Pennington

Sharlene Pennington
ENG 100
Spring 2015
Dr. Hirata- Knight
Marine Sustainability
The Earth like our human bodies consist of mostly water. The Earths surface is made up
of 70% water and inside of those waters are habitats and homes to millions of sea creatures and
coral reefs. Over three quarters of our planet are covered by the oceans. Their biodiversity is
unmatched and they contain over 80 percent of all life on earth, mostly unexplored
(Overfishing). The creatures and reefs living in these vast waters have provided nutrients for us
humans and has established a stable food chain system that keeps marine life sustainable.
However, several issues have been arising that is causing great damage to these coral reefs and
marine life. These activities include everyday activities that us humans do, and we fail to
actually see the risks that our actions pose to marine life. Overfishing, tourism, pollution and
climate change are contributing factors that are influenced by humans and man made inventions
that is posing a threat to marine life.
One of the factors that has caused marine life to slowly disintegrate is over fishing.
Overfishing the name itself gives a general definition of what overfishing is about. A more
specific definition provided by World WildLife(WWF) of overfishing is that it occurs when more
fish are caught than the population can replace through natural reproduction. Overfishing did not
occur recently. In the mid-20th century, international efforts to increase the availability and
affordability of protein-rich foods led to concerted government efforts to increase fishing
capacity. Favorable policies, loans, and subsidies spawned a rapid rise of big industrial fishing

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operations, which quickly supplanted local boatmen as the world's source of seafood (National
Geographic). By the time 1989, about 90 million tons (metric tons) of catch were taken from the
ocean, the industry had hit its high-water mark, and yields have declined or stagnated ever since
(National Geographic). Because these companies did not have a sustainable and proper system
of keeping track of what was caught, fish populations decreased. Fishes that were being caught
at a greater rate than their reproduction rate shows a very dramatic difference in the population of
these fishes.
Because overfishing is an announced problem with sustaining marine life, it has posed a
great threat to coral reefs. The effects of overfishing include the destruction of our marine life
ecosystem. Figures published by the UN Food and Agricultural Organization states that over
25% of all the world's fish stocks are either overexploited or depleted. Another 52% is fully
exploited, these are in imminent danger of overexploitation (maximum sustainable production
level) and collapse. Thus a total of almost 80% of the world's fisheries are fully- to overexploited, depleted, or in a state of collapse. Worldwide about 90% of the stocks of large
predatory fish stocks are already gone (Overfishing). These statistics demonstrate a downfall in
our entire marine ecosystem and the rapid decrease in marine species. This will eventually lead
to scarce amount of species which will affect our consumptions as humans for food resources. If
overfishing continues to occur, many industries will run out of business due to the scarce amount
of seafood that is available. This occurrence could cause prices of seafood to raise and would
probably cause a lot of companies to shut down due to the prices of fish to be too high.
One area in the world which was affected by overfishing is Newfoundland, Canada. In
1992 the once thriving cod fishing industry came to a sudden and full stop when at the start of
the fishing season no cod appeared. Overfishing allowed by decades of fisheries mismanagement

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was the main cause for this disaster that resulted in almost 40.000 people losing their livelihood
and an ecosystem in complete state of decay. Now, fifteen years after the collapse, many
fishermen are still waiting for the cod to return and communities still haven't recovered from the
sudden removal of the regions single most important economical driver (Overfishing).
Newfoundland has been affected by the issue of overfishing economically and ecologically.
Businesses will not be able to retrieve cod for consumers because of the overfishing of cod that
had occurred in 1992. Even to this day, the cod in Newfoundland have not return.
Ecologically, overfishing has caused a decline in fish populations. More than 85 percent
of the world's fisheries have been pushed to or beyond their biological limits and are in need of
strict management plans to restore them. Several important commercial fish populations (such as
Atlantic bluefin tuna) have declined to the point where their survival as a species is threatened
(WWF). This is due to the over demand of the red meat in sushi known as toro in sushi. If the
Atlantic bluefin tuna continue to be overfished, the population of this species could go extinct.
Not only does extinction have an effect on marine ecosystem ecologically, but so does bycatch.
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the definition of bycatch is
discarded catch of any living marine resource, plus unobserved mortality due to a direct
encounter with fishing gear (NOAA). Through bycatch, a lot of unwanted fishes are being
tossed back into sea either dead or close to death. According to the Save our Seas Foundation,
it's estimated that anywhere from 8 to 25 percent of the total global catch is discarded. Bycatch
does not only harm fish but other marine mammals and coral reefs as well. Every year, an
estimated 300,000 whales, dolphins and porpoises die entangled in fishing nets, along with
thousands of critically-endangered sea turtles.This has a destructive impact on seabed
communities, particularly on fragile deep water coral (Save our Seas Foundation). This

