Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the

propagation ofultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT applications,
very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and
occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws or to
characterize materials. A common example isultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the
thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be
used onconcrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is used in many industries
including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.

History[edit]
On May 27, 1940, U.S. researcher Dr. Floyd Firestone of the University of Michigan applies for a
U.S. invention patent for the first practical ultrasonic testing method. The patent is granted on
April 21, 1942 as U.S. Patent No. 2,280,226, titled "Flaw Detecting Device and Measuring
Instrument". Extracts from the first two paragraphs of the patent for this entirely new
nondestructive testing method succinctly describe the basics of such ultrasonic testing. "My
invention pertains to a device for detecting the presence of inhomogeneities of density or
elasticity in materials. For instance if a casting has a hole or a crack within it, my device allows
the presence of the flaw to be detected and its position located, even though the flaw lies entirely
within the casting and no portion of it extends out to the surface. ... The general principle of my
device consists of sending high frequency vibrations into the part to be inspected, and the
determination of the time intervals of arrival of the direct and reflected vibrations at one or more
stations on the surface of the part."
James F. McNulty of Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo, California, an early
improver of the many foibles and limits of this and other nondestructive testing methods, teaches
in further detail on ultrasonic testing in his U.S. Patent 3,260,105 (application filed December 21,
1962, granted July 12, 1966, titled Ultrasonic Testing Apparatus and Method) that Basically
ultrasonic testing is performed by applying to a piezoelectric crystal transducer periodic electrical
pulses of ultrasonic frequency. The crystal vibrates at the ultrasonic frequency and is
mechanically coupled to the surface of the specimen to be tested. This coupling may be effected
by immersion of both the transducer and the specimen in a body of liquid or by actual contact
through a thin film of liquid such as oil. The ultrasonic vibrations pass through the specimen and
are reflected by any discontinuities which may be encountered. The echo pulses that are
reflected are received by the same or by a different transducer and are converted into electrical
signals which indicate the presence of the defect.

How it works[edit]

At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline weld for defects using an ultrasonic phased
array instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame with magnetic wheels, holds the probe in contact
with the pipe by a spring. The wet area is the ultrasonic couplant that allows the sound to pass into the pipe
wall.

Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing spline cracking

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over

the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing is
conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not
required.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and attenuation. In
reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of
the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes
from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object.
The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with
an amplitude representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival
time of the reflection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends
ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it
on another surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the
space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus
revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the efficiency of the process by reducing
the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation between the surfaces.

Features[edit]

Advantages[edit]
1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. Only two nonparallel surfaces need to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of internal
flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.
6. Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment and
materials in the vicinity.
7. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.

Disadvantages[edit]
1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The transducers
alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable anomalies of other specimens
(both termed noise) and to faults therein severe enough to compromise specimen
integrity. These signals must be distinguished by a skilled technician, possibly, after
follow up with other nondestructive testing methods.[1]
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although
paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Noncontact techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not
contain rust inhibitors

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw
detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material characterization, and
more. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a typical pulse/echo inspection
configuration as illustrated below will be used.
A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the
pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic
device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the
transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is
introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there
is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be
reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into
an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet
below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal
generation to when a echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related
to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal, information about the
reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the
advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and
shape.
Minimal part preparation is required.
Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw
detection.
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which
include:
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energy into the test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or
not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.

The above introduction provides a simplified introduction to the NDT method of

ultrasonic testing. However, to effectively perform an inspection using ultrasonics,
much more about the method needs to be known. The following pages present
information on the science involved in ultrasonic inspection, the equipment that is
commonly used, some of the measurement techniques used, as well as other
information.

History of Ultrasonics
Prior to World War II, sonar, the technique of sending sound waves through water
and observing the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects, inspired
early ultrasound investigators to explore ways to apply the concept to medical
diagnosis. In 1929 and 1935, Sokolov studied the use of ultrasonic waves in
detecting metal objects. Mulhauser, in 1931, obtained a patent for using ultrasonic
waves, using two transducers to detect flaws in solids. Firestone (1940) and
Simons (1945) developed pulsed ultrasonic testing using a pulse-echo technique.
Shortly after the close of World War II, researchers in Japan began to explore the
medical diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound. The first ultrasonic instruments used
an A-mode presentation with blips on an oscilloscope screen. That was followed by
a B-mode presentation with a two dimensional, gray scale image.
Japan's work in ultrasound was relatively unknown in the United States and Europe
until the 1950s. Researchers then presented their findings on the use of ultrasound
to detect gallstones, breast masses, and tumors to the international medical
community. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an
application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood
coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.
Ultrasound pioneers working in the United States contributed many innovations
and important discoveries to the field during the following decades. Researchers
learned to use ultrasound to detect potential cancer and to visualize tumors in
living subjects and in excised tissue. Real-time imaging, another significant
diagnostic tool for physicians, presented ultrasound images directly on the system's
CRT screen at the time of scanning. The introduction of spectral Doppler and later
color Doppler depicted blood flow in various colors to indicate the speed and
direction of the flow..

