Acca p4 Notes j15

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P4
Ju Lec
ne tu
20 re
15 No
ex tes
am
s
Advanced
Financial
Management
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June 2015 Examinations
Paper P4
CONTENTS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Exam Formulae & Maths Tables
Objectives of Organisations
Conflicts of Interest and Their Resolution
The Implications of Corporate Governance for Organisations
Strategy Formulation
11
Expansion and Market Maintenance Strategies
17
Corporate Dividend Policy
19
The Cost of Capital
21
The Valuation of Debt Finance, and the Macaulay Duration
29
Portfolio Theory
33
The Capital Asset Pricing Model
41
Discounted Cash Flow Techniques
49
The Impact of Financing
57
Share Options and Option Pricing
61
Real Options
69
Mergers and Acquisitions
71
The Valuation of Acquisitions and Mergers
75
Corporate Reorganisation and Capital Reconstruction Schemes
81
Foreign Exchange Risk Management (1)
85
97
Interest Rate Risk Management (1)
101
111
The Global Economic Environment
113
The International Financial System
115
Exchange Rate Determination
117
International Operations
121
Raising Capital Overseas
123
The Management of International Trade
125
Sources of finance Islamic Finance
127
Financial Management Terms
129
Answers to Examples
137
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Paper P4
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Paper P4
EXAM FORMULAE & MATHS TABLES

Formulae
Modigliani and Miller Proposition 2 (with tax)
k e = kie + (1 T)(kie k d )
Vd
Ve
Two asset portfolio

sp = w2a s2a + w2b s2b + 2wawbrab sasb

E(ri ) = Rf + i (E(rm ) Rf )
The asset beta formula
V (1 T)
Ve
d
a =
e +
d
(Ve + Vd (1 T)) (Ve + Vd (1 T))
The Growth Model

Po =
Do (1 + g)
(re g)
Gordons growth approximation

g = bre
The weighted average cost of capital
V
e
d
ke +
k (1 T)
WACC =
Ve + Vd
Ve + Vd d
The Fisher formula

(1 + i) = (1 + r)(1+h)
Purchasing power parity and interest rate parity

S1 = S0 x
(1+hc )
(1+hb )
F0 = S0 x
(1+ic )
(1+ib )
ii
Paper P4

Modified Internal Rate of Return
1
PV n
MIRR = R 1 + re 1
PVI
The Black-Scholes option pricing model

c = PaN(d1) PeN(d2 )e rt
Where:
d1 =
ln(Pa / Pe ) + (r+0.5s2 )t
s t
d2 = d1 s t
The Put Call Parity relationship
p = c Pa + Pee rt
[P.T.O.
Paper P4

Present Value Table
Present value of 1 i.e. (1 + r)n
Where
r = discount rate
n = number of periods until payment
Discount rate (r)
Periods
(n)
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
1
2
3
4
5
0990
0980
0971
0961
0951
0980
0961
0942
0924
0906
0971
0943
0915
0888
0863
0962
0925
0889
0855
0822
0952
0907
0864
0823
0784
0943
0890
0840
0792
0747
0935
0873
0816
0763
0713
0926
0857
0794
0735
0681
0917
0842
0772
0708
0650
0909
0826
0751
0683
0621
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0942
0933
0923
0941
0905
0888
0871
0853
0837
0820
0837
0813
0789
0766
0744
0790
0760
0731
0703
0676
0746
0711
0677
0645
0614
0705
0665
0627
0592
0558
0666
0623
0582
0544
0508
0630
0583
0540
0500
0463
0596
0547
0502
0460
0422
0564
0513
0467
0424
0386
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0896
0887
0879
0870
0861
0804
0788
0773
0758
0743
0722
0701
0681
0661
0642
0650
0625
0601
0577
0555
0585
0557
0530
0505
0481
0527
0497
0469
0442
0417
0475
0444
0415
0388
0362
0429
0397
0368
0340
0315
0388
0356
0326
0299
0275
0305
0319
0290
0263
0239
11
12
13
14
15
(n)
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
1
2
3
4
5
0901
0812
0731
0659
0593
0893
0797
0712
0636
0567
0885
0783
0693
0613
0543
0877
0769
0675
0592
0519
0870
0756
0658
0572
0497
0862
0743
0641
0552
0476
0855
0731
0624
0534
0456
0847
0718
0609
0516
0437
0840
0706
0593
0499
0419
0833
0694
0579
0482
0402
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0535
0482
0434
0391
0352
0507
0452
0404
0361
0322
0480
0425
0376
0333
0295
0456
0400
0351
0308
0270
0432
0376
0327
0284
0247
0410
0354
0305
0263
0227
0390
0333
0285
0243
0208
0370
0314
0266
0225
0191
0352
0296
0249
0209
0176
0335
0279
0233
0194
0162
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0317
0286
0258
0232
0209
0287
0257
0229
0205
0183
0261
0231
0204
0181
0160
0237
0208
0182
0160
0140
0215
0187
0163
0141
0123
0195
0168
0145
0125
0108
0178
0152
0130
0111
0095
0162
0137
0116
0099
0084
0148
0124
0104
0088
0074
0135
0112
0093
0078
0065
11
12
13
14
15
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iv
Paper P4

