwater Resources 119
Potential Impacts of Climate Change on PIDC Freshwater
Resources 124
Recommendations and Conclusions 125
References 127
SIX
Managing Across Boundaries: The Case of the

Colorado River Delta
133
by Michael Cohen
The Colorado River 134
The Colorado River Delta
Conclusions 144
References 145
139
SEVEN The World Commission on Dams Report: What Next?

by Katherine Kao Cushing
The WCD Organization
149
Findings and Recommendations 151
Strategic Priorities, Criteria, and Guidelines 153
Reaction to the WCD Report
155
References 172
WATER BRIEFS
The Texts of the Ministerial Declarations from The Hague
March 2000) and Bonn (December 2001) 173
The Southeastern Anatolia (GAP) Project and Archaeology
181
by Amar S. Mann
149

by Peter S. Gleick
413
194
Water and Space 209

by Elizabeth L. Chalecki
Water-Related Web Sites
225
DATA SECTION 237

Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
Table 19
Table 20
Table 21
Table 22
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply, by Country

(2002 Update) 237
Fresh Water Withdrawals, by Country and Sector
(2002 Update) 243
Access to Safe Drinking Water by Country,
1970 to 2000 252
Access to Sanitation by Country, 1970 to 2000 261
Access to Water Supply and Sanitation by Region, 1990 and
2000 270
Reported Cases of Dracunculiasis by Country,
1972 to 2000 273
Reported Cases of Dracunculiasis Cases, Eradication
Progress, 2000 276
National Standards for Arsenic in Drinking Water 278
United States National Primary Drinking Water
Regulations 280
Irrigated Area, by Region, 1961 to 1999 289
Irrigated Area, Developed and Developing Countries, 1960 to
1999 290
Number of Dams, by Continent and Country 291
Number of Dams, by Country
296
Regional Statistics on Large Dams 300
Commissioning of Large Dams in the 20th Century, by
Decade 301
Water System Rate Structures 303
Water Prices for Various Households 304
Unaccounted-for Water 305
United States Population and Water Withdrawals, 1900 to
1995 308
United States GNP and Water Withdrawals,
1900 to 1996 310
Hong Kong GDP and Water Withdrawls, 1952 to 2000 313
China GDP and Water Withdrawls, 1952 to 2000 316
Water Units, Data Conversions, and Constants 318

Index
329
414
Volume 4
Resources
Foreword by Margaret Catley-Carlson xiii
Introduction xv
ONE
The Millennium Development Goals for Water: Crucial

Objectives, Inadequate Commitments 1
by Peter H. Gleick
Setting Water and Sanitation Goals 2
Commitments to Achieving the MDGs for Water 2
Consequences: Water-Related Diseases 7
Measures of Illness from Water-Related Diseases 9
Scenarios of Future Deaths from Water-Related
Diseases 10
Conclusions 14
References 14
TWO
The Myth and Reality of Bottled Water 17

by Peter H. Gleick
Bottled Water Use History and Trends 18
The Price and Cost of Bottled Water 22
The Flavor and Taste of Water 23
Bottled Water Quality 25
Regulating Bottled Water 26
Comparison of U.S. Standards for Bottled Water and
Tap Water 36
Other Concerns Associated with Bottled Water 37
Conclusions 41
References 42
THREE Water Privatization Principles and Practices 45

by Meena Palaniappan, Peter H. Gleick, Catherine Hunt,
Veena Srinivasan
Update on Privatization 46
Principles and Standards for Water
Can the Principles Be Met? 48
Conclusions 73
References 74
47
FOUR
Groundwater: The Challenge ofMonitoring and

Management 79
by Marcus Moench
Conceptual Foundations 80
Challenges in Assessment 80
Extraction and Use 81
Groundwater in Agriculture 88
The Analytical Dilemma 90
A Way Forward: Simple Data as a Catalyst for Effective
Management 97
References 98
FIVE
Urban Water Conservation: A Case Study of Residential

Water Use in California 101
by Peter H. Gleick, Dana Haasz, Gary Wolff
The Debate over Californias Water 102
Dening Water Conservation and Efciency 103
Current Urban Water Use in California 105
A Word About Agricultural Water Use 107
Economics of Water Savings 107
Data and Information Gaps 108
Indoor Residential Water Use 109
Indoor Residential Water Conservation: Methods and
Assumptions 112
Indoor Residential Summary 118
Outdoor Residential Water Use 118
Current Outdoor Residential Water Use 119
Existing Outdoor Conservation Efforts and Approaches 120
Outdoor Residential Water Conservation: Methods and
Assumptions 121
Residential Outdoor Water Use Summary 125
Conclusions 126
Abbreviations and Acronyms 126
References 127
SIX
Urban Water Conservation: A Case Study of Commercial and

Industrial Water Use in California 131
by Peter H. Gleick, Veena Srinivasan, Christine Henges-Jeck,
Gary Wolff
Background to CII Water Use 132
Current California Water Use in the CII Sectors 133
Estimated CII Water Use in California in 2000 138
415
416
Data Challenges 139

The Potential for CII Water Conservation and Efciency
Improvements: Methods and Assumptions 140
Methods for Estimating CII Water Use and Conservation
Potential 143
Calculation of Conservation Potential 145
Data Constraints and Conclusions 148
Recommendations for CII Water Conservation 150
Conclusions 153
References 154
SEVEN Climate Change and California Water Resources
157
by Michael Kiparsky and Peter H. Gleick

The State of the Science 158
Climate Change and Impacts on Managed Water-Resource
Systems 172
Moving From Climate Science to Water Policy 175
Conclusions 183
References 184
WATER BRIEFS
One
3rd World Water Forum in Kyoto: Disappointment and

Possibility 189
by Nicholas L. Cain
Ministerial Declaration of the 3rd World Water Forum:
Message from the Lake Biwa and Yodo River Basin 198
NGO Statement of the 3rd World Water Forum
Two
202
The Human Right to Water: Two Steps Forward, One Step

Back 204
by Peter H. Gleick
Substantive Issues Arising in the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.
United Nations General Comment No. 15 (2002) 213
Three
The Water and Climate Bibliography 228

by Peter H. Gleick and Michael Kiparksy
Four

Version 20042005 234
by Peter H. Gleick
by Peter H. Gleick
236
DATA SECTION
Data Table 1
Data Table 2
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply by Country

(2004 Update) 257
Freshwater Withdrawals by Country and Sector
(2004 Update) 263
Data Table 3
Data Table 4
Data Table 5
Data Table 6
Data Table 7
Data Table 8
Data Table 9
Data Table 10
Data Table 11
Data Table 12
Data Table 13
Data Table 14
Data Table 15
Data Table 16
Data Table 17
Deaths and DALYs from Selected Water-Related

Diseases 272
Ofcial Development Assistance Indicators 274
Aid to Water Supply and Sanitation by Donor,
1996 to 2001 278
Bottled Water Consumption by Country, 1997 to 2002 280
Global Bottled Water Consumption by Region,
1997 to 2002 283
Bottled Water Consumption, Share by Region,
1997 to 2002 285
Per-capita Bottled Water Consumption by Region,
1997 to 2002 286
United States Bottled Water Sales, 1991 to 2001 288
Types of Packaging Used for Bottled Water in Various
Countries, 1999 289
Irrigated Area by Region, 1961 to 2001 291
Irrigated Area, Developed and Developing Countries, 1961
to 2001 293
Global Production and Yields of Major Cereal Crops, 1961
to 2002 295
Global Reported Flood Deaths, 1900 to 2002 298
United States Flood Damage by Fiscal Year,
1926 to 2001 301
Total Outbreaks of Drinking Water-Related Disease,
United States, 1973 to 2000 304
Data Table 18
18.a Extinction Rate Estimates for Continental North
American Fauna (percent loss per decade) 309
18.b Imperiled Species for North American Fauna 309
Data Table 19 Proportion of Species at Risk, United States 311
Data Table 20 United States Population and Water Withdrawals
1900 to 2000 313
Data Table 21 United States Economic Productivity of Water,
1900 to 2000 317
WATER UNITS, DATA CONVERSIONS, AND CONSTANTS 321

COMPREHENSIVE TABLE OF CONTENTS 331
Volume 1: The Worlds Water 19981999: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources 331
COMPREHENSIVE INDEX 341
417
418
Volume 5
Resources
Foreword by Jon Lane xiii
Introduction xv
ONE
Water and Terrorism 1

by Peter H. Gleick
Introduction 1
The Worry 2
Dening Terrorism 3
History of Water-Related Conict 5
Vulnerability of Water and Water Systems 15
Responding to the Threat of Water-Related Terrorism
Water Security Policy in the United States 25
Conclusion 25
TWO
22
Going with the Flow: Preserving and Restoring Instream

Water Allocations 29
by David Katz
Environmental Flow: Concepts and Applications 30
Legal Frameworks for Securing Environmental Flow 34
The Science of Determining Environmental
Flow Allocations 38
The Economics and Finance of Environmental
Flow Allocations 40
Making It Work: Policy Implementation 43
Conclusion 45
THREE With a Grain of Salt: An Update on Seawater Desalination

by Peter H. Gleick, Heather Cooley, Gary Wolff
Introduction 51
Background to Desalination 52
History of Desalination 54
Desalination Technologies 54
Current Status of Desalination 55
Advantages and Disadvantages of Desalination
Environmental Effects of Desalination 76
Desalination and Climate Change 80
Public Transparency 81
66
51
419
Summary 82
Desalination Conclusions and Recommendations
FOUR
Floods and Droughts
83
91
by Heather Cooley
Introduction 91
Droughts 92
Floods 104
The Future of Droughts and Floods
Conclusion 113
FIVE
112
Environmental Justice and Water 117

by Meena Palaniappan, Emily Lee, Andrea Samulon
Introduction 117
A Brief History of Environmental Justice in the
United States 119
Environmental Justice in the International
Water Context 123
Environmental Justice and International Water Issues
Recommendations 137
Conclusion 141
SIX
Water Risks that Face Business and Industry
124
145
by Peter H. Gleick, Jason Morrison

Introduction 145
Water Risks for Business 146
Some New Water Trends: Looking Ahead 150
Managing Water Risks 153
An Overview of the Water Industry 158
Conclusion 163
WATER BRIEFS
One
Bottled Water: An Update

by Peter H. Gleick
Two
Water on Mars 175

by Peter H. Gleick
Three
169
Introduction 175
Background 175
Martian History of Water 178
Future Mars Missions 180
Time to Rethink Large International Water Meetings
by Peter H. Gleick
Introduction 182
Background and History
182
182
420
Four
Five
Outcomes of International Water Meetings 183

Ministerial Statements 184
Conclusions and Recommendations 185
4th World Water Forum
Ministerial Declaration 186
Version, 20062007 189
by Peter H. Gleick
The Soft Path in Verse
by Gary Wolff
219
DATA SECTION
Data Table 1
Data Table 2
Data Table 3
Data Table 4
Data Table 5
Data Table 6
Data Table 7
Data Table 8
Data Table 9
Data Table 10
Data Table 11
Data Table 12
Data Table 13
Data Table 14
Data Table 15
Data Table 16
Data Table 17
Data Table 18
Data Table 19
Data Table 20
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply by Country 221

1970 to 2002 237
Access to Water Supply and Sanitation by Region,
1990 and 2002 256
Annual Average ODA for Water, by Country, 1990 to 2004
(Total and Per Capita) 262
Twenty Largest Recipients of ODA for Water,
1990 to 2004 268
Twenty Largest Per Capita Recipients of ODA for Water,
1990 to 2004 270
Investment in Water and Sewerage Projects with Private
Participation, by Region, in Middle- and Low-Income
Countries, 1990 to 2004 273
Bottled Water Consumption by Country,
1997 to 2004 276
Global Bottled Water Consumption, by Region,
1997 to 2004 280
Per Capita Bottled Water Consumption by Region,
1997 to 2004 282
Per Capita Bottled Water Consumption, by Country,
1999 to 2004 284
Global Cholera Cases and Deaths Reported to the World
Health Organization, 1970 to 2004 287
Reported Cases of Dracunculiasis by Country, 1972 to
2005 293
Irrigated Area, by Region, 1961 to 2003 298
Irrigated Area, Developed and Developing Countries, 1961
to 2003 301
The U.S. Water Industry Revenue (2003) and Growth
(20042006) 303
Pesticide Occurrence in Streams, Groundwater, Fish, and
Sediment in the United States 305
Global Desalination Capacity and Plants
January 1, 2005 308
Data Table 21 100 Largest Desalination Plants Planned, in Construction,

or in OperationJanuary 1, 2005 310
Data Table 22 Installed Desalination Capacity by Year, Number of Plants,
and Total Capacity, 1945 to 2004 314
WATER UNITS, DATA CONVERSIONS, AND CONSTANTS 319

COMPREHENSIVE TABLE OF CONTENTS 329
Volume 1: The Worlds Water 19981999: The Biennial Report on
COMPREHENSIVE INDEX 343
421
422
Volume 6
Resources
Foreword by Malin Falkenmark
Acknowledgments
Introduction
ONE
xi
xiii
xv
Peak Water
Meena Palaniappan and Peter H. Gleick

Concept of Peak Oil 2
Comparison of Water and Oil 3
Utility of the Term Peak Water 9
A New Water Paradigm: The Soft Path for Water
Conclusion 14
References 15
TWO
12
Business Reporting on Water 17

Mari Morikawa, Jason Morrison, and Peter H. Gleick
Corporate Reporting: A Brief History 17
Qualitative Information: Water Management Policies,
Strategies, and Activities 22
Water Reporting Trends by Sector 32
References 38
THREE Water Management in a Changing Climate
39
Heather Cooley
The Climate Is Already Changing 39
Projected Impacts of Rising Greenhouse Gas Concentrations 40
Climate Change and Water Resources 43
Vulnerability to Climate Change 44
Adaptation 45
Conclusion 53
References 54
FOUR
423
Millennium Development Goals: Charting Progress and

the Way Forward 57
Meena Palaniappan
Millennium Development Goals 57
Measuring Progress: Methods and Denitions 60
Progress on the Water and Sanitation MDGs 62
A Closer Look at Water and Sanitation Disparities 70
Meeting the MDGs: The Way Forward 73
Conclusion 77
References 78
FIVE
China and Water 79

Peter H. Gleick
The Problems 80
Water-Related Environmental Disasters in China
Water Availability and Quantity 83
Groundwater Overdraft 85
Floods and Droughts 86
Climate Change and Water in China 87
Water and Chinese Politics 88
Growing Regional Conicts Over Water 90
Moving Toward Solutions 91
Improving Public Participation 96
Conclusion 97
References 97
SIX
Urban Water-Use Efciencies:

Lessons from United States Cities
82
101
Heather Cooley and Peter H. Gleick

Use of Water in Urban Areas 101
Projecting and Planning for Future Water Demand 102
Per-Capita Demand 104
Water Conservation and Efciency Efforts 106
Comparison of Water Conservation Programs 110
Rate Structures 112
Conclusion 120
References 120
WATER BRIEFS
One
Tampa Bay Desalination Plant: An Update

Heather Cooley
Two
Past and Future of the Salton Sea

Michael J. Cohen
Background
129
127
123
424
Restoration 131
Conclusion 137
Three
Three Gorges Dam Project, Yangtze River, China

Peter H. Gleick
139
Introduction 139
The Project 140
Major Environmental, Economic, Social, and Political Issues 141
Conclusion 148
Four

Peter H. Gleick
151
DATA SECTION
Data Table 1
Data Table 2
Data Table 3
Data Table 4
Data Table 5
Data Table 6
Data Table 7
Data Table 8
Data Table 9
Data Table 10
Data Table 11
Data Table 12
Data Table 13
Data Table 14
Data Table 15
Data Table 16
Data Table 17
Data Table 18
Data Table 19
Data Table 20

1970 to 2004 211
MDG Progress on Access to Safe Drinking Water
by Region 230
MDG Progress on Access to Sanitation by Region 233
United States Dams and Dam Safety Data, 2006 236
1912 to Present 239
1912 to Present, by Year and State 265
United States Dams by Primary Purposes 270
United States Dams by Owner 272
African Dams: Number and Total Reservoir Capacity
by Country 274
African Dams: The 30 Highest 276
Under-5 Mortality Rate by Cause and Country, 2000 279
International River Basins of Africa, Asia, Europe,
North America, and South America 289
OECD Water Tariffs 312
Non-OECD Water Tariffs 320
Fraction of Arable Land that Is Irrigated, by Country 324
Area Equipped for Irrigation, by Country 329
Water Content of Things 335
Top Environmental Concerns of the American Public:
Selected Years, 19972008 339

353

343
425

COMPREHENSIVE INDEX
373
426
Volume 7
The Worlds Water Volume 7: The Biennial Report on Freshwater
Resources
Foreword by Robert Glennon
Introduction
ONE
xi
xiii
Climate Change and Transboundary Waters
Heather Cooley, Juliet Christian-Smith, Peter H. Gleick,

Lucy Allen, and Michael Cohen
Transboundary Rivers and Aquifers 2
Managing Transboundary Basins 4
Transboundary Water Management Policies and Climate
Change 7
Case Studies 10
TWO
Corporate Water Management 23

Peter Schulte, Jason Morrison, and Peter H. Gleick
Global Trends that Affect Businesses 24
Water-Related Business Risks 25
Key Factors that Determine Extent and Type of Risk 28
Risk and Impact Assessment 30
Strategies for Improved Corporate Water Management 34
Conclusions: A Framework for Action 41
THREE Water Quality
45
Meena Palaniappan, Peter H. Gleick, Lucy Allen, Michael J.

Cohen, Juliet Christian-Smith, and Courtney Smith
Current Water-Quality Challenges 46
Consequences of Poor Water Quality 54
Moving to Solutions and Actions 65
Mechanisms to Achieve Solutions 66
Conclusion 67
FOUR
Fossil Fuels and Water Quality
73
Lucy Allen, Michael J. Cohen, David Abelson, and Bart Miller

Fossil-Fuel Production and Associated Water Use 74
Fossil Fuels and Water Quality: Direct Impacts 76
Impacts on Freshwater Ecosystems 84
Impacts on Human Communities 87
Conclusion 92
FIVE
427
Australias Millennium Drought: Impacts and Responses 97

Matthew Heberger
Water Resources of Australia 98
Impacts of the Millennium Drought
Responses to Drought 106
Conclusion 121
SIX
China Dams
102
127
Peter H. Gleick
Dams in China 129
Dams on Chinese International Rivers 130
Exporting Chinese Dams 133
Growing Internal Concern Over Chinese Dams 135
International Principles Governing Dam Projects: The World
Commission on Dams 136
Conclusions 140
SEVEN U.S. Water Policy Reform
143
Juliet Christian-Smith, Peter H. Gleick, and Heather Cooley

Background 143
International Water Reform Efforts 144
Common Themes and Soft Path Solutions
A 21st Century U.S. Water Policy 150
Conclusions 154
WATER BRIEFS
One
Two
Three
Four
149
157
Bottled Water and Energy 157

Peter H. Gleick and Heather Cooley
Energy to Produce Bottled Water 158
Summary of Energy Uses 163
Conclusions 163
The Great Lakes Water Agreements 165
Peter Schulte
History of Shared Water Resource Management
Conclusion 169
Water in the Movies 171
Peter H. Gleick
Popular Movies/Films 171
Water Documentaries 174
Short Water Videos and Films 174
165
428
DATA SECTION
Data Table 1
Data Table 2
Data Table 3
Data Table 4
Data Table 5
Data Table 6
Data Table 7
Data Table 8
Data Table 9
Data Table 10
Data Table 11
Data Table 12
Data Table 13
Data Table 14
Data Table 15
Data Table 16
Data Table 17
Data Table 18
Data Table 19

Access to Safe Drinking Water by Country, 19702008 230
Access to Sanitation by Country, 19702008 241
MDG Progress on Access to Safe Drinking Water by Region
(proportion of population using an improved water
source) 251
MDG Progress on Access to Sanitation by Region (proportion of population using an improved sanitation
facility) 254
Under-5 Mortality Rate by Cause and Country, 2008 257
Infant Mortality Rate by Country (per 1,000 live
births) 264
Death and DALYs from Selected Water-Related Diseases,
2000 and 2004 270
Sanitation, by Donating Country 273
Sanitation, by Subsector (total of all donating
countries) 275
Organic Water Pollutant (BOD) Emissions by Country (%
from various industries), 2005 278
Top Environmental Concerns of the American Public:
Selected Years, 19972010 (% who worry a great
deal) 282
Top Environmental Concerns Around the World 285
Satisfaction With Local Water Quality, by Country,
20062007 289
Extinct (or Extinct in the Wild) Freshwater Animal
Species 292
U.S. Federal Water-Related Agency Budgets 303
Overseas Dams With Chinese Financiers, Developers, or
Builders (as of August 2010) 308
Per-Capita Bottled Water Consumption by Top Countries,
19992010 (liters per person per year) 339

341
351
429
Volume 7: The Worlds Water Volume 7: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources 372
COMPREHENSIVE INDEX
377
430
Volume 8
The Worlds Water Volume 8: The Biennial Report on Freshwater
Resources
Foreword by Ismail Serageldin
Introduction
ONE
xi
xiii
Global Water Governance in the Twenty-First Century 1

Heather Cooley, Newsha Ajami, Mai-Lan Ha,
Veena Srinivasan, Jason Morrison, Kristina Donnelly,
and Juliet Christian-Smith
Global Water Challenges 2
Conclusions 15
TWO
Shared Risks and Interests: The Case for Private Sector

Engagement in Water Policy and Management 19
The Business Case for Investing in Sustainable Water
Management 21
Utilizing Corporate Resources While Ensuring Public Interest
Outcomes and Preventing Policy Capture 28
Moving Forward: Unlocking Mutually Benecial Corporate
Action on Water 31
THREE Sustainable Water Jobs
35
Eli Moore, Heather Cooley, Juliet Christian-Smith, and

Kristina Donnelly
Water Challenges in Todays Economy 36
Occupations 54
Conclusions 57
Recommendations 58
FOUR
Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources: What Do We Know

and Need to Know? 63
Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing 64
Operations 65
Water Challenges 67
Conclusions 77
FIVE
Water Footprint 83
The Water Footprint Concept 83
Water, Carbon, and Ecological Footprints and Nexus
Thinking 85
Water Footprint Findings 87
Conclusion 90
SIX
Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California:

Cost and Financing 93
How Much Does Seawater Desalination Cost? 93
Desalination Projects and Risk 101
Case Studies 106
Conclusions 117
SEVEN Zombie Water Projects 123

NAWAPA 124
The Reber Plan 131
Alaskan Water Shipments 133
Las Vegas Valley Pipeline Project 136
Diverting the Missouri River to the West 140
Conclusions 144
WATER BRIEF
One
The Syrian Conict and the Role of Water 147

Peter H. Gleick
Two
The Red SeaDead Sea Project Update 153

Kristina Donnelly
Three
Water and Conict: Events, Trends, and Analysis (2011

2012) 159
Four

DATA SECTION
Data Table 1:
Total Renewable Freshwater Supply by Country (2013

Update) 221
Data Table 2:
Freshwater Withdrawal by Country and Sector (2013

Update) 227
431
432
Data Table 3A:

2008 236
Data Table 3B:

Update 247
Data Table 4A:

2008 252
Data Table 4B:

Update 263
Data Table 5:
MDG Progress on Access to Safe Drinking Water by

Region 268
Data Table 6:
MDG Progress on Access to Sanitation by Region
Data Table 7:

Basins, by Flow Volume 274
Data Table 8:

Basins, by Basin Name 292
Data Table 9:
Area Equipped for Irrigation Actually Irrigated 310
Data Table 10:

Sanitation, by Donating Country, 20042011 317
Data Table 11:

Sanitation, by Subsector, 20072011 320
Data Table 12:

by Country, 19962005 323
Data Table 13:

by Sector and Country, 19962005 332
Data Table 14:

Country, 19962005 341
Data Table 15:

Sector and Country, 19962005 350
271
Data Table 16A: Global Cholera Cases Reported to the World Health
Data Table 16B: Global Cholera Cases Reported to the World Health
Data Table 17A: Global Cholera Deaths Reported to the World Health
Data Table 17B: Global Cholera Deaths Reported to the World Health
Data Table 18A: Perceived Satisfaction with Water Quality in SubSaharan Africa 387
Data Table 18B: Regional Assessment of Satisfaction with Water (and
Air) Quality 389
Data Table 18C: Countries Most and Least Satised with Water
Quality 392
433

405
Volume 1:

Volume 2:

Volume 3:

Volume 4:

Volume 5:

Volume 6:

Volume 7:
The Worlds Water, Volume 7: The Biennial Report on

Volume 8:
The Worlds Water, Volume 8: The Biennial Report on

COMPREHENSIVE INDEX
435
395
Cumulative Index
The Worlds Water, Volumes 18
KEY (book volume in boldface numerals)
1: The Worlds Water 1998-1999: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources
7: The Worlds Water Volume 7: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources
8: The Worlds Water Volume 8: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources
A
ABB, 1:85, 7:133
Abi-Eshuh, 1:69, 5:5
Abou Ali ibn Sina, 1:51
Abu-Zeid, Mahmoud, 1:174, 4:193
Acceleration, measuring, 2:306, 3:324, 4:331, 7:347
Access to water. See Conict/cooperation concerning
freshwater; Drinking water, access;
Environmental ow; Human right to water;
Renewable freshwater supply; Sanitation
services; Stocks and ows of freshwater;
Withdrawals, water
Acidication:
acid rain, 7:87
and fossil-fuel mining/processing, 7:7374, 86, 87
mine drainage, 7:52, 65
overview, 7:47
Adams, Dennis, 1:196
Adaptation to climate change. See Climate change,
adaptation
Adaptive capacity, 4:236, 8:5, 13
Adaptive management and environmental ows, 5:45
Adriatic Sea, 3:47
Afghanistan, 8:163
Africa:
aquifers, transboundary, 7:3
bottled water, 4:288, 289, 291, 5:281, 283
cholera, 1:57, 59, 6163, 266, 269, 3:2, 5:289, 290
climate change, 1:148
conict/cooperation concerning freshwater,
1:11924, 5:7, 9
conicts concerning freshwater, 2011-2012, 8:16768
costs of poor water quality, 7:63
dams, 3:292, 5:151, 6:27478
desalination, 2:94, 97
dracunculiasis, 1:5255, 272, 3:274, 5:295, 296
drinking water, 1:252, 262, 3:25455, 5:240, 241, 6:65
access to, 2:217, 6:58, 21415, 7:24, 38, 41,
23335
progress on access to, by region, 7:253, 8:270
droughts, 5:93, 100
economic development derailed, 1:42
environmental ow, 5:32
fog collection as a source of water, 2:175
Global Water Partnership, 1:169
groundwater, 4:8586
human needs, basic, 1:47
human right to water, 4:211
hydroelectric production, 1:71, 27778
irrigation, 1:29899, 2:80, 85, 25657, 265, 3:289,
4:296, 5:299, 6:32426, 33031
Millennium Development Goals, 4:7