The United States also produced the earliest

hand held "contact" scanner for clinical use, the
second generation of B-mode equipment, and
the prototype for the first articulated-arm hand
held scanner, with 2-D images.
Beginnings of Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)

Nondestructive testing has been practiced for

many decades, with initial rapid developments
in instrumentation spurred by the technological
advances that occurred during World War II and the subsequent defense effort.
During the earlier days, the primary purpose was the detection of defects. As a part
of "safe life" design, it was intended that a structure should not develop
macroscopic defects during its life, with the detection of such defects being a cause
for removal of the component from service. In response to this need, increasingly
sophisticated techniques using ultrasonics, eddy currents, x-rays, dye penetrants,
magnetic particles, and other forms of interrogating energy emerged.
In the early 1970's, two events occurred which caused a major change in the NDT
field. First, improvements in the technology led to the ability to detect small flaws,
which caused more parts to be rejected even though the probability of component
failure had not changed. However, the discipline of fracture mechanics emerged,
which enabled one to predict whether a crack of a given size will fail under a
particular load when a material's fracture toughness properties are known. Other
laws were developed to predict the growth rate of cracks under cyclic loading
(fatigue). With the advent of these tools, it became possible to accept structures
containing defects if the sizes of those defects were known. This formed the basis
for the new philosophy of "damage tolerant" design. Components having known
defects could continue in service as long as it could be established that those
defects would not grow to a critical, failure producing size.
A new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive testing community.
Detection was not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative information
about flaw size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics based predictions of
remaining life. The need for quantitative information was particularly strongly in
the defense and nuclear power industries and led to the emergence of quantitative
nondestructive evaluation (QNDE) as a new engineering/research discipline. A
number of research programs around the world were started, such as the Center for
Nondestructive Evaluation at Iowa State University (growing out of a major
research effort at the Rockwell International Science Center); the Electric Power
Research Institute in Charlotte, North Carolina; the Fraunhofer Institute for
Nondestructive Testing in Saarbrucken, Germany; and the Nondestructive Testing
Centre in Harwell, England.

Present State of Ultrasonics

Ultrasonic testing (UT) has been practiced for many decades. Initial rapid
developments in instrumentation spurred by the technological advances from the
1950's continue today. Through the 1980's and continuing through the present,
computers have provided technicians with smaller and more rugged instruments
with greater capabilities.
Thickness gauging is an example
application where instruments have been
refined make data collection easier and
better. Built-in data logging capabilities
allow thousands of measurements to be
recorded and eliminate the need for a
"scribe." Some instruments have the
capability to capture waveforms as well
as thickness readings. The waveform
option allows an operator to view or review the A-scan signal of thickness
measurement long after the completion of an inspection. Also, some instruments
are capable of modifying the measurement based on the surface conditions of the
material. For example, the signal from a pitted or eroded inner surface of a pipe
would be treated differently than a smooth surface. This has led to more accurate
and repeatable field measurements.
Many ultrasonic flaw detectors have a trigonometric function that allows for fast
and accurate location determination of flaws when performing shear wave
inspections. Cathode ray tubes, for the most part, have been replaced with LED or
LCD screens. These screens, in most cases, are extremely easy to view in a wide
range of ambient lighting. Bright or low light working conditions encountered by
technicians have little effect on the technician's ability to view the screen. Screens
can be adjusted for brightness, contrast, and on some instruments even the color of
the screen and signal can be selected. Transducers can be programmed with
predetermined instrument settings. The operator only has to connect the transducer
and the instrument will set variables such as frequency and probe drive.
Along with computers, motion control and robotics have contributed to the
advancement of ultrasonic inspections. Early on, the advantage of a stationary
platform was recognized and used in industry. Computers can be programmed to
inspect large, complex shaped components, with one or multiple transducers
collecting information. Automated systems typically consisted of an immersion
tank, scanning system, and recording system for a printout of the scan. The
immersion tank can be replaced with a squirter systems, which allows the sound to
be transmitted through a water column. The resultant C-scan provides a plan or
top view of the component. Scanning of components is considerably faster than
contact hand scanning, the coupling is much more consistent. The scan

information is collected by a computer for evaluation, transmission to a customer,

and archiving.
Today, quantitative theories have been developed to describe the interaction of the
interrogating fields with flaws. Models incorporating the results have been
integrated with solid model descriptions of real-part geometries to simulate
practical inspections. Related tools allow NDE to be considered during the design
process on an equal footing with other failure-related engineering disciplines.
Quantitative descriptions of NDE performance, such as the probability of detection
(POD), have become an integral part of statistical risk assessment. Measurement
procedures initially developed for metals have been extended to engineered
materials such as composites, where anisotropy and inhomogeneity have become
important issues. The rapid advances in digitization and computing capabilities
have totally changed the faces of many instruments and the type of algorithms that
are used in processing the resulting data. High-resolution imaging systems and
multiple measurement modalities for characterizing a flaw have emerged. Interest
is increasing not only in detecting, characterizing, and sizing defects, but also in
characterizing the materials. Goals range from the determination of fundamental
microstructural characteristics such as grain size, porosity, and texture (preferred
grain orientation), to material properties related to such failure mechanisms as
fatigue, creep, and fracture toughness. As technology continues to advance,
applications of ultrasound also advance. The high-resolution imaging systems in
the laboratory today will be tools of the technician
tomorrow.