Annuity Table
(1 + r)n
Present value of an annuity of 1 i.e. 1
r
Where
r = discount rate
n = number of periods
Discount rate (r)
Periods
(n)
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
1
2
3
4
5
0990
1970
2941
3902
4853
0980
1942
2884
3808
4713
0971
1913
2829
3717
4580
0962
1886
2775
3630
4452
0952
1859
2723
3546
4329
0943
1833
2673
3465
4212
0935
1808
2624
3387
4100
0926
1783
2577
3312
3993
0917
1759
2531
3240
3890
0909
1736
2487
3170
3791
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
5795
6728
7652
8566
9471
5601
6472
7325
8162
8983
5417
6230
7020
7786
8530
5242
6002
6733
7435
8111
5076
5786
6463
7108
7722
4917
5582
6210
6802
7360
4767
5389
5971
6515
7024
4623
5206
5747
6247
6710
4486
5033
5535
5995
6418
4355
4868
5335
5759
6145
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1037
1126
1213
1300
1387
9787
1058
1135
1211
1285
9253
9954
1063
1130
1194
8760
9385
9986
1056
1112
8306
8863
9394
9899
1038
7887
8384
8853
9295
9712
7499
7943
8358
8745
9108
7139
7536
7904
8244
8559
6805
7161
7487
7786
8061
6495
6814
7103
7367
7606
11
12
13
14
15
(n)
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
1
2
3
4
5
0901
1713
2444
3102
3696
0893
1690
2402
3037
3605
0885
1668
2361
2974
3517
0877
1647
2322
2914
3433
0870
1626
2283
2855
3352
0862
1605
2246
2798
3274
0855
1585
2210
2743
3199
0847
1566
2174
2690
3127
0840
1547
2140
2639
3058
0833
1528
2106
2589
2991
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
4231
4712
5146
5537
5889
4111
4564
4968
5328
5650
3998
4423
4799
5132
5426
3889
4288
4639
4946
5216
3784
4160
4487
4772
5019
3685
4039
4344
4607
4833
3589
3922
4207
4451
4659
3498
3812
4078
4303
4494
3410
3706
3954
4163
4339
3326
3605
3837
4031
4192
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
6207
6492
6750
6982
7191
5938
6194
6424
6628
6811
5687
5918
6122
6302
6462
5453
5660
5842
6002
6142
5234
5421
5583
5724
5847
5029
5197
5342
5468
5575
4836
4988
5118
5229
5324
4656
4793
4910
5008
5092
4486
4611
4715
4802
4876
4327
4439
4533
4611
4675
11
12
13
14
15
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[P.T.O.
Paper P4
Standard normal distribution table
00
01
02
03
04
000
00000
00398
00793
01179
01554
001
00040
00438
00832
01217
01591
002
00080
00478
00871
01255
01628
003
00120
00517
00910
01293
01664
004
00160
00557
00948
01331
01700
005
00199
00596
00987
01368
01736
006
00239
00636
01026
01406
01772
007
00279
00675
01064
01443
01808
008
00319
00714
01103
01480
01844
009
00359
00753
01141
01517
01879
05
06
07
08
09
01915
02257
02580
02881
03159
01950
02291
02611
02910
03186
01985
02324
02642
02939
03212
02019
02357
02673
02967
03238
02054
02389
02704
02995
03264
02088
02422
02734
03023
03289
02123
02454
02764
03051
03315
02157
02486
02794
03078
03340
02190
02517
02823
03106
03365
02224
02549
02852
03133
03389
10
11
12
13
14
03413
03643
03849
04032
04192
03438
03665
03869
04049
04207
03461
03686
03888
04066
04222
03485
03708
03907
04082
04236
03508
03729
03925
04099
04251
03531
03749
03944
04115
04265
03554
03770
03962
04131
04279
03577
03790
03980
04147
04292
03599
03810
03997
04162
04306
03621
03830
04015
04177
04319
15
16
17
18
19
04332
04452
04554
04641
04713
04345
04463
04564
04649
04719
04357
04474
04573
04656
04726
04370
04484
04582
04664
04732
04382
04495
04591
04671
04738
04394
04505
04599
04678
04744
04406
04515
04608
04686
04750
04418
04525
04616
04693
04756
04429
04535
04625
04699
04761
04441
04545
04633
04706
04767
20
21
22
23
24
04772
04821
04861
04893
04918
04778
04826
04864
04896
04920
04783
04830
04868
04898
04922
04788
04834
04871
04901
04925
04793
04838
04875
04904
04927
04798
04842
04878
04906
04929
04803
04846
04881
04909
04931
04808
04850
04884
04911
04932
04812
04854
04887
04913
04934
04817
04857
04890
04916
04936
25
26
27
28
29
04938
04953
04965
04974
04981
04940
04955
04966
04975
04982
04941
04956
04967
04976
04982
04943
04957
04968
04977
04983
04945
04959
04969
04977
04984
04946
04960
04970
04978
04984
04948
04961
04971
04979
04985
04949
04962
04972
04979
04985
04951
04963
04973
04980
04986
04952
04964
04974
04981
04986
30
04987
04987
04987
04988
04988
04989
04989
04989
04990
04990
This table can be used to calculate N(d), the cumulative normal distribution functions needed for the Black-Scholes model
of option pricing. If di > 0, add 05 to the relevant number above. If di < 0, subtract the relevant number above from 05.
End of Question Paper
10
vi
Paper P4
Chapter 1
Paper P4
OBJECTIVES OF ORGANISATIONS
1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the framework within which financial managers
operate, and to identify the main areas where they have to make decisions (and also you, in the
examination!).
2 Stakeholders
There are many types of organisations and many different groups that have a stake in the
performance of the organisations.
These groups include:
Shareholders
The community at large (in particular, environmental considerations)
Employees of the company
Managers / directors of the company
Customers
Suppliers
Finance providers (lenders)
Paper P4
Chapter 1
The government
The interests of all stakeholders need to be balanced.

In the UK (and the USA) the focus is on the shareholders, on the basis that it is the shareholders
that have a risk and return relationship with the company. The aim is to maximise shareholders
wealth (maximising) while at the same time satisfying the requirements of the other stakeholders
(satisficing).
In many countries of mainland Europe, and Japan, the focus is more on maximising corporate
wealth which includes technical, human and market resources.
3 Maximising shareholders wealth

Shareholders wealth is measured by the market value of their shares. It is important therefore for
the financial manager to consider the likely impact on the share price of alternative strategies, and
to choose those that are likely to increase the share price.
We will discuss in a later chapter the factors that affect the market values of shares.
4 Types of strategic decisions to be made by the financial manager

The main types of decisions that need to be made (and the main areas for consideration for the
examination) are:
Investment decisions
Sources of finance decisions
Decisions regarding the level of dividend to be paid
Decisions regarding the hedging of currency or interest rate risk
Paper P4
Chapter 1
5 Share ownership in the UK

Whereas 50 years ago the majority of shares in companies were owned by individuals, the pattern
has changed dramatically.
These days individual shareholdings account for less than 20% of total share ownership, with
the majority of shares being owned by institutional investors. These comprise pension funds,
insurance companies and unit trusts.
The dominance of institutional investors is important for the financial managers in that their
needs may be different from the needs of individual shareholders. The financial manager needs to
be aware of the main types of shareholders in his company.
Paper P4
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Paper P4
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST AND

THEIR RESOLUTION
1 Introduction
The various stakeholders in a company are likely to have conflicting interests. In particular the
interests of directors may not directly coincide with the interests of the shareholders, even though
they are working for the shareholders.
The purpose of this chapter is to consider these conflicts and look briefly at ways of attempting to
achieve goal congruence (i.e. to remove the conflicts of interest).
2 Directors behaviour
Directors are agents for the shareholders and are supposed to be acting in the best interests of the
shareholders of their company. However, in recent years they have been accused of having made
decisions on the basis of their own self-interest.
Specific allegations include:

Excessive remuneration levels
Empire building
Creative accounting
Chief executives having the aim of building as large a group as possible by takeovers not
always improving the return to shareholders
Using creative techniques to improve the appearance of published accounts and artificially
boosting the share price.
Such techniques include capitalising intangibles on the balance sheet (e.g. development
expenditures, putting a value on brands, recognising revenue on long-term contracts at the
earliest possible time, not depreciating fixed assets).
The Accounting Standards Board attempts to cut out creative accounting practices as much
as practically possible.
Off balance sheet finance
For example, leasing assets rather than purchasing them (although this is now dealt with by
the Accounting Standards)
Takeover bids
There have been many instances of directors spending time and money defending their
company against takeover bids, even when the takeover would have been in the best interests
of the shareholders.
Conflicts of Interest and Their Resolution
Paper P4
Chapter 2
The reason for this is suggested as being that the directors are frightened for their own jobs
were the takeover bid to succeed.
Unethical activities
Such as trading with unethical countries, using slave labour, spying on competitors, testing
products on animals.
3 Agency theory
Agency theory is the relationship between the various interested parties in the firm.
An agency relationship exists when one party, the principal, employs another party, the agent, to
perform a task on their behalf.
For example, a manager is an agent of the shareholders. Similarly, an employee is an agent of the
managers.
Conflicts of interests exist when the interests of the agent are different from the interests of the
principal. For example, an employee is likely to be interested in higher pay whereas the manager
may want to cut costs.
It is therefore important for the principal to find ways of reducing the conflicts of interest. One
example is to introduce a method of remuneration for the agent that is dependent on the extent
to which the interests of the principal are fulfilled e.g. a director may be given share options so
that he is encouraged to maximise the value of the shares of the company.
4 Goal congruence
Goal congruence is where the conflict of interest is removed and the interests of the agent are the
same as the interests of the principal.
The main approach to achieving this is through the remuneration scheme an example of which
was given in the previous section of this chapter, that of giving share options to the directors.
However, no one scheme is likely to be perfect. For example, although share options encourage
directors to maximise the value of shares in the company, the directors are more likely to be
concerned about the short term effect of decision on the share price rather than worry about the
long-term effect. The shareholders are more likely to be concerned with long-term growth.
An alternative approach is to introduce profit-related pay, for example by awarding a bonus based
on the level of profits. However, again this may not always achieve the desired goal congruence
directors may be tempted to use creative accounting to boost the profit figure, and additionally
are perhaps more likely to be concerned more with short-term profitability rather than long-term.
Chapter 3
Paper P4
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CORPORATE

GOVERNANCE FOR ORGANISATIONS
1 Introduction
Corporate governance is concerned with how companies are directed and controlled.
The purpose of this chapter is to briefly compare how this is approached in different countries,
and to consider in more detail the approach in the UK.
2 Differing approaches to corporate governance

UK
In the UK there is a mix of legislative (Companies Acts) and institutionally endorsed voluntary
codes. Institutional investor input to boards is generally weak, although recent years have seen a
greater emphasis on strong non-executives and better corporate reporting.
US
In the US there is far more legislation and detailed reporting requirements concerning corporate
governance. Major creditors and other company CEOs are often on the board.
Europe
Although European legislation applies within the UK and also throughout the rest of the EU, in
other European countries a dual board system is far more common. There is greater stakeholder
involvement than in the UK, largely representing the importance of bank rather than equity
finance.
Japan
In Japan the system works on consensus, with all stakeholders expected to work together in the
best interests of the company. A very close relationship exists between the banks and companies,
with banks commonly represented on the board of directors.
Paper P4
Chapter 3
3 Corporate governance in the UK

During the 1990s in the UK, there were three separate committees set up to consider aspects of
corporate governances which each produced a report.
These were:
The Cadbury Report in 1992, which focussed on the control functions of boards and on the role
of auditors
The Greenbury Report in 1995, which focussed on the setting and disclosure of directors
remuneration
The Hampel Report in 1998, which brought together the previous recommendations and
submitted a proposed code to the Stock Exchange which listed companies should comply with.
The Stock Exchange published the final version of its Principles of good governance and code
of best practice (known as the Combined Code) in June 1998. Listed companies now have to
disclose how they have applied the principles and complied with the Codes provisions in their
annual report and accounts. The auditors have to express an opinion on this statement.
4 The UK Combined Code

There are 45 code provisions which include the following:
(a) Board members

the roles of Chair of the Board and Chief Executive should be separated unless the company
publicly justifies reasons for not doing so
the identification of a senior independent director

not less than one-third of the board comprises non-executive directors
the majority of non-executive directors should be independent
(b) Board structure and function

there should be a nominations committee (unless the board is small)
the formalisation of the role of Chairman in ensuring that all directors are properly briefed on
issues arising at board meetings
the audit and remuneration committees must only be of non-executive directors
directors should, at least annually, conduct a review of the effectiveness of the groups system of
internal controls and should report to shareholders that they have done so
(c) Remuneration of directors

performance related elements should form a significant proportion of the total remuneration
package
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Chapter 3
(d) Conduct of AGMs

announcement of proxy votes at AGMs
unbundling of resolutions
sending out the notice of the AGM and the related voting papers at least 20 working days before
the meeting
(e) There is also a requirement that companies consider:

a reduction of the notice period of directors to one year or less
early termination arrangements

the extent to which the principal shareholders should be contacted about directors remuneration
whether the remuneration report should be voted on at the AGM
10
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 4
STRATEGY FORMULATION
1 Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the principles of strategic planning. Most of the chapter relates
to topics which you have studied before and is therefore revision. Additionally, there are topics
in this and the next chapter that are covered in much greater detail in other syllabuses. In this
examination, you will not be examined in detail on these areas, but do not be afraid of drawing on
your other knowledge when answering questions.
2 Business planning
Businesses must plan and control their operations so that decisions can be taken in line with the
companys objectives.
Plans are usually classified into:

Strategic plans, which are concerned mainly with external problems, and in particular with
deciding which products or services to produce for which market.
Tactical plans,
11
hich are concerned with ensuring that the companys resources are
w
adequate for carrying out the strategic plans in order to reach the desired
objective
Operational plans, which are concerned with the way in which the company is to be run from
day to day in order to optimise performance
A business plan is often regarded as being a combination of a strategic plan and a financial plan.
The financial plan sets out quantified financial targets, which usually take the form of forecast
financial statements. These are based on forecasts, and are derived from an analysis of past results
and predictions of future changes within the economy/industry/company.
12
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Chapter 4
3 Financial analysis
Although you must be aware of several key measures of financial performance, it is important that
you do not fall into the trap of simply calculating every ratio imaginable for every year available.
What the examiner is after is much more of an over-view and being able to determine the key
measures and to comment adequately.
3.1 The following points should be considered:
What is it that you are being asked to comment on?