mortality rate
childhood, 6:279
under-5, 6:279, 7:25963
Northern
air quality, satisfaction, 2012, 8:391
climate change and drought, 8:149
conicts concerning freshwater, 2011-2012,
8:16364
drinking water, progress on access to, 7:253,
8:270
sanitation, progress on access to, 7:256, 8:273
water quality, satisfaction, 2012, 8:391
water quality, satisfaction by country, 7:291
population data/issues, 1:247, 2:214
reclaimed water, 1:28, 2:139
renewable freshwater supply, 1:23738, 2:199200,
217, 3:23940, 4:26364, 5:223, 224
2011 update, 7:21718
2013 update, 8:22324
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
river basins in, 6:28996
rivers, transboundary, 7:3, 8:164
salinization, 2:268
sanitation services, 1:257, 264, 3:26365, 271,
5:24950, 259, 6:67
access to, 7:24345
progress on access to, 7:246, 8:273
sub-Saharan, 6:6566, 7677
drinking water, access, 7:24
drinking water, progress on access to, 7:253,
8:270
sanitation, progress on access to, 7:256, 8:273
schistosomiasis, 7:58
water quality, satisfaction
2012, 8:391
2012, 8:38788
threatened/at risk species, 1:29293
well-being, measuring water scarcity and, 3:96
withdrawals, water, 1:242, 2:2057, 3:24547,
4:26970, 5:23031, 6:204
by country and sector, 7:22325, 8:22931
African Development Bank (AfDB), 1:9596, 173,
3:16263
Agreements, international:
amendment and review process, 7:9
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
3:4752
general principles, 7:45
DOI 10.5822/978-1-61091-483-3, 2014 Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security
435
436
Agreements, international (continued)
Great LakesSt. Lawrence River Basin, 7:16569
joint institutions, role of, 7:910
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),
3:4748, 5154, 8:130
state/provincial rights within, 7:16768, 169
transboundary waters, 7:27, 9, 16569, 8:1415
See also Law/legal instruments/regulatory bodies;
United Nations
Agriculture:
best management practices, 8:5354
California, 4:89, 8:8990
carbon footprint, 8:85
cereal production, 2:64, 4:299301, 7:10910
conict/cooperation concerning freshwater, 1:111
cropping intensity, 2:76
crops as a military target, 8:165
crop yields and food needs for current/future
populations, 2:7476
data problems, 3:93
droughts, 5:92, 94, 98, 103
impacts in Australia, 7:1025
impacts in Syria, 8:14751
management in Australia, 7:97, 10710
oods, 5:109, 8:128
groundwater, 4:83, 87, 8890
harvesting technology, 2:77
irrigation
arable land, 6:32428
area equipped for, actually irrigated, by
country, 6:32934, 8:31016
basin, 2:82
border, 2:82
business/industry, water risks, 5:162, 7:23, 26
and climate change, 4:17475, 7:16
1:110, 7:11011
conicts concerning freshwater, 8:148, 164
by continent, 2:26465
by country and region, 1:297301, 2:25563,
4:29596, 5:298300, 6:32428, 32934
by crop type, 2:7880
developing countries, 1:24, 3:290, 5:3012
drip, 1:2324, 2:82, 84, 7:111, 8:50
Edwards Aquifer, 3:74
furrow, 2:82, 86
government involvement, 1:8
hard path for meeting water-related needs, 3:2
how much water is needed, 2:8187
infrastructure for, 1:6, 8:5053
North American Water and Power Alliance,
1:74, 8:12431
projections, review of global water resources,
2:45
reclaimed water, 2:139, 142, 14546, 7:54, 8:74
Southeastern Anatolia Project, 3:182
sprinkler, 2:82, 8:50
surface, 2:82, 84, 84
total irrigated areas, 4:29798
water-energy-food nexus, 8:56, 85
water quality, 2:87
water rights, 7:111, 112, 113
water-use efciency, 3:4, 1920, 4:107, 7:109
10, 146, 8:5054
land availability/quality, 2:7071, 7374
Africa, 8:16768
impact of the North American Water and Power
Alliance, proposed, 8:127, 128
Syria, 8:14849
pricing, water, 1:117, 7:11112
projections, review of global water resources,
2:4546
reclaimed water, 1:28, 29
Index
by region, 3:289
runoff (See Runoff, agricultural)
subsidies, 1:2425, 117, 7:108, 109, 111, 152
sustainable, 1:18788, 8:10
water assessments, 2:4649, 5458
water footprint, 8:86, 87 (See also Water footprint,
per-capita, of national consumption, by
sector and country)
and water quality, 7:4950, 62, 64, 8:52 (See also
Runoff, agricultural)
World Water Forum (2003), 4:203
See also Food needs for current/future populations
Aguas Argentinas, 3:78, 4:47
Aguas de Barcelona, 3:63
Aguas del Aconquija, 3:70
AIDS, 6:58, 7:25963
Air quality:
certied emission credits, 6:51
dust storms, 7:1056
fossil-fuel combustion, 7:77, 80, 84, 86
methane contamination, 8:69
satisfaction, by region, 2012, 8:38991
AkzoNobel, 6:23
Alaska, Sitka, 8:13536
Alaskan water shipments, proposed, 8:133, 13536
Albania, 1:71, 3:47, 7:309
Albright, Madeleine K., 1:106
Algae, 5:79, 6:83, 95
Algeria, 7:75, 309
Alkalinization, 7:52
Alliance for Water Efciency, 8:39
Alliance for Water Stewardship, 7:2627
Al-Qaida, 5:15
Alstom, 7:133
Altamonte Springs (FL), 2:146
American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1:149, 4:176
American Convention on Human Rights (1969), 2:4, 8
American Fisheries Society, 2:113, 133
American Geophysical Union (AGU), 1:19798
American Rivers and Trout Unlimited (AR & TU),
2:118, 123
American Society of Civil Engineers, 5:24
American Water/Pridesa, 5:62
American Water Works Association (AWWA), 2:41,
3:5961, 4:176, 5:24
Americas:
cholera, 8:359, 373
See also Caribbean; Central America; North
America; South America
Amoebiasis, 1:48
Amount of water. See Stocks and ows of freshwater
Amphibians, 1:29196
effects of endocrine disruptors, 7:49
extinct or extinct in the wild species, 7:5657,
29697
Anatolia region. See Southeastern Anatolia Project
Angola, 1:119, 121, 2:175, 3:49, 5:9
dams with Chinese nanciers/developers/
builders, 7:309
Anheuser-Busch, 5:150, 6:24
Ankara University, 3:183
Antiochus I, 3:18485
Apartheid, 1:15859
Appleton, Albert, 4:5253
Aquaculture, 2:79
Aquana, 4:21
Aquarius Water Trading and Transportation, Ltd.,
1:2012, 204, 8:135
Aquifers, 6:10
Index
aquifer storage and recovery (ASR), 8:49
climate change management issues, 7:23
Coca-Cola recharging, in India, 8:2122, 23
contamination by fossil-fuel production, 7:51, 76
percent of global freshwater in, 7:3
transboundary, 7:3
Aquifers, specic:
Disi, 8:157
Edwards, 3:7475, 4:6061
Ogallala, 3:50, 8:128, 141
Aral Sea, 1:24, 3:3, 3941, 77, 7:52, 131
Archaeological sites, 3:18389, 191. See also
Southeastern Anatolia Project
Area, measuring, 2:302, 3:320, 4:327, 7:345
Argentina, 3:13, 60, 70, 4:40, 47
arsenic in groundwater, 7:59
Arizona, 3:20, 138, 8:28
Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. (ACoE), 1:78, 2:132,
3:137, 7:305
Reber Plan, proposed, 8:13233
response to drought, Missouri River and
Mississippi River policy, 8:14344
Arrowhead bottled water, 4:21, 7:161
Arsenic, 2:16573, 3:27879, 4:87, 5:20, 6:61, 81
in y ash, 7:84
from fossil-fuel production, 7:76, 79
health effects, 7:59
Artemis Society, 3:218
Ascariasis, 7:272
Ascension Island, 2:175
Asia:
agriculture, 4:8890 (See also Asia, irrigation)
bottled water, 4:18, 41, 291, 5:163, 281, 283
Central (See Caucasus and Central Asia)
cholera, 1:56, 58, 61, 266, 26970, 3:2, 5:289, 290
dams, 3:29495
dracunculiasis, 1:27273, 3:27475, 5:295, 296
drinking water, 1:25354, 262, 3:25759, 5:24345, 6:66
access to, 7:24, 23738
progress on access to, by region, 7:253, 8:270
Eastern
progress on access to drinking water, 7:24, 253,
8:270
progress on access to sanitation, 8:273
oods, 5:108
food needs for current/future populations, 2:75, 79
irrigation, 1:299300, 2:80, 86, 25961, 265, 3:289,
4:296, 5:299, 6:32627, 33132
privatization, 3:61
3:24041, 4:26465, 5:225, 226
2011 update, 7:21819
2013 update, 8:22425
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
river basins, 2:30, 6:289, 296301
rivers, transboundary, 7:3
runoff, 2:23
salinization, 2:268
sanitation services, 1:25859, 264, 3:26668, 271,
5:25254, 25861
access to, 7:24748
437
South-Eastern, 7:26263
8:270
progress on access to sanitation, 7:256, 8:273
Southern
8:270
water conicts, 8:16263
supply systems, ancient, 1:40
water access, 2:24, 217
water quality
satisfaction, 2012, 8:391
satisfaction by country, 7:290
Western
8:270
water conicts, 2011-2012, 16263
4:27273, 5:23334
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 1:17, 173, 3:118, 163,
169, 4:7, 5:125
reaction to World Commission on Dams report,
7:13839
Asmal, Kader, 1:160, 3:169
Assessments:
AQUASTAT database, 4:8182, 7:215, 221, 8:221, 310
Colorado River Severe Sustained Drought study
(CRSSD), 4:166
Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater
Resources of the World, 2:10, 3:90
Dow Jones Indexes, 3:167
Global Burden of Disease assessment, 7:270
The High Efciency Laundry Metering and
Marketing Analysis project (THELMA),
4:115
Human Development Index, 2:165
Human Development Report, 4:7, 6:74, 7:61
Human Poverty Index, 3:87, 89, 90, 10911, 5:125
hydrologic cycle and accurate quantications,
4:9296
International Journal on Hydropower and Dams,
1:70
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 2:75, 76
intl. river basins, 2:2735
measurements, 2:300309, 3:31827, 4:32534
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 7:63
National Assessment on the Potential
Consequences of Climate Variability and
Change, 4:176
Palmer Drought Severity Index, 5:93
Standard Industrial Classication (SIC), 4:132
Standard Precipitation Index, 5:93
Stockholm Water Symposiums (1995/1997), 1:165,
170
Third Assessment Report, 3:12123
water footprint sustainability assessment, 8:86
Water-Global Assessment and Prognosis
(WaterGAP), 2:56
Water in Crisis: A Guide to the Worlds Fresh Water
Resources, 2:300, 3:318
World Health Reports, 4:7
World Resources Reports, 3:88
World Water Development Report, 8:6
See also Data issues/problems; Groundwater,
monitoring/management problems;
Projections, review of global water
resources; Stocks and ows of freshwater;
Well-being, measuring water scarcity and
438
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),
1:169
Assyrians, 3:184
Atlanta (GA), 3:62, 4:4647
description, 6:103
per-capita water demand, 6:1046
population growth, 6:103
precipitation, 6:104
temperature, 6:104
wastewater rate structure, 6:11819
water conservation, 6:1089, 11012
water rate structures, 6:11516
water-use efciency, 6:1089
Atlantic Salmon Federation, 2:123
Atmosphere, harvesting water from the, 2:17581. See
also Outer space, search for water in
Austin (TX), 1:22
Australia:
agriculture
impact of drought, 7:1025
irrigation, 2:85, 7:97
production, 1960-2009, 7:103
bottled water, 4:26
desalination, 5:69, 7:11415, 8:96, 97, 98, 102, 103,
118
drought
historical background, 7:98, 99
impacts, 7:1026
management, 7:10621, 14647
overview, 7:97, 9899, 101, 121
environmental ow, 5:33, 35, 42
fossil-fuel production, 7:75
globalization and intl. trade of water, 3:45, 46
legislation and policy
Water Efciency Labelling and Standards Act,
7:28, 11819
water policy reform, 7:14647
privatization, 3:60, 61
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
terrorism, 5:16
water resources, 2:24, 217, 7:9899
Austria, 3:47
Availability, water, 2:2427, 21517. See also Conict/
cooperation concerning freshwater; Drinking
water, access; Environmental ow; Human
right to water; Renewable freshwater supply;
Sanitation services; Stocks and ows of
freshwater; Withdrawals, water
Azov Sea, 1:77
B
Babbitt, Bruce, 2:12425, 128
Babylon, ancient, 1:109, 110
Bag technology, water, 1:200205, 8:135
Baker, James, 1:106
Bakerseld (CA), 1:29
Balfour Beatty, 3:166
Balkan Endemic Neuropathy (BEN), 7:89
Bangladesh:
agriculture, 4:88
Arsenic Mitigation/Water Supply Project, 2:172
conict/cooperation concerning freshwater, 1:107,
109, 11819, 2069
builders, 7:309
drinking water, 3:2
oods, 5:106
groundwater, 4:88
arsenic in, 2:16573, 6:61, 7:55, 59, 8:3
Rural Advancement Committee, 2:168
Index
Banks, Harvey, 1:9
Barlow, Nadine, 3:215
Basic water requirement (BWR), 1:4446, 2:1013,
3:1013
Bass, 2:123
Bath Iron Works, 2:124
Bayer, 6:28
Beard, Dan, 2:129
Bechtel, 3:63, 70
Belgium, 5:10
Belize, 7:309
Benin, 1:55, 7:309, 336
Benzene, 6:83, 8:72
Best available technology (BAT), 3:18, 2223, 4:104,
5:157, 6:27
Best management practices (BMP), 8:5354
Best practicable technology (BPT), 3:18, 4:104
Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC), 4:18, 7:157
BHIP Billiton, 6:23
Biodiversity, 7:5657
Biofuel, 7:25, 74, 8:6, 167
Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 6:28, 7:27881
Biologic attacks, vulnerability to, 5:1622
Bioretention and bioinltration, 8:42
Bioswales, 8:42
Birds:
effects of drought, 7:101
effects of endocrine disruptors, 7:49
effects of fossil-fuel extraction, 7:87, 91
extinct or extinct in the wild species, 7:29798
Lesotho Highlands project, 1:98
Siberian crane, 1:90
Yuma clapper rail, 3:142
Birth, premature, 7:25963
Birth asphyxia, 7:25963
Birth defects, 7:58, 59, 25963
Bivalves. See Invertebrates, clams; Invertebrates,
mussels
Black Sea, 1:77
Blue water, in water footprint concept, 8:86, 8990,
323, 332, 341, 350
BMW, 6:27
Bolivia, 3:68, 6972, 4:54, 5657
66
Bonneville Power Administration, 1:69, 8:129
Books, 2:129, 5:14
Boron, 5:75, 7:76
Bosnia, 1:71
Botswana, 1:119, 12224, 7:309
Bottled water:
bottle and packaging, 4:29394, 7:15859
brands, leading, 4:2122, 7:16162
business/industry
company assessments, 6:23
standards/rules, 4:3435
water risks that face, 5:163
consumption
by country, 4:28486, 5:27679, 28486
increase in, 7:157
per-capita by country, 7:33940
per-capita by region, 4:29091, 5:171, 28283
by region, 4:28788, 5:16970, 28081
share by region, 4:289
U.S., 4:28891, 5:170, 281, 283, 7:157, 158
developing countries, 3:44, 45
energy considerations
bottle manufacture, 7:15859, 164
to clean, ll, seal, and label bottles, 7:16061, 164
cooling process, 7:16263, 164
equivalent barrels of oil used, 7:164
transport, 7:16162, 163, 164
water processing, 7:15960, 164
Index
environmental issues, 4:41
avor and taste, 4:2324
history and trends, 4:1822, 7:157
hydrogeological assessments of sites for, 6:23
intl. standards, 4:3536
labeling, 4:2831, 7:159, 16061, 164
overview, 4:xvi, 17, 7:88
price and cost, 4:2223
recalls, 4:3740, 5:17174
sales
global, 3:43, 5:169
and imports in, U.S., 3:44, 343, 4:292, 7:157, 158
to the poor, 4:4041
standards/regulations, 4:2627, 3437, 5:171, 174
vs. tap water, 4:3637
summary/conclusions, 4:41
U.S. federal regulations
adulteration, food, 4:3233
enforcement/regulatory action, 4:34
good manufacturing practices, 4:32
identity standards, 4:2731
sampling/testing/FDA inspections, 4:3334
water quality, 4:3132
U.S., consumption, 4:28891, 5:170, 281, 283,
7:157, 158
U.S., sales and imports in, 3:44, 343, 4:292, 7:157, 158
water quality, 4:17, 2526, 3132, 3740
treatment processes, 7:15960, 161
water sources for, 7:159
Boundaries:
managing across, 3:13334, 7:1
transboundary waters
agreements, limitations and recommendations,
8:1415
and climate change, 7:120
Snake Valley basin, 8:139
See also International river basins
Brazil:
bottled water, 4:40, 5:170
business/industry, water risks, 5:149, 15152, 7:26,
89
cholera, 1:59
dams, 1:16, 5:134
drought, 7:26, 8:2223, 165
energy production, 7:26, 8:2223
hydroelectric, 1:71, 7:129
environmental concerns, top, 7:287
monitoring and privatization, 3:7677
privatization, 3:7678
runoff, 2:23
sanitation services, 3:6
Three Gorges Dam, 1:89
Brine, as a contaminant, 2:107, 5:7780, 8:156
British Columbia Hydro International (BC Hydro),
1:85, 88
British Geological Survey (BGS), 2:169
British Medical Association, 4:6364
Browneld redevelopment, 8:46
Bruce Banks Sails, 1:202
Bruvold, William, 4:24
Buildings:
construction site runoff, volume, 8:76
green roofs, 8:42
Burkina Faso, 1:55, 4:211, 8:167
Burma (Myanmar):
builders, 7:130, 132, 133, 31015
Mekong River Basin, 7:14
Burns, William, 3:xiv
439
Burundi, 1:62, 7:11, 31516
Business for Social Responsibility, 5:156
Business/industry, water risks:
assessment of, 6:23, 7:2534
China, 5:147, 149, 160, 165
costs of poor water quality on production, 7:64
developing countries, 5:150
energy and water links, 5:150, 15152
India, 5:146, 147, 165, 8:2122
management
best available technology, 5:157
best management practices (BMP), 8:5354
beyond the fence line, 8:1920, 28
companies, review of specic, 5:15355, 7:26
27
continuous improvement, commit to, 5:158
efciency, improving water-use, 5:16162, 8:20,
28
ve motivations, 7:23
global trends that affect, 7:2425
hydrological/social/economic/political factors,
5:153, 156, 7:2430
partnerships, form strategic, 5:158
performance, measure and report, 5:15758
public disclosure (See Corporate reporting)
risks factored into decisions, 5:157, 6:2728,
8:31
stakeholder issues, 5:145, 6:24, 7:2627, 4041,
8:20, 2627
strategies for policies/goals/targets, 5:15657,
7:3442, 8:2021, 31
supply chain
availability/reliability of, 5:146, 7:26
company reporting of, 6:24, 7:27
overview, 5:14546, 7:2829
performance evaluation, 7:3537
privatization, public opposition to, 5:15253
publics role in water policy, 5:15051
vulnerability, 5:149, 7:26, 8:23
water quality, 5:14649, 8:23
working collaboratively with, 5:156, 6:24
sustainable, 7:23, 8:1922, 30, 31
water accounting tools, 7:3234, 146
water industry
bottled water (See Bottled water, business/
industry)
desalination, 5:161 (See also Desalination,
plants)
disinfection/purication of drinking water,
5:159
distribution, infrastructure for, 5:16061
high-quality water, processes requiring,
5:14748, 160
irrigation, 5:162
overview, 5:15859
revenue and growth in U.S., 5:3034
utilities, water, 5:16263, 7:28
wastewater treatment, 5:153, 15960
organic contaminants by industry, 7:27981
overview, 7:23, 2534, 5051, 8:1931
public perception, 7:2627
water footprint, 7:3034, 8:84, 87 (See also
Water footprint, per capita, of national
consumption, by sector and country)
Business sector, 3:2224, 16970, 8:27. See also Bottled
water, business/industry; Companies;
Corporate reporting; Privatization; Water
conservation, California commercial/
industrial water use
Bussi, Antonio, 3:70
Byzantines, 3:184
440
C
Cabot Oil & Gas Corp., 8:70
Cadbury, 7:37
Calgon, 3:61
California:
agriculture, 4:89, 8:8990
Bakerseld, 1:29
bottled water, 4:24
business/industry, water risks, 5:158, 6:162
California Central Valley Project, 4:173, 8:131
California Regional Assessment Group, 4:176
California State Water Project, 8:131
Carlsbad, 8:93, 95, 98, 11219
climate change (See Climate change, California)
dams, 1:75, 2:12023
desalination, 1:30, 32, 5:51, 52, 6369, 71, 73, 74
Carlsbad plant case study, 8:93, 95, 98, 11219
overview, 8:93
proposed and recently constructed plants, 8:98
Sand City plant, 8:93
droughts, 8:89, 102
East Bay Municipal Utilities District, 1:29
economics of water projects, 1:16
environmental justice, 5:12223
oods, 5:111
food needs for current/future populations, 2:87
groundwater, 4:89
import of water, 8:89, 131
industrial water use, 1:2021
Irvine Ranch Water District, 4:12425
Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge, 7:4748
Los Angeles
Chinatown political intrigue, 8:138
Los Angeles Aqueduct, 8:131
sustainable water jobs, 8:39, 44, 52
Metropolitan Water District of Southern California,
1:22
Monterey County, 2:151
North American Water and Power Alliance, 8:124
31
Orange County, 2:152
Pomona, 2:138
privatization, 3:73
projections, review of global water resources, 2:43
reclaimed water
agriculture, 1:29, 2:14246
drinking water, 2:152
rst state to attempt, 2:13738
groundwater recharge, 2:151
health issues, 2:15455
Irvine Ranch Water District, 2:147
Kelly Farm marsh, 2:149
San Jose/Santa Clara Wastewater Pollution
Control Plant, 2:14950
uses of, 2:14145
West Basin Municipal Water District, 2:14849
San Diego County, 8:99100
San Francisco Bay, 3:77, 4:169, 183, 5:73, 8:132
San Francisco Bay Project (Reber Plan), 8:13134
Santa Barbara, 5:6364, 8:1023, 119
Santa Rosa, 2:14546
soft path for meeting water-related needs, 3:2022,
2425
subsidies, 1:2425
toilets, energy-efcient, 1:22, 8:39
twentieth-century water-resources development,
1:9
Visalia, 1:29
water conservation (See under Water conservation)
water footprint, 8:8890, 91
water-use efciency, 1:19, 8:38
Index
Western Canal Water District, 2:121
See also Legislation, California
California-American Water Company (Cal AM), 5:74
Cambodia, 7:14, 59, 130, 31617
Camdessus, Michael, 4:19596
Cameroon, 1:55, 5:32, 7:31718
Campylobacter jejuni, 7:57
Canada:
adaptation in, 6:46
bottled water, 4:25, 26, 39, 288, 289, 291, 5:281, 283
Canadian International Development Agency, 2:14
cholera, 1:266, 270
climate change, 1:147, 148
conict/cooperation concerning freshwater, 5:6, 8
dams, 1:75, 3:293
data problems, 3:93
dracunculiasis, 1:52
drinking water, 1:253, 3:256, 5:242
environmental concerns, top, 7:287, 288
Export Development Corporation, 6:141
fossil-fuel production
data, 7:75
natural gas, 7:79
tar sands, 7:78, 79, 87, 88, 9192
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 3:50
Great Lakes Basin, intl. agreements, 7:16569,
8:126
groundwater, 4:86
hydroelectric production, 1:71, 74, 278, 7:129,
8:131
intl. river basin, 2:33
irrigation, 1:299, 2:265, 3:289, 4:296, 5:299
James Bay Project, Quebec, 8:131
mortality rate, under-5, 7:260
North American Free Trade Agreement, 3:4748,
5154, 8:130
renewable freshwater supply, 1:238, 2:200, 217,
3:240, 4:264
response to North America Water and Power
Alliance, 8:129
2011 update, 7:218
2013 update, 8:224
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
Rocky Mountain Trench, proposed reservoir,
8:12526
runoff, 2:23
salinization, 2:268
sanitation services, 1:258, 3:265, 272, 7:245
transboundary waters, 7:3, 8:12431
water availability, 2:217
water transfer issues, 8:12930
withdrawals, water, 1:242, 2:207, 3:247, 4:271
2011 update, 7:225
2013 update, 8:231
World Water Council, 1:172
Canary Islands, 3:46
Cancer, 6:81, 7:58, 59
Cap and trade market and environmental ows, 5:42
Cape Verde Islands, 2:175
Carbon dioxide, 1:138, 139, 3:120, 215, 4:160, 164
and natural gas production, 7:80
Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP), 7:41, 8:22, 24
Carbon footprint, 8:85, 86
Caribbean:
dams, 3:29394
drinking water, 1:253, 262, 3:25557, 5:241, 242
access to, 7:24, 23536
Index
groundwater, 4:86
hydroelectric production, 1:278
irrigation, 6:334
sanitation, 1:258, 3:26566, 271, 5:250, 251, 259
access to, 7:24546
Caribbean National Forest, 5:34
Carlsbad (CA), 8:93, 95, 98, 11217
Caspian Sea, 1:77
Catley-Carlson, Margaret, 4:xiixiv
Caucasus and Central Asia:
progress on access to drinking water, 8:270
progress on access to sanitation, 8:273
Cellatex, 5:15
Census of Agriculture, 8:50
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
1:52, 55, 57, 7:305
Central African Republic, 7:318
Central America:
cholera, 1:266, 270, 271
dams, 3:165, 29394
drinking water, 1:253, 3:255, 256, 5:24142, 7:235
36
groundwater, 4:86
irrigation, 1:299, 2:265, 4:296, 6:328, 334
population data, total/urban, 1:24748
3:240, 4:264, 5:224
2011 update, 7:218
2013 update, 8:224
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
rivers and aquifers, transboundary, 7:3
salinization, 2:268
sanitation services, 1:258, 3:26566, 5:25051,
7:24546
withdrawals, water, 1:24243, 2:207, 3:247, 4:271,
5:23132
See also Latin America
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, 3:11011
Centro de Investigaciones Sociales Alternativas, 2:179
CEO Water Mandate, 7:34, 8:9, 24
Cereal production, 2:64, 4:299301
Certied emission credits (CECs), 6:51
Chad, 1:55, 7:264
Chakraborti, Dipankar, 2:167
Chalecki, Elizabeth L., 3:xiv
Chanute (KS), 2:152
Chemical attacks, vulnerability to, 5:1622
Chemical oxygen demand, 6:28
Chiang Kai-shek, 5:5
Childhood mortality:
by cause, 6:27988, 7:25763
by country, 6:27988, 7:25763, 26469
infant, by country, 7:26469
limitations in data and reporting, 7:25758, 264
under-5, 6:27988, 7:25763
from water-related disease, 6:58, 7:5758, 6162
Children:
infant brands of bottled water, 4:28
responsibility for water collection, 7:61
See also Birth listings
Chile:
441
cholera, 1:59
environmental ow, 5:34, 37
privatization, 3:60, 66, 78
Silala/Siloli River transboundary dispute, 8:16566
subsidies, 4:5758
China:
agriculture, 2:86, 4:88, 90
algae outbreaks, 6:83
Beijing, 6:90
benzene contamination, 6:83
bottled water, 4:21, 40, 5:170
business/industry, water risks, 5:147, 149, 160, 165
business/industry water use, 5:125, 6:81, 7:2728
canal system, 8:144
cancer rates in, 6:81
climate change in, 6:8788
dams, 1:69, 70, 77, 78, 81, 5:1516, 133, 134, 6:91
construction overseas, 7:13335, 30838
hydroelectric production, 1:71, 6:92, 7:129, 130
internal concern over, 7:13536
on intl. rivers, 7:13033
overview, 7:12728, 140
and the World Commission on Dams, 3:17071,
7:12829, 13640
See also under Dams, specic; Three Gorges
Dam
desalination, 6:93
diarrhea-related illness in, 6:85
diseases, water-related, 6:85
drinking water
shortage of, 6:86
standards for, 6:94
droughts, 5:97, 6:8687, 7:13132
economic growth in, 6:79
economics of water projects, 1:16, 6:9596
environment
grassroots efforts, 6:80
pollution in, 6:79, 8182 (See also China, water,
pollution of)
protections for, 6:9495
top concerns, 7:287, 288
water-related disasters, 6:8283
Environmental Impact Assessment law, 6:96
oods, 5:106, 6:8487
foreign investment in water markets, 6:92
fossil-fuel production, 7:75, 82, 8:63
glaciers in, 6:8788
globalization and intl. trade of water, 3:46
Great Wall of China, 6:86
groundwater, 2:87, 3:2, 50, 4:79, 82, 83, 88, 90,
9697, 5:125, 6:8586
arsenic in, 6:81, 7:59
uoride in, 6:81
Guangdong Province, 6:85
Jilin Province, 6:83
natural gas production, 8:63
nongovernmental organizations in, 6:8990, 96
North China Plains, 6:8586, 90
politics, 6:8890
population, 6:79
protests in, 6:97
provinces, 6:82
public-private partnerships in, 6:9293
Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, 6:88
rivers, 6:79, 8182, 84, 88, 90, 7:55 (See also under
Rivers, specic)
442
China (continued)
sanitation services, 5:124, 147
South-to-North Water Transfer Project, 6:91
State Environmental Protection Administration
(SEPA), 6:8081, 94
wastewater treatment plants in, 6:92
water
availability of, 6:8385
average domestic use of, 1:46
basic requirement, 2:13
centralized management of, 6:89
effects of climate change, 6:8788
efciency improvements, 6:9394
expanding the supply of, 6:9193
industrial use, 5:125, 6:81
politics affected by, 6:8890
pollution of, 6:79, 97, 7:64, 8:2425
pricing of, 1:25
public participation efforts, 6:9697
quality of, 6:8082, 8:3
quantity of, 6:8385
regional conicts over, 6:9091
shortage of, 6:86
surface, 6:81
sustainable management of, 6:97
water use per unit of GDP, 6:93
water laws in, 6:8889
wetlands in, 6:86, 88
withdrawals, water, 3:31617, 6:8586, 7:2728
Xiluodu hydropower station, 6:92
China International Capital Corporation (CICC), 6:142
Chitale, Madhav, 1:174
Chlorination, 1:47, 60, 4:39, 5:159
Cholera, 1:48, 5663, 26571, 3:2, 5:28792
cases reported to the WHO, by country
1949-1979, 8:36166
1980-2011, 8:36772
deaths reported to the WHO, by country
1949-1979, 8:37580
1980-2011, 8:38186
epidemic diarrheal diseases caused by, 7:57
See also Vibrio; Vibrio cholerae
Cincinnati Enquirer, 5:171
CIPM Yangtze Joint Venture, 1:85
Clementine spacecraft, 1:197, 3:21213
Climate change:
adaptation
Adaptation Fund, 6:51
Adaptation Policy Framework, 6:48
assessments, 6:4749
capacity for, 4:236, 8:5
community participation in, 6:49
costs of, 6:5051, 53
denition of, 6:45
demand-side options, 6:46
economic cost of, 6:5051
equity issues for, 6:5152
funding for, 6:52
general circulation models, 6:47
Interagency Climate Change Adaptation Task
Force, 7:153
mainstreaming of, 6:47
national adaptation programs of action, 6:48
49
options for, 6:4546
Oxfam Adaptation Financing Index, 6:52
participation in, 6:49
supply-side options, 6:46
air temperature increase, predicted, 7:53
Bibliography, The Water & Climate, 4:xvii, 23237
business/industry, water risks, 5:152
California (See Climate change, California)
Index
changes occurring yet?, 1:14548
China, 6:8788
Colorado River Basin, 1:142, 144, 4:16567, 7:1618
costs of, 6:5051
desalination, 5:8081
developing countries vulnerability to, 6:45, 51, 54
droughts (See Droughts)
ecological effects, 4:17172
oods (See Floods)
groundwater affected by, 4:170, 6:43
hydrologic cycle, 1:13943, 5:117
hydrologic extremes, 6:4344
hydrologic impacts of, 6:48
impacts of fossil-fuel extraction/processing, 7:84
85
and interbasin agreements, 8:15
IPCC (See Law/legal instruments/regulatory
bodies, Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change)
Meking River Basin, 7:1415
Nile River Basin, 7:1213
overview, 1:13739, 7:1, 8:5
precipitation, 1:14041, 14647, 4:159, 166, 6:40, 87
recommendations and conclusions, 1:14850
reliability, water-supply, 5:74
renewability of resources affected by, 6:9
societal impacts, 1:14445
summary of, 6:5354
surface water effects, 6:43, 7:5354
sustainable vision for the Earths freshwater, 1:191
and Syrian water conicts, 8:14951
and the Three Gorges Dam, 6:14647
transboundary water management issues, 7:12,
720
vulnerability to, 6:4445, 51, 54
water demand and, 6:44, 7:150
water policy reform which addresses, 7:153
water quality and, 4:16768, 6:44, 7:5354
water resources affected by, 6:4344
See also Greenhouse effect; Greenhouse gases
Climate change, California, 1:14445
overview, 4:xvii, 15758
policy
economics/pricing/markets, 4:18081
information gathering/reducing uncertainty,
4:18283
infrastructure, existing, 4:17577
institutions/institutional behaviors, new,
4:18182
monitoring, hydrologic and environmental,
4:183
moving from science to demand management/
conservation/efciency, 4:17980
new supply options, 4:17879
overview, 4:175
planning and assessment, 4:178
reports recommending integration of science/
water policy, 4:176
science
evaporation and transpiration, 4:15960
groundwater, 4:170
lake levels and conditions, 4:16869
overview, 4:15859, 17273
sea level, 4:16970
snowpack, 4:16061
soil moisture, 4:167
the state of the ecosystems, 4:17172
storms/extreme events and variability, 4:161
63
Index
temperature, 4:159
systems, managed water resource
agriculture, 4:17475
hydropower and thermal power generation,
4:17374
infrastructure, water supply, 4:173
Clinton, Bill, 2:127, 134
Clothes, water footprint of production, 8:84, 86
Clothes washing. See Laundry
CNN, Water Conict Chronology cited by, 8:173
Coal:
energy content, 7:75
extraction and processing, 7:73, 74, 8284, 90
production data, 7:75, 82
transport, 7:8384
water consumed and energy production, 7:25
Coastal zones:
consequences of poor water quality, 7:5556
development and desalination, 5:80
erosion, 7:46
oods, 5:104, 108
legislation, 5:80
Coca-Cola, 4:21, 38, 5:146, 163, 6:3132
beverage transport, 7:161
bottle development, 7:15859
and groundwater depletion in India, 8:25
recharging aquifers in India, 8:2122, 23
water consumption and reputation, 7:26
Cogeneration systems and desalination, 2:107
Colombia, 1:59, 3:60, 5:12, 7:318, 8:2526
Colorado, 4:9596, 7:52
Missouri River diversion project, 8:14044
Colorado River:
climate change, 1:142, 144, 4:16567, 7:1618
111, 7:67, 8:91
dams, 7:52 (See also Dams, specic, Glen Canyon;
Dams, specic, Hoover)
delta characteristics, 3:13943, 6:130
sheries, 1:77
hydrology, 3:13537, 7:15, 8:127
institutional control of, 3:134