Future Direction of Ultrasonic

Inspection
Looking to the future, those in the field of NDE see an exciting new set of
opportunities. The defense and nuclear power industries have played a major role
in the emergence of NDE. Increasing global competition has led to dramatic
changes in product development and business cycles. At the same time, aging
infrastructure, from roads to buildings and aircraft, present a new set of
measurement and monitoring challenges for engineers as well as technicians.
Among the new applications of NDE spawned by these changes is the increased
emphasis on the use of NDE to improve the productivity of manufacturing
processes. Quantitative nondestructive evaluation (QNDE) both increases the
amount of information about failure modes and the speed with which information
can be obtained and facilitates the development of in-line measurements for
process control.

The phrase, "you cannot inspect in quality,

you must build it in," exemplifies the
industry's focus on avoiding the formation of
flaws. Nevertheless, manufacturing flaws will
never be completely eliminated and material
damage will continue to occur in-service so
continual development of flaw detection and
characterization techniques is necessary.
Advanced simulation tools that are designed
for inspectability and their integration into
quantitative strategies for life management will contribute to increase the number
and types of engineering applications of NDE. With growth in engineering
applications for NDE, there will be a need to expand the knowledge base of
technicians performing the evaluations. Advanced simulation tools used in the
design for inspectability may be used to provide technical students with a greater
understanding of sound behavior in materials. UTSIM, developed at Iowa State
University, provides a glimpse into what may be used in the technical classroom as
an interactive laboratory tool.
As globalization continues, companies will seek to develop, with ever increasing
frequency, uniform international practices. In the area of NDE, this trend will drive
the emphasis on standards, enhanced educational offerings, and simulations that
can be communicated electronically. The coming years will be exciting as NDE
will continue to emerge as a full-fledged engineering discipline.

Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materials,
which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised
of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium
positions. Many different patterns of vibrational motion exist at the atomic level,
however, most are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is
focused on particles that contain many atoms that move in unison to produce a
mechanical wave. When a material is not stressed in tension or compression
beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform elastic oscillations. When
the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal
(electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restoring forces between
particles, combined with inertia of the particles, that leads to the oscillatory
motions of the medium.

In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the
way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear
waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear
waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing.
The particle movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal and shear
waves is illustrated below.

In longitudinal waves, the

the longitudinal direction
wave propagation. Since
dilational forces are
waves, they are also
compressional waves.
sometimes called density
particle density fluctuates
Compression waves can
liquids, as well as solids
travels through the atomic
of compressions and expansion (rarefaction) movements.

In the transverse or shear

oscillate at a right angle
direction of propagation.
acoustically solid
propagation, and
effectively propagated in
liquids or gasses. Shear
weak when compared to

oscillations occur in
or the direction of
compressional and
active in these
called pressure or
They are also
waves because their
as they move.
be generated in
because the energy
structure by a series

wave, the particles

or transverse to the
Shear waves require an
material for effective
therefore, are not
materials such as
waves are relatively
longitudinal waves. In

fact, shear waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from
longitudinal waves.

Modes of Sound Wave Propagation

In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in the
direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations in other
directions, hence, a number of different types of sound waves are possible. Waves
can be characterized in space by oscillatory patterns that are capable of maintaining
their shape and propagating in a stable manner. The propagation of waves is often
described in terms of what are called wave modes.
As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are most often
used in ultrasonic inspection. However, at surfaces and interfaces, various types of
elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles make other waves possible. Some
of these wave modes such as Rayleigh and Lamb waves are also useful for
ultrasonic inspection.
The table below summarizes many, but not all, of the wave modes possible in
solids.
Wave Types in Solids

Particle Vibrations

Longitudinal

Parallel to wave direction

Transverse (Shear)

Perpendicular to wave direction

Surface - Rayleigh

Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode

Plate Wave - Lamb

Component perpendicular to surface (extensional wave)

Plate Wave - Love

Parallel to plane layer, perpendicular to wave direction

Stoneley (Leaky Rayleigh Waves) Wave guided along interface

Sezawa

Antisymmetric mode

Longitudinal and transverse waves were discussed on the previous page, so let's
touch on surface and plate waves here.
Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel the surface of a relatively thick solid material
penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. Surface waves combine both a
longitudinal and transverse motion to create an elliptic orbit motion as shown in
the image and animation below. The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to
the surface of the solid. As the depth of an individual atom from the surface
increases the width of its elliptical motion decreases. Surface waves are generated
when a longitudinal wave intersects a surface near the second critical angle and
they travel at a velocity between .87 and .95 of a shear wave. Rayleigh waves are
useful because they are very sensitive to surface defects (and other surface
features) and they follow the surface around
curves. Because of this, Rayleigh waves can
be used to inspect areas that other waves
might have difficulty reaching.