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unsustainable activity proves to show that the nets that are being used in bycatch pose a great
harm to un-targeted sea creatures and deep water coral which plays a role in sustaining marine
life. With coral reef slowly disintegrating, fishes that depend on these reefs for their habitat and
food sources are affected which will cause a chain reaction throughout the whole marine
ecosystem.
Another factor that is causing a harmful impact on marine sustainability is tourism.
Tourism is a large ever growing industry and in many places around the world, their marine
environment is the number one attraction for tourists to visit these places. Although tourism may
be beneficial for these places, marine life is slowly disintegrating. Human activities such as
snorkeling, diving and boating can cause direct physical damage to reefs; furthermore, fishing
and collecting can contribute to over-exploitation of reef species and threaten local survival of
endangered species (UNEP). These activities have proven to attack certain areas; specifically
small remote island areas with tropical marine animals.
Tourism and its activities that follow along with it have proven to be one of the factors
that is contributing to the downfall of marine sustainability. In many situations, large influxes of
tourists invade small island areas. They contribute to the pollution and waste of marine habitats
and cause overall pressure and stress for the locals and marine species. In these areas, tourist
industries have developed airports, spas, hotels, golf courses and many more tourist attraction
activities that are created near fragile marine ecosystems. An example of these activities taken
place include: mangrove forests and seagrass meadows being removed to create open beaches,
tourist developments such as piers and other structures have been built directly on top of coral
reefs, and nesting sites for endangered marine turtles have been destroyed and disturbed by large
numbers of tourists on the beaches (Marbef). Mangrove forests provide filtration for saltwater

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and has prevented erosion throughout the coastlines and seagrass meadows act as a food source
for various marine animals. With these habitats being removed by human beings, it disrupts the
marine ecosystem by not providing homes for creatures in mangrove forests, and by not
providing food sources for several marine animals. Without these necessities, it could cause a
decrease in population and overall cause the marine ecosystem to disintegrate. Nesting sites that
turtles go to lay their eggs have been taken over by tourist development and poses a great risk
with the reproduction and survival of turtles. This is of course having its main impact in the few
countries that have important nesting beaches Greece, Turkey and Cyprus. Tourism and
recreation in this area are mainly based on coastal resources (seas and beaches) and have resulted
in many of the turtle nesting areas becoming tourist resorts (Demetropoulos). Because of this
occurrence, the turtles do not have a safe place to lay their eggs and a lot of problems arise with
these nesting sites being overpopulated by tourists. Disoriented hatchlings can die of desiccation
or overheating if they stay on the beaches during daylight hours. Their chances of being picked
up by a predator also increase with the time they stay on the beach. Trampling of the sand by
large numbers of bathers and the driving of vehicles on beaches can cause compaction of the
sand and/or cause nests to collapse. As a result, successful incubation and emergence of
hatchlings are impeded. Sunbeds and umbrellas barricade beaches obstructing nesting. They can
also cause direct damage to the eggs and/or reduce sand temperature, influencing sex
determination of hatchlings (Demetropoulos). If these Mediterranean sea coasts continue with
the overpopulation of their beaches, there will not be any safe nesting areas for these turtles to
lay their eggs. The marine ecosystem would then eventually lead to the endangerment, or even
so the extinction of these turtles if these nesting sites continue to be disturbed.