intl. agreements, 7:6, 89, 1516, 8:91
Las Vegas Valley Pipeline Project, 5:74, 8:13640
legal framework (Law of the River), 3:13739,
7:15, 17
restoration opportunities, 3:14344
salinity, 7:67
Salton Sea inows, 6:129, 132
vegetation, 3:134, 13942
water transfer, proposed, 8:14041
wildlife, 1:77, 3:134
Columbia River Alliance, 2:133
Comets (small) and origins of water on Earth, 1:193
98, 3:20910, 21920
Commercial sector, 3:2224, 16970. See also
Business/industry, water risks; Privatization;
Water conservation, California commercial/
industrial water use
Commissions. See International listings; Law/legal
instruments/regulatory bodies; United
Nations; World listings
Commodication, 3:35
Commonwealth Development Corporation, 1:96
Commonwealth of Independent States. See also
Communities:
agricultural, loss of farms due to drought, 7:1045
443
empowerment through education and outreach,
8:1314
engagement (See Public participation)
88, 9192
risks of privatization, 3:68, 79
sustainable-water job production, 8:59
Community structure. See Biodiversity; Extinct
species; Introduced/invasive species;
Threatened/at risk species
Companies:
bottled water (See Bottled water, business/
industry)
continuous improvement commitment by, 6:32
current water use, 6:22
decision making, 6:2728
environmental management system, 6:32
funding by, and environmental/lending standards,
8:10
history, 6:1718
public relations and social responsibility, 8:23,
2930
recommendations for, 6:3738, 8:31
small and medium enterprises (SME), 8:26
stakeholder issues, 5:145, 6:24, 7:2627, 8:20, 2627
strategic partnerships, 6:3132, 7:40, 8:2731
supply chain involvement, 6:24
sustainable practices, 7:23, 8:1922, 2728, 30, 31
sustainable water jobs, 8:3559
water management, 6:20
water performance data published by, 6:28
water-policy statement, 6:2526
See also Business/industry, water risks; Corporate
reporting
Company, 2:126
Concession models, privatization and, 3:6667
Conferences/meetings, international. See
International listings; Law/legal instruments/
regulatory bodies; United Nations; World
listings
Conict/cooperation concerning freshwater:
dispute-resolution procedures, 7:7, 168, 8:161
droughts, 5:99, 7:89, 8:14951
economic/social development context, 7:176,
8:173
environmental deciencies and resource
scarcities, 1:1056, 8:161
geopolitics and intl./transboundary waters, 2:35
36, 7:1, 8:1415, 14751, 164
historical (See Water Conict Chronology)
inequities in water distribution/use/development,
1:11113, 8:2
instrument/tool of conict
denition, 8:173
natural gas access as a, 8:166
water as a, 1:10810, 7:1, 176, 8:163, 173
military target
crops as, 8:165
denition, 8:173
water as a, 1:11011, 7:176, 8:149, 163, 164, 165,
167, 173
Non-Navigational Uses of International
Watercourses (See Convention of the
Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of
International Watercourses)
number per year, 1931-2012, 8:161
overview, 1:107, 3:23, 5:18990, 7:1
2011-2012 events, trends, and analysis, 8:159
69
privatization, 3:xviii, 7071, 79, 4:54, 67
reducing the risk of conict, 1:11315
security analysis, shift in intl., 1:105, 8:161
444
Conict/cooperation concerning freshwater
(continued)
subnational/intrastate vs. international/interstate,
8:159, 16162, 16869
summary/conclusions, 1:124, 8:16869
sustainable vision, 1:190
Syria, 8:14751
water wars vs. water-related violence, 8:159, 161
See also Terrorism; specic countries
Congo, Democratic Republic of the, 5:9
builders, 7:133, 318
infant mortality rate, 7:266
Nile River Basin, 7:10, 11
Congo, Republic of the:
builders, 7:133, 333
infant mortality rate, 7:264, 265
location, 7:11
Conoco-Phillips, 6:23
Conservation. See Environmental ow; Land
conservation; Soft path for water;
Sustainable vision for the Earths
freshwater; Twenty-rst century
water-resources development; Water
conservation; Water-use efciency
Construction:
building site runoff, volume, 8:76
major water projects, delivery methods, 8:1045,
10710
Consumption/consumptive use, 1:12, 13, 3:103, 6:7,
117. See also Projections, review of global
water resources; Water footprint; Water use,
consumptive/nonconsumptive; Withdrawals,
water
Contracts:
for desalination plants, 10412, 11619
privatization and, 4:6567
Convention of the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses
of International Watercourses (1997), 1:107,
114, 124, 21030, 2:10, 36, 4142, 3:191, 5:35
Chinas vote against, 7:129
critical importance of, 7:19
overview, 7:45, 8:14
Conventions, international legal/law. See International
listings; Law/legal instruments/regulatory
bodies; United Nations; World listings
Cook Islands, 3:118
Cooling and water use, 4:135, 8:86
Copper, 7:5960, 8:166
Corporate issues. See also Bottled water, business/
industry; Business/industry, water
risks; Companies; Corporate reporting;
Privatization; Water conservation, California
commercial/industrial water use
Corporate reporting:
bottled water, 6:23
continuous improvement, 6:32
current water use, 6:22
history, 6:1718
non-nancial reports, 6:1820
recommendations for, 6:3738
stakeholder consultations and engagement, 6:24
strategic partnerships, 6:3132
summary of, 6:3637
supply chain involvement, 6:24
sustainability reports, 6:18, 20
water management, 6:20, 7:4041
water performance (See Water performance
reporting)
water-policy statement, 6:2526
water risk-assessment programs, 6:2324
Costa Rica, 5:34
Index
Costs. See Economy/economic issues
Cte dIvoire, 1:55, 4:6567, 7:319
Councils. See Law/legal instruments/regulatory
bodies
Court decisions and conict/cooperation concerning
freshwater, 1:109, 120. See also Law/legal
instruments/regulatory bodies; Legislation
Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord (CSA),
5:2122
Covenants. See Law/legal instruments/regulatory
bodies; United Nations
Crane, Siberian, 1:90
Craysh, 7:56
Crime:
corruption, 8:1213, 76, 148
tax fraud, 8:131
vandalism, 8:76
Critical Trends, 3:88
Croatia, 1:71
Crocodiles, 7:56
Crowdsourcing, 8:12
Cryptosporidium, 1:48, 2:157, 4:52, 5:2, 159, 7:47
Cucap people, 3:139
Cultural importance of water, 3:40
Curaao, 2:9495
Current good manufacturing practice (CGMP), 4:27
CW Leonis, 3:21920
Cyanide, 5:20
Cyberterrorism, 5:16, 6:152, 7:176
Cyprus, 1:2024, 2:108, 8:135
Cyrus the Great, 1:109
D
Dams:
Africa, 3:292, 5:151, 6:27478
Central Asia, 8:166
China (See China, dams)
by continent and country, 3:29199
debate, new developments in the, 1:8083
economic issues, 1:16, 2:11719, 12224, 127, 12930
development and construction by China,
7:13335
private-sector funding, 1:82
environmental impacts
impact statements, 7:13435
overview, 7:130
threatened/at risk species due to, 3:3, 7:154,
8:12829
environmental/social impacts, 1:15, 7580, 83
and oods, 5:106, 6:144, 8:128
Gabcikovo-Nagymaros project, 1:109, 120
grandiose water-transfer plans, 1:7475
Korean peninsula, 1:10910
large
historical background, 1:69
proposed, 8:127
San Francisco Bay, proposed, 8:132
total worldwide, 7:127
U.S. begins construction of, 1:6970
opposition to, 1:8082, 7:127, 132, 13436
by owner, 6:27273
power generation (See Hydroelectric production)
primary purposes of, 6:27071
removal (See Dams, removing/decommissioning)
runoff, humanity appropriating half of the worlds,
5:29
safety data, 6:23638
social impacts
displaced people, 1:7780, 85, 90, 9798, 281
87, 5:134, 151
Index
Sudan, 7:133, 134
U.S., 7:154
schistosomiasis outbreaks, 1:49, 7:58
specic sites (See Dams, specic)
Syria, strategic attacks on, 8:149
by the Tennessee Valley Authority, 7:153
terrorism risks, 5:1516
1:6
See also World Commission on Dams
Dams, removing/decommissioning:
case studies, completed removals
Edwards, 2:xix, 12325
Maisons-Rouges and Saint-Etienne-du-Vigan,
2:125
Newport No. 11, 2:12526
Quaker Neck, 2:126
Sacramento River valley, 2:12023
economics, 2:11819, 8:46
employment, 8:46, 48
hydroelectric production, 1:83, 2:11415
1912 to present, 2:27586, 6:23969
overview, 2:xix, 11314
proposed
Elwha and Glines Canyon, 2:12728
Glen Canyon, 2:12831
Pacic Northwest, 2:13134, 8:129
Peterson, 2:128
Savage Rapids, 2:128
Scotts Peak, 2:12627
purpose for being built no longer valid, 2:117
renewal of federal hydropower licenses, 2:11415
safety issues, 2:130
by state, 6:26569
states taking action, 2:11718
twentieth century by decade, 3:3012
by year, 6:26569
Dams, specic:
American Falls, 7:153
Aswan, 7:12
Ataturk, 1:110, 3:182, 184, 185
Auburn, 1:16
Bakun, 1:16
Balbina, 5:134
Banqiao, 5:1516
Batman, 3:187
Belinga, 7:13435
Belo Monte, 8:165
Birecik, 3:185, 18687
Bonneville, 1:69, 8:129
Chixoy, 3:13
Cizre, 3:18990
Condit, 2:119
Edwards, 1:83, 2:xix, 119, 12325
Elwha, 1:83
Farakka Barrage, 1:11819
Fort Peck, 1:69
Fort Randall, 1:70
Garrison, 1:70, 5:123
Gezhou, 6:142
Gibe, 7:134
Glen Canyon, 1:7576, 2:12831
Glines Canyon, 1:83
Gorges, 5:133
Grand Coulee, 1:69
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance (Hidase;
Millennium), 8:164
Hetch Hetchy, 1:15, 8081
Hoa Binh, 5:134
Hoover, 1:69, 3:137, 8:127
445
Ice Harbor, 2:13134
Ilisu, 3:18789, 191
Imperial, 7:7
Itaipu, 1:16
Kabini, 8:163
Kalabagh, 1:16
Karakaya, 3:182, 184
Kariba, 5:134
Katse, 1:93, 95
Keban, 3:184
Kenzua, 7:153
Koyna, 1:77
Krishna Raja Sagar, 8:163
Laguna, 3:136
Little Goose, 2:13134
Lower Granite, 2:13134
Lower Monumental, 2:13134
Machalgho, 8:163
Manitowoc Rapids, 2:119
Merowe, 7:13334
Morelos, 3:138, 142, 7:7
Myitsone, 7:13233
Nam Theun I, 1:16
Nujiang, 7:135
Nurek, 1:70, 8:127
Oahe, 1:70
Pak Mun, 5:134
Peterson, 2:128
Pubugou, 7:136
Quaker Neck, 2:126
Rogun, 8:166
Sadd el-Kafara, 1:69
St. Francis, 5:16
Salling, 2:119
Sandstone, 2:119
Sapta Koshi High, 1:16
Sardar Sarovar, 5:133
Savage Rapids, 2:119, 128
Sennr, 7:58
Shasta, 1:69, 5:123, 7:153
Shimantan, 5:1516
Snake River, 2:13133
Tabqa (al-Thawrah), 8:149
Ta Bu, 5:134
Tantangara, 7:114
Three Gorges Dam (See Three Gorges Dam)
Tiger Leaping Gorge, 6:89, 7:135
Tishrin, 8:149
Welch, 2:118
Woolen Mills, 2:11719
Wullar, 8:163
Xiaowan, 7:131
Yacyreta, 3:13
Yangliuhu, 7:135
Yangtze River, 7:46, 129
See also China, dams, construction overseas;
Lesotho Highlands project; Southeastern
Anatolia Project
Dasani bottled water, 4:21
Data issues/problems:
centralized data portal, 8:12
collection, recommendations, 8:12
conversions/units/constants, 2:300309, 3:31827,
4:32534, 5:31928, 7:75, 34150, 8:395
404
global water footprint, 8:87, 88
global water resources, projections, 2:4042
groundwater, 4:9798
mobile connectivity, 8:12
need for data and water policy reform, 7:152
open access to information, 4:7073, 8:11
polls, 7:283, 286, 8:387, 389, 392
446
Data issues/problems (continued)
urban commercial/industrial water use in
California, 4:13940, 14850, 15253
urban residential water use in California, 4:1089
da Vinci, Leonardo, 1:109
Dead Sea:
mineral extraction from evaporation ponds, 8:155,
156
overview, 8:153, 15455
water transfer from the Red Sea to, 8:144, 15357
Deaths. See Mortality
Decision making:
joint, for transboundary waters, 7:13, 167, 8:1415
open/democratic, 4:7073, 8:11
precautionary principle, 7:167
water risks factored into, 6:2728
Declarations. See Law/legal instruments/regulatory
bodies; United Nations
Deer Park, 4:21
Deforestation, 8:26
Deltas, river, 3:xix
Colorado River, 3:13943, 6:130
Sacramento River, 8:133
Demand management, 4:17980, 7:15354. See also
Water-use efciency; Withdrawals, water
with desalination projects, 8:102, 106, 11516, 119
Demographic health surveys (DHS), 6:61
Demographics of sustainable water job employees,
8:56
Dengue fever, 3:2
Denmark, 1:52
Density, measuring, 2:304, 3:327, 4:329, 334, 7:345, 350
Desalination:
advantages and disadvantages, 5:6676, 8:1089
Australia, 5:69, 7:11415, 8:96, 97, 98, 102, 103, 118
California (See California, desalination)
capacity by country/process/source of water,
1:131, 28890, 2:28790, 5:5860
capacity statistics, 5:5657, 5960, 30817
Carlsbad (CA), 8:93, 95, 98, 11219
case studies, 8:10617
China, 6:93
climate change, 5:8081, 7:16
concentrate disposal, 2:107
economic issues (See Economy/economic issues,
desalination)
energy use/reuse, 2:107, 5:6971, 7576
environmental effects of, 5:7680
global status of, 5:5558
health, water quality and, 5:7475
history and current status, 2:9498, 5:54
intakes, water, impingement/entrainment, 5:7677
Israel, 5:51, 69, 71, 72, 8:157
Nauru, 3:118
oversight process, regulatory and, 5:8182
overview, 1:2930, 2:9394, 5:5153
plants
capacity of actual/planned, 5:30817
Carlsbad (CA), 8:93, 95, 98, 11219
costs, 8:93101, 11718
project delivery methods, 8:1045, 10710
projects and risks, 8:1016, 11819
project structure, 8:119
proposed and recently constructed, 8:98, 103,
15556
Sand City (CA), 8:93
Tampa Bay (FL), 2:1089, 5:6163, 6:12325,
8:98, 103, 10612, 118
processes, 5:5455
freezing, 2:104
Index
ion-exchange methods, 2:104
membrane
costs, 8:94
electrodialysis, 2:1012
overview, 2:101
reverse osmosis (See Reverse osmosis)
membrane distillation, 2:1045
overview, 2:1034
solar and wind-driven systems, 2:1056
thermal
multiple-effect distillation, 2:99100
multistage ash distillation, 2:96, 100
overview, 2:9899
vapor compression distillation, 2:100101
production statistics, monthly, 8:107
Red Sea, proposed, 8:154, 15556
reliability value of, 5:7374
salt concentrations of different waters, 2:94, 5:53
source of water/process, capacity by, 5:5657,
5960
summary/conclusions/recommendations, 2:109
10, 5:8286, 8:11718
Tampa Bay (FL), 2:1089, 5:6163, 6:123
25, 8:98, 103, 10612, 118
U.S., 5:5863
Desertication, Australia, 7:1056
Deutsche Morgan Grenfell, 1:96
Developing countries:
agriculture, 1:24
irrigation, 3:290, 4:29798, 5:3012
bottled water, 4:4041
cholera, 1:56
climate change vulnerability of, 6:4445, 51, 54
dams, 1:82
drinking water, 1:26162
economic development derailed, 1:42
education and expertise in water quality, 7:66
efciency, improving water-use, 1:19
knowledge and technology transfer, 8:1011
Pacic Islands developing countries (PIDC), 5:136
pollution sources, 8:3
population increases and lack of basic water
services, 3:2
privatization, 3:79, 4:46
toilets, energy-efcient, 1:22
unaccounted for water, 4:59
See also Environmental justice; specic countries
Development:
assistance (See Overseas Development Assistance)
economic/social, as context for water conicts,
7:176, 8:173 (See also Water Conict
Chronology)
the right to, 2:89
technology (See Technology development;
Technology transfer)
Development Assistance Committee (DAC). See
Diageos Water of Life, 7:38
Diarrhea, 1:48, 4:8, 11, 6:58, 75, 85
disability adjusted life year (DALY), 7:272
morbidity, 7:58
mortality, 7:5758, 272
childhood, under-5, 7:25963
Dioxins, 7:48, 60
Diptheria, 7:272
Disability-adjusted life year (DALY), 4:9, 27677, 7:57,
27072
Index
Diseases, water-related, 1:18687
amoebiasis, 1:48
ascariasis, 7:272
Balkan Endemic Neuropathy, 7:89
Campylobacter jejuni, 7:57
in China, 6:85
cholera (See Cholera)
dams, removing/decommissioning, 2:130
death, 6:58, 73
and disability-adjusted life year from, 4:27677,
7:57, 27072
limitations in data and reporting, 7:27071
projected, 4:910, 1213
dengue fever, 3:2
diarrhea (See Diarrhea)
diptheria, 7:272
dysentery, 1:42, 4:64
emerging diseases/pathogens, 2:155, 7:49
encephalitis, 7:47
failure, 3:2, 5:117
fecal coliform bacteria, 7:5253 (See also Fecal
contamination)
Guinea worm (See Dracunculiasis)
hepatitis, 7:58
hookworm, 7:61, 272
malaria, 1:4950, 6:58, 7:25963
meningitis, 7:47
outbreaks in U.S., 4:30812
overview, 1:4750, 27475, 7:47, 5758
poliomyelitis, 7:272
roundworm, 7:6162
schistosomiasis, 1:48, 49, 7:58, 272
Shigella, 7:57
trachoma, 1:48, 7:272
trichuriasis, 1:48, 7:272
trypanosomiasis, 7:272
typhoid, 1:48, 7:57, 58
waterborne, 1:4749, 27475, 4:8, 7:5758
waterborne vs. water-based, 7:5758
whipworm, 7:61
See also Millennium Development Goals
Dishwashers, 4:109, 116, 6:106
Displaced people, 8:148, 164, 167. See also Dams,
social impacts, displaced people
Dolphins, 1:77, 90, 3:49, 50, 7:56
Dow Jones Indexes, 3:167
Downstream users, 5:37. See also Human right to
water
Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm), 1:39, 4856, 27273,
3:27377, 5:29397
host zooplankton, 7:58
overview, 7:47
Drinking water, access:
collection distance, 7:231, 8:237
collection the responsibility of children/women,
7:61, 89, 8:168
in conict areas (See Conict/cooperation
concerning freshwater, military target,
water as a)
corporate efforts to improve, 7:38, 41
costs of, 6:73
by country, 1:25155, 3:25260, 5:23746, 6:21120
urban and rural, 1970-2008, 7:23040, 8:23646
urban and rural, 2011, 8:23638, 24751
deaths due to lack, 8:164
dening terms, 4:28, 7:23031, 8:23637
developing countries, 1:26162, 7:62
disinfection and purication, 5:159
uoride, 4:87
funding of, 6:73, 8:9
improved, use of term, 7:23031, 25152, 8:236
37, 239
447
infrastructure for tap water, 8:3536
intl. organizations, recommendations by, 2:1011
limitations in data and reporting, 6:6162, 7:231,
25152, 8:23738, 26869
Overseas Development Assistance, 7:27377
by donating country
2004-2011, 8:31719
by subsector
2007-2011, 8:32022
reclaimed water, 2:15152
by region, MDG progress on, 6:6567, 23032, 7:24,
25153, 8:26870
rural areas, 6:7071 (See also Drinking water,
access, by country)
shortages, 6:44, 53, 86, 8:1, 164, 167
statistics regarding, 6:44, 7:24, 61, 8:1
3:2
urban areas, 6:7071, 7:97 (See also Drinking water,
access, by country)
violence during long walks to water source, 8:168
World Health Organization, 4:208
See also Health, water issues; Human right to
water; Millennium Development Goals;
Soft path for water; Water quality; Wellbeing, measuring water scarcity and;
specic contaminants
Droughts, 1:142, 143, 4:163, 2034, 6:44
agricultural effects, 5:92, 94, 98, 103, 7:1025, 8:148
Atlanta (GA), 6:108
Australia, 7:97121, 14647
beginning of, determination, 5:93
Brazil, 7:26, 8:2223, 165
California, 8:89, 102
causes, 5:9596, 7:8, 98, 100
China, 5:97, 6:8687, 7:13132
Colorado River basin, 8:138
dening terms, 5:92, 7:99100
disturbances promoting ecosystem diversity, 5:91
due to climate change, 5:11213, 6:44, 7:89, 54,
1012, 8:14951
ecological effects, 5:92, 7:54, 100101
economy/economic issues, 5:9192, 98, 103
effects of, 5:9599
res, 5:98, 102, 7:105
forecasting, 7:109, 146
future of, 5:11213
management
agricultural, 7:10714
crisis management, 5:99, 111, 7:89, 97, 100,
1067
impact and vulnerability assessment, 5:100101
mitigation and response, 5:1013
monitoring and early warning, 5:99100, 7:20
national policy development, 7:1067, 112
public participation, 7:11617
risk management, 5:99, 7:109
water market/water trading, 7:110, 11114, 146
National Drought Mitigation Center, 5:94
overview, 5:9192
short-lived or persistent, 5:93
Syria, 8:14751
transboundary agreements, 7:89, 1213, 15
urban areas, 5:98, 7:11421
U.S., 5:93, 6:44, 8:130
DuPont, 1:52
Dust Bowl (U.S.), 5:93
Dutch Water Line strategy, 5:5
Dynamics, water, 2:218
Dysentery, 1:42, 4:64
448
E
Early Warning Monitoring to Detect Hazardous Events
in Water Supplies, 5:2, 20
Earth, origins of water on, 1:9398, 3:20912, 6:5
Earthquakes. See Seismic activity
Earth Water, 5:163
East Bay Municipal Utilities District (EBMUD), 5:73
East Timor. See Timor Leste
Economy/economic issues:
access to water, 5:125, 7:67
bag technology, water, 1:200, 2045
bottled water, 4:17, 2223
budgets, U.S. federal agency water-related, 7:3037
cholera, 1:60
Colorado River, 3:143
cost effectiveness, 4:105, 8:38
cost of water (See Pricing, water)
costs of water in San Diego County, 8:100
credit rating for project, 8:117
dams, 1:82, 2:11719, 12224, 127, 12930, 132
desalination, 1:30, 2:95, 1059, 5:6263, 66, 6873
cost comparisons, 8:99101, 118
cost estimates, 8:9599, 11011, 11213, 118
cost terminology, 8:9495
overview, 8:9394, 117
developing countries, 1:42, 3:127 (See also
Overseas Development Assistance)
disadvantages of corporate sustainability, 8:30
disincentives for corporate sustainability, 8:30
droughts, 5:9192, 98, 103
economic development, 7:176, 8:27
economic good, treating water as an, 3:xviii, 3334,
3738, 58, 4:45
economies of scale, and hard path for meeting
water-related needs, 3:8
efciency, economic, 4:104, 105, 8:100
nancial assistance, 6:74
shing, 2:117
oods, 5:9192, 108, 109
human right to water, 2:1314, 8:29
incentives and rebates for water conservation,
6:11012, 7:119, 121
incentives for corporate sustainability, 8:23, 31
industrial water use, 1:21, 7:67
infrastructure projects, funding, 8:105
intl. water meetings, 5:183
investment issues, 1:67, 5:27375, 8:1213, 23
jobs, sustainable water, 8:3559
Lesotho Highlands project, 1:9597, 99
Millennium Development Goals, 4:67, 7:64
overruns, water-supply project, 3:13
poor water quality, 7:6365
productivity of water, U.S., 4:32124
property values and green space, 8:42
recession, U.S., 8:130
reclaimed water, 2:156, 159, 7:121
recycled water, 8:11
revenue/growth of the water industry, 5:3034
soft path for meeting water-related needs, 3:5, 67,
1215, 2325, 7:150
Southeastern Anatolia Project, 3:182, 187, 19091
subsidies
agriculture, 1:2425, 117, 7:108, 109, 152
desalination, 5:69
engineering projects, large-scale, 1:8
Index
government and intl. organizations, 1:17, 7:67,
108, 109, 111, 152, 8:35
privatization, 3:7072, 4:50, 5360
twenty-rst century water-resources
development, 1:2425
supply-side solutions, 1:6
tariffs, water, 6:31223
terrorism, 5:20
transfer of water, 8:136, 140, 142
transparency and accountability, 8:1214, 112
end of, 1:1617
urban commercial/industrial water use in
California, 4:14043, 15152
urban residential water use in California, 4:1078
wages for sustainable water jobs, 8:56
water scarcity effects on, 6:45
water use vs. Gross Domestic Product, 8:142
withdrawals, water, 3:31017
World Commission on Dams, 3:158, 16264, 167
69
See also Business/industry, water risks;
Environmental justice; Globalization and
international trade of water; Privatization;
World Bank
Ecosystems:
bioproductivity, 8:86
classication of impacts, three-tier, 7:52
community structure (See Biodiversity; Extinct
species; Introduced/invasive species;
Threatened/at risk species)
ecological footprint, 8:85, 86
impacts of dams and water withdrawals, 3:3, 8:37
impacts of desalination, 8:94
87
impacts of water quality degradation factors,
4:168, 7:4649, 52, 5457
reserve, and natures right to water, 7:145
restoration/protection, 2:14950, 7:66, 146, 8:44
48
See also Environmental ow; Environmental
issues; Fish; Soft path for water;
Sustainable vision for the Earths
freshwater
Ecuador, 1:59, 71, 2:17879, 3:49, 5:124
builders, 7:319
Education:
effects of inadequate sanitation on, 6:58, 7:61
empowerment through, 8:1314
Save Water and Energy Education Program, 4:114
and sustainable water jobs, 8:55, 57, 58, 59
in water quality, 7:66
in water supply and sanitation, 7:277
in water supply and sanitation, Overseas
Development Assistance
by donating country
2004-2011, 8:31719
by subsector
2007-2011, 8:32022
Edwards Manufacturing Company, 2:124
Index
Eels, 2:123
Efciency (See Water-use efciency)
Egypt, 1:118, 2:26, 33, 4:18, 40, 5:163
decline in infant mortality rate, 7:264
Nile River Basin, 7:11, 8:164
Suez Canal, 8:153
tourism, 8:153, 164
Eighteen District Towns project, 2:167
El Nio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 1:139, 143, 147,
3:119, 4:162, 5:95, 106
and the Millennium Drought in Australia, 7:98
Employees, demographics of sustainable water jobs,
8:56
Employment, sustainable water jobs, 8:3559
Encana Oil and Gas Inc., 8:71, 73
Encephalitis, 7:47
Endocrine disruptors, 7:49, 59, 60
End use of water as a social concern, 3:7, 89
Energy issues:
business/industry, water risks, 5:150, 15152
desalination, 2:107, 5:6971, 7576, 8:95
droughts, 5:98, 8:2223
energy efciency, 3:xiii, 7:84, 162
measuring energy, 2:308, 3:326, 4:333, 7:75, 349
power generation
by fossil fuel type, 7:75
renewable technologies (See Hydroelectric
production; Nuclear power; Solar
power; Wind power)
retirement of aging power plants, 7:8485
thermal pollution from, 7:85
water consumption, 7:25, 26, 31, 73, 7475
water footprint, 8:56, 84
tap water, 7:163
transfer of water, 8:142
transportation method, 7:162
unit conversions, 7:75
U.S. Department of Energy, 1:23, 4:115
water-energy-food nexus, 8:56
water treatment, 7:60
Engineering projects, large-scale. See Dams; Transfers,
water; Twentieth-century water-resources
development; Zombie water projects
England:
cholera, 1:56
desalination, 2:94
droughts, 5:92
eutrophication, 7:63
Ofce of Water Services, 4:6465
privatization, 3:58, 60, 61, 78, 4:6265
World Commission on Dams, 3:162, 170
See also United Kingdom
Enron, 3:63
Environment, 2:182
Environmental ow:
characteristics of hydrologic regimes, 5:31
economics/nance, 5:4043
General Accounting Ofce, 5:119
legal framework, 5:3437
policy implementation, 5:4345
projects in practice, 5:3234
science of determining, 5:3840
water quality link, 5:40
World Commission on Dams recommendations,
5:30
449
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), 6:96,
7:3132
Environmental issues:
bottled water, 4:41
change, global, 1:1
cleanup (See Habitat restoration; Remediation)
contaminants in water (See Wastewater; Water
quality; specic contaminants)
as context for business/industry water risk, 7:29,
8:24
dams/reservoirs, 1:15, 7580, 83, 91, 8:128
ecological impacts (See Ecosystems)
environmental ow (See Environmental ow)
environmental justice (See Environmental justice)
green infrastructure (low-impact development),
8:39, 41
green jobs, 8:3559
natures right to water, 7:145
shrimp/tuna and turtle/dolphin disputes, 3:49, 50
stormwater, pollution by (See Stormwater runoff)
sustainable vision for the Earths freshwater, 1:188
90
Three Gorges Dam, 1:899, 6:142
top concerns around the world, 7:28588
top concerns of U.S. public, 7:28284
end of, 1:12, 1516
U.S., 6:33941, 7:28284
Environmental justice:
Coca-Cola, 5:127
dams, 5:13336
discrimination, environmental, 5:11819
economic issues, 2:1314, 8:29
environmentalism of the poor, 5:12324
Environmental Justice Coalition for Water, 5:122
23
good governance, 5:13841
history of movement in U.S., 5:11920, 12223
intl. context, 5:118
overview, 5:11718
principles of, 5:12022
right to water (See Human right to water)
water access, 5:12425, 127, 6:44, 8:29
women and water, 5:126, 134, 7:61, 89, 8:168
Environmental management system, 6:32
Eritrea, 5:95, 7:11
Ethanol, 7:74
Ethical issues:
land ethic of Leopold, 8:129
public relations and social responsibility, 8:23,
2930
Ethiopia, 1:55, 4:211, 5:95, 97
conicts concerning freshwater, 2011-2012,
8:164
dams
with Chinese nanciers/developers/builders,
7:133, 134, 31920
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance (Hidase;
Millennium), 8:164
drinking water, access to, 6:7173, 7:41
Nile River Basin, 7:11, 8:164
sanitation, 6:7173
Ethos Water, 5:163
Europa Orbiter, 3:218
450
Europe:
bottled water, 4:22, 25, 288, 289, 291, 5:163, 281,
283
per-capita consumption, 7:340
cholera, 1:56, 267, 270, 5:289, 290
dams, 3:165, 29293
drinking water, 5:159, 24546, 7:23940
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme, 6:18
European Convention on Human Rights (1950),
2:4, 8
European Union Development Fund, 1:96
European Union Water Framework Directive
(2000), 7:25, 14749
groundwater, 4:8485
human right to water, 4:209, 214
irrigation, 1:301, 2:26162, 265, 3:289, 6:33233
privatization, 3:58, 60, 61
217, 3:24142, 4:26566, 5:22526
2011 update, 7:21920
2013 update, 8:22526
reservoirs, 2:270, 274
river basins, 6:289, 30106
transboundary, 2:2931, 7:3
salinization, 2:268
sanitation services, 3:272, 5:255, 7:24950
threatened/at risk species, 1:29495, 7:56
waterborne diseases, 1:48
by country, 7:29091
2012, 8:391
4:27375, 5:23536
Evaporation of water into atmosphere, 1:141, 2:20, 22,
83, 4:15960, 6:43, 107
reduction in drought management, 7:110
reduction with aquifer recharge, 8:49
Evaporation ponds, potash extraction from, 8:155
Everglades, 8:48
Evian bottled water, 7:162
Excreta. See Fecal contamination
Ex-Im Bank, 1:8889, 3:163
Export credit agencies (ECAs), 3:191
Extinct species:
freshwater animal species, 7:292302
rates for fauna from continental North America,
4:31314
See also Threatened/at risk species
F
Faucets, 4:117, 6:106, 7:28, 8:38
Fecal contamination, 1:4748, 7:5253, 5758
Fertilizer. See also Runoff, agricultural
Field ooding, 2:82, 86
Fiji, 3:45, 46, 118, 7:320
Fiji Spring Water, 7:162
Films:
and portrayals of terrorism, 5:14
water in, 7:17174
Filtration, water, 1:47, 5:55, 7:15960, 161
Finn, Kathy, 4:6970
Index
Fire, and drought, 5:98, 102, 7:105
First Peoples. See Indigenous populations
Fish:
aquaculture, 2:79
bass, 2:123
carp, 2:118
dams, removing/decommissioning, 2:118, 123,
126, 128, 13133
dams/reservoirs affecting, 1:77, 83, 90, 98, 2:117,
6:14243
8:12829
percent of North American species threatened,
7:154
desert pupsh, 3:142
droughts, 5:98, 102
eels, 2:123
endocrine disruptors, 7:49
oods, 5:109
fossil-fuel extraction affecting, 7:87, 91
herring, 2:123
impacts of desalination, 8:94
largest number of species, countries with, 2:29899
pesticides, 5:3057
Sacramento River, 2:12021, 8:128
salmon (See Salmon)
San Francisco Bay, 8:132
sturgeon, 1:77, 90, 2:123
threatened/at risk species, 1:29196, 3:3, 3940,
142
due to dams, 7:154, 8:37, 12829
due to mining drainage, 7:52
percent endangered, 8:3
percent of U.S. species, 7:56, 8:37
tuna, 3:49, 50
Floods, 1:14243, 4:16263, 2034, 3027, 5:1049
Australia, 7:97
causes, 5:106, 7:9
China, 6:8487, 144
control, 5:11012
and dams, 5:106, 6:144, 8:128
Dead Sea, 8:155
denition, 5:1045
disturbances promoting ecosystem health, 5:91,
7:134
economy/economic issues, 5:9192
effects of, 5:10610
ash, 5:104
frequency, calculation, 5:105
future of, 5:11213
Johnstown Flood of 1889, 5:16
management, 5:11012
Mekong River Basin, 7:1415
overview, 5:9192
transboundary agreements, 7:9
Florida:
Altamonte Springs, 2:146
St. Petersburg, 2:14647
Tampa Bay (See under Desalination, plants)
Flow-limited resources, 6:6
Flow rates, 2:3056, 3:104, 324, 4:168, 172, 331. See
also Hydrologic cycle; Stocks and ows of
freshwater
measuring, 7:34647
Fluoride, 4:87, 6:81
Fog collection as a source of water, 2:17581
Food. See also Agriculture, water footprint
Index
access, impacts of fossil-fuel extraction/
processing, 7:91
adulteration, 4:3233
BOD emissions by country, 7:27981
diets, regional, 2:6466
sh, 2:79
genetically-modied, 7:110
grains (See Grains)
meat consumption, 2:6869, 72, 7980
water footprint to produce, 8:8384
Food needs for current/future populations:
agricultural land (See Agriculture, land availability/
quality)
cropping intensity, 2:76
crop yields, 2:7476
eaten by humans, fraction of crop production,
2:7677
inequalities in food distribution/consumption,
2:64, 6770
kind of food will people eat, what, 2:6870
need and want to eat, how much food will people,
2:6768
overview, 2:65
people to feed, how many, 2:6667
production may be unable to keep pace with
future needs, 2:64
progress in feeding Earths population, 2:6364
water-energy-food nexus, 8:56
water needed to grow food (See Agriculture,
irrigation)
Footprint. See Carbon footprint; Ecosystems,
ecological footprint; Water footprint
Force, measuring, 2:306, 3:324, 4:331, 7:347
Foreign Affairs, 3:xiii
Forestry, urban, 8:42