Plate waves are similar to surface waves except they can only be generated in
materials a few wavelengths thick. Lamb waves are the most commonly used plate
waves in NDT. Lamb waves are complex vibrational waves that propagate parallel
to the test surface throughout the thickness of the material. Propagation of Lamb
waves depends on the density and the elastic material properties of a component.
They are also influenced a great deal by the test frequency and material thickness.
Lamb waves are generated at an incident angle in which the parallel component of
the velocity of the wave in the source is equal to the velocity of the wave in the test
material. Lamb waves will travel several meters in steel and so are useful to scan
plate, wire, and tubes.
With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but the
two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical. The complex motion of the

particles is similar to the elliptical orbits for surface waves. Symmetrical Lamb
waves move in a symmetrical fashion about the median plane of the plate. This is
sometimes called the extensional mode because the wave is stretching and
compressing the plate in the wave motion direction. Wave motion in the
symmetrical mode is most efficiently produced when the exciting force is parallel
to the plate. The asymmetrical Lamb wave mode is often called the flexural
mode because a large portion of the motion moves in a normal direction to the
plate, and a little motion occurs in the direction parallel to the plate. In this mode,
the body of the plate bends as the two surfaces
move in the same direction.
The generation of waves using both piezoelectric
transducers and electromagnetic acoustic
transducers (EMATs) are discussed in later
sections

Properties of Acoustic Plane Wave

Wavelength, Frequency and Velocity
Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic solid materials
are wavelength,frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional to
the velocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave.
This relationship is shown by the following equation.

The applet below shows a longitudinal and transverse wave. The direction of wave
propagation is from left to right and the movement of the lines indicate the
direction of particle oscillation. The equation relating ultrasonic wavelength,
frequency, and propagation velocity is included at the bottom of the applet in a
reorganized form. The values for the wavelength, frequency, and wave velocity can
be adjusted in the dialog boxes to see their effects on the wave. Note that the
frequency value must be kept between 0.1 to 1 MHz (one million cycles per
second) and the wave velocity must be between 0.1 and 0.7 cm/us.

As can be noted by the equation, a change in frequency will result in a change in

wavelength. Change the frequency in the applet and view the resultant wavelength.
At a frequency of .2 and a material velocity of 0.585 (longitudinal wave in steel)
note the resulting wavelength. Adjust the material velocity to 0.480 (longitudinal
wave in cast iron) and note the resulting wavelength. Increase the frequency to 0.8
and note the shortened wavelength in each material.
In ultrasonic testing, the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in
frequency will usually provide for the detection of smaller discontinuities. This
will be discussed more in following sections.
Wavelength and Defect Detection
In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency of the
transducer that will be used. As we learned on the previous page, changing the
frequency when the sound velocity is fixed will result in a change in the
wavelength of the sound. The wavelength of the ultrasound used has a significant
effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity. A general rule of thumb is that
a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the wavelength to stand a reasonable
chance of being detected.
Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic inspection
to describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the ability to locate
small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with higher frequency (shorter
wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that
are close together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution
also generally increases as the frequency increases.
The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse ways.
Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves maintaining a
balance between the favorable and unfavorable results of the selection. Before
selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain structure and thickness, and
the discontinuity's type, size, and probable location should be considered. As
frequency increases, sound tends to scatter from large or course grain structure and
from small imperfections within a material. Cast materials often have coarse grains
and other sound scatters that require lower frequencies to be used for evaluations

of these products. Wrought and forged products with directional and refined grain
structure can usually be inspected with higher frequency transducers.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound energy at
higher frequencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth in a material that
flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency also has an effect on the shape of
the ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam from the center
axis of the transducer, and how it is affected by frequency will be discussed later.
It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a number of other variables
will also affect the ability of ultrasound to locate defects. These include the pulse
length, type and voltage applied to the crystal, properties of the crystal, backing
material, transducer diameter, and the receiver circuitry of the instrument. These
are discussed in more detail in the material on signal-to-noise ratio.

Refraction and Snell's Law

When an ultrasonic wave passes through an interface between

two materials at an oblique angle, and the materials have
different indices of refraction, both reflected and refracted waves
are produced. This also occurs with light, which is why objects
seen across an interface appear to be shifted relative to where
they really are. For example, if you look straight down at an
object at the bottom of a glass of water, it looks closer than it
really is. A good way to visualize how light and sound refract is
to shine a flashlight into a bowl of slightly cloudy water noting
the refraction angle with respect to the incident angle.
Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic
waves within the two materials. The velocity of sound in each material is
determined by the material properties (elastic modulus and density) for that
material. In the animation below, a series of plane waves are shown traveling in
one material and entering a second material that has a higher acoustic velocity.
Therefore, when the wave encounters the interface between these two materials,
the portion of the wave in the second material is moving faster than the portion of
the wave in the first material. It can be seen that this causes the wave to bend.

Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the
velocities of the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio of material
velocities V1 and V2 to the ratio of the sine's of incident ( ) and
refracted ( ) angles, as shown in the following equation.

Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2

Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave

(VL1' ) shown. This wave is reflected at the same angle as the
incident wave because the two waves are traveling in the same
material, and hence have the same velocities. This reflected wave
is unimportant in our explanation of Snell's Law, but it should be
remembered that some of the wave energy is reflected at the
interface. In the applet below, only the incident and refracted
longitudinal waves are shown. The angle of either wave can be
adjusted by clicking and dragging the mouse in the region of the
arrows. Values for the angles or acoustic velocities can also be
entered in the dialog boxes so the that applet can be used as a
Snell's Law calculator.