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Pollution is another cause that poses a threat to marine sustainability. Waste that is
generated from the land eventually ends up in the ocean, harming marine life. Plastics are used
in everyday necessities, and are easily accessible by manufacturers considering how cheap and
durable plastics are for their products. However, if not disposed correctly, they usually end up in
our oceans. In 1975 the world's fishing fleet alone dumped into the sea approximately 135,400
tons of plastic fishing gear and 23,600 tons of synthetic packaging material (Cawthorn, 1989;
DOC, 1990). Horsman (1982) estimated that merchant ships dump 639,000 plastic containers
each day around the world, and ships are therefore, a major source of plastic debris (Shaw, 1977;
Shaw and Mapes, 1979). Recreational fishing and boats are also responsible for dumping a
considerable amount of marine debris, and according to the US Coast Guard they dispose
approximately 52% of all rubbish dumped in US waters (UNESCO, 1994). With all these
plastics and debris being dumped into these waters, it poses a threat to our oceans and the safety
of marine life. A study done in the North Pacific (Blight and Burger, 1997) found plastic
particles in the stomachs of 8 of the 11 seabird species caught as bycatch. Plastic garbage, which
decomposes very slowly, is often mistaken for food by marine animals. High concentrations of
plastic material, particularly plastic bags, have been found blocking the breathing passages and
stomachs of many marine species, including whales, dolphins, seals, puffins, and turtles. Plastic
six-pack rings for drink bottles can also choke marine animals (WWF).
Over 80% of the pollution from the ocean comes from land based activities (WWF) that
humans produce. The pollution that enters our oceans consists of oil, fertilizers, seas of garbage,
sewage disposals, and toxic chemicals. The oil in the ocean does not originate from oil spills and
are not the main source as to why oil ends up in our oceans. Only about 12% of the oil in the
ocean is responsible from oil spills (WWF). According to the National Research Council, a

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study shows that about 36% of the oil in the ocean comes down drains and rivers as waste and
runoff from cities and industries. The amount of chemicals that enter our marine ecosystem
creates dangerous environments for marine creatures to live in. Excessive nutrients from sewage
outfalls and agricultural runoff have contributed to the increasing incidence of low oxygen
(hypoxic) areas known as dead zones, where most marine life cannot survive, resulting in the
collapse of some ecosystems. There are now close to 500 dead zones with a total global surface
area of over 245,000 km, roughly equivalent to that of the United Kingdom. The excess nitrogen
can also stimulate the proliferation of seaweeds and microorganisms and cause algal blooms.
Such blooms can be harmful, causing massive fish kills, contaminating seafood with toxins and
altering ecosystems (UNESCO). If the amounts of chemicals and sewage that enters our oceans
continue at this rate, our marine ecosystem will disintegrate and marine life would be scarce.
Climate change is another major issue that involves the scarcity of marine life. Not only
does climate change affect us as humans, but climate change has also played a toll on marine life.
The marine environment is already registering the impacts of climate change. Global warming
would be the main source of these climate changes being produced, which is ultimately caused
by human activities. The current increase in global temperature of 0.7C since pre-industrial
times is disrupting life in the oceans, from the tropics to the poles (WWF). Some of the factors
that play a role in climate change include coral bleaching, moving habitats, rising sea levels and
acidic oceans. Coral bleaching is the stress on corals caused by changes in conditions such as
temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing
them to turn completely white (NOAA). A more scientific definition of coral bleaching is that it
occurs when the relationship between the coral host and zooxanthallae, which give coral much of
their colour, breaks down. Without the zooxanthallae, the tissue of the coral animal appears

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transparent and the coral's bright white skeleton is revealed (GBRMPA). Coral bleaching roots
from the changes that were sometimes introduced throughout this essay including changes in
ocean temperature, pollution and runoffs, overexposure to sunlight, and extreme low tides.
Many exotic marine creatures live off the coral in the waters of the Caribbean. In 2005, the U.S.
lost half of its coral reefs in the Caribbean in one year due to a massive bleaching event
(NOAA). The decline of these coral reefs due to mortality will result in the decline of fish
communities because of the loss of their food resources and protection habitats. This will result
in the disintegration of the ecosystem and the extinction of many fish species.
Climate changes in certain areas in waters will drive certain types of species out of their
natural habitat because of their incapability to adapt to their ever changing environment. They
will migrate to different bodies of water to claim as their own homes. Climate change is
predicted to drive species ranges toward the poles, potentially resulting in widespread extinctions
where dispersal capabilities are limited or suitable habitat is unavailable (Perry). A lot of factors
come into consideration when species migrate to a different habitat. The areas that these species
are migrating to may not be suitable for their living conditions and may risk the survival of these
species. Because climate change poses an overall effect globally, it would soon affect the habitat
that these species decide to settle in and soon, all habitats will be destroyed due to these climate
changes. Species will then have a limited source of habitats to reside in, and will then lead to the
extinction of these species.
Rising sea levels also plays a role in the effect of species having to move from habitats.
According to the IPCC, estimates that 20-30% of the plant and animal species evaluated so far in
climate change studies are at risk of extinction if temperatures reach levels projected to occur by
the end of this century (EPA). Climate change is associated with the rise of sea levels which is