Fossil fuels. See Petroleum and fossil fuels
Fossil groundwater, 6:910
France:
dams
World Commission on Dams, 3:159
Frank, Louis A., 1:19498, 3:20910
French Polynesia, 3:118
Freshwater:
percent of global in aquifers, 7:3
percent of global in the Great Lakes, 7:165
See also Drinking water; Lakes; Renewable
freshwater supply; Rivers; Streams;
Surface water; Withdrawals, water
Freshwater Action Network, 8:13
Fuels. See Biofuel; Petroleum and fossil fuels
Furans, 7:48, 60
Fusion Energy Foundation, 8:130, 131
Future, the. See Projections, review of global water
resources; Soft path for water; Sustainable
vision for the Earths freshwater; Twenty-rst
century water-resources development
G
Gabon, 7:133, 13435, 321
Galileo spacecraft, 3:217, 218
Gallup Organization, surveys. See Air quality,
satisfaction; Water quality, satisfaction
451
Gambia, 4:211, 7:321
Gap, Inc., 5:156, 8:22
Gardens, 1:23, 4:12223, 7:115, 116, 8:42
Garrison Diversion Project, 8:140
Gases. See Greenhouse gases; Natural gas
Gaza Strip, 8:154
Gaziantep Museum, 3:186, 187
GEC Alsthom, 1:85
GE Infrastructure, 5:15961
General circulation models (GCMs), 3:12123, 4:158,
159, 162, 167, 6:4142, 47
General Electric, 1:85, 7:133
Geophysical Research Letters, 1:194
Georgia (country), 7:321
Georgia (state). See Atlanta
Germany:
conict/cooperation concerning freshwater, 5:5, 7
dams
Three Gorges Dam, 1:88, 89
World Commission on Dams, 3:159, 170
privatization, 3:61
terrorism, 5:20
Ghana, 1:46, 52, 54, 7:32122
Giardia, 1:48, 2:157, 4:52, 7:47, 57
Glen Canyon Institute, 2:130
Glennon, Robert, 7:xiiixiv
Global action networks (GAN), 8:9
Global Environmental Facility (GEF), 6:5152
Global Environmental Management Initiative (GEMI),
7:33, 34
Global Environmental Outlook, 3:88
Global Environment Monitoring System/Water
Programme (GEMS/Water), 7:50, 53
Globalization and international trade of water:
Alaskan water shipments, proposed, 8:133, 13536
dening terms
commodication, 3:35
economic good, 3:3738
globalization, 3:3435
private/public goods, 3:34
privatization, 3:35
social good, 3:3637
virtual water, 8:4, 83, 91
governance issues, 8:616
5154, 8:130
overview, 3:3334, 4142, 8:4
raw or value-added resource, 3:4247
rules, intl. trading regimes, 3:4748
social and economic good, water managed as
both, 3:3840
water footprint issues, 8:84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91
World Water Forum (2003), 4:192, 193
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), 5:158, 6:18
G3 Guidelines, 7:41
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, 6:2829
Water Protocol, 6:28, 36
Global Runoff Data Centre, 8:274, 292
Global Water Partnership (GWP), 1:16572, 175, 176,
5:183, 6:73
The Goddess of the Gorges, 1:84
Goh Chok Tong, 1:110
Goodland, Robert, 1:77
Good manufacturing practice (GMP), 4:32, 33
Good manufacturing practices, current (CGMP), 4:27
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 1:106
Gorton, Slade, 2:134
452
Government/politics:
business/industry water risk and, 7:30
desalination, 8:101
droughts, 5:92, 9495, 103, 7:1067, 8:14751
human right to water, 2:3, 5:13738, 8:29
infrastructure damage due to political violence,
8:16465
irrigation, 1:8
military targets (See under Conict/cooperation
concerning freshwater; Terrorism)
military tools (See under Conict/cooperation
concerning freshwater)
North American Water and Power Alliance issues,
8:12425, 131
policy capture, 8:2831
policy reform, 7:144, 8:59
Red Sea-Dead Sea projects, 8:154, 156
subnational/intrastate vs. international, 8:159,
16162, 16869
subsidies, 1:17, 7:67, 108, 109, 111, 152, 8:35
1:78, 17
World Commission on Dams report, 3:17071,
7:13940
See also Climate change, California, policy;
Conict/cooperation concerning
freshwater; Human right to water;
Law/legal instruments/regulatory
bodies; Legislation; Stocks and ows of
freshwater; specic countries
Grains:
cereal, 2:64, 4:299301, 7:10910
production, 2:64, 299301
rice, 2:7479
wheat, 2:75, 4:89
Grand Banks, 1:77
Grand Canyon, 1:15, 2:138, 146
Granite State Artesian, 4:39
Grants Pass Irrigation District (GPID), 2:128
Great Lakes. See under Lakes, specic
Greece:
ancient water systems, 2:137
bag technology, water, 1:202, 204, 205, 8:135
supply systems, ancient, 1:40
Greenhouse effect, 1:137, 138, 3:126, 4:171, 6:39. See
also Climate change listings; Greenhouse
gases
Greenhouse gases, 6:4043, 53, 7:80, 84, 8:85
Greenroof & Greenwall Projects Database, 8:42
Green water, in water footprint concept, 8:8586, 90,
323, 332, 341, 350
Greywater (reclaimed water), 7:120, 8:38, 4849
Gross national product (GNP) and water withdrawals,
3:31017
Groundwater:
arsenic in, 2:16573, 3:27879, 4:87, 6:61, 7:59
as blue water in water footprint concept, 8:86,
8990, 323, 332, 341, 350
consequences of poor water quality, 4:83, 87, 7:55
contamination by fossil-fuel production, 7:51, 76,
79, 8:66, 68, 6971
data problems, 3:93
desalination of brackish, 8:114
fossil, 6:910
Index
monitoring/management problems
agriculture, 4:8890
analytical dilemma, 4:9097
challenges in assessments, 4:8081
conceptual foundations of assessments, 4:80
data and effective management, 4:9798
extraction and use, 4:8188, 8:2
overview, 4:79
overextraction, 5:125, 128, 7:54, 55
India, 8:25
Las Vegas (NV) area, 8:137
overview, 8:2
Syria, 8:14849
Pacic Island developing countries, 3:11618
pesticides, 5:307
public ownership rights and privatization, 3:74
recharge, 8:49
reliability, water-supply, 5:74, 7:55
and sinkhole formation, 8:155
stocks and ows of freshwater, 2:20
water quality, 4:83, 87, 8:114
See also Aquifers
Groupe DANONE, 7:41
Guatemala, 3:13, 8:166
Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (WHO),
4:2627, 31
Guinea, 3:76, 7:322
Guinea worm. See Dracunculiasis
Gulf of California, 3:141, 142
Gulf of Mexico, 1:77, 7:73
Guyana, 7:323
Gwembe Tonga people, 5:134
H
Habitat degradation/loss:
from drought, 5:98, 103, 109
from fossil-fuel extraction/processing, 7:85, 87
wetlands, 7:56, 63, 8:4
Habitat restoration:
Dead Sea, 8:15556
ecosystems, 2:14950, 7:66, 146, 8:4448
rivers, 2:xix, 127, 3:14344, 8:4546, 48
Salton Sea, 6:13137, 8:144
streams, 8:4546
Habitat simulation, as environmental ow
methodology, 5:39
Haiti, 1:46, 8:359, 373
Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE), 1:196
Hamidi, Ahmed Z., 1:110
Harcourt, Mike, 1:88
Hardness, measuring, 2:309, 3:327, 4:334, 7:350
Hard path for meeting water-related needs, 3:xviii,
2, 6:1314. See also Soft path for water;
Twentieth-century water-resources
development
Harran, 3:185
Harvard School of Public Health, 4:9
Hazardous waste landlls, 5:119, 124
Health:
and high concentrations of metals, 7:5960
and high concentrations of nutrients, 7:5859
hunger and malnutrition, 2:70, 6:58, 7:5758
maternal, 6:58
and persistent organic pollutants, 7:48, 60
sanitation issues (See Sanitation services)
toxins (See Water quality, contaminants)
water issues
arsenic (See Groundwater, arsenic in)
Index
diseases (See Diseases, water-related)
droughts, 5:102
oods, 5:109
uoride, 4:87
human needs for water, basic, 1:4247
privatization, 4:47
The Heat Is On (Gelbspan), 5:136
Helmut Kaiser, 5:161
Hepatitis, 7:58
Herodotus, 1:109
Herring, 2:123
Historic ow as environmental ow methodology,
5:39
Hittites, 3:184
HIV, 6:58, 7:25963
Hoecker, James, 2:124
Holistic approaches to environmental ow
methodology, 5:39
Holland. See Netherlands
Holmberg, Johan, 1:166, 175
Honduras, 1:71, 4:5455
Hong Kong, 3:46, 31315
Hookworm, 7:61, 272
Hoppa, Gregory, 3:217
Human Development Report, 4:7, 6:74, 7:61
Human rights and international law, 2:49
Human right to adequate sanitation, 8:271
Human right to water, 2:12
barriers to, 4:21213
dening terms, 2:913
and environmental justice, 5:13738
failure to meet, consequences of the, 2:1415
is there a right?, 2:23
laws/covenants/declarations, 2:49, 7:36, 251,
8:268
legal obligations, translating rights into, 2:3, 1314
overview, 4:2078
Prior Appropriation Doctrine, 5:37
progress toward acknowledging, 4:20811
why bother?, 4:214
See also Environmental justice; Law/legal
instruments/regulatory bodies,
International Covenant on Economic,
Social, and Cultural Rights
Hungary, 1:109, 120
Hunger. See Health, hunger and malnutrition
Hurricane Katrina, 5:24, 110
Hydraulic geometry as environmental ow
methodology, 5:39
Hydroelectric production:
California, 4:17374
capacity, countries with largest installed, 1:72,
27680, 7:129
Central Asia, 8:166
China, 6:92
dams, removing/decommissioning, 1:83
Dead Sea, proposed, 8:154, 156
electricity generation data, 7:7374, 130
Glen Canyon Dam, 2:12930
grandiose water-transfer schemes, 1:7475
James Bay Project, Quebec, 8:131
percentage of electricity generated with
hydropower, 1:7374
by region, 1:7071
Snake River, 2:13233, 8:129
453
Syria, 8:149
Three Gorges Dam, 1:84, 6:140
transboundary water agreements, 7:6, 132
water consumption (water footprint), 7:25, 8:84
Hydrogen sulde, 7:76, 80
Hydrologic cycle:
climate change, 1:13943, 4:183, 5:117
desalination, 2:95, 5:52
droughts, 5:94
quantications, accurate, 4:9296
stocks and ows of freshwater, 2:2027
See also Environmental ow
Hydrologic extremes, 6:4344
Hydro-Quebec International, 1:85
I
Iceland, 1:71
Idaho Rivers United, 2:133
Identity standards and bottled water, 4:2731
Illinois, Cache River basin, 8:46, 48
India:
agriculture, 4:88, 89, 8:10
irrigation, 2:85, 86
basic water requirement, 2:13
bottled water, 4:22, 25, 40
business/industry, water risks that face, 5:146, 147,
165
Chipko movement, 5:124
cholera, 1:61
109, 11819, 2069, 5:13, 15
Cauvery River Basin, 7:3
PepsiCo and Coca-Cola, 7:26
conicts concerning freshwater
2011-2012, 8:163
dams, 1:70, 78, 81, 5:133
displaced people due to, 1:78
Kabini, 8:163
Krishna Raja Sagar, 8:163
World Commission on Dams, 3:159, 170, 7:139
Wullar, and conict with Pakistan, 8:163
Dhaka Community Hospital, 2:170
dracunculiasis, 1:53, 55
economics of water projects, 1:16, 17
environmental justice, 5:124, 127
oods, 5:106
fossil-fuel production, 7:75, 88, 89
groundwater, 3:2, 50, 4:82, 83, 8890, 9295, 5:125,
128
arsenic in, 2:16573, 4:87, 7:59
and Coca-Cola, 8:2122, 23, 25
overextraction, 7:55, 8:25
intl. river basin, 2:27, 8:163
New Delhi, 8:163
renewable water availability in, 6:83
Tamil Nadu state, 8:163
water quality, 8:3
water use, domestic, 1:46
Indian Ocean Dipole, 7:98
Indicators/indices, water-related, 3:87. See also Wellbeing, measuring water scarcity and
Indigenous populations, 5:123, 124, 7:9192. See also
Environmental justice
Africa, 8:167
Brazil, 8:165
Canada, 8:128
454
Indonesia:
cholera, 1:58
conicts concerning freshwater, 8:168
builders, 7:323
Industrial sculptures, 5:219, 220
Industrial water treatment, 5:160
Industrial water use, 1:2021, 5:12425. See also
Business/industry, water risks; Projections,
review of global water resources; Water
conservation, California commercial/
industrial water use; Water footprint, per
capita, of national consumption, by sector
and country
Infrared Space Observatory, 3:220
Insects:
stone y, 7:56
as vectors for water-related diseases, 1:4950, 4:89
Institute of Marine Aerodynamics, 1:202
Integrated water planning, 1:17, 3:21, 8:59. See also
Global Water Partnership
Integrated water resource management (IWRM), 8:27
Intel, 8:28
Intensity, water, 3:1719
Inter-American Development Bank, 3:163
Interferometry, 3:221
International alliances/conferences/meetings, time
to rethink large, 5:18285. See also Law/legal
instruments/regulatory bodies
International Association of Hydrological Sciences
(IAHS), 5:183
International Bottled Water Association (IBWA), 4:26,
34, 5:174
International Council of Bottled Water Association
(ICBWA), 4:26
International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation
Decade (1981-90), 3:37
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),
2:64
International Freshwater Conference in Bonn (2001),
3:xviii
International Hydrological Program (IHP), 5:183
International Law Association (ILA), 5:35, 7:4
International Law Commission, 1:107
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center,
2:75
International river basins:
Africa, 6:28996, 7:1113, 8:164
Asia, 2:30, 6:289, 296301
assessments, 2:2735, 7:23
Central Asia, 8:166
climate change and management issues, 7:210,
8:15
by country, 2:24754, 6:289311
Europe, 6:289, 30106
fraction of a countrys area in, 2:23946
geopolitics, 2:3536, 8:15
North America, 6:289, 30608, 7:16569 (See also
Colorado River)
runoff (See Rivers, runoff)
South America, 6:289, 30811
use of water footprint data for management, 8:91
of the world, 2:21938
International Rivers Network, 7:308
International trade. See Globalization and
international trade of water
Index
International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN), 7:292302. See also World
Conservation Union
International Water Association (IWA), 5:182
International Water Ltd., 3:70
International Water Management Institute (IWMI),
3:197, 4:88, 108, 8:2
International Water Resources Association (IWRA),
1:172, 5:183, 7:19
Internet, 1:23134, 2:19296, 3:22535. See also
Websites, water-related
increased conict reporting due to, 8:159
WikiLeaks and conict transparency, 8:164
Introduced/invasive species, 7:48
Invertebrates:
clams, 3:14243
craysh, 7:56
effects of acid rain, 7:87
extinct or extinct in the wild species, 7:292, 298
302
mercury in, 7:59
mussels, 7:56
shrimp, 3:49, 50, 141, 142
Iran, 1:58, 5:8
conict concerning freshwater, 8:163
builders, 7:323
fossil-fuel production, 7:75, 79
Iraq, 1:59, 11011, 118, 5:13, 1516
Irrigation. See Agriculture, irrigation; Gardens; Lawns
ISO 14001, 6:32
Israel:
109, 11011, 11516, 5:6, 7, 10, 1415
desalination, 5:51, 69, 71, 72, 8:157
drip irrigation, 1:23
reclaimed water, 1:25, 29, 2:138, 142
terrorism, 5:21
tourism, 8:155
Italy, 3:47, 61, 5:11
J
Japan:
reclaimed water, 2:139, 140, 15859
soft path for meeting water-related needs, 3:23
Jarboe, James F., 5:4
Jefferson, Thomas, 2:94
Jerusalem Post, 5:71
Jobs. See Employees; Employment
Joint Monitoring Programme (WHO), 6:60, 73, 7:230,
241, 8:236, 252
Jolly, Richard, 2:3, 4:196
Jordan, 1:107, 109, 11516, 2:33, 5:12, 33
Disi Water Conveyance Project, 8:157
JPMorgan, 7:27, 134
Jupiter, search for water on moons, 3:21718
K
Kansas:
Chanute, 2:152
Kantor, Mickey, 3:5152
Index
Kazakhstan, 7:75, 323
Kennebec Hydro Developers, 2:124
Kennedy, John F., 2:95
Kenya:
dams
7:32324
effects of Lake Turkana dam, 7:134
droughts, 5:92, 99
Lake Naivasha, 8:26, 27
Nairobi, 8:167
Nile River Basin, 7:11 (See also Rivers, specic,
Nile)
public-private strategies for shared risk, 8:26, 27
Kerogen, 7:79
Khan, Akhtar H., 1:39, 4:71
King, Angus, 2:123
Kiribati, 3:118
Kirin, 6:27
Kitchens and CII water use, 4:135, 137
Knowledge transfer, 8:1011
Kokh, Peter, 3:218
Korea, 7:274
Korean peninsula, 1:53, 10910
Korean War, 1:110
Kosovo, 5:9
Kruger National Park, 1:12023, 5:32
Kurdish Workers Party (PKK), 5:22
Kuwait, 1:111, 2:94, 97, 4:18, 5:69, 160, 163
Kyoto Protocol, 6:51
Kyrgyzstan, 7:324, 8:166
L
Labeling and bottled water, 4:2831, 7:159, 16061,
164
Lagash-Umma border dispute, 5:5
Lakes, 4:16869, 7:55
Lakes, specic:
Cahuilla, 6:129
Chad, 1:111, 148
Chapala, 3:77
Dead Sea, 8:15357
Great Lakes, 1:111, 3:50, 7:16569, 8:126, 128
Kostonjrvi, 5:33
Mead, 3:137, 140, 7:89, 17, 8:137, 138
Mono, 5:37, 41
Naivasha, 8:26, 27
Oulujrvi, 5:33
Powell, 1:76, 2:129, 130, 7:89, 17
Taihu, 6:95
Turkana, 7:134
Land, agricultural. See Agriculture, land availability/
quality
Land conservation, 8:42
Landlls, hazardous waste, 5:119, 124
Landscape design, 1:23, 4:12223, 135, 13738, 6:107
Land-use management and oods, 5:11112
La Nia, 3:119, 5:95, 7:98
Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, 7:14, 32427
Laos, 1:16, 71, 7:130
La Paz-El Alto, 3:68, 6972
Laser leveling, agriculture and, 3:20
Las Vegas (NV):
description, 6:103
Las Vegas Pipeline Project, 8:13640
455
temperature, 6:104
and water supply reliability, 5:74
Latin America:
bottled water, 4:40
cholera, 1:56, 57, 5961, 3:2, 8:359, 373
66
dams, 1:77, 81
drinking water, 1:262, 6:65
access to, 7:24, 253, 8:270
irrigation, 2:86
population, 2:214
sanitation, 1:264, 3:271, 5:259
See also Central America; South America
Laundry:
emerging technologies, 5:219, 220
The High Efciency Laundry Metering and
Marketing Analysis project (THELMA),
4:115
laundry water and CII water use, 4:138
washing machines, 1:23, 4:11416, 5:219, 220
Lavelin International, 1:85
Law/legal instruments/regulatory bodies:
Agenda 21, 5:34
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT),
4:35
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), 4:35
Appalachian Regional Commission, 7:307
Beijing Platform of Action, 2:8
Berlin Conference Report (2004), 5:35
Berlin Rules (2004), 7:5
Bonn Declaration (2001), 3:173, 17880
Boundary Waters Treaty (1909), 7:167, 168
Budapest Treaty, 7:5
Bureau of Government Research (BGR), 4:6970
Cairo Programme of Action, 2:8
California Bay-Delta Authority, 4:181
California Coastal Commission (CCC), 5:2
California Department of Water Resources, 1:9, 29,
3:11, 4:170, 232
California Energy Commission, 4:157, 176, 232,
5:76, 232
Climate and Water Panel, 1:149
Climate Change and Water Intra-governmental
Panel, 7:153
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 4:3132
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), 4:26,
3536
Consortium for Energy Efciency (CEE), 4:115
Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research (CGIAR), 3:90
Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989), 2:4, 9,
4:209
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 3:166,
5:34
Copenhagen Declaration, 2:8
Corporate Industrial Water Management Group,
5:157
Declaration on the Right to Development (1986),
2:4
456
Law/legal instruments/regulatory bodies (continued)
Dublin Conference (1992), 1:24, 16566, 169, 3:37,
58, 101, 5:34
Earth Summit (1992), 3:38, 88, 101, 5:137
Emergency Management and Emergency
Preparedness Ofce, 5:24
Environmental Modication Convention (1977),
1:114, 5:4
European Convention on Human Rights (1950),
2:4, 8
European Union Water Framework Directive
(2000), 7:25, 14749
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 5:24
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),
5:24, 9697
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC),
1:83, 2:12324, 126, 5:36
Federal Maritime Commission, 7:307
First National People of Color Environmental
Leadership Summit (1991), 5:120
Food and Agricultural Organization (See under
United Nations)
Ganges Water Agreement (1977), 1:119
Geneva Conventions, 1:114, 5:4
Global Water Partnership (GWP), 1:16572, 175,
176, 5:183
Great LakesSt. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable
Water Resources Agreement (2005), 7:165,
16768
Great LakesSt. Lawrence River Basin Water
Resources Compact (2008), 7:165, 16769
Resources Council, 7:168
groundwater, 4:9596
Hague Declaration (2000), 3:17377, 4:2, 5:139, 140
Harmon Doctrine, 7:4
Helsinki Rules (1966), 1:114, 7:4
human rights and intl. law, 2:49
India-Bangladesh, 1:107, 119, 2069
Indus Water Treaty, 8:163
Interagency Climate Change Adaptation Task
Force, 7:153
intergovernmental, limitations and
recommendations, 8:78
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), 1:137, 138, 140, 145, 149, 3:12023,
5:81, 136, 6:3940, 45
Fourth Assessment Report, 7:7
2008 report, 8:5
International Boundary and Water Commission,
7:17, 307
International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage (ICID), 5:183
International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD), 1:70
International Court of Justice, 7:5, 7
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and
Cultural Rights, 2:4, 4:208
actors other than states, obligations of, 4:231
Article 2 (1), 2:67
Article 11, 2:7
Article 12, 2:7
Declaration on the Right to Development, 2:9
implementation at national level, 4:22830
introduction, 4:21618
normative content of the right of water, 4:21821
special topics of broad application, 4:22021
states parties obligations, 4:22226
violations, 4:22628
International Joint Commission, 3:50, 7:167, 168,
307
Index
intl. law, role of, 1:11415
intl. waters, 5:18285, 7:910, 16569
Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty (1994), 1:107, 11516
Joint Declaration to Enhance Cooperation in the
Colorado River Delta, 3:144
Kyoto Protocol, 5:137
Kyoto Third World Water Forum (2003), 5:183
Mar del Plata Conference (1977), 1:40, 42, 2:8, 10,
47, 4:209, 5:183, 185
Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, 3:20
Mekong River Basin Agreement (1995), 7:13
Mekong River Commission (MRC), 1:82, 3:165,
5:35, 7:13, 15
Minute 306, 3:14445
Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources,
8:154
National Rainwater and Graywater Initiative, 7:120
National Water Commission (Australia), 7:107, 113,
118
National Water Commission (U.S.), 7:152
Natural Resources Council of Maine, 2:123
Nile Basin Initiative, 7:12
Nile River Basin Commission, 7:12
Nile Waters Treaty (1959), 7:1113
Non-Navigational Uses of International
Watercourses (See Convention of the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),
3:4748, 5154, 8:130
North American Water and Power Alliance
(NAWAPA), 1:74, 8:12431
OECD (See Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development)
Okavango River Basin Commission (OKACOM),
1:122, 124
Organisation for African Unity (OAU), 1:120
overview, 1:155, 7:6667
Ramsar Convention, 3:166, 5:34, 7:110
Russian Federation Water Code, 7:149
Secretariat, Global Water Partnerships, 1:17071
Snake River Dam Removal Economics Working
Group, 2:132
South African Department of Water Affairs and
Forestry, 1:96
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC), 1:118
Southern Africa Development Community
(SADC), 1:15658, 169, 3:165
Southern Nevada Water Authority, 8:13640, 141
Southwest Florida Water Management District
(SWFWMD), 2:108, 5:62
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants, 7:60
Surface Transportation Board, 7:307
Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), 4:52
Swedish International Development Agency
(SIDA), 1:165, 170, 171, 2:14, 3:162
Third World Centre for Water Management, 5:139
Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority, 2:152
U.S. Agency for International Development
(USAID), 1:44, 2:10, 14, 6:51, 7:306, 8:7
U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 8:138
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (BoR), 1:7, 69, 88,
2:128, 3:137, 4:10, 6:135
Colorado River Basin policy, 7:17, 8:140
Mekong River Basin policy, 7:13
8:128
Reber Plan, 8:133
U.S. Congress, 7:307
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 7:305
Index
U.S. Department of Commerce, 7:305
U.S. Department of Defense, 7:305
U.S. Department of Energy, 1:23, 4:115
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
5:24
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 5:23, 7:305
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development, 4:117, 7:305
U.S. Department of Interior, 2:123, 127, 7:3056,
8:69
U.S. Department of Justice, 7:306
U.S. Department of Labor, 7:306
U.S. Department of State, 7:306
U.S. Department of the President, 7:306
U.S. Department of Transportation, 7:306
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
2:123, 152, 4:37, 52, 5:23, 24
infrastructure reports, 8:36, 39
reclaimed water reuse, 8:49
water-related budget, 7:307
water withdrawals for natural gas extraction,
8:67
well monitoring, 8:73
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2:126, 128, 8:46
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 4:26,
37, 40, 5:171
water-related budget, 7:305
U.S. Mexico Treaty on the Utilization of the
Colorado and Tijuana Rivers, 3:138
U.S. National Park Service, 2:117, 127
U.S. National Primary Drinking Water Regulation
(NPDWR), 3:28088
Vienna Declaration, 2:8
Water Aid and Water for People, 2:14
Water Environment Federation (WEF), 3:78, 4:62,
5:18283, 8:10
Water Law Review Conference (1996), 1:161
Water Sentinel Initiative, 5:23
Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
(WSSCC), 2:3, 1314, 5:138, 7:230, 241,
8:236, 252
See also See also American listings; Bottled water,
U.S. federal regulations; International
listings; Environmental justice; National
listings; World listings
Lawns, 1:23, 4:12223, 7:115, 116
Law of Conservation of Energy, 6:7
Lead, 7:59
League of Nations, 8:359, 373
Leak rates, 4:109, 11718
Leases and environmental ows, 5:42
Leasing contracts, 3:66, 5:42
Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), 6:5152
Lebanon, 1:115
Lechwe, Kafue, 5:32
Lecornu, Jacques, 1:174
Legislation:
Australia. Water Efciency Labelling and Standards
Act, 7:28, 11819
California
Central Valley Project Improvement Act, 5:36,
7:152
Coastal Act, 5:80
Water Conservation in Landscaping Act of
1990, 4:12021
Israel. Water Law of 1959, 5:35
Japan. River Law of 1997, 5:35
South Africa
Act 54 of 1956, 1:93, 160
Apartheid Equal Rights Amendment (ERA),
1:15859
National Water Act of 1998, 7:145
National Water Law of 1998, 5:35, 37
457
Switzerland. Water Protection Act of 1991, 5:35
U.S.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of
2009, 8:35
Bioterrorism Act of 2002, 5:23
Clean Air Act, 4:68
Clean Water Act of 1972, 1:15, 4:68, 5:36, 7:24,
144, 8:77
Electric Consumers Protection Act, 5:36
Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries
Restoration Act of 1992, 2:127
Endangered Species Act of 1973, 1:15, 5:37
Federal Energy Policy Act of 1992, 1:21, 7:28
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 4:27
Federal Power Act, 5:36
Federal Reclamation Act of 1902, 1:8
Federal Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968,
1:15, 8:129
Flood Control Act of 1936, 1:16
National Environmental Policy Act of
1969/1970, 2:130, 5:36, 8:129
National Water Commission Act, 7:14344
National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1997,
2:120, 5:36
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990,
4:28
Public Health, Security, and Bioterrorism
Preparedness and Response Act of
2002, 5:23
Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, 1:15, 3:280,
4:27
Saline Water Conversion Act of 1952, 2:94,
95
Secure Water Act of 2009, 7:152
Water Desalination Act, 2:95
Water Resources Development Act, 7:166,
167
Le Moigne, Guy, 1:172, 174
Lesotho, 3:15960
Lesotho Highlands project:
chronology of events, 1:100
components of, 1:93, 95
displaced people, 1:9798
economic issues, 1:16
nancing the, 1:9597
impacts of the, 1:9799
Kingdom of Lesotho, geographical characteristics
of, 1:93, 94
Lesotho Highlands Development Authority, 1:96,
98
management team, 1:93
opposition to, 1:81, 98, 99
update, project, 1:99101
Levees and ood management, 5:111
Levi Strauss, 5:156
Li Bai, 1:84
Liberia, 1:63, 7:264
Libya, 8:164
Licenses for hydropower dams, 2:11415, 12324
Life cycle assessment (LCA), 7:3234, 158
Linnaeus, 1:51
Living with Water (Netherlands), 6:49
Lovins, Amory B., 3:xiiixiv
Low-energy precision application (LEPA), 1:23
Lunar Prospector spacecraft, 1:197, 3:213
M
Macedonia, 1:71, 5:10
Machiavelli, 1:109
Madagascar, 7:327
Madres del Este de Los Angeles Santa Isabel, 8:39
Malaria, 1:4950, 6:58, 7:25963
Malawi, 4:22
458
Malaysia:
builders, 7:32728
data, strict access to water, 2:41
disputes with Singapore, 1:22
oods, 5:106
prices, water, 3:69
privatization, 3:61
Maldives, 5:106, 7:264
Mali, 1:5253, 55, 7:328, 8:167
Mallorca, 3:45, 46
Malnutrition. See Health, hunger and malnutrition
Mammals:
dolphins, 1:77, 90, 3:49, 50, 7:56
Manila Water Company, 4:46
Mao Tse-tung, 1:85
Mariner 4, 5:175, 177
Marion Pepsi-Cola Bottling Co., 4:38
Mars, water on:
exploration, 3:21417
future Mars missions, 5:180
history, 5:17880
instrumental analyses, 5:178
missions to Mars, 5:17578
overview, 5:175
visual evidence of, 5:17778
Mars Climate Orbiter, 2:300
Mars Express, 5:178
Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), 3:214, 5:177
Marshall Islands, 3:118, 5:136
Mars Odyssey, 3:xx
Mars Orbital Camera (MOC), 3:215, 5:178
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 5:180
Maryland, Montgomery County, 8:44
Mass, measuring, 2:304, 7:345
Mauritania, 1:55, 4:82, 8:167
Maximum available savings (MAS), 3:18, 4:105
Maximum cost-effective savings (MCES), 3:18, 24,
4:105
Maximum practical savings (MPS), 3:18, 24, 4:105
Maytag Corporation, 1:23
McDonalds, 6:24
McKernan, John, 2:123
McPhee, John, 2:113
Measurements, water, 2:25, 300309, 3:31827,
4:32534. See also Assessments; Well-being,
measuring water scarcity and
Media. See Books; Films
Mediterranean Region:
Eastern, mortality rate, under-5, 7:261
Mediterranean Sea, 1:75, 77, 8:15357
Medusa Corporation, 1:204
Meetings/conferences, international. See
International listings; Law/legal instruments/
regulatory bodies; United Nations; World
listings
Meningitis, 7:47
Merck, 6:27
Mercury:
as a contaminant from energy production, 7:50, 52
and fossil fuel production, 7:82, 83, 84, 88, 91
health impacts, 7:59
in measurement of pressure, 7:348
terrorism, water contamination with, 7:194
Metals, as contaminants, 4:168
fossil-fuel production, 7:76, 79, 86, 8:72
Index
industrial wastewater, 7:50
mining, 7:52
road runoff, 7:53
Meteorites, water-bearing, 3:21012, 216
Methane, 1:138, 139, 7:80, 8182, 89
coal bed methane, 8:63
contamination of drinking water, 8:69, 7071, 73
Methemoglobinemia (blue-baby syndrome), 7:58
Mexico:
bottled water, 4:40, 5:170
Colorado River, 3:134, 137, 138, 141, 14445
intl. agreements, 7:6, 89, 1516
groundwater, 4:82, 83, 96, 5:125
arsenic in, 7:59
irrigation, 3:289, 7:16
monitoring efforts, 3:7677
5154, 8:130
31
privatization, 3:60
surface water, effects of climate change, 6:43
water-use efciency, improving, 1:19
Michigan, Watervliet dam removal, 8:48
Middle East:
bottled water, 4:288, 289, 291, 5:281, 283
1:10718, 2:182, 5:15
effects of Syrian conict, 8:14751, 154
2011-2012, 8:16364
desalination, 2:94, 97, 5:54, 55, 57, 58, 6869
dracunculiasis, 1:27273, 3:27475, 5:295, 296
groundwater, 4:82, 85, 5:125
irrigation, 2:87
by country, 7:29091
2012, 8:391
See also Mediterranean Region, Eastern;
Southeastern Anatolia Project; specic
countries
Military targets. See under Conict/cooperation
concerning freshwater; Terrorism
Military tools. See under Conict/cooperation
concerning freshwater; Terrorism
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 6:5778
commitments to achieving the goals, 4:2, 67
creation of, 6:57
diseases, water-related
classes of, four, 4:89
future deaths from, 4:10, 1213
measures of illness/death, 4:911
mortality from, 4:910, 6:58, 73
overview, 4:78
drinking water, access to
baseline conditions, 6:62
description of, 6:58
Ethiopia, 6:7173
goals, 6:211, 7:230, 8:236
limitations in data and reporting, 6:6162,
7:231, 25152, 8:23738, 26869
need for, 6:63
population growth effects on, 6:63
Index
progress by region, 6:6567, 23032, 7:25153,
8:26870
progress on, 6:6270
targets for, 4:25, 6:62
economic return on meeting, 7:64
funding of, 6:73
future of, 6:7375
overview, 4:xv, 1, 6:57, 8:34
progress measurements, 6:6062
projections for meeting, 4:1314
sanitation
baseline conditions, 6:62
Ethiopia, 6:7173
limitations in data and reporting, 6:6162,
7:242, 25455, 8:253, 27172
need for, 6:63
population growth effects on, 6:63
prioritizing of, 6:75