When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster

material, there is an incident angle that makes the angle of
refraction for the wave 90o. This is know as the first critical angle.
The first critical angle can be found from Snell's law by putting in
an angle of 90 for the angle of the refracted ray. At the critical
angle of incidence, much of the acoustic energy is in the form of
an inhomogeneous compression wave, which travels along the
interface and decays exponentially with depth from the interface.

This wave is sometimes referred to as a "creep wave." Because of

their inhomogeneous nature and the fact that they decay rapidly,
creep waves are not used as extensively as Rayleigh surface
waves in NDT. However, creep waves are sometimes more useful
than Rayleigh waves because they suffer less from surface
irregularities and coarse material microstructure due to their
longer wavelengths

Wave Interaction or Interference

Before we move into the next section, the subject of wave interaction must be
covered since it is important when trying to understand the performance of an
ultrasonic transducer. On the previous pages, wave propagation was discussed as if
a single sinusoidal wave was propagating through the material. However, the sound
that emanates from an ultrasonic transducer does not originate from a single point,
but instead originates from many points along the surface of the piezoelectric
element. This results in a sound field with many waves interacting or interfering
with each other.
When waves interact, they superimpose on each other, and the amplitude of the
sound pressure or particle displacement at any point of interaction is the sum of the
amplitudes of the two individual waves. First, let's consider two identical waves
that originate from the same point. When they are in phase (so that the peaks and
valleys of one are exactly aligned with those of the other), they combine to double
the displacement of either wave acting alone. When they are completely out of
phase (so that the peaks of one wave are exactly aligned with the valleys of the
other wave), they combine to cancel each other out. When the two waves are not
completely in phase or out of phase, the resulting wave is the sum of the wave
amplitudes for all points along the wave.
When the origins of the two interacting waves are not the same, it is a little harder
to picture the wave interaction, but the principles are the same. Up until now, we
have primarily looked at waves in the form of a 2D plot of wave amplitude versus
wave position. However, anyone that has dropped something in a pool of water can
picture the waves radiating out from the source with a circular wave front. If two
objects are dropped a short distance apart into the pool of water, their waves will
radiate out from their sources and interact with each other. At every point where
the waves interact, the amplitude of the particle displacement is the combined sum
of the amplitudes of the particle displacement of the individual waves.

With an ultrasonic transducer, the waves propagate out from the transducer face
with a circular wave front. If it were possible to get the waves to propagate out
from a single point on the transducer face, the sound field would appear as shown
in the upper image to the right. Consider the light areas to be areas of rarefaction
and the dark areas to be areas of compression.
However, as stated previously, sound waves originate from multiple points along
the face of the transducer. The lower image to the right shows what the sound field
would look like if the waves originated from just two points. It can be seen that
where the waves interact, there are areas of constructive and destructive
interference. The points of constructive interference are often referred to as nodes.
Of course, there are more than two points of origin along the face of a transducer.
The image below shows five points of sound origination. It can be seen that near
the face of the transducer, there are extensive fluctuations or nodes and the sound
field is very uneven. In ultrasonic testing, this in known as the near field (near
zone) or Fresnel zone. The sound field is more uniform away from the transducer
in the far field, or Fraunhofer zone, where the beam spreads out in a pattern
originating from the center of the transducer. It should be noted that even in the far
field, it is not a uniform wave front. However, at some distance from the face of the
transducer and central to the face of the transducer, a uniform and intense wave
field develops.
The curvature and the area over which the sound is being
generated, the speed that the sound waves travel within a
material and the frequency of the sound all affect the sound field.
Use the Java applet below to experiment with these variables and
see how the sound field is affected.

Piezoelectric Transducers
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of
returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for
ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts
the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is
basically a piece of polarized material (i.e. some parts of the molecule are
positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged) with
electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied
across the material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric
field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the
material. This alignment of molecules will cause the material to change
dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In addition, a
permanently-polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3)
will produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of

an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric

effect. Additional information on why certain materials produce this effect can be
found in the linked presentation
material, which was produced by the
Valpey Fisher Corporation
The active element of most acoustic
transducers used today is
a piezoelectric ceramic, which can be
cut in various ways to produce different
wave modes. A large piezoelectric ceramic element can be seen in the image of a
sectioned low frequency transducer. Preceding the advent of piezoelectric ceramics
in the early 1950's, piezoelectric crystals made from quartz crystals
andmagnetostrictive materials were primarily used. The active element is still
sometimes referred to as the crystal by old timers in the NDT field. When
piezoelectric ceramics were introduced, they soon became the dominant material
for transducers due to their good piezoelectric properties and their ease of
manufacture into a variety of shapes and sizes. They also operate at low voltage
and are usable up to about 300oC. The first piezoceramic in general use was barium
titanate, and that was followed during the 1960's by lead zirconate titanate
compositions, which are now the most commonly employed ceramic for making
transducers. New materials such as piezo-polymers and composites are also being
used in some applications.
The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the
transducer. A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its
thickness. Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the
desired radiated wavelength. The higher the frequency of the transducer, the
thinner the active element. The primary reason that high frequency contact
transducers are not produced is because the element is very thin and too fragile.

Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers

The transducer is a very important part of the ultrasonic instrumentation system. As
discussed on the previous page, the transducer incorporates a piezoelectric element,
which converts electrical signals into mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and
mechanical vibrations into electrical signals (receive mode). Many factors,
including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior of a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters such as the radiation surface area,
mechanical damping, housing, connector type and other variables of physical
construction. As of this writing, transducer manufacturers are hard pressed when
constructing two transducers that have identical performance characteristics.

A cut away of a typical contact transducer is shown above. It was previously

learned that the piezoelectric element is cut to 1/2 the desired wavelength. To get as
much energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance matching is placed
between the active element and the face of the transducer. Optimal impedance
matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer so that its thickness is 1/4 of the
desired wavelength. This keeps waves that were reflected within the matching
layer in phase when they exit the layer (as illustrated in the image to the right). For
contact transducers, the matching layer is made from a material that has an
acoustical impedance between the active element and steel. Immersion transducers
have a matching layer with an acoustical impedance between the active element
and water. Contact transducers also incorporate a wear plate to protect the
matching layer and active element from scratching.
The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the damping
characteristics of a transducer. Using a backing material with an impedance similar
to that of the active element will produce the most effective damping. Such a
transducer will have a wider bandwidth resulting in higher sensitivity. As the
mismatch in impedance between the active element and the backing material
increases, material penetration increases but transducer sensitivity is reduced.
Transducer Efficiency, Bandwidth and Frequency
Some transducers are specially fabricated to be more efficient transmitters and
others to be more efficient receivers. A transducer that performs well in one
application will not always produce the desired results in a different application.
For example, sensitivity to small defects is proportional to the product of the
efficiency of the transducer as a transmitter and a receiver. Resolution, the ability
to locate defects near the surface or in close proximity in the material, requires a
highly damped transducer.

It is also important to understand the concept of bandwidth, or range of

frequencies, associated with a transducer. The frequency noted on a transducer is
the central or center frequency and depends primarily on the backing material.
Highly damped transducers will respond to frequencies above and below the
central frequency. The broad frequency range provides a transducer with high
resolving power. Less damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency range
and poorer resolving power, but greater penetration. The central frequency will
also define the capabilities of a transducer. Lower frequencies (0.5MHz-2.25MHz)
provide greater energy and penetration in a material, while high frequency crystals
(15.0MHz-25.0MHz) provide reduced penetration but greater sensitivity to small
discontinuities. High frequency transducers, when used with the proper
instrumentation, can improve flaw resolution and thickness measurement
capabilities dramatically. Broadband transducers with frequencies up to 150 MHz
are commercially available.
Transducers are constructed to withstand some abuse, but they should be handled
carefully. Misuse, such as dropping, can cause cracking of the wear plate, element,
or the backing material. Damage to a transducer is often noted on the A-scan
presentation as an enlargement of the initial pulse.
Radiated Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers
The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric transducer does not originate from a
point, but instead originates from most of the surface of the piezoelectric element.
Round transducers are often referred to as piston source transducers because the
sound field resembles a cylindrical mass in front of the transducer. The sound field
from a typical piezoelectric transducer is shown below. The intensity of the sound
is indicated by color, with lighter colors indicating higher intensity.

Since the ultrasound originates from a number of points along the transducer face,
the ultrasound intensity along the beam is affected by constructive and destructive
wave interference as discussed in a previous page on wave interference. These are
sometimes also referred to as diffraction effects. This wave interference leads to
extensive fluctuations in the sound intensity near the source and is known as the
near field. Because of acoustic variations within a near field, it can be extremely
difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in materials when they are positioned within
this area.
The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of the
near field. The area beyond the near field where the ultrasonic beam is more
uniform is called the far field. In the far field, the beam spreads out in a pattern
originating from the center of the transducer. The transition between the near field
and the far field occurs at a distance, N, and is sometimes referred to as the
"natural focus" of a flat (or unfocused) transducer. The near/far field distance, N, is
significant because amplitude variations that characterize the near field change to a
smoothly declining amplitude at this point. The area just beyond the near field is
where the sound wave is well behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore,
optimal detection results will be obtained when flaws occur in this area.

For a piston source transducer of radius (a), frequency (f), and

velocity (V) in a liquid or solid medium, the applet below allows
the calculation of the near/far field transition point. In the Java
applet below, the radius (a) and the near field/far field distance
can be in metric or English units (e.g. mm or inch), the frequency
(f) is in MHz and the sound velocity (V) is in metric or English
length units per second (e.g. mm/sec or inch/sec). Just make sure
the length units used are consistent in the calculation. To see an
example calculation click here
Spherical or cylindrical focusing changes the structure of a
transducer field by "pulling" theN point nearer the transducer. It is
also important to note that the driving excitation normally used in
NDT applications are either spike or rectangular pulsars, not a
single frequency. This can significantly alter the performance of a
transducer. Nonetheless, the supporting analysis is widely used
because it represents a reasonable approximation and a good
starting point.