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driving species to lose their homes and sources of food. Animals, especially ones that require
specific habitats are greatly affected by the drastic climate change. Species that rely upon the
existence of sea ice to survive are likely to be especially impacted as the retreat accelerates,
posing the threat of extinction for polar bears, seals, and some breeds of penguins (Climate
Institute).
Acidic oceans are another problem that poses a threat on marine ecosystem. Ocean
acidification is when carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur
that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically
important calcium carbonate minerals (PMEL). Although some species such as Photosynthetic
algae and seagrasses that live in the ocean can benefit from the extra carbon dioxide that enters
the ocean;however, some species do not benefit from this. When hydrogen ions are released in
seawater, they combine with carbonate ions, thus lowering the carbonate ion concentration.
Marine calcifiers such as corals, coralline algae, crabs, clams, oysters, and some plankton need
carbonate ions to build their skeletons and shells. Acidification often leads to reduced
calcification and dissolution; for example, affecting a corals ability to grow its skeleton,
resulting in slower growth and a more fragile structure, thus more vulnerable to erosion
(Mcleod). If ocean acidification continues, more parts of our marine ecosystem will be affected
by this, thus the erosion of many shellfishes globally throughout the ocean. This will lead to the
extinction of these sea creatures; thus, disturbing the food chain throughout the marine
ecosystem.
With the problems that are present today that is affecting our marine ecosystem, it will
slowly build up into a bigger problem which originates from the disintegration of our marine
ecosystem. Many people in todays society are susceptible to the problems that we create by

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doing our everyday activities that poses a great threat to our marine ecosystem. They do not see
the long term effects and the chain reaction that could occur if we continue to keep an
unsustainable system. Although there are many out there who are susceptible to this issue, there
are a few organizations and communities that recognize this problem and have taken matters into
their own hands. World Wildlife (WWF) is one of the more well known organization that have
taken a part in conserving our global environment and reducing the threats that are being posed
against nature and creatures around the world. There are a vast amount of organizations around
the globe that are mainly focused on sustaining marine ecosystems. These organizations prove to
successfully make aware of the situation and risks that human activities pose on marine life by
providing certain restrictions, awareness groups, and research activities to help enlighten and
influence others to take a part in preserving and keeping a sustainable marine ecosystem.
However, these groups and and organizations seem to only provide enlightenment for people to
only understand the situation and do not provide a more strict and enforced act of awareness that
people need to act upon. To provide a more strict and sustainable system to preserve our marine
ecosystem around the globe, the federal government should be in charge of enforcing and
establishing stricter laws that link with our everyday activities that influence the harm that we
create upon our marine ecosystem. By doing this, it would be a lawful requirement and legal
precautions would be addressed when committing these actions; hence, creating a more strict
rule that would prevent further harm to marine ecosystems. By establishing this, the actions and
precautions that present day organizations are taking would be more enhanced and would
provide more results in keeping a sustainable marine ecosystem; hence, providing faster and
more efficient reliefs in sustaining marine ecosystems around the world.

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Our marine ecosystem today is slowly disintegrating through the actions of human
activities. As we human beings go about our day doing our everyday activities, we fail to realize
that certain activities and actions that we do can cause damage to other lives as well. In this
case, the actions that we demonstrate pose a threat to millions of species that live in our marine
ecosystem. In a way, we think selfishly about how we can fulfil our desires. We do not
recognize and take into consideration the harmful effects our activities can pose to our
environment. If an unsustainable marine ecosystem is continued, we will not only see the
disintegration of marine life, but also a chain reaction where it will come right back to us.