progress by region, 3:27072, 5:25661, 6:6770,
23335, 7:25456, 8:27173
targets for, 4:25, 6:62
in urban areas, 6:7071
targets for, 6:5758, 233
technology improvements, 6:60
within-country disparities, 6:77
Minas Conga, 8:166
Mineral extraction, from evaporation ponds, 8:155,
156
Mineral water, 4:29
Mining:
copper, 8:166
fossil fuels, 6:33, 7:7374, 83, 8586, 89
gold, 8:166
processes, 7:7374
protests and violence, Latin America, 8:166
wastewater, 8:74
water footprint, 7:31, 8:84
See also Petroleum and fossil fuels
Ministerial statements/declarations at global water
conferences, 5:18485. See also Law/legal
instruments/regulatory bodies
Minoan civilization, 1:40, 2:137
Mohamad, Mahathir, 1:110
Mokaba, Peter, 1:123
Moldavia, 5:8
Mongolia, 7:328
Monitoring:
drought, joint intl., 5:99100, 7:20
environmental, of desalination plants, 8:94
and privatization, 3:7577, 8182, 4:5960, 6265
(See also Groundwater, monitoring/
management problems)
recommendations, 8:12
water quality, technology, 8:49
The Monkey Wrench Gang (Abbey), 2:129, 5:14
Monterey County (CA), 2:151
Moon, search for water on the, 3:21214
Morocco, 7:328
Mortality:
childhood (See Childhood mortality)
from cholera (See Cholera, deaths reported to the
WHO, by country)
due to lack of water (See Drinking water, access,
deaths due to lack)
from water-related disease (See Diseases, waterrelated, death)
Mothers of East Los Angeles, 1:22
Mount Pelion, 4:39
Movies. See Films
Mozambique, 1:63, 11921, 5:7, 7:32829
459
Mueller, Robert, 5:4
Muir, John, 1:8081
Municipal water, 1:29, 4:29, 5:73, 6:101
infrastructure projects, project delivery, 8:104
pipeline from desalination plant to, 8:115
Myanmar. See Burma (Myanmar)
N
Nalco, 3:61
Namibia:
12224
reclaimed water, 1:28, 2:152, 15658
Narmada Project, 1:17
National Academy of Sciences, 1:28, 2:155, 166
National adaptation programs of action (NAPAs),
6:4849
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), 5:96, 178. See also Outer space,
search for water in
National Arsenic Mitigation Information Centre, 2:172
National Council of Women of Canada, 3:78, 4:62
National Drought Policy Commission, 5:95
National Environmental Protection Agency of China,
1:92
National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, 2:124
National Geographic, 3:89
National Institute of Preventative and Social Medicine,
2:167
National Marine Fisheries Service, 2:128, 132
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA):
Earth System Research Laboratory, 8:151
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES), 8:77
National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 3:221
Native Americans. See Indigenous populations
Natural gas:
access as a military goal, 8:166
coal bed methane, 8:63
consumption in the U.S., 7:80
extraction/processing, 7:74, 75, 7980, 81, 8:6378
hydraulic fracturing, 8:6378
overview, 8:6465, 7778
production by country, 7:75
shale gas, 8:63, 67, 68
tight gas, 8:63
unconventional reservoirs, 7:8082, 8:63
water consumption (water footprint), 7:25
Natural Springs, 4:38
The Nature Conservancy, 8:26
Natures right to water, 7:145
Nauru, 3:45, 46, 118
NAWAPA Foundation, 8:124
Needs, basic water, 1:18586, 2:1013, 4:4951. See
also Drinking water, access; Health, water
issues; Human right to water; Sanitation
services; Well-being, measuring water scarcity
and
Negev desert, 4:89
Nepal:
dams, 1:16, 71, 81
7:32930
hydropower potential, 7:6
irrigation, 2:86
460
Nestle, 4:21, 40, 41, 5:163
bottled water, 7:158, 16162
Netherlands, 5:5
agriculture and external water resources, 8:88
Living with Water strategy, 6:49
open access to information, 4:7273
public-private partnerships, 3:66
Neufeld, David, 1:197
Nevada. See also Las Vegas
31
Snake Valley, 8:139
The New Economy of Water (Gleick), 4:47
New Hampshire, 2:118
New Mexico, North American Water and Power
Alliance, 8:126
New Orleans (LA), 4:6770
New Orleans City Business, 4:69
New Orleans Times Picayune, 4:69
Newton Valley Water, 4:38
New York (NY), 4:5153
New Yorker, 2:113
New York Times, 2:113, 5:20
New Zealand:
bottled water, 4:26
privatization, 3:61
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
Nexus thinking, 8:56, 8586
Niger, 7:264, 331
Nigeria, 1:52, 55, 5:41
builders, 7:331
fossil-fuel production, 7:74, 77, 91
Nike, 5:156, 6:24, 27
Nitrogen compounds, effects on human health, 7:58
59. See also Nutrients; Runoff, agricultural
Nitrous oxide, 1:138, 139
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 1:81, 3:157,
4:198, 2056, 6:31, 52, 74, 8990, 96. See also
specic organizations
corporate partnerships with, 7:40
expanding role and recommendations for, 8:89
Nonrenewable resources, 6:67, 15
Nordic Water Supply Company, 1:2025, 8:135
North Africa. See Africa, Northern
North America:
irrigation, 6:328, 334
transboundary waters, 7:3, 16569, 8:12431, 139
North American Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA),
1:74, 8:12431
North Dakota, 8:140
Northstar Asset Management, 7:36
Norway, 1:52, 89, 3:160
Nuclear power:
Dead Sea project, proposed, 8:154
water consumption and energy generation, 7:25
Nutrients:
cycling/loading, 1:77, 4:172, 5:128
effects of high concentrations on human health,
7:5859
Index
enrichment/eutrophication, 7:46, 4950, 5859,
63
O
Oak Ridge Laboratory, 1:23, 4:115
Oberti Olives, 3:2223
Occupational Information Network (O*NET), 8:55
Oceania:
bottled water, 4:288, 289, 291, 5:281, 283
cholera, 1:267, 270, 5:289, 290
dams, 3:295
drinking water, 1:25455, 262, 3:25960, 5:245, 6:65
access to, 7:24, 239
groundwater, 4:86
irrigation, 1:301, 2:263, 265, 3:289, 4:296, 5:299,
6:328, 334
privatization, 3:61
3:242, 4:266, 5:227
2011 update, 7:220
2013 update, 8:226
salinization, 2:268
sanitation, 1:25960, 264, 3:26869, 272, 5:25455,
261
water access, 2:24, 217
withdrawals, water, 1:244, 2:211, 3:251, 4:275,
5:236
See also Pacic Island developing countries
Ogoni people, 5:124
Ohio, Euclid Creek dam removal, 8:46, 48
Oil:
extraction and rening (See Petroleum and fossil
fuels)
oil production by country, 7:75
peak (See Peak oil)
spills, 7:73, 74, 77, 87, 90
substitutes for, 6:89, 12
transport of, 6:1415, 7:74, 91
vs. water, 6:39, 14
Oil shale, 7:75, 7879
Olivero, John, 1:196
Oman, the Sultanate of, 2:17980, 7:331
Ontario Hydro, 1:88
Orange County (CA), 2:152
Order of the Rising Sun, 5:20
Oregon, 2:128, 8:129
Organic contaminants:
bioaccumulation and bioconcentration, 7:48, 60
BOD emissions by country/industry, 7:27881
emerging, 7:48
from hydraulic fracturing for natural gas, 8:72
industrial wastewater, 7:50, 51
See also Persistent organic pollutants; Pesticides
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD):
description of, 2:56, 3:90, 91, 164, 4:6
water tariffs, 6:31219
See also Overseas Development Assistance
Orion Nebula, 3:220
Outer space, search for water in:
clouds, interstellar, 3:21920
Earths water, origin of, 1:9398, 3:20912, 6:5
exploration plans, 3:21617
Jupiters moons, 3:21718
Mars, 3:21417, 5:17580
moon, the, 3:21214
Index
solar system, beyond our, 3:21819
universe, on the other side of the, 3:22021
Overseas Development Assistance (ODA), 4:6, 27883,
5:26272
water supply and sanitation
by donating country, 7:27374
2004-2011, 8:31719
by subsector, 7:27577
2007-2011, 8:32022
Oxfam Adaptation Financing Index, 6:52
Ozguc, Nimet, 3:185
Ozone, for bottled water, 7:159, 161
P
Pacic Environment, 8:10
Pacic Institute:
bottled water, 4:24
climate change, 4:232, 234, 236
Colorado River and the Basin Study, 8:141
desalination, 8:93
hydraulic fracturing, 8:65, 77
privatization, 4:4546, 19394, 5:13233
sustainable water jobs research, 8:3536
Water Conict Chronology (See Water Conict
Chronology)
water use in California, 4:105, 8:38, 89
Pacic Island developing countries (PIDCs):
climate change
overview, 3:xix
precipitation, 3:11516, 12425
projections for 21st century, 3:12123
science overview, 3:11921
sea-level rise, 3:124
severe impacts of, 5:136
storms and temperatures, 3:125
freshwater resources
description and status of, 3:11518
overview, 3:11314
threats to, 3:11819
prole of, 3:115
terrain of, 3:116
See also Oceania
Pacic Region, Western:
Packard Humanities Institute, 3:187
Pakistan:
agriculture, 4:88, 89
bottled water, 4:40
conicts/cooperation concerning freshwater, 5:10,
13, 15
dams
7:33133
Wullar, construction by India, 8:163
Orangi Pilot Project, 4:7172
Palau, 3:118
Palestine:
Gaza Strip, 8:154
West Bank, 8:165
Palestinian National Authority:
Palestinians, 1:109, 118, 5:6, 10, 1315
Panama, 3:160
Papua New Guinea, 7:333
Paraguay, 3:13
461
Parasites. See under Diseases, water-related
Partnerships:
with community-based organizations, 8:59
public-private (See Public-private partnerships)
strategic corporate, 6:3132
Pathogenic organisms. See Diseases, water-related
Peak oil, 6:13, 14
Peak water:
description of, 6:8, 8:159
ecological, 6:1012, 15
fossil groundwater, 6:910
limitations of term, 6:15
summary of, 6:15
utility of, 6:914
Pennsylvania, 2:118
Dimock Township, methane contamination from
hydraulic fracturing, 8:69, 7071
disposal of hydraulic fracturing wastewater, 8:74
illegal wastewater disposal, 8:76
Philadelphia, 8:44
Susquehanna River Basin, 8:67, 68, 70
Pepsi and PepsiCo, 4:21, 5:146, 6:27, 7:26, 36, 161
Permitting:
desalination plant, 8:101, 112
groundwater wells, 8:137, 138
wastewater, 4:150
Perrier bottled water, 4:21, 38, 40, 41, 5:151
Persian Gulf War, 1:110, 111
Persians, 3:184
Persistent organic pollutants (POP), 7:48, 60. See also
Organic contaminants
Peru, 1:46, 5960, 2:17879
cholera, 8:359, 373
conicts concerning freshwater and mining, 8:166
Pesticides, 5:20, 7:48, 60. See also Runoff, agricultural
PET. See Polyethylene terephthalate
Petroleum and fossil fuels:
carbon footprint, 8:85, 86
case studies, 7:9092
climate change caused by burning of, 6:9, 4043,
53, 7:80, 84
impacts of contamination
drinking water, 7:8889, 8:63
economic, 7:6465
freshwater ecosystems, 7:8487
health effects, 7:5152, 57
human communities, 7:8788
overview, 7:9293
water quality, 7:51, 7374, 7684
mining process (See Mining, fossil fuels)
oil spills, 7:73, 74, 77, 87, 90
origins of, 6:4
spills from hydraulic fracturing for natural gas,
8:65, 66, 75, 76
water consumption (water footprint), 7:25, 26, 31,
73, 7475
Pets, purchased food going to feed, 2:77
Pharmaceutical contaminants, 7:49, 51
Philippines:
bottled water, 4:40
cholera, 1:63
dams, 1:71
7:333
loss of tourism revenue due to water pollution,
7:64
mining spill, 7:62, 65
prices, water, 3:69
privatization, 3:60, 61, 66, 4:46
462
Pinchot, Gifford, 1:8081
Pluto, 3:220
Pneumonia, 7:25963
Poland, 3:66, 16061, 4:38
Poland Spring bottled water, 4:21, 7:162
Polar satellite, 3:20910
Poliomyelitis, 7:272
Politics. See Government/politics
Pollution. See Environmental issues; Water quality,
contaminants
Pollution prevention, 7:65, 8:2425
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 7:48, 60
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 7:89
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 4:39, 41, 7:15859
Pomona (CA), 2:138
Population issues:
diseases, projected deaths from water-related,
4:1213
displaced people, 6:14546, 8:148, 164 (See also
Dams, social impacts, displaced people)
drinking water access, 6:63, 68
expanding water-resources infrastructure, 1:6
food needs, 2:6364, 6667
growth
02050, 2:212
20002020, 4:10
effects on water quality, 7:53
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) affected
by, 6:63
sanitation, 6:63
total and urban population data, 1:24650
withdrawals, water, 1:10, 12, 13, 3:3089
See also Developing countries
Portugal, 1:71
Poseidon Resources Corp., 2:108, 8:11016
Poseidon Water Resources, 5:61
Postel, Sandra, 1:111
Potash, 8:155
Poverty, 4:4041, 5:12324, 6:58, 7:6162. See also
Developing countries; Environmental justice
Power, measuring, 2:308, 3:326, 4:333, 7:349
Power generation. See Hydroelectric production;
Nuclear power; Solar power; Wind power
Precipitation:
acid rain, 7:87
Atlanta (GA), 6:104
China, 6:87
climate change, 1:14041, 14647, 4:159, 166, 6:40,
87
as green water in water footprint concept, 8:85
86
Las Vegas (NV), 6:104
Pacic Island developing countries, 3:11516,
12425
rainwater catchment/harvesting, 7:12021, 8:25,
42, 48
Seattle (WA), 6:104
snowfall/snowmelt, 1:142, 147, 4:16061
Standard Precipitation Index, 5:93
stocks and ows of freshwater, 2:20, 22
and use of term withdrawal, 7:222
volume, and stormwater runoff production, 8:39
Precision Fabrics Group, 1:52
Pressure, measuring, 2:307, 3:325, 4:332, 7:348
Preston, Guy, 4:50
Pricing, water:
agricultural irrigation, 7:11112
Australia, 7:11112, 118
block, 1:26, 4:56
Index
desalinated seawater, 8:102, 106, 11011, 113, 115
households in different/cities/countries, 3:304
for hydraulic fracturing for natural gas, 8:68
Jordan, 1:117
from major water projects, 8:104
market approach, 1:27, 7:111
off-take agreement, 8:106
peak-load, 1:26
privatization, 3:6971, 73, 4:5355
rate structures (See Water rate structures)
San Diego (CA), 8:100
seasonal, 1:26
take-or-pay contract, 8:106, 112, 115, 117, 119
tier, 1:26
1:2428
urban areas, 1:2527, 4:12425, 150
and water policy reform, 7:153
See also Economy/economic issues, subsidies
Private goods, 3:34
Privatization:
business/industry, water risks that face, 5:15253
3:xviii, 7071, 79, 4:54, 67
dening terms, 3:35
drivers behind, 3:5859
economic issues, 3:7072, 4:50, 5360
failed, 3:70
forms of, 3:6367, 4:47, 48
history, 3:5961
opposition to, 3:58
overview, 3:5758, 4:xvi, 4546
players involved, 3:6163
principles and standards
can the principles be met, 4:4849
economics, use sound, 3:8081, 4:5360
overview, 3:79, 4:4748, 7:106
regulation and public oversight, government,
3:8182, 4:6073
social good, manage water as a, 3:80, 4:4953
risks involved
affordability questions, pricing and, 3:6973
dispute-resolution process, weak, 3:79
ecosystems and downstream water users, 3:77
efciency, water, 3:7778
irreversible, privatization may be, 3:79
local communities, transferring assets out of,
3:79
monitoring, lack of, 3:7577
overview, 3:6768, 8:1931
public ownership, failing to protect, 3:7475
underrepresented communities, bypassing,
3:68
water quality, 3:78
update on, 4:4647
Procter & Gamble, 5:157, 6:27
Productivity:
agricultural, 2:7476
land, 8:86
water, 3:1719
Progressive Habitat Development Alternative, 6:135
Projections, review of global water resources:
Alcamo et al. (1997), 2:5657
analysis and conclusions, 2:5859
data constraints, 2:4042
dening terms, 2:41
Falkenmark and Lindh (1974), 2:4749
Gleick (1997), 2:5455
inaccuracy of past projections, 2:4344
Index
Kalinin and Shiklomanov (1974) and De Mare
(1976), 2:4647
Lvovich (1974), 2:4447
Nikitopoulos (1962, 1967), 2:44
overview, 2:3940
Raskin et al. (1997, 1998), 2:5556
Seckler et al. (1988), 2:5758
Shiklomanov (1993, 1998), 2:5053
in 2002, 3:xviixviii
World Resources Institute (1990) and Belyaev
(1990), 2:4950
See also Sustainable vision for the Earths
freshwater
Public Citizen, 4:69
Public goods, 3:34
Public Limited Companies (PLC), 4:7273
Public participation:
business/industry water management, 7:3738
climate change adaptation, 6:49
drought management, 7:11617
Resources Compact, 7:169
sustainable vision, 1:82, 7:2425
water decision making, 5:15051, 6:9697, 8:11
See also Education
Public perception:
company public relations, 8:23, 2930
environmental concerns around the world, top,
7:28588
environmental concerns of U.S. public, top, 7:282
84
hydraulic fracturing for natural gas, 8:66
satisfaction with air quality (See Air quality,
satisfaction)
satisfaction with water quality (See Water quality,
satisfaction)
terrorism, 5:23
water costs and desalination, 8:99
water risks of business/industry, 7:2627
Public-private partnerships, 3:7475, 4:6073, 19394,
6:92, 7:40
for desalination projects, 8:110, 11112, 119
lessons learned, 8:110, 11112, 119
risk allocation, 8:1056
shared risk, 8:1931
Public Trust Doctrine, 5:37
Puerto Rico, 3:46, 5:34
Pupsh, desert, 3:142
Pure Life, 4:40
Puried water, 4:29
Q
Qatar, 7:75
Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, 6:88
Quality of life (QOL), 3:8896, 6:61
Quantitative measures of water availability/use, 2:25
R
Race and environmental discrimination, 5:118. See
also Environmental justice
Radiative forcing, 3:120
Radioactive contaminants, 7:52, 73, 8:72
Rail, Yuma clapper, 3:142
Rainfall. See under Precipitation
Ralph M. Parsons Company, 8:124, 130
Rand Water, 1:95, 96
Rates:
wastewater (See Wastewater, rates for)
water (See Pricing, water; Water rate structures)
Raw or value-added resource, water traded as a,
3:4247
Reagan, Ronald, 2:95
463
Rebates, for water conservation, 6:11012, 7:119, 121
Reber Plan (San Francisco Bay Project), 8:13134
Reclaimed water:
agricultural water use, 1:28, 29, 2:139, 142, 14546,
7:54, 8:74
Australia, 7:114, 12021
blackwater, 7:120
California (See California, reclaimed water)
costs, 2:159, 8:49
dening terms, 2:139
environmental and ecosystem restoration, 2:149
50
graywater (greywater), 7:120, 8:38, 4849
groundwater recharge, 2:15051
health issues, 2:15256
from hydraulic fracturing, 8:74
Israel, 1:25, 29, 2:138, 142
Japan, 2:139, 140, 15859
Namibia, 2:152, 15658
overview, 1:2829, 2:13738, 7:60, 8:48
potable water reuse, direct/indirect, 2:15152
primary/secondary/tertiary treatment, 2:138
processes involved, 2:140
on roads, 8:74
urban areas, 1:25, 2:14649, 4:151, 7:114
uses, wastewater, 2:139, 14142, 8:49
Recreation:
effects of water restriction policies, 7:11516
tourism, 7:64, 8:26, 128, 155, 164
Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN), 7:292302
Red Sea:
Dead Sea projects, 8:144, 15357
desalination, proposed, 8:154, 15556
Refugees. See Displaced people
Regulatory bodies. See Law/legal instruments/
regulatory bodies
Rehydration therapy, cholera and, 1:57
Reliability, desalination and water-supply, 5:7374
Religious importance of water, 3:40
Remediation, 8:45, 46, 48
Renewable freshwater supply:
by country, 1:23540, 2:197202, 3:23742, 4:261
66, 5:22127, 6:195201
2011 update, 7:21520
2013 update, 8:22126
developing, 1:28, 8:4850, 51, 52
fossil groundwater, 6:910
by donating country
2004-2011, 8:31719
by subsector
2007-2011, 8:32022
Renewable resources, 6:67
Reptiles:
crocodiles, 7:56
threatened, 1:29196, 7:56
turtles, 3:49, 50
Reservoirs:
built per year, number, 2:116
environmental issues, 1:75, 77, 91, 8:128
Martian ice, 3:21516
number larger than 0.1 km by continent/time
series, 2:27172
orbit of Earth affected by, 1:70
sediment, 1:91, 2:127, 3:136, 139, 4:169
seismic activity induced by, 1:77, 97, 6:14445
464
Reservoirs (continued)
total number by continent/volume, 2:270
1:6
U.S. capacity, 1:70
U.S. volume, 2:116
volume larger than 0.1km by continent/time
series, 2:27374
See also Dams
Reservoirs, specic:
Diamond Valley, 3:13
Imperial, 3:136
Itaip, 1:75
Mesohora, 1:144
Occoquan, 2:152
Restrooms and CII water use, 4:135, 136
Reuse, water. See Reclaimed water
Revelle, Roger, 1:149
Reverse osmosis (RO):
bottled water treatment, 7:15960, 161
and desalination, 2:96, 1023, 5:51, 55, 57, 58, 60,
72
costs, 8:94
energy requirements, 7:161
for industrial water treatment, 8:28
Rey water (water footprint concept), 8:86, 323, 332,
341, 350
Rhodesia, 5:7
Rice, 2:7479
Right to water. See Human right to water; Natures
right to water
Risk assessment:
dams and, 3:153, 7:137
desalination projects, 8:1016, 11819
Risk communication, 8:11
Risk management:
droughts and, 5:99
policy engagement to reduce, 8:20
and regulatory uncertainty, 8:24
risk allocation with desalination projects, 8:11516
shared risk and the private sector, 8:19, 2527
Rivers:
climate change, 1:142, 143, 145, 148, 7:210
dams ecological impact on, 1:77, 91
deltas, 3:xix
diversion projects, large-scale, 1:74, 8:12431,
13644
Federal Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968, 1:15,
8:129
oods, 5:104, 7:1415
ow rates, 2:3056, 3:104, 324, 4:168, 172, 331
National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1997, 2:120,
5:36
by donating country
2004-2011, 8:31719
by subsector
2007-2011, 8:32022
pollution and large-scale engineering projects, 1:6
restoration, 2:xix, 127, 3:14344, 8:4546, 48
runoff, 1:142, 143, 148, 2:22224, 4:16367, 5:29
Composite Runoff V1.0 database, 8:274, 292
limitations in data, 8:274, 292
monthly for major river basins, by basin name,
8:292309
monthly for major river basins, by ow volume,
8:27491
natural, 8:274, 292
Rhine River Basin, 7:10
transboundary (See International river basins)
Index
wastewater dumping into, 6:82
See also Environmental ow; Stocks and ows
of freshwater; Sustainable vision for the
Earths freshwater
Rivers, specic:
Abang Xi, 1:69
Agrio, 7:65
Allier, 2:125
Amazon, 1:75, 111, 2:32, 7:56, 8:165
American, 1:16
Amu Darya, 3:3, 3940, 7:52
Amur, 7:131
Apple, 2:118
Athabasca, 7:87, 9192
AuSable, 2:119
Beilun, 7:131
Bhagirathi, 1:16
Boac, 7:65
Brahmaputra, 1:107, 111, 11819, 2069, 6:290
watershed within China, 7:131
Butte Creek, 2:12023
Cache, 8:46, 48
Carmel, 5:74
Cauvery, 1:109, 2:27, 7:3, 8:163
Clyde, 2:12526
Colorado (See Colorado River)
Columbia, 3:3, 7:9, 18
water transfer, proposed, 8:126, 128, 129, 130
31
Congo, 1:75, 111, 156, 2:31, 3233
Crocodile, 1:123
Danube, 1:109, 2:31, 5:33, 111, 7:5
Elwha, 2:117, 12728
Emory, 7:84
Euphrates, 1:10911, 118, 2:33, 3:182, 18387, 6:290
Ganges, 1:107, 111, 11819, 2069, 4:81, 6:290
watershed within China, 7:131
Gila, 3:139, 140
Gordon, 2:12627
Hai He, 6:82, 90
Han, 1:10910
Har Us Nur, 7:131
Hsi/Bei Jiang, 7:131
Ili/Junes He, 7:131
Incomati, 1:12023
Indus, 1:16, 77, 111, 7:131
Irrawaddy, 7:131, 13233
Jinsha, 6:92
Jordan, 1:107, 109, 111, 11516, 2:31, 5:33
contamination, 8:155
diversion, effects on the Dead Sea, 8:15455
Juma, 6:90
Kennebec, 2:117, 12325, 5:34
Kettle, 2:119
Kissimmee, 5:32
Kosi, 7:6
Kromme, 5:32
Laguna Salada, 3:139
Lamoille, 2:128
Lancang, 6:88, 7:13032 (See also Rivers, specic,
Mekong)
Lerma, 3:77
Letaba, 1:123
Limpopo, 1:12023
Logone, 5:32
Loire, 2:117, 125
Lower Snake, 2:13134
Luvuvhu, 1:123
Mahaweli Ganga, 1:16, 5:32
Malibamatso, 1:93
Manavgat, 1:203, 2045, 3:45, 47
Manitowoc, 2:119
Index
Maputo, 1:121
McCloud, 5:123
Meghna, 6:290, 7:131
Mekong, 1:111, 7:9, 1315, 14, 13032
Merrimack, 2:118
Meuse, 5:15
Milwaukee, 2:11719
Mississippi, 2:32, 33, 3:13, 5:110, 111
water transfer, proposed, 8:127, 140, 141
Missouri, 3:13, 8:14044
Mooi, 4:51
Murray-Darling, 5:33, 42
decline in water ow due to drought, 7:102
ecological effects of drought, 7:100101
location, 7:99
water management, 7:11011, 14647
water markets, 7:11014, 146
Murrumbidgee, 7:113
Narmada, 5:133
Naryn, 8:166
Neuse, 2:126
Niger, 1:55, 111, 2:31, 85, 7:88
Nile, 1:77, 111, 2:26, 3233, 3:1011, 5:111
canal in Sudan, 8:144
dams, 8:164
effects of water contamination on sheries,
7:62
hydrology, 7:10
intl. agreements, 7:56, 1013, 8:91
oil spills, 7:77
Nujiang, 6:89
Ob, 7:131
Okavango, 1:111, 119, 12124
Olifants, 1:123, 7:64
Orange, 1:93, 9899, 111, 7:52
Orontes, 1:111, 115
Pamehac, 5:34
Paran, 1:111, 3:13
Patauxent, 5:34
Po, 5:111
Prairie, 2:118
Puerco, 7:52
Pu-Lun-To, 7:131
Red/Song Hong, 7:131
Rhine, 5:111, 7:5, 10
Rhone, 3:45, 47
Rio Grande, 1:111, 5:41, 7:4, 8, 8:125
Rogue, 2:119, 128
Sabie, 5:32
Sacramento, 2:12023, 4:164, 167, 169, 5:34, 111
delta region, 8:133
effects of dams on sh, 8:128
and the Reber Plan, 8:132
St. Lawrence, 7:165, 16769
Salween (Nu), 7:131, 132
San Joaquin, 4:164, 169, 8:132, 133
Senegal, 1:111, 2:85
Shingwedzi, 1:123
Sierra Nevada, 4:164
Silala/Siloli, 8:16566
Snake, 2:13134, 3:3, 8:129
Songhua, 6:83
Spl, 5:33
Sujfun, 7:131
Susquehanna, 8:67, 68, 70
Suzhou, 5:32
Syr Darya, 3:3, 3940, 7:52
Tarim, 5:32, 7:131
Temuka, 5:33
Theodosia, 5:34
Tigris, 1:69, 111, 118, 2:33, 3:182, 18790, 6:290
Tumen, 7:131
Vaal, 1:95, 7:52, 8:2728
465
Vakhsh, 8:166
Volga, 1:77
Wadi Mujib, 5:33
Waitaki, 5:33
White Salmon, 2:119
Wind, 8:73
Xingu, 8:165
Yahara, 2:118
Yalu, 7:131
Yangtze, 5:133, 6:81, 86, 88, 91, 14344 (See also
Dams, specic, Yangtze River)
Yarlung Sangpo/Siang, 7:134
Yarmouk, 1:109, 11516
Yellow, 5:5, 1516, 111, 6:86, 91
Zambezi, 1:111
Zhang, 6:90
Zhujiang, 6:86
See also China, dams, construction overseas;
Dams, by continent and country; Lesotho
Highlands project
The Road not Taken (Frost), 3:1
Roads:
permeable pavement, 8:42
reduction of water percolation due to, 7:53
runoff from, 7:53, 77
use of reclaimed water on, 8:74
Roaring Springs/Global Beverage Systems, 4:39
Rodenticides, 5:20
Rome, ancient, 1:40, 2:137, 3:184
Roome, John, 1:99
Roosevelt, Franklin, 1:69
Roundworm, 7:6162
Runoff:
agricultural, 5:128, 3057, 7:46, 48, 4950, 8:50, 155
construction, 8:76
effects of climate change, 6:43, 7:10
from hydraulic fracturing for natural gas, 8:7677
natural, 8:274, 292
river (See Rivers, runoff)
from roads and parking lots, 7:53, 77
stormwater, 7:53, 76, 7778, 8:39, 4144
Rural areas:
development and the World Water Forum, 4:203
drinking water, 6:7071 (See also Drinking water,
access, by country)
sanitation services, 6:7071 (See also Sanitation
services, access by country)
Russell, James M., III, 1:196
Russia:
dams, 1:75, 77
groundwater, 5:125
irrigation, 4:296
and the Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan conict over Rogun
Dam, 8:166
Siberia, reversal of rivers ows, proposed, 8:129
See also Soviet Union, former
Rwanda, 1:62, 7:11, 264
RWE/Thames, 5:162
S
SABMiller, 7:36
Safeway Water, 4:39
Saint Lucia, 7:264
St. Petersburg (FL), 2:14647
Salinization:
climate change, 4:168, 16970, 7:8, 54
continental distribution, 2:268
466
Salinization (continued)
by country, 2:269
from fossil-fuel production, 7:76
groundwater, 4:87, 7:55, 8:14849
salt concentrations of different waters, 2:21, 94
soil fertility, 2:7374
See also Desalination
Salmon, 1:77, 2:117, 12021, 123, 128, 132, 133, 3:3
at risk due to dams, 8:12829
Salt. See Brine; Salt water
Salton Sea:
air-quality monitoring, 6:137
background of, 6:129
Bureau of Reclamation, 6:135
California water transfers, 6:12931
Colorado River inows, 6:129, 132
Imperial Irrigation District, 6:130
inows, 6:12933
location of, 6:12728
restoration of, 6:13137, 8:144
salinity of, 6:128, 137
seismic activity, 6:135
Salton Sea Authority (SSA), 6:134
Salt water, 6:5, 8:72
Samoa, 3:118
Samosata, 3:18485
Samsat, 3:18485
San Francisco Bay, 3:77, 4:169, 183, 5:73, 8:132
San Francisco Bay Project (Reber Plan), 8:13134
San Francisco Chronicle, 4:24
Sanitation services:
access by country, 1:25660, 3:26169, 5:24755,
6:22129, 7:24150
urban and rural, 1970-2008, 8:25253, 25562
urban and rural, 2011, 8:25253, 26367
access by region, MDG progress on, 3:27072,
5:25661, 6:6770, 23335, 7:25456
2013 update, 8:27173
childhood mortality and, 6:58, 7:5758, 6162
costs of, 6:73
developing countries, 1:26364, 7:62
diarrhea reduction through, 6:75, 7:58
economic return on investments in, 7:6364
education services affected by, 6:58, 7:61
falling behind, 1:3942, 5:117, 124
funding of, 6:73
as a human right, 8:271
importance of, 6:58
improved, use of term, 7:241, 254, 8:25253, 271
inadequate, 6:58
intl. organizations, recommendations by, 2:1011
investment in infrastructure projects with private
participation, 5:27375
lack of, statistics, 7:52, 8:1, 3
limitations in data and reporting, 6:6162, 7:242,
25455, 8:253, 27172
maternal health affected by, 6:58
nongovernmental organization resources for, 6:74
Overseas Development Assistance, 4:28283,
7:27377
by donating country
2004-2011, 8:31719
by subsector
2007-2011, 8:32022
poverty eradication and, 6:58
prioritizing of, 6:75
rural areas, 6:7071
3:2
urban areas, 6:7071
Index
within-country disparities in, 6:77
women and access to water, 5:126 (See also
Women, responsibility for water
collection)
World Health Organization, 4:208, 6:62
See also Health, water issues; Human right to
water; Millennium Development Goals;
Soft path for water; Well-being, measuring
water scarcity and
San Jose/Santa Clara Wastewater Pollution Control
Plant, 2:14950
San Pellegrino bottled water, 4:21
Santa Barbara (CA), 5:6364, 8:1023, 119
Santa Rosa (CA), 2:14546
Sapir, Eddie, 4:69
Sargon of Assyria, 1:110
Sasol, 7:39, 8:2728
Saudi Arabia:
desalination, 2:94, 97, 8:93
Disi Aquifer, 8:157
groundwater, 3:50
pricing, water, 1:24
Save the Children Fund, 4:63
Save Water and Energy Education Program (SWEEP),
4:114
Saving Water Partnership (SWP), 6:109
SCA, 6:27
Schistosomiasis, 1:48, 49, 7:58, 272
School of Environmental Studies (SOES), 2:167, 171
Scientic American, 3:89
Seagram Company, 3:61
Sea-level rise, 3:124, 4:16970, 7:8, 54
Seattle (WA):
description, 6:103
temperature, 6:104
water-use efciency, 6:109, 8:38
Sedimentation:
dams/reservoirs and, 1:91, 2:127, 3:136, 139, 4:169
due to deforestation, 8:26
ecological effects, 7:46, 53, 85
of wetlands, 7:56
Seismic activity:
caused by lling reservoirs, 1:77, 97, 6:14445
and oods, 5:106
Salton Sea, 6:135
San Andreas fault, 6:135
Seljuk Turks, 3:184, 188
Senegal, 1:55
Serageldin, Ismail, 1:166
Serbia, 7:333
Services, basic water. See Drinking water, access;
Employment; Health, water issues; Human
right to water; Municipal water; Sanitation
services
Servicio Nacional de Meterologia e Hidrologia, 2:179
Sewer systems, condominial, 3:6. See also Sanitation
services
Shad, 2:123
Shady, Aly M., 1:174
Shale, 7:75, 7879, 8:63, 67, 68
Shaping the 21st Century project, 3:91
Shellsh. See under Invertebrates
Index
Shigella, 7:57
Shoemaker, Eugene, 1:196
Showerheads, 4:109, 114, 6:106, 7:28
Shrimp, 3:49, 50, 141, 142
Siemens, 7:133
Sierra Club, 1:81
Singapore:
access to water, strict, 2:41
desalination, 2:108, 5:51
disputes with Malaysia, 1:22
toilets, energy-efcient, 1:22
Sinkholes, 8:155
Skanska, 3:167
Slovakia, 1:109, 120
Slovenia, 1:71
SNC, 1:85
Snow. See under Precipitation
Snow, John, 1:5657
Social goods and services, 3:3637, 80, 4:4953
Socit de distribution deau de la Cte dIvoire
(SODECI), 4:66
Socit pour lamnagement urbain et rural (SAUR),
4:66
Socioeconomic issues, 5:94, 7:2930
Soft Energy Paths , 3:xiii
Soft path for water:
denition of, 6:13, 101, 8:37
description of, 6:1214, 7:150
economies of scale in collection/distribution, 3:8
efciency of use, denitions/concepts
agriculture, 3:1920
businesses, 3:2224
conservation and water-use efciency, 3:17
maximum practical/cost-effective savings, 3:23
municipal scale, 3:2022
overview, 3:1617
poem, 5:219
productivity and intensity, water, 3:1719
social objectives, establishing, 3:17
emerging technologies, 5:2324
end-use technology, simple, 3:89
how much water is really needed, 3:4
and integrated water resource management, 8:27
moving forward, 3:2529
myths about
cost-effective, efciency improvements are not,
3:1215
demand management is too complicated,
3:1516
market forces, water demand is unaffected by,
3:9
opportunities are small, efciency, 3:9
real, conserved water is not, 3:1011
risky, efciency improvements are, 3:1112
overview, 3:30, xviii
redening the energy problem, 3:xiii
sewer systems, condominial, 3:6
user participation, 3:5, 6
vs. hard path, 3:3, 57, 6:1314
See also Sustainable vision for the Earths
freshwater
Soil:
changes, 1:14142, 148, 4:167
climate change and moisture, 4:167
compaction, 7:83
degradation by type/cause, 2:26667
dust storms, 7:1056
erosion, 7:46, 79, 1056, 8:75
food needs for current/future populations, 2:71,
7374
467
moisture in, as green water in water footprint
concept, 8:8586