For example, if you are looking at the information from the shareholders perspective, then
growth (or otherwise) in the share price will be of great interest.
However, if you are looking at how well the managers are performing, the growth (or
otherwise) in the profit (to the extent to which they control it) is perhaps of more importance.
Growth:
Always make some comment as to the level of growth. The amount of detail required depends
on the information available and the number of marks allocated, but growth in turnover, in
profit, and in share price are all potentially relevant.
Look at the overall level of growth and look for any trends, do not waste time doing detailed
year-by-year analysis.
Areas for analysis:
Subject again to exactly what you are being asked to comment on, the following areas are
likely to be worthy of consideration:
Profitability how well a company performs, given its asset base
Liquidity the short term financial position of the company
Gearing the long-term financial position of the company
Investors ratios how well investors will appraise the company
Bases for comparison:

Most measures mean little on their own, and are only really useful when compared with
something.
Depending on the information given in the question, any comparison is likely to be one of
the following:
with previous years for the same company
with other similar companies
with industry averages
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Chapter 4
4 Common ratios
The following is a list of the most common ratios that may be appropriate. However, do not simply
calculate every ratio for every question think about what you are trying to consider and choose
the most appropriate ratios. If relevant by all means calculate additional ratios there is no one
set of ratios.
Profitability ratios
(a)
Return on capital employed (ROCE) =

PBIT
Turnover
(b) Net profit margin =

(c)
Gross profit
Turnover
Gross profit margin =
Profit before interest and tax (PBIT)

%
Capital employed
Turnover
Capital employed
(d) Asset turnover =
Note: Capital employed = shareholders funds plus creditors amounts falling due after more
than one year plus long term provisions for liabilities and charges.
Net profit margin asset turnover = ROCE
PBIT
Turnover
=
Turnover
Capital employed
PBIT
Capital employed
Liquidity ratios
(a)
Current ratio =
Current assets
Current liabilities
(b) Acid test (quick ratio) =

(c)
Current assets less inventory

Current liabilities
Average receivables
365
Credit sales
Receivables period =
(d) Inventory days =
Average inventory
365
Cost of sales
Average payables
365
Purchases
(d) Payables period =

Gearing ratios
(a) Gearing ratio =
(b) Interest cover =
(c)
Prior charge capital (long term debt)

Long term debt + equity (shareholders funds)
PBIT
Interest
Operating gearing =
Contribution
PBIT
13
14
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Chapter 4
Investor ratios
(a)
P/E ratio =
Market price
EPS
(b) Earnings per share (EPS) =
(c)
Dividend yield =
Earnings available for distribution to equity

Number of shares in issue and ranking for dividend
Dividend per share

Market price
5 EBITDA
EBITDA is a financial performance measure that has appeared relatively recently. It stands for
earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortisation and is particularly popular with
high-tech startup businesses.
Consideration of earnings before interest and tax has long been common before interest in
order to measure the overall profitability before any distributions to providers and capital, and
before tax on the basis that this is not under direct control of management.
The reason that EBITDA additionally considers the profit before depreciation and amortisation is
in order to approximate to cash flow, on the basis that depreciation and amortisation are non-cash
expenses.
A major criticism, however, of EBITDA is that it fails to consider the amounts required for fixed
asset replacement.
E xample : 1
Summary financial information for Repse plc is given below, covering performance over the last four years.
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Turnover
43,800
48,000
56,400
59,000
Cost of sales
16,600
18,200
22,600
22,900
Salaries and Wages
12,600
12,900
11,900
11,400
Other costs
5,900
7,400
12,200
13,400
Profit before interest and tax
Interest
Tax
Profit after interest and tax
Dividends payable
Average debtors
Average creditors
Average total net assets
Shareholders funds
Long term debt
Number of shares in issue (000)
P/E ratio (average for year)
Repse plc
Industry
8,700
1,200
2,400
5,100
2,000
9,500
1,000
2,800
5,700
2,200
9,700
200
3,200
6,300
2,550
11,300
150
3,600
7,550
3,600
8,800
3,100
33,900
22,600
11,300
10,000
3,800
35,000
26,000
9,000
11,100
5,000
47,500
44,800
2,700
11,400
5,200
50,300
48,400
1,900
9,000
9,000
12,000
12,000
17.0
18.0
18.0
18.2
18.4
18.0
19.0
18.2
The increase in share capital was as a result of a rights issue.
Review Repses performance in light of its objective being to maximise shareholder wealth.
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Chapter 4
15
16
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Chapter 4
6 Long-term versus short-term objectives

Most of the syllabus for the examination is concerned with achieving the long-term objectives of
the company.
However, the position of the company in the short-term can not be ignored and can result in a
conflict.
For example, a strategy aimed at long-term growth in the company might involve substantial
investment that results in a fall in profitability in the short-term. The financial manager needs
obviously to be aware of this conflict, consider the implications, and consider possible ways of
mitigating the problem.
Another example concerns the working capital requirements of the company. A long-term
strategy for growth might involve short-term cash deficiencies. The financial manager needs to
be concerned with identifying the short-term implications and planning for ways of dealing with
them.
Chapter 5
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EXPANSION AND MARKET

MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES
1 Introduction
In this chapter we briefly consider different long-term strategies that the company may adopt.
Again, this chapter is covered in much greater detail in your other studies. Do not be frightened
of using your knowledge where appropriate in this examination.
2 Growth strategies
Growth can be via:
Expansion:
existing products and/or existing markets
Horizontal integration: new products to existing markets / new markets for existing
products
Vertical integration: expansions up (backwards) or down (forwards) the supply chain
Concentric diversification: new products / markets with technological / marketing synergy
with existing products / markets
Conglomerate diversification: apparently unrelated expansion
Conglomerate mergers may create value via:

Economic efficiency via, for example,
(i)
reciprocal buying agreements within the group
(ii) dumping / predatory pricing, backed by group

(iii) tie-in sales agreements (forcing purchasers of one product to also buy another product)
(iv) exclusive dealing agreements (e.g. car dealerships)
(v) cross subsidisation within the group

Financial synergy via:
(i)
Utilisation of tax losses within the group
(ii) Increase in borrowing capacity as a percentage of group assets
Withdrawal or abandonment
Exit barriers preventing withdrawal or abandonment include:
17
Economic barriers such as redundancy / labout unrest elsewhere in the group

Political barriers
Marketing considerations: loss leaders / firms reputation
Desire to sell subsidiary as a going concern
18
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Expansion and Market Maintenance Strategies
Chapter 5
3 Internal (organic) growth versus external (acquisition) growth

Key strategic dimensions for organic growth
available finance
consideration of impact on existing staff (enhanced career opportunities, greater workload)

easier to plan organic growth (known environment / incremental change)
greater economies of scale one head office
External growth criteria