Transducer Types
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of applications and can be
custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to selecting the
proper transducer for the application. A previous section on Acoustic Wavelength
and Defect Detection gave a brief overview of factors that affect defect
detectability. From this material, we know that it is important to choose transducers
that have the desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection
capability. Most often the transducer is chosen either to enhance the sensitivity or
resolution of the system.
Transducers are classified into groups
according to the application.
Contact transducers are used for
direct contact inspections, and are
generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged
casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These
transducers have an ergonomic design so that they are easy to grip and move
along a surface. They often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their
useful life. Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial
materials are used to remove the air gap between the transducer
and the component being inspected.
Immersion transducers do not contact the component. These
transducers are designed to operate in a liquid environment and
all connections are watertight. Immersion transducers usually
have an impedance matching layer that helps to get more sound energy into
the water and, in turn, into the component being inspected. Immersion
transducers can be purchased with a planer, cylindrically focused or
spherically focused lens. A focused transducer can improve the sensitivity
and axial resolution by concentrating the sound energy to a smaller area.
Immersion transducers are typically used
inside a water tank or as part of a squirter
or bubbler system in scanning
applications.
More on Contact Transducers.
Contact transducers are available in a variety of
configurations to improve their usefulness for a
variety of applications. The flat contact
transducer shown above is used in normal beam
inspections of relatively flat surfaces, and where
near surface resolution is not critical. If the surface is curved, a shoe that matches

the curvature of the part may need to be added to the face of the transducer. If near
surface resolution is important or if an angle beam inspection is needed, one of the
special contact transducers described below might be used.
Dual element transducers contain two independently operated elements in a
single housing. One of the elements transmits and the other receives the ultrasonic
signal. Active elements can be chosen for their sending and receiving capabilities
to provide a transducer with a cleaner signal, and transducers for special
applications, such as the inspection of course grained material. Dual element
transducers are especially well suited for making measurements in applications
where reflectors are very near the transducer since this design eliminates the ring
down effect that single-element transducers experience (when single-element
transducers are operating in pulse echo mode, the element cannot start receiving
reflected signals until the element has stopped ringing from its transmit function).
Dual element transducers are very useful when making thickness measurements of
thin materials and when inspecting for near surface defects. The two elements are
angled towards each other to create a crossed-beam
sound path in the test material.
Delay line transducers provide versatility with a
variety of replaceable options. Removable delay
line, surface conforming membrane, and protective
wear cap options can make a single transducer
effective for a wide range of applications. As the
name implies, the primary function of a delay line
transducer is to introduce a time delay between the
generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any
reflected waves. This allows the transducer to complete its "sending" function
before it starts its "listening" function so that near surface resolution is improved.
They are designed for use in applications such as high precision thickness gauging
of thin materials and delamination checks in composite materials. They are also
useful in high-temperature measurement applications since the delay line provides
some insulation to the piezoelectric element
from the heat.
Angle beam transducers and wedges are
typically used to introduce a refracted shear
wave into the test material. Transducers can be
purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in
adjustable versions where the user determines
the angles of incidence and refraction. In the fixed angle versions, the angle of
refraction that is marked on the transducer is only accurate for a particular material,
which is usually steel. The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be
reflected from the backwall to improve detectability of flaws in and around welded

areas. They are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on
the surface of a component.
Normal incidence shear wave transducers are
unique because they allow the introduction of shear
waves directly into a test piece without the use of an
angle beam wedge. Careful design has enabled
manufacturing of transducers with minimal
longitudinal wave contamination. The ratio of the
longitudinal to shear wave components is generally
below -30dB.
Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow
transducers are made up of an array of small crystals that are carefully matched to
minimize variations in performance and maintain uniform sensitivity over the
entire area of the transducer. Paint brush transducers make it possible to scan a
larger area more rapidly for discontinuities. Smaller and more sensitive
transducers are often then required to further define the details of
a discontinuity.
Transducer Testing
Some transducer manufacturers have lead in the development of transducer
characterization techniques and have participated in developing the AIUM
Standard Methods for Testing Single-Element Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Transducers
as well as ASTM-E 1065 Standard Guide for Evaluating Characteristics of
Ultrasonic Search Units.
Additionally, some manufacturers perform characterizations according to AWS,
ESI, and many other industrial and military standards. Often, equipment in test labs
is maintained in compliance with MIL-C-45662A Calibration System
Requirements. As part of the documentation process, an extensive database
containing records of the waveform and spectrum of each transducer is maintained
and can be accessed for comparative or statistical studies of transducer
characteristics.
Manufacturers often provide time and frequency domain plots for each transducer.
The signals below were generated by a spiked pulser. The waveform image on the
left shows the test response signal in the time domain (amplitude versus time). The
spectrum image on the right shows the same signal in the frequency domain
(amplitude versus frequency). The signal path is usually a reflection from the back
wall (fused silica) with the reflection in the far field of the transducer.

Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generally
necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and solids (i.e.
such as the test specimen) is large. Therefore, nearly all of the energy is reflected
and very little is transmitted into the test material. The couplant displaces the air
and makes it possible to get more sound energy into the test specimen so that a
usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact
ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water
is generally used between the transducer and the test
surface.
When scanning over the part or making precise
measurements, an immersion technique is often
used. In immersion ultrasonic testing both the
transducer and the part are immersed in the
couplant, which is typically water. This method of
coupling makes it easier to maintain consistent coupling while moving and
manipulating the transducer and/or the part.
Pulser-Receivers
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers are well suited to
general purpose ultrasonic testing. Along with
appropriate transducers and an oscilloscope,
they can be used for flaw detection and
thickness gauging in a wide variety of metals,
plastics, ceramics, and composites. Ultrasonic pulser-receivers provide a unique,
low-cost ultrasonic measurement capability.

The pulser section of the instrument generates short, large amplitude electric pulses
of controlled energy, which are converted into short ultrasonic pulses when applied
to an ultrasonic transducer. Most pulser sections have very low impedance outputs
to better drive transducers. Control functions associated with the pulser circuit
include:

 Pulse length or damping (The amount of time the pulse is applied to the
transducer.)
Pulse energy (The voltage applied to the transducer. Typical pulser circuits
will apply from 100 volts to 800 volts to a transducer.)
In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer, which
represent the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The amplified radio
frequency (RF) signal is available as an output for display or capture for signal
processing. Control functions associated with the receiver circuit include
Signal rectification (The RF signal can be viewed as positive half wave,
negative half wave or full wave.)
Filtering to shape and smooth return signals
Gain, or signal amplification
Reject control
The pulser-receiver is also used in material characterization work involving sound
velocity or attenuation measurements, which can be correlated to material
properties such as elastic modulus. In conjunction with a stepless gate and a
spectrum analyzer, pulser-receivers are also used to study frequency dependent
material properties or to characterize the performance of
ultrasonic transducers.

Rail Inspection
One of the major problems that railroads have faced since the earliest days is the prevention
of service failures in track. As is the case with all modes of high-speed travel, failures of an
essential component can have serious consequences. The North American railroads have been
inspecting their most costly infrastructure asset, the rail, since the late 1920's. With increased
traffic at higher speed, and with heavier axle loads in the 1990's, rail inspection is more
important today than it has ever been. Although the focus of the inspection seems like a fairly
well-defined piece of steel, the testing variables present are significant and make the
inspection process challenging.
Rail inspections were initially performed solely by visual means. Of course, visual
inspections will only detect external defects and sometimes the subtle signs of large internal
problems. The need for a better inspection method became a high priority because of a
derailment at Manchester, NY in 1911, in which 29 people were killed and 60 were seriously
injured. In the U.S. Bureau of Safety's (now the National Transportation Safety Board)
investigation of the accident, a broken rail was determined to be the cause of the derailment.
The bureau established that the rail failure was caused by a defect that was entirely internal
and probably could not have been detected by visual means. The defect was called a
transverse fissure (example shown on the left). The railroads began investigating the
prevalence of this defect and found transverse fissures were
widespread.
One of the methods used to inspect rail is ultrasonic inspection.
Both normal- and angle-beam techniques are used, as are both
pulse-echo and pitch-catch techniques. The different transducer
arrangements offer different inspection capabilities. Manual contact
testing is done to evaluate small sections of rail but the ultrasonic
inspection has been automated to allow inspection of large amounts
of rail.
Fluid filled wheels or sleds are often used to couple the transducers to the rail. Sperry Rail
Services, which is one of the companies that perform rail inspection, uses Roller Search Units
(RSU's) comprising a combination of different transducer angles to achieve the best
inspection possible. A schematic of an RSU is shown below.

Weldments (Welded Joints)

The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag
inclusions, lack of side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root
penetration, undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks.
With the exception of single gas pores all the defects listed are usually well
detectable by ultrasonics. Most applications are on low-alloy construction quality
steels, however, welds in aluminum can also be tested. Ultrasonic flaw detection
has long been the preferred method for nondestructive testing in welding
applications. This safe, accurate, and simple technique has pushed ultrasonics to
the forefront of inspection technology.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam
transducer in conjunction with an angle beam transducer and wedge. A straight
beam transducer, producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test
piece, is first used to locate any laminations in or near the heat-affected zone. This
is important because an angle beam transducer may not be able to provide a return
signal from a laminar flaw.
The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to
inspect the actual weld. Angle beam transducers use the principles of refraction and

mode conversion to produce refracted shear or longitudinal waves in the test

material. [Note: Many AWS inspections are performed using refracted shear
waves. However, material having a large grain structure, such as stainless steel
may require refracted longitudinal waves for successful inspections.] This
inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and heat-affected zones of a
weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the material around the
weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will bounce off a
reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam. With proper angle beam
techniques, echoes returned from the weld zone may allow the operator to
determine the location and type of discontinuity.
To determine the proper scanning area for the weld, the inspector
must first calculate the location of the sound beam in the test
material. Using the refracted angle, beam index point and
material thickness, the V-path and skip distance of the sound
beam is found. Once they have been calculated, the inspector can
identify the transducer locations on the surface of the material
corresponding to the crown, sidewall, and root of the weld.