Solar power:
carbon footprint, 8:85
Dead Sea project, proposed, 8:154
desalination and, 2:1056
as ow-limited resource, 6:67
water consumption (water footprint), 7:25
Solar radiation powering climate, 1:138
Solomon Islands, 8:168
Solon, 5:5
Somalia, 5:106, 8:167
Sonoran Desert, 3:142
South Africa:
bottled water, 4:22
11921, 12324, 5:7, 9
2011-2012, 8:168
dams, 1:81, 3:161, 7:52
Development Bank of South Africa, 1:95, 96
drinking water, access to, 7:145
environmental ow, 5:32, 35, 37, 42
human right to water, 2:9, 4:211
hydrology, 1:15658
introduced/invasive species, 7:48
legislation and policy
Apartheid Equal Rights Amendment (ERA),
1:15859
Constitution and Bill of Rights, 1:15960, 2:9
National Water Conservation Campaign, 1:164
65
review process for, 1:16064
White Paper on Water Supply, 1:160
loss of tourism revenue due to water pollution,
7:64
mining, 7:65
South African Department of Water Affairs and
Forestry, 1:96
water conservation, 8:2728
See also Lesotho Highlands project
South America:
bottled water, 4:18, 289, 291, 5:163, 281, 283
cholera, 1:266, 270, 271
dams, 1:75, 3:293
drinking water, 1:253, 3:257, 5:243, 7:23637
groundwater, 4:86
irrigation, 1:299, 2:80, 259, 265, 3:289, 4:296, 5:299,
6:327, 333
population data, total/urban, 1:248
privatization, 3:60
217, 3:240, 4:264, 5:224
2011 update, 7:218
2013 update, 8:224
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
rivers, transboundary, 7:3
runoff, 2:23
salinization, 2:268
sanitation services, 1:258, 3:266, 5:252, 7:24647
468
South America (continued)
4:27172, 5:23233
See also Latin America
Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP):
archaeology in the region, 3:183
Euphrates River, developments on the, 3:18387
overview, 3:18183
Tigris River, developments along the, 3:18790
Southern Bottled Water Company, 4:39
South Sudan, 8:164
Soviet Union, former:
cholera, 1:58
dams, 1:70, 3:293
environmental movement, 1:15
intl. river basin, 2:29, 31
irrigation, 1:301, 2:263, 265, 3:289, 4:296
renewable freshwater supply, 4:266
2011 update, 7:220
2013 update, 8:226
withdrawals, water, 1:244, 2:211, 3:25051
See also Russia
Spain:
agriculture, 4:89
dams
groundwater, 4:89
mining, 7:65
Sparkling water, 4:30, 7:158. See also Bottled water
Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF), 6:5152
Spectrometer, neutron, 3:213
Spectroscopy, telescopic, 5:175
Spiritual issues. See Religious importance of water
Spragg, Terry, 1:2035, 8:135
Spring water, 4:30, 7:16162, 163. See also Bottled water
Sri Lanka, 1:69, 2:86, 3:16162
dams, 5:134, 7:334
oods, 5:106
Starbucks, 5:163, 7:26
State Environmental Protection Administration. Chile
(SEPA), 6:8081, 94
Stationarity, 6:45
Statoil, 6:23
Stewardship, water, 8:22, 26
Stock-limited resources, 6:67
Stocks and ows of freshwater:
ows of freshwater, 2:2224
hydrologic cycle, 2:2027
major stocks of water on Earth, 2:2122
overview, 2:1920
rivers (See Rivers, runoff)
transboundary agreement strategies, 7:8
See also International river basins
Stone & Webster Company, 2:108, 5:61
Storage volume relative to renewable supply (S/O),
3:102
Storm frequency/intensity, changes in, 1:14243,
4:16163
Stormwater runoff, 7:53, 76, 7778
and hydraulic fracturing, 8:7677
sustainable practices, 8:39, 4144
Index
Streams, 5:3057
effects of poor water quality on, 7:5455
impacts of fossil-fuel extraction/processing, 7:85,
87
restoration, 8:4546
Strong, Maurice, 1:88
Structure of Scientic Revolutions (Kuhn), 1:193
Stunting, 6:58
Sturgeon, 1:77, 90, 2:123
S2C Global Systems, 8:13536
Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS),
3:21920
Sub-Saharan Africa. See Africa, sub-Saharan
Subsidies. See Economy/economic issues
Substitutes, 6:89
Sudan, 1:55, 2:26, 5:7, 13
builders, 7:133, 33435
and the Nile River Basin, 7:11, 8:144, 164
schistosomiasis and dam construction, 7:58
water shortages in refugee camps, 8:164
Suez Canal, 8:153
Suez Lyonnaise des Eaux, 3:6163, 4:46
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA),
5:16
Supply. See Renewable freshwater supply
Supply-chain management policies and programs,
6:24
Supply-side development. See Twentieth-century
water-resources development
Surface water:
as blue water in water footprint concept, 8:86,
8990, 323, 332, 341, 350
in China, 6:81
produced water from hydraulic fracturing, 8:72
See also Lakes; Rivers; Streams
Sustainability reports. See Global Reporting
Initiative
Sustainable Asset Management (SAM) Group, 3:167
Sustainable vision for the Earths freshwater:
agriculture, 1:18788
business/industry, 7:23, 8:1922, 30, 31
1:190
criteria, 1:1718, 8:37
ecosystems water needs identied and met,
1:18890
funding, need for sustainable, 8:8, 910
overview, 1:18384, 8:37
public participation/perception, 1:82, 7:2425
stormwater management, 8:4144
See also Soft path for water; Twenty-rst century
water-resources development
Swaziland, 1:121
Sweden, 1:52, 96, 3:162
Switzerland, 1:89, 171, 3:162, 5:33, 35
S&W Water, LLC, 5:61
Sydney Morning Herald, 5:66
Synthesis Report (2001), 5:136
Syria:
conicts and the role of water, 1:109, 11011, 116,
118
overview and context, 8:14749, 165
strategic attacks on infrastructure, 8:149
2011-2012, 8:165
dams, 7:335
Systems Research, 2:56
Index
T
Taenia solium, 4:8
Tahoe-Truckee Sanitation Agency, 2:152
Tajikistan, 5:9, 7:335, 8:166
Tampa Bay (FL). See under Desalination, plants
Tanzania, 1:63, 7:11, 335, 8:168
Tapeworm, pork, 4:8
Target Corporation, 6:27
Tar sands, 7:75, 78, 85, 87, 9192
Tear Fund, 5:131
Technical efciency, 4:1034
Technology development, 5:219, 220, 6:60, 7:67
Technology transfer, 8:1011
Temperature, measuring, 2:307, 3:325, 4:332, 7:348
Temperature rise, global, 1:138, 145, 3:12023,
4:159, 166. See also Climate change listings;
Greenhouse effect; Greenhouse gases
Tennant Method and environmental ow, 5:38
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1:6970, 145, 7:307
Terrorism, 2:35, 5:13
chemical/biologic attacks, vulnerability to, 5:1622
cyberterrorism, 5:16, 6:152, 7:176
dening terms, 5:35
detection and protection challenges, 5:23
early warning systems, 5:2324
environmental terrorism, 5:35
overview, 5:12, 7:176
physical access, protection by denying, 5:2223
poisoning of water supply, 8:163, 165, 167
policy in the U.S., security, 5:23, 25
public perception/response, 5:23
response plans, emergency, 5:2425
water infrastructure attacks, 5:1516, 8:149, 167
in water-related conict, 5:515, 7:176, 8:165 (See
also Water Conict Chronology)
and water treatment, reducing vulnerability, 5:2
Texas, 3:7475
Austin, 1:22
Thailand, 4:40, 5:33, 106, 134
builders, 7:33536
drought, 7:132
and the Mekong River, 7:14, 130
and the Salween River, 7:132
Thames Water, 3:63, 5:62
Thatcher, Margaret, 1:106, 3:61
Thirsty for Justice, 5:122
Threatened/at risk species:
Colorado River, 3:134, 142
by country, 2:29197
dams, 1:77, 83, 90, 2:120, 123
extinct in the wild, freshwater animal species,
7:292302
sh (See Fish, threatened/at risk species)
proportion of species at risk in U.S., 4:31316
Red List, 7:292
by region, 1:29196, 7:56
3:3
water transfers, 3:3940
See also Extinct species
Three Afliated Tribes, 5:123
chronology of events, 1:8587, 6:14748
climatic change caused by, 6:14647
costs of, 6:14142
dimensions of, 6:14041
displaced people, 1:78, 85, 90, 5:134, 151
469
nancial costs of, 6:14142
sheries, 6:14243
ood protection benets, 6:144
funding of, 1:8689, 6:14142
geological instability caused by, 6:14445
history, 6:140, 7:133
impacts of, 1:8992, 6:14243
largest most powerful ever built, 1:84
military targeting of, 6:146
opposition to, 1:9193
overview, 6:14849, 7:129
population relocation and resettlement caused by,
6:14546
river sediment ow effects, 6:14344
seismicity caused by, 6:14445
shipping benets of, 6:144
size of, 6:140
storage capacity of, 6:140
threats to, 6:139
Time, measuring, 2:304, 4:329, 7:345
Timor Leste, 5:9, 7:264
Togo, 1:55, 7:336
Toilets, 1:2122, 3:4, 118, 4:104, 109, 11314, 6:106, 110
low-ush, employment to install, 8:39
Tonga, 3:46, 118
Tour, A. T., 1:53
Tourism, 7:64, 8:26, 128, 155, 164
Toxic waste dumps, 5:119, 124
Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States, 5:119
Trachoma, 1:48, 7:272
Trade. See Globalization and international trade of
water
Traditional planning approaches, 1:5. See also
Projections, review of global water resources;
Twentieth-century water-resources
development
Transfers, water, 1:2728, 7475, 3:3940
Alaska water shipments, proposed, 8:133, 13536
bag technology, 1:200205, 8:135
Disi Water Conveyance Project, 8:157
Garrison Diversion Project, 8:140
from Gulf of California to the Salton Sea, 8:144
(NAWAPA), 1:74, 8:12431
by tanker, 8:130, 135, 136
See also Dams
Transparency International, 8:12
Transparency issues, 8:1214, 112
Transpiration loss of water into atmosphere, 1:141,
2:83, 4:15960
Transportability, 6:78
Transportation:
canals, 8:128, 144, 153, 154
energy costs, 7:16162, 163
by tanker, 8:130, 135, 136
Treaties. See Law/legal instruments/regulatory bodies;
United Nations
Trichuriasis, 1:48, 7:272
Trinidad and Tobago, 2:108, 5:72, 7:264
Trout Unlimited, 2:118, 123, 128
True Alaska Bottling Company, 8:13536
Trypanosomiasis, 7:272
Tuna, 3:49, 50
Tunisia, 2:142, 5:33, 7:336
Turkey:
bag technology, water, 1:2025, 8:135
118, 5:8
470
Turkey (continued)
conicts concerning freshwater, and Syria, 8:148
builders, 7:336
terrorism, 5:22
Turkish Antiquity Service, 3:183. See also Southeastern
Anatolia Project
Turtles, 3:49, 50
Tuvalu, 5:136
Twentieth-century water-resources development:
Army Corps of Engineers and Bureau of
Reclamation, U.S., 1:78
benets of, 3:2
capital investment, 1:67
drivers of, three major, 1:6
end of
alternatives to new infrastructure, 1:1718
demand, changing nature of, 1:1014
environmental movement, 1:12, 1516
opposition to projects nanced by intl.
organizations, 1:17
overview, 1:910
shift in paradigm of human water use, 1:56
government, reliance on, 1:78
limitations to, 1:89, 3:23
problems/disturbing characteristics of
current situation, 1:12
supply-side solutions, 1:6
Twenty-rst century water-resources development:
agriculture, 1:2324
alternative supplies, 1:28, 8:4850, 51, 52
efcient use of water, 1:1920
overview, 1:1819
Pacic Island developing countries, 3:12123
paradigm shifts, 1:56, 8:19, 22
pricing, water, 1:2428
residential water use, 1:2123
See also Soft path for water; Sustainable vision for
the Earths freshwater
Typhoid, 1:48, 7:57, 58
Typhus, 1:48
U
Uganda, 1:55, 4:211
builders, 7:336
and the Nile River Basin, 7:11
wastewater treatment by the Akivubo Swamp, 7:63
Ultraviolet radiation, bottled water treatment, 7:159, 161
Unaccounted for water, 3:305, 307, 4:59
Underground storage tanks (UST), 7:77
Undiminished principle and the human right to water,
5:37
Unilever, 5:149, 6:24, 7:35
United Arab Emirates (UAE), 5:6869, 7:75
United Kingdom:
See also specic countries
United Nations:
Agenda 21, 1:18, 44, 3:90
arsenic in groundwater, 2:167, 172
Childrens Fund (UNICEF), 1:52, 55, 2:167, 172,
173, 6:60, 62
Index
collaboration with UN-Water, 8:7
data collection by, 7:230, 241, 8:236, 252
Group DANONE aid, 7:41
Commission on Human Rights, 2:5
Commission on Sustainable Development, 2:10,
3:90
Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights, 5:117, 137
Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater
Resources of the World (1997), 1:4243
Conference on International Organization (1945),
2:5
114, 11819, 124, 21030, 2:36, 8:78
data, strict access to water, 2:4142
Declaration on the Right to Development (1986),
2:810
Development Programme (UNDP), 1:52, 82, 171,
2:172, 173, 3:90, 4:7, 5:100, 8:7
drinking water, 1:40, 251
droughts, 5:100
Earth Summit (1992), 3:38, 88, 101
Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East
(UNECAFE), 7:13
Educational, Scientic, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), 8:7, 11, 14
Environment Programme (UNEP), 1:137, 3:127,
164, 7:34, 8:7
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2:64, 67,
5:126
AQUASTAT database, 4:8182, 7:215, 221, 8:221,
310
Syria, 8:148
food needs for current/future populations, 2:64,
66, 67
Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCC), 3:126, 6:4851
Global Water Partnership, 1:165, 166, 171, 175,
5:183, 6:73
greenhouse gases, 3:126
groundwater, 2:167, 172, 4:8081
Human Poverty Index, 3:87, 89, 90, 10911
human right to water, 2:3, 59, 14, 4:208, 214, 5:117
formal recognition, 7:251, 8:268
Industrial Development Organization, 7:27881
Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation,
7:264
intl. river basins assessment, 7:23
intl. water transfer policy, 8:130
public participation and sustainable water
planning, 1:82
Summit for Children (1990), 1:52, 2:14
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 2:410,
4:208
UN-Water, 8:7, 8, 12
watercourses, uses of (See Convention of the
well-being, measuring water scarcity and, 3:90, 96,
10911
World Water Council, 1:172, 173, 175
See also Law/legal instruments/regulatory bodies,
International Covenant on Economic,
Social, and Cultural Rights; League of
Nations; Millennium Development Goals
United States:
Alaska water shipments, proposed, 8:133, 13536
bottled water (See under Bottled water)
budgets, U.S. federal agency water-related, 7:3037
Index
cholera, 1:56, 266, 270, 271
Colorado River Basin, intl. agreements, 7:6, 89,
1516, 8:91
111, 5:69, 1112, 24
dams, 1:6970, 3:293, 7:52
desalination, 2:9495, 97, 5:5863
drinking water, 1:253, 3:257, 5:242
access, 3:28088, 7:236, 8:3637
droughts, 5:93, 6:44, 8:130
economic productivity of water, 4:32124
environmental concerns, 6:33941
environmental concerns of the public, top, 7:282
84, 287, 288
oods, 4:3057
fossil-fuel production, 7:75, 7879, 82, 85, 88, 90
Great Lakes Basin, intl. agreements, 7:16569
groundwater, 3:2, 4:82, 86, 96, 5:125
arsenic in, 7:59
hydroelectric production, 1:71, 278, 7:129
introduced/invasive species, 7:48
irrigation, 1:299, 2:265, 3:289, 4:296, 5:299, 7:16
meat consumption, 2:7980
5154, 8:130
31
pesticides, 5:3057
precipitation changes, 1:14647
radioactive contaminants, 7:52
3:240, 4:264, 5:224, 6:8384
2011 update, 7:218
2013 update, 8:224
reservoirs, 2:270, 272, 274
runoff, 2:23
salinization, 2:268
sanitation services, 1:258, 3:266, 272, 5:251, 7:246
terrorism, 5:2123, 25
threatened/at risk species, 1:293, 4:31316, 7:56
transboundary waters, 7:3, 8:12431
unemployment statistics, 8:35
usage estimates, 1:245, 8:125
water availability, 2:217, 8:3637
water footprint, 8:8788, 89, 90, 91
water industry revenue/growth, 5:3034
water policy reform
background, 7:14344
key steps to, 7:15154
need for, 7:143, 15051, 154
withdrawals, water, 1:10, 11, 12, 13, 243, 2:207,
3:247, 30812, 4:271, 31720, 5:232
1900-2005, 8:142
2005, 7:225, 8:231
United Utilities, 3:63
United Water Resources, 3:61, 63
United Water Services Atlanta, 3:62, 4:46
Universidad de San Augustin, 2:179
471
University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB),
3:2022
University of Kassel, 2:56
University of Michigan, 3:183
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), 1:196
Uranium, 7:74
Urban areas:
drinking water access in, 6:7071, 7:97, 11517
(See also Drinking water, access, by
country)
droughts, 5:98, 7:11421
oods, 5:104
future demands in, 6:1024
municipal water, 1:29, 4:29, 5:73, 6:101
pricing, water, 1:2527, 4:12425, 7:118
privatization, 3:76
reclaimed water, 1:25, 2:14649, 7:114
sanitation services in, 6:7071 (See also Sanitation
services, access by country)
soft path for meeting water-related needs, 3:2022,
7:150
stormwater runoff management techniques,
8:42
water rate structure (See Water rate structures)
water use in, 6:1012, 7:11517
Urbanization, 5:98, 7:53
Urfa, 3:185
Urlama, 5:5
U.S. Filter Company, 3:63
U.S. National Water Assessment, 5:112
User fees and environmental ows, 5:4142
Utah:
31
Snake Valley, 8:139
Utilities and risks that face business/industry, 5:162
63
Uzbekistan, 1:52, 4:40, 7:336, 8:166
V
van Ardenne, Agnes, 4:196
Varieties of Environmentalism (Guha & MartinezAlier), 5:123
Vegetation:
Colorado River, 3:134, 13942
gardens, 1:23, 4:12223, 7:115, 116, 8:42
green roofs, 8:42
lawns, 1:23, 4:12223, 7:115, 116
planter boxes, 8:42
rain gardens, 8:42
Vehicles, impacts of truck trafc, 8:75
Velocity, measuring, 2:305, 3:323, 4:330, 7:346
Venezuela, 7:75
Veolia, 6:93
Veolia Environnement, 5:162
Vermont Natural Resources Council, 2:128
Vibrio, 7:47. See also Cholera
Vibrio cholerae, 1:56, 57, 58, 7:57. See also Cholera
Vietnam, 4:18, 5:134, 163
builders, 7:130, 33637
and the Mekong River Basin, 7:14, 130
Viking, 3:214, 5:177
Virginia, 2:152, 8:54
Virgin Islands, U.S., 3:46
Visalia (CA), 1:29
Vision 21 process, 2:3
Vivendi, 3:6164, 70, 4:47
Voith and Siemens, 1:85
Volume, measuring, 2:3034, 3:32122, 4:32829,
7:34445. See also Stocks and ows of
freshwater
472
W
Waggoner, Paul, 1:149
Waimiri-Atroari people, 5:134
Wales, 7:63. See also United Kingdom
Wall Street Journal, 1:89
Warfare, 5:45. See also Conict/cooperation
concerning freshwater; Terrorism; Water
Conict Chronology
Warming, global, 1:138. See also Climate change
listings; Greenhouse effect; Greenhouse gases
Washing machines, 1:23, 4:11416, 5:219, 220
Washington. See Seattle
Washington, D. C., green roofs initiative, 8:44
Waste management:
hazardous/toxic waste landlls, 5:119, 124
by donating country
2004-2011, 8:31719
by subsector
2007-2011, 8:32022
See also Wastewater
Wastewater:
business/industry efuent, 7:26, 2829, 51, 5556,
7374
disposal associated with hydraulic fracturing, 8:72,
7475, 76
dumped into rivers, 6:82
human waste disposal, 7:5253
from hydraulic fracturing for natural gas, 8:64, 65,
66, 7175
pits for storage, 8:72
rates for, 6:11819
treatment of, 1:6, 2:138, 5:153, 15960, 6:27, 92
energy considerations, 8:74
expansion and improvement, 7:65
inappropriate, in municipal treatment plants,
8:74
overwhelmed by stormwater runoff, 7:53, 8:39
for reuse, 8:49
reverse osmosis, 8:28
volume produced per day, U.S., 8:49
See also Reclaimed water; Sanitation services
Wasting, 6:58
Water:
blue, in water footprint concept, 8:86, 8990, 323,
332, 341, 350
bottled (See Bottled water)
embedded/embodied/virtual/indirect, 3:1819,
6:7, 8:83, 91 (See also Water footprint)
footprint (See Water footprint)
in goods, 6:33538
green, in water footprint concept, 8:8586, 90,
323, 332, 341, 350
grey, in water footprint concept, 8:86, 323, 332,
341, 350
lack of substitutes for, 6:89, 13
origins of, 1:9398, 3:20912, 6:5
pricing (See Pricing, water)
produced, 6:23, 7:73, 76, 79
rights (See Water rights)
right to (See Human right to water; Natures right to
water)
running out of, 6:45
stocks of, 6:6
units/data conversions/constants, 2:300309, 3:318
27, 4:32534, 5:31928, 7:34150, 8:395404
vs. oil, 6:39, 14
Water (Vizcaino, et al.), 5:219
WaterAid, 5:131
Water allocation:
instream, preserving/restoring, 5:2930 (See also
Environmental ow)
transboundary water agreements, 8:1415, 166
Index
transboundary waters and climate change, 7:7, 13
volumetric systems, 4:9597
Water-based diseases, 7:58. See also Diseases, waterrelated
Waterborne diseases, 1:4749, 27475, 4:8, 7:5758.
See also Diseases, water-related
Water Conict Chronology, 1:1089, 12530, 2:35, 182
89, 3:194206, 4:xviixviii, 23856, 5:515,
190213, 6:15193
cited by the media, 8:173
overview and use of terms, 8:160
2011 update, 7:1, 175205
2013 update, 8:173208
website, 7:175, 8:147, 160
Water conservation:
Atlanta (GA), 6:1089
Australia, 7:106, 109, 11421
California commercial/industrial water use
background to CII water use, 4:13233
calculating water conservation potential,
methods for, 4:14347
current water use in CII sectors, 4:13338
data challenges, 4:13940, 14850, 15253
dening CII water conservation, 4:132
evolution of conservation technologies, 4:149
overview, 4:13132
potential savings, 4:14043
recommendations for CII water conservation,
4:15053
water use by end use, 4:13839
California residential water use
abbreviations and acronyms, 4:12627
agricultural water use, 4:107
current water use, 4:1056, 8:38
data and information gaps, 4:1089
debate over Californias water, 4:1023
dening conservation and efciency, 4:1035
economics of water savings, 4:1078
indoor water use
dishwashers, 4:116
end uses of water, 4:11213
faucets, 4:117
leaks, 4:11718
overview, 4:109
potential savings by end use, 4:11112
showers and baths, 4:114
toilets, 4:11314, 8:39
total use without conservation efforts, 4:110
washing machines, 4:11416
outdoor water use
current use, 4:11920
existing efforts/approaches, 4:12021
hardware improvements, 4:12223
landscape design, 4:12223, 8:38
management practices, 4:12122
overview, 4:11819
rate structures, 4:12425
overview, 4:1012
cost analysis, 8:100
indoor, 6:11012, 8:38
Las Vegas (NV), 6:1078, 11012
outdoor, 6:112, 8:38
rainwater catchment, 7:12021, 8:25, 42, 48
rebates and incentives for, 6:11012, 7:119, 121
South Africa, 8:2728
Tampa Bay (FL), 8:107
technology to monitor, 8:39
U.S., 8:142
Water Efcient Technologies, 6:107
Index
Water footprint:
calculation, 8:8586
California vs. U.S., 8:8890, 91
concept, 8:8385, 323, 332, 341, 350
conclusion, 8:9092
ndings, 8:8790
33, 34142, 35051
and nexus thinking, 8:8586
per-capita, of national consumption, by country
1996-2005, 8:32331
per-capita, of national consumption, by sector and
country
1996-2005, 8:33240
total, of national consumption, by country
1996-2005, 8:34149
total, of national consumption, by sector and
country
1996-2005, 8:35058
Water Footprint Network (WFN), 8:85, 87
Water in Crisis: A Guide to the Worlds Fresh Water
Resources (Gleick), 2:300, 3:318
Water industry. See Business/industry, water risks;
Economy/economic issues
Water Integrity Network, 8:12
Water landscape, 6:36
Water market and water trading, 3:4748, 7:110, 111
14, 146, 8:102. See also Pricing, water
Water performance reporting, 6:2831
A Water Policy for the American People, 3:16, 4:103
Water & Process Technologies, 5:159
Water quality:
acidication (See Acidication)
bottled water, 4:17, 2526, 3132, 3740, 7:15960,
161
business/industry, water risks that face, 5:14649,
7:26
China, 6:8082
climate change, 4:16768, 6:44, 7:7
community-level consequences of poor, 7:6162
contaminants
assimilation, and grey water in water
footprint concept, 8:86, 323, 332, 341,
350
emerging, 7:4849
fecal, 7:5253, 5758, 8:155
from fossil-fuel extraction/processing, 7:8889,
8:6364
methane, 8:69, 7071, 73
organic, 7:27881, 8:155
overview, 7:4647, 8:3
pathogenic organisms, 7:47
See also specic contaminants
droughts, 5:98, 102
ecological consequences of poor, 7:5457
economic/social consequences of poor, 7:6265
oods, 5:109
groundwater, 4:83, 87, 8:68
Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4:2627, 31
human health consequences of poor, 7:5760
impacts of fossil-fuel extraction/processing, 7:51,
7374, 7693, 8:66
monitoring technology, 8:49
overview, 7:45
pollution prevention, 7:65, 8:2425, 52
privatization, 3:78
salinity issues (See Desalination; Salinization)
satisfaction
countries with most and least, 8:39293
by country, 7:28991
limitations on data collection by poll, 8:387,
389, 392
473
by region
2012, 8:38991
sub-Saharan Africa, by country, 7:290
2012, 8:38788
sedimentation (See Sedimentation)
temperature/thermal pollution, 7:4647, 51, 53, 85
three-tier classication of impacts, 7:52
transfer of water by tanker, 8:136
water quantity consequences of poor, 7:60
See also Desalination; Drinking water, access;
Environmental ow; Salinization
Water rate structures, 3:303
average price, 6:117
benets of, 6:112, 114
consumption charges, 6:117
at, 6:114
inclining block, 6:114
seasonal, 1:26, 6:114
Seattle (WA), 6:11517
summary of, 6:119
uniform, 6:114
wastewater, 6:11819
Water reporting:
by companies, 6:18, 20 (See also Corporate
reporting)
inconsistency in, 6:33
performance, 6:2831
recommendations for, 6:3738
by sector, 6:3235
Water Resources Policy Committee, 3:16
Water rights, 7:111, 112, 113, 8:138, 156
Water risk, corporate. See Business/industry, water
risks
Watersheds, 6:1011. See also International river
basins
impact of hydraulic fracturing for natural gas,
8:6768
restoration, 8:45
Water Supply and Sanitation Collaboration Council,
7:230, 241, 8:236, 252
Water use:
company reporting on, 6:18, 20 (See also Corporate
reporting)
consumptive/nonconsumptive, 6:7, 8:84, 87 (See
also Water footprint)
denitions and use of term, 1:12, 8:84
direct vs. indirect, 3:1819, 6:7, 8:83 (See also Water
footprint)
domestic (See Water footprint, per capita, of
national consumption, by sector and
country)
efciency (See Water-use efciency)
estimates, 1:46, 246
fossil-fuel extraction/processing and energy
production, 7:25, 26, 31, 7384
global, statistics, 8:87
increases in, 6:1
industrial, percent used for, 7:74
institutional, 6:102
measurement, 2:25, 7:3031
process water use and CII water use, 4:13436
restriction policy in urban areas, 7:11517
vs. Gross Domestic Product, 8:142
See also Withdrawals, water
Water-use efciency, 1:1920, 3:7778, 4:xvixvii,
5860, 5:153, 157, 6:1069
age of homes and, 6:112
agriculture, 3:4, 1920, 7:10910, 146, 8:5054
Australia, 7:11821
business/industry, 7:35, 37, 39, 8:28
474
Water-use efciency (continued)
jobs created by, 8:39
legislation and policy, 7:28, 11819, 15354
measurement, 7:3031
overview of techniques to increase, 8:3738
Seattle (WA), 6:109, 8:38
Tampa Bay (FL), 8:107
U.S. policy, 7:15354
See also Soft path for water; Sustainable vision
for the Earths freshwater; Twenty-rst
century water-resources development
Waynilad Water, 4:46
WCD. See World Commission on Dams
Weather Underground group, 5:20
Websites, water-related, 1:23134, 2:19296, 3:22535
short documentaries and lms, 7:174
Water Conict Chronology, 7:175, 8:147, 160
Weight of water, measuring, 2:309, 3:327, 4:334, 7:350
Well-being, measuring water scarcity and:
Falkenmark Water Stress Index, 3:98100
multifactor indicators
Human Poverty Index, 3:87, 89, 90, 10911
Index of Human Insecurity, 3:107, 109
International Water Management Institute,
3:108, 197
overview, 3:101
vulnerability of water systems, 3:1014
Water Poverty Index, 3:11011
Water Resources Vulnerability Index, 3:1056
overview, 3:xviiixix, 8788
quality-of-life indicators, 3:8896, 6:61
single-factor measures, 3:9698, 1013
Well water, 4:28, 30. See also Groundwater
Western Pacic Region. See Pacic Region, Western
Wetlands, 1:6, 3:14143, 5:111, 6:86, 88
degradation, 7:56, 63
ecosystem services by, 7:56, 63
loss, 8:4, 132
restoration, 8:48
Wetlands, specic:
Amazon River, 7:56
Cinega de Santa Clara, 3:14143
El Doctor, 3:141
El Indio, 3:141, 142
Nakivubo, 7:63
Rio Hardy, 3:141
San Francisco Bay, 8:132
Wheat, 2:75, 4:89
Whipworm, 7:61
White, Gilbert, 3:16
Wildlife:
Colorado River, 1:77, 3:134
National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, 2:124
reserves, 7:4748
World Wildlife Fund International, 3:157
See also Birds; Mammals
Williams, Ted, 2:119
Wind power, 2:105, 7:25
Wintu people, 5:123
Wisconsin, 2:11718
Withdrawals, water:
conict/cooperation concerning, 1:112, 8:24
by country and sector, 1:24144, 2:20311,
3:24351, 4:26775, 5:22836, 6:20210,
7:22329
2013 update, 8:22733
denitions and use of term, 1:12, 7:22122, 8:84,
22728
Great Lakes Basin restrictions, 7:168, 169
gross national product
China, 3:31617
Index
Hong Kong, 3:31315
U.S., 3:31012
hydraulic fracturing for natural gas, 8:65, 66, 6769
Las Vegas area, proposed, 8:137, 138, 139
population in the U.S., 1:10, 12, 13
soft path for meeting water-related needs, 3:2324
total/per-capita, 1:10, 11
See also Groundwater, monitoring/management
problems; Projections, review of global
water resources
Wolf, Aaron, 2:28
Wolff, Gary, 3:xiv
Women:
effects of poor water quality on, 7:61
and environmental justice, 5:126, 134
increased exposure to contaminated water, 7:89
responsibility for water collection, 7:61, 89
violence to, during water collection, 8:168
World Bank:
business/industry, water risks that face, 5:147
dams, 1:8283, 7:133, 134, 138
Development Research Group, 7:278
displaced people, dams and, 1:78
effects of climate change on Middle East and
Northern Africa, 8:149
Global Water Partnership, 1:165, 171, 5:183
human needs, basic, 1:44, 47
Lesotho Highlands project, 1:96, 99
opposition to projects nanced by, 1:17
overruns, water-supply projects, 3:13
privatization, 3:59, 70, 4:46
self-review of dams funded by, 1:17576
Three Gorges Dam, 1:85, 88
World Water Council, 1:173
World Business Council for Sustainable Development
(WBCSD), Global Water Tool, 7:33, 34
World Climate Conference (1991), 1:149
World Commission on Dams (WCD):
data and feedback from ve major sources, 3:150
ndings and recommendations, 3:15153
goals, 3:15051, 7:136
organizational structure, 3:14950, 7:136
origins of, 1:83, 17779, 7:136
overview, 3:xix, 7:13637
priorities/criteria/guidelines, 3:15358, 7:13738,
139
reaction to the report
conventions, intl., 3:166
development organizations, intl., 3:16465
funding organizations, 3:158, 16264, 16769,
7:13839
governments, 3:17071, 7:13940
industry/trade associations, intl., 3:16970,
7:139
national responses, 3:15962, 7:13839
nongovernmental organizations, 3:157, 7:138
overview, 3:15556, 7:138
private sector, 3:166
regional groups, 3:165
rights and risk assessment, 3:153, 7:137
Index
World Conservation Union (IUCN), 1:8283, 121,
177, 3:164. See also International Union for
Conservation of Nature
World Council on Sustainable Development, 5:158
World Court, 1:109, 120
World Food Council, 2:14
World Fund for Water (proposed), 1:17475
World Health Assembly, 1:52
World Health Organization (WHO):
arsenic in groundwater, 2:166, 167, 172
childhood mortality, data, 7:257
cholera, 1:61, 271 (See also Cholera, cases reported
to the WHO; Cholera, deaths reported to
the WHO)
desalination, 5:75
diseases, water-related, 4:9, 5:117
drinking water, 3:2, 4:2, 208, 6:211
access to, data, 7:230, 8:236
Joint Monitoring Programme, 6:60, 73, 7:230, 241,
8:236, 252
reclaimed water, 2:154, 155
sanitation services, 1:256, 3:2, 4:2, 208, 6:62
access to, data, 7:241, 8:252
unaccounted for water, 3:305
well-being, measuring water scarcity and, 3:90, 91
World Health Reports, 4:8, 9
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 1:137,
5:100, 8:7
World Resources Institute, 2:2728, 4950, 8:2
World Trade Organization (WTO), 3:4850
Worldwatch Institute, 2:28
World Water Council (WWC), 1:17276, 3:165, 4:192
93, 5:183
World Water Development Report, 8:6
World Water Forum:
2000, 3:xviii, 58, 59, 90, 173
475
2003
background to, 4:19294
Camdessus Report, 4:19596, 206
efciency and privatization, lack of attention
given to, 4:192
focus of, 4:191
Millennium Development Goals, 4:6, 7
Ministerial Statement, 4:19495, 200204
NGO Statement, 4:192, 198, 2056
overview, 4:xv
successes of, 4:19192
Summary Forum Statement, 4:19697
value of future forums, 4:192
2006, 5:18688
World Wildlife Fund International, 3:157
Wyoming, Pavillion gas eld, 8:71, 72, 73
X
Xeriscaping, 1:23, 4:12324
Xylenes, 8:72
Y
Yangtze! Yangtze!, 1:92
Yeates, Clayne, 1:19495
Yemen, 1:53, 55, 8:16465
Z
Zambia, 1:63, 4:211, 5:9, 32
builders, 7:133, 33738
Zimbabwe, 1:107, 5:7, 140, 7:338
Zombie water projects:
Alaskan water shipments, 8:133, 13536
(NAWAPA), 1:74, 8:12431
water transfer to the Salton Sea, 8:144
Zuari Agro-Chemical, 1:21