The clear identification of how acquisition will add value is essential, What specific role will the
acquisition perform?
Examples of acquisition objectives and alternative methods for achieving them:
sales growth
internal expansion / joint venture
use spare cash
invert in marketable securities
share buy-back
improve management skills
increase training
eliminate competitor
aggressive marketing
market positioning
Intermediate strategies
licensing
joint ventures
Chapter 6
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19
CORPORATE DIVIDEND POLICY
1 Introduction
The fundamental role of the financial manager is to maximise shareholders wealth. Since, in theory,
the value of shares is heavily dependent on future expected dividends, it is important to consider
the dividend policy of the company and the effect this may have on shareholders expectations.
2 Dividend irrelevance
Modigliani and Miller argued that the level of dividend is irrelevant and that is simply the level of
profits that matters. Their logic was that it is the level of earnings that determines the dividends
that the company is able to pay, but that the company has the choice as to how much to distribute
as dividend and how much to retain for expansion of the company.
A large dividend will result in little future growth whereas a smaller dividend (and therefore
more retention) will result in more growth in future dividend. It is expected future dividends
that determine the share price and therefore the shareholders should be indifferent between the
alternatives outlined above.
As a result, the company should focus on improving earnings rather than worry about the level of
dividends to be paid.
3 Practical influences on dividend policy

Despite the above, shareholders are affected by the dividend policy of the company for various
reasons:
(a) the signalling effect

If a company reduces a dividend then there is a danger that it will worry the shareholders,
even if it results from increased retention and not from a fall in earnings. The danger is that
whatever information is given to shareholders about the reasons, their immediate reaction
might be to assume that the company is performing badly. If this is their reaction then they
will reduce their future expectations with an adverse affect on the share price. Similarly an
increase in the dividend payment may serve to increase their future expectations even if it
results simply from a reduction in retention rather than an increase in earning.
(b) liquidity preference
Some shareholders invest for income and others for capital growth. If they require income
then they will choose to invest in companies that have a record of high dividend payments
whereas if they prefer growth then they will choose companies that have a record of lower
dividends but more retention and expansion.
If, for example, an investor requires income and has therefore chosen a company paying
high dividends, they are going to be unhappy if the company changes its policy and starts to
retain a higher proportion of earnings.
Modigliani and Miller counter this by saying that since the expansion should increase the
share price then shareholders needing cash can always sell some of the shares to recoup
the fall in dividends. This is fine in theory, but ignores transaction costs and also the fact
that shareholders can argue that their company should pay them their cash directly and not
20
Corporate Dividend Policy
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Chapter 6
force them to start selling shares.
(c) taxation
As stated already, the basic choice is between high dividends with low capital growth, or low
dividends with high capital growth.
Dividend income is taxed differently from capital gains and therefore the tax position of the
investors can influence their preference.
4 Practical dividend policy

In practice there is a tendency for companies to do two things in relation to dividends:
(a) to aim for a steady pattern of dividends

e.g. to have a policy of increasing dividends by 5% p.a.. This enables investors to choose the
companies whose dividend policy they prefer, and avoids the signalling problem.
Clearly, the company can only maintain 5% growth in the long-term provided that they can
achieve the same earnings growth. Therefore they follow a policy that they think is achievable
and trust that years where earning grow in excess of 5% will fund years where earnings grow
at less than 5%. They do however leave themselves open to a dramatic signalling problem if
they ever are forced to deviate from their stated policy.
(b) scrip dividends

a very common practice in recent years has been to offer investors the choice between taking
dividends in cash or in shares. This overcomes the liquidity preference problem by allowing
each shareholder to choose whichever is best for them.
Chapter 7
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21
THE COST OF CAPITAL
1 Introduction
This chapter should be revision of your studies for previous examinations.
However, you do need to work through the chapter carefully. You will already be aware of the need
to know the Cost of Capital in order to perform net present value calculations, and in this chapter
we look at how it may be calculated.
2 The cost of equity

If a company is trying to decide whether or not to invest in a new project, they will need to know
the cost of the money being used. If the project is being financed by shareholders (either by way of
a new issue of shares, or by the use of retained earnings), then we need to be able to calculate the
rate of return that shareholders will require.
One way that we are able to estimate the likely cost of future equity finance is to look at the existing
shares and determine what rate of return the shareholders are currently demanding.
We can do this for quoted shares by using the principle that the market value of a share depends
on the future expected dividends and the shareholders required rate of return.
For quoted shares we know the market value (it is printed in the newspapers!) and therefore if we
know the future expected dividends, we can simply work backwards.
E xample 1
S plc has in issue $1 shares with a market value of $2.40 per share. A constant dividend of 30c per share has
just been paid.
What is the shareholders required return ( ke ), (and therefore the cost of equity to the company)?
The problem with this example is that it assumes that shareholders are expecting a constant
dividend. In practice, as we discusses before, it is more likely that they are expecting growth in
dividends.
When there is growth in dividends we use the following formula.
The formula is:
22
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The Cost of Capital
Chapter 7
D0 (1 + g )
+g
P0
(Note: this formula is given on the formula sheet - The Growth Model
ke =
but needs rearranging to get the formula here)

where:
k e = the shareholders required rate of return ( = cost of equity)
D0 = the current dividend
P0 = the current market value per share (ex div)
g = the rate of dividend growth p.a.
E xample 2
T plc has in issue 50c shares with a market value of $4.20 per share. A dividend of 40c per share has just been
paid.
Dividends are growing at 6% p.a..
What is the cost of equity?
E xample 3
U plc has in issue $1 shares with a market value of $3.60 per share. A dividend of 30c per share has just been
paid.
What is the cost of equity?
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The Cost of Capital
Chapter 7
3 Estimating the rate of growth in dividends

When using the formula for the cost of equity, we need to know the rate of dividend growth
that shareholders expect in the future. If this figure is given us in the examination then there is
obviously no problem.
However, you may be expected to estimate the dividend growth rate using one of two approaches:
using the rate of growth in the past

using the rb model
3.1 Past dividend growth

E xample 4
It is now the year 2001, and X plc has paid out the following total dividends in past years:
1996 $28,000
1997 $29,000
1998 $32,000
1999 $31,000
2000 $33,000
Estimate the average rate of growth of dividends p.a..
3.2 rb growth
This approach considers the reason for growth in dividends. In order to have long-term growth in
dividends, the company needs to achieve long-term growth in earnings.
In order to achieve long-term earnings growth, the company needs to expand, which will require
additional investment. The only long-term, continual source of finance that shareholders will be
in a position to expect is the retention of earnings. If all earnings are distributed as dividends then
shareholders will not be in a position to expect growth, whereas the more of the earnings that are
retained for expansion then the more growth shareholders will be expecting.
The growth can be estimate using the following formula:
g=rb
where:
b = the proportion of earnings retained in the company
r = the rate of return that the company can earn on re-investment
What follows is a short illustration of the principle of rb growth:
23
24
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The Cost of Capital
Chapter 7
COMPANY A
Earnings $100, all distributed as dividend (no retention)
Earnings
Retained
Dividend.
Yr 0
100
100
Yr 1
100
100
Yr 2
100
100
High dividend; no dividend growth; no growth in market value
COMPANY B
Earnings $100; 40% distributed as dividend. Retention is re-invested at 10% p.a.
Earnings
Yr 0
100
Retained
Dividend.
60
40
@10%
(60%)
Yr 1
100
6
106
63.6
42.4
6%
Yr 2
106
6.36
@ 10%
112.36
67.416
44.944
6%
Lower dividend; growth in dividends; growth in market value.

Growth rate = r b = 10% 60% = 6% p.a.
E xample 5
Y plc retains 40% of earnings each year and is able to reinvest so as to earn a return of 20% p.a.
What is the expected growth rate in dividends?
The Cost of Capital
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Chapter 7
E xample 6
Z plc has in issue $1 shares with a market value of $2.80 per share. A dividend of 20c per share has just been
paid (earnings per share were 32c).
The company is able to invest so as to earn a return of 18% p.a..
(a) Estimate the rate of growth in dividends
(b) Estimate the cost of equity
(c) Estimate the market value per share in 2 years time
4 The cost of debt

If we intend to raise debt to finance a project then we need to estimate the return that debt lenders
will require. The best way we can estimate this is to look at existing debt in the company and
calculate the current cost.
If the company has traded debt, we can do this by using the valuation theory backwards! We
know the current market value and the future receipts and can therefore calculate the investors
required rate of return.
There is one additional problem however. Although it is the investors required rate of return that
determines the rate of interest that the company has to pay, we assume that any debt interest
payable attracts tax relief for the company and that therefore the actual cost of debt to the company
is lower. (Note: throughout this examination we ignore the effect of income tax on the investor)
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26
The Cost of Capital
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Chapter 7
4.1 Irredeemable debt

Irredeemable debt is debt that is never repaid. It does not exist in practice, but in the examination
you assume debt to be irredeemable unless told otherwise.
E xample 7
F plc has in issue 8% irredeemable debentures quoted at 90 p.c. ex int.
(a) what is the return to investors ( kd ) ?
(b) what is the cost to the company, if the rate of corporation tax is 30% ?
4.2 Redeemable debt

E xample 8
G plc has in issue 6% debentures quoted at 85 ex int.
The debentures are redeemable in 5 years time at a premium of 10%
(a) What is the return to investors ( kd ) ?
(b) What is the cost to the company if the rate of corporation tax is 30%?
The Cost of Capital
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Chapter 7
5 The weighted average cost of capital (WACC)

In the previous sections we have seen how to calculate the cost of both equity and debt.
However, most company are financed using a mixture of both equity and debt.
It is useful for our later work to be able to calculate the average cost of capital to the company. We
do this by calculating the cost of each source of finance separately (as in the previous sections) and
then calculating a weighted average cost, using the ex div/int market values of the equity and debt.
E xample 9
J plc is financed as follows:
Equity 5 million $1 shares quoted at $2.50 cum div, on which a constant dividend of 32c per share is about
to be paid.
Debt - $4M 8% debentures quoted at 92 ex int.
Corporation tax is 30%
(a) Calculate the returns to investors on equity and on debt
(b) Calculate the WACC of the company
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28
The Cost of Capital
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Chapter 7
E xample 10
K plc is financed as follows:
Equity 10 million $1 shares quoted at $3.20 ex div, on which a dividend of 20c per share has just been paid.
Debt - $6M 10% debentures quoted at 105 ex int. The debentures are redeemable in 6 years time at a premium
of 10%
Calculate the weighted average cost of capital
The weighted average cost of capital is often (but not always) the rate that we use for the
discounting of cash flows when we do investment appraisal. However, this chapter is simply about
the arithmetic we will discuss the relevant of the WACC in later chapters.
Chapter 8
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29
THE VALUATION OF DEBT FINANCE,

AND THE MACAULAY DURATION
1 Introduction
In your previous studies you have seen what factors determine the market price of debt finance (bonds).
In this chapter we will revise this and also look at how future changes in interest rates effect the market
prices.
2 The valuation of debt

In theory, the market value of debt will be determined by the returns that investors expect to receive,
and the rate of interest that they require it will be the present value of the expected receipts discounted
at the investors required rate of return.
E xample 1
A company has 8% bonds in issue, redeemable in 5 years time at a premium of 10%.
The investors required rate of return is 10%.
Calculate the market value of the bonds (for a nominal value of $100)
30
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Chapter 8
3 The redemption yield

You have also seen before that in the case of quoted debt, we can calculate the return that investors are
receiving from a bond by effectively working backwards. If we know the market value and we know
the expected receipts, then we can calculate the return to investors by working out the internal rate of
return (this is known as the gross redemption yield).
E xample 2
A company has 8% bonds in issue, redeemable in 10 years time at a premium of 10%.
The market value (for $100 nominal) is currently $91.61.
Calculate the redemption yield.
(Note that in this example we calculated the gross return to the investor. The cost of debt to the company
would be different because we would then take into account the tax relief on the interest payments.)
4 Comparing bonds
In the previous two examples, the bonds were both giving the same return to investors (gross redemption
yield). This clearly need not be the case, and the gross redemption yield will be a factor for investors
when choosing between different bonds.
However, since the bonds in both our examples are giving the same return, it is tempting to say that
potential investors would be indifferent between them.
There is however one big problem in that interest rates may change in the future, and if they do change
then investors required returns will change, which will in turn effect the market price of the bonds.
Although required returns would change for all potential investments, the extent of the change in the
market value will differ depending on the length of life of the bond.
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Chapter 8
E xample 3
For each of the bonds in the two previous examples, calculate the new market value (for $100 nominal) if the gross redemption yield were to change to 15%. Hence calculate the %age change in the
market values of each.
5 The Macaulay Duration

Example 3 illustrates in a simple way that the sensitivity of bond prices to changes in interest rates is
dependent on their redemption dates. Bonds that are due to be redeemed at a later date are more pricesensitive to interest rate changes, and therefore are riskier.
The Macaulay duration measures the average time it takes for a bond to pay its interest and principal.
The calculation is as follows:
a)
Calculate the present value of the cash flows, and add them up.
b)
Multiply the present value of each cash flow by the time period, and add them up.
c)
Divide the result from (b) by the result from (a)
E xample 4
A company has 8% bonds in issue, redeemable in 5 years time at a premium of 10%. The current market value
is $98.63 (for $100 nominal)
Calculate:
(a) the gross redemption yield, and
(b) the Macaulay duration
31
32
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Chapter 8
The shorter the duration of the bond, the less sensitive the bond price is to interest rate changes. (Try
repeating the exercise for the bonds in example 2 you will find that the duration is longer, which is to
be expected from the results of example 3.)
6 Limitation of Macaulays duration

Duration is only useful in assessing small change in interest rates. This is because although as interest
rates increase, bond prices will fall (and vice versa) the relationship is non-linear. In fact, the relationship
between the changes in bond values and changes in interest rates is in the shape of a convex curve.
Bond
value
Actual
relationship
Relationship
predicted by
duration
Interest rates
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Chapter 9
PORTFOLIO THEORY
1 Introduction
This is the first of two chapters looking at the effect of changes in the risk of a company on the
shareholders.
In this chapter we are not interested in the risk due to gearing in the company, but purely the risk
due to the nature of the business.
This chapter also serves as a lead-in to Capital Asset Pricing Model, which is very important for
the exam.
Please note that you will not be required to perform portfolio theory calculations in the exam, nor
will you be required to use formulae mentioned in this chapter. However, you can be expected to
explain the principle involved and the small arithmetical examples in this chapter are there to help
make the principles clear.
2 What is business risk?

Why is it that shares in some companies are viewed as inherently more risky than shares in other
companies? It is because the nature of their business is more risky. As a result, the potential
fluctuations in profits (and hence dividends) in the future are greater. If things go well shareholders
may well expect much higher dividends, but the risk is that things may go badly in which case they
will receive much lower dividends. The greater the potential fluctuations in returns, the greater
we say that the risk is.
3 How to measure risk

Any measure of risk needs to measure the extent of the fluctuations in the potential returns. There
are several measures that we could use, but the normal measure is the standard deviation.
The formula for the standard deviation is:

=
33
(x - x )
n
where:
= standard deviation
x = observatio
on
x = average (mean) of the observations
n = number of observations

(Remember that you will not be expected to calculate the standard deviation in the examination.)
34
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Portfolio Theory
Chapter 9
E xample 1
The following are the likely returns from Z plc, and the associated probability of each of the returns:
Return
10%
15%
20%
Probability
0.2
0.5
0.3
Calculate the average return, and the total risk.
Note that the square of the standard deviation is also called the variance. On occasions you have
been given the variance and been expected to calculate the standard deviation from it.
4 Choosing between share investments

When an investor is choosing between different shares to invest in, they take into account both
the return from the shares and the level of risk associated with these returns.
If two shares were to have the same level of risk, then they would select the share giving the
highest expected return. On the other hand, if two shares were to give the same expected return
then they would choose the one with the lowest risk.
If one share had more risk than the other, but at the same time were giving a higher return,
then it would be up to the individual shareholder to decide whether or not the higher risk was
compensated for by the higher return. This would depend on the individual shareholders attitude
to risk and we could not be expected to make the choice in the exam.
Is is however important to appreciate that investors will accept higher risks provided that there is
sufficient extra return to compensate for that higher risk.
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Portfolio Theory
Chapter 9
E xample 2
An investor has the choice of the following share investments:
Share
Expected return
Risk ()
A
20%
8%
B
25%
6%
C
23%
4%
D
20%
2%
E
22%
2%
Which share (or shares) will the investor definitely not choose?
Note that although we can reject A and D, we are not in a position to decide which is better of the
remaining three. It depends on the attitude to risk of the individual involved and as to whether he
regards the additional return as being sufficient or not for the extra risk. (We could perhaps base
a decision on the ratio of the risk to the return, but this would at best only be a guide it is the
attitude of the investor that matters, and we are not in a position to know this.)
5 Combining share investments

In the previous section we were looking at the criteria for choosing between investments, and we
said that we want higher returns, but only if the level of risk is acceptable.
It is potentially possible, however, to reduce the risk without suffering a reduction in the return,
by investing in a combination of 2 or more investments. If we are able to reduce risk without a
reduction in return then this must be worthwhile.
Consider the following simple, illustrative, example:
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Chapter 9
E xample 3
The following are the likely returns from investments in ice-cream and in umbrellas, together with the
associated probabilities:
Weather
Sun
Cloud
Rain
a)
b)
Return from
ice-cream
20%
15%
10%
Return from
umbrellas
10%
15%
20%
Probability
what is the average return and the total risk for each investment separately?
what is the average return and the total risk if an equal amount were to be invested in each?
Portfolio Theory
Paper P4
Chapter 9
Although this example is very simplistic, it does illustrate the principle that by mixing investments
together we are potentially able to reduce risk. The reason in this example that we are able to
eliminate the risk completely is that the returns from the two investments moved in exactly
opposite directions to each other. The measure of how closely two investments move with each
other is known as the coefficient of correlation (). If two investments move in exactly the same
way, then the coefficient of correlation will be +1 (perfect positive correlation), whereas if they
move in exactly opposite directions then the coefficient of correlation will be -1 (perfect negative
correlation). These are the two extremes in any situation the coefficient of correlation will lie
between +1 and -1.
If we know the coefficient of correlation between two investments, and the risk of the two
investments, then we are able (using a formula) to calculate the risk of any combination of the two
investments.
The formula is:
s p = w a2 sa2 + w 2b s 2b + 2 w a w brab sa s b
(Note that again you cannot be expected to use this formula in the examination.)
E xample 4
Juris currently has a portfolio of shares giving a return of 20% with a risk of 10%. He is considering a new
investment which gives a return of 20% with a risk of 12%. The coefficient of correlation of the new investment
with his existing portfolio is +0.2. The new investment will comprise 40% of his enlarged portfolio.
Should he invest in the new investment?
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Portfolio Theory
Chapter 9
E xample 5
Janis currently has a portfolio of shares giving a return of 18% with a risk of 10%. He is considering investing
in one of the following additional investments.
Return
Risk
Coefficient of correlation with existing portfolio
A
8%
5%
-0.7
B
8%
3%
+0.4
The new investment will comprise 20% of his enlarged portfolio.

Which of the two investments should he choose?
6 Well-diversified portfolios
In the previous examples, we only considered combining two investments. This is all that you will
be expected to do in the examination. However, it is not difficult to imagine combining more and
more investments into a portfolio.
As the number of shares in a portfolio increases, one would expect the level of risk to fall. For
the risk to fall to zero would require negative correlation and this does not occur in practice with
share investments. What will happen is that provided shares are chosen sensibly, the level of risk
will fall to a minimum.
The reason for this effect is that there are two types of risk in a share investment:
Systematic risk (or market risk):

This is the risk due to general economic factors (such as the level of inflation in the country). It
exists in all shares, but different business sectors have different levels of systematic risk. All shares
in a particular business sector will have the same level of systematic risk.
Unsystematic risk (or company specific risk):
This is the extra risk in each individual company due to factors specific to that company such as
the quality of management or labour relations.
Paper P4
Portfolio Theory
Chapter 9
It is the unsystematic risk that can be diversified away within in portfolio. What cannot be
diversified away is the systematic risk. The level of systematic risk depends on the business sector,
and the level of systematic risk remaining in a portfolio will depends on the sector or sectors
invested in.
A well-diversified investor is one who has created a portfolio where the unsystematic risk has
been fully diversified away. The only risk remaining will be systematic risk and it is the level of
systematic risk that will determine the return required by the investor. It is this statement that
forms the basis of the Capital Asset Pricing Model which will be covered in the next chapter.
Risk
Total
Risk
Unsystematic
Risk
Systematic Risk
Diversity of
Portfolio
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Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Paper P4
41
THE CAPITAL ASSET PRICING MODEL
1 Introduction
In the previous chapter on Portfolio Theory we looked at the nature of risk in share investments,
and described what is meant by a well-diversified portfolio. In this chapter we will look at the
importance of the systematic risk in relation to the return given by quoted shares and then discuss
its relevance to project appraisal.
There are a lot of formulae relevant to this topic most of which are not given in the examination
and that you will therefore need to learn.
2 Systematic and unsystematic risk

In the previous chapter we explained what is meant by systematic and unsystematic risk and the
fact that the total risk in a share is a combination of the two.
There is a formula that relates these:
total 2 = sys 2 + unsys 2

E xample 1
Shares in X plc have a total risk of 18%.
The unsystematic risk in the company has been identified as being 5%.
Calculate the systematic risk.
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Chapter 10
3 The return from quoted shares

Shareholders (as a whole) can get whatever return they require from a quoted share because they
determine the market value of the share. The market value is determined by the expected future
dividends and the investors required rate of return.
We assume that the shareholders in a large quoted company are overall well-diversified (partly
because there are many shareholders, but also because many of the shareholders will be pension
funds and unit trusts that will have large portfolios).
If the shareholders are well-diversified, then they will have diversified away all the unsystematic
risk (portfolio theory) and will therefore only be concerned with the level of systematic risk. It is
therefore the level of systematic risk that will determine the return that they require (and hence
the return actually given) from the share.
Instead of measuring the systematic risk in isolation as a %, we normally measure it relative to
the risk of the market as a whole (i.e. the stock exchange as whole). We call this the of the share.
sys
mkt
E xample 2
Y plc has systematic risk of 8% and the market has risk of 10%.
What is the of Y plc?
E xample 3
Z has total risk of 15%, which includes unsystematic risk of 4%.
The variance of the market is 30.
What is the of Z plc?
Paper P4
Chapter 10
Since it is the level of the systematic risk in a share that determines the return required, we would
expect that the higher the the higher the required return (and the lower the , the lower the
required return!).
The most important formula of all in CAPM is the formula expressing the required return, which
is as follows:
E(ri) = Rf + i[E(rm) Rf ]
where: E(ri) = return from investment
Rf
= risk free rate
rm
= return from the market
= of the investment
E xample 4
Q plc has systematic risk of 6%.
The market is giving a return of 12% with a risk of 4%.
The risk free rate is 5%.
What will be the required return from Q plc?
E xample 5
T plc is giving a return of 20%.
The stock exchange as a whole is giving a return of 25% with a risk of 8%, and the return on government
securities is 8%.
What is the of T plc, and what is the systematic risk of T plc?
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4 Calculating in practice
In practice, it is assumed that CAPM works and that therefore the return given by a share is
determined by its . It is therefore possible to calculate a by working backwards (as in example
5 above).
However, even assuming that CAPM does work, it would be too perfect to assume that the formula
works exactly from day-to-day market imperfections will mean that on any one day the actual
return may be slightly wrong. In practice therefore the returns from a share are compared with
those from the market over a long period and a calculated in this way.
This gives rise to the following formula:
covariance(inv/mkt)
variancemkt
E xample 6
The covariance of the returns from R plc with those from the market is +32.
The market is giving a return of 16% with a variance of 25.
What is the of R plc, and what return will R plc be giving?
E xample 7
The coefficient of correlation between S plc and the market is +0.7.
The total risk of S plc is 12%.
The market is giving a return of 14% with a standard deviation of 4%.
(a) what is the of S plc?
(b) what is the systematic risk in S plc?
(c) what return will S plc be giving?
Paper P4
Chapter 10
5 Combining investments
If an investment is made in a combination of several shares with different levels of systematic risk,
then the overall will be the weighted average of the individual share s.
E xample 8
Matiss decides to invest his money as follows:
20% in A plc which has a of 1.2
40% in B plc which has a of 1.8
30% in C plc which has the same risk as the market
10% in government securities.
The market return is 20% and the risk free rate is 8%.
(a) what will be the overall of his investments?
(b) what overall return will he be receiving?
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6 Alpha values
We have already stated that even assuming that CAPM works in practice, it would be unrealistic
in the real world to expect that it works precisely at each moment in time. Even if it does work
overall, it will not be surprising if some days the actual return is a little higher than it should be,
and some days a little lower.
The alpha value is simply the difference between the actual return and the theoretical return
(using CAPM).
E xample 9
D plc has a of 0.6 and is giving a return of 8%.
What is the alpha value of D plc?
7 Ungearing Bs
Until now, we have been ignoring gearing and assuming that the companies in our examples have
been all equity financed. In this case the risk of a share is determined solely by the risk of the actual
business.
If, however, a company is geared, then a share in that company becomes more risky due to the
gearing effect.
If, therefore, we are given the of a share in a geared company, then the gearing in that company
will have made the higher than it would have been had there been no gearing. The of a share
measures not simply the riskiness of the actual business but also includes the gearing effect.
Paper P4
Chapter 10
We therefore need to be careful when comparing the s of shares in different companies. A higher
certainly means that the share is more risky, but it may be due to the fact that the company is
more highly geared, or due to the fact that the business is inherently more risky, or a combination
of the two!
The formula for removing the gearing effect is given in the examination and is:
a = [
Ve
Vd (1 T )
e ]+[
d ]
(Ve + Vd (1 T ))
(Ve + Vd (1 T ))
where: a is the ungeared (also knows as the asset or earnings )

e is the geared (also known as the equity or share )
Ve and Vd are the market value of equity and debt
d is the of debt
Note that although you are given this formula in full in the examination, we normally assume
that debt is risk free and that therefore d = 0, which makes the formula much shorter! In every
relevant examination question so far we have been expected to make this assumption.
E xample 10
P plc has a gearing ratio (debt to equity) of 0.4 and the of its shares is 1.8.
Q plc has a gearing ratio of 0.2 and the of its shares is 1.5.
The rate of corporation tax is 30%.
(a) which is the more risky share?
(b) which company has the more risky business activity?
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8 The implications of CAPM for project appraisal

If the shareholders of a company are well-diversified, then their shares in this company are just
part of their overall portfolio.
If the company is to invest the shareholders money in a new project, then the project should be
appraised in the same way as the shareholders themselves would appraise the investment if they
were invested their money in it directly.
If they were investing directly, then they would base their required return simply on the of that
investment (not on how it related to any particular other investment in their portfolio).
Therefore