The World's Water Vol 8

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The World's Water Vol 8

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The World's Water Vol 8

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Worlds Water

The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources

Corporate Water Engagement

Sustainable Water Jobs

Global Water Governance

Zombie Water Projects

Water and Conict

About the Pacic Institute for Studies in Development,

The Biennial Report

Washington | Covelo | London

Copyright 2014 Pacic Institute for Studies in Development, Environment,

ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of the Center for Resource Economics.

Printed on recycled, acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America

Global Water Governance in the Twenty-First Century 1

Shared Risks and Interests: The Case for Private Sector

THREE Sustainable Water Jobs

Eli Moore, Heather Cooley, Juliet Christian-Smith, and

Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources: What Do We Know

Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California:

SEVEN Zombie Water Projects 123

The Syrian Conict and the Role of Water 147

The Red SeaDead Sea Project Update 153

Water and Conict: Events, Trends, and Analysis (2011

Water Conict Chronology 173

Total Renewable Freshwater Supply by Country (2013

Freshwater Withdrawal by Country and Sector (2013

Data Table 3A:

Access to Improved Drinking Water by Country, 1970

Data Table 3B:

Access to Improved Drinking Water by Country, 2011

Data Table 4A:

Access to Improved Sanitation by Country, 1970

Data Table 4B:

Access to Improved Sanitation by Country, 2011

MDG Progress on Access to Safe Drinking Water by

MDG Progress on Access to Sanitation by Region

Monthly Natural Runoff for the Worlds Major River

Monthly Natural Runoff for the Worlds Major River

Area Equipped for Irrigation Actually Irrigated 310

Data Table 10:

Overseas Development Assistance for Water Supply and

Data Table 11:

Overseas Development Assistance for Water Supply and

Data Table 12:

Per Capita Water Footprint of National Consumption,

Data Table 13:

Per Capita Water Footprint of National Consumption,

Data Table 14:

Total Water Footprint of National Consumption, by

Data Table 15:

Total Water Footprint of National Consumption, by

WATER UNITS, DATA CONVERSIONS, AND CONSTANTS

COMPREHENSIVE TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Worlds Water 19981999: The Biennial Report on

The Worlds Water 20002001: The Biennial Report on

The Worlds Water 20022003: The Biennial Report on

The Worlds Water 20042005: The Biennial Report on

The Worlds Water 20062007: The Biennial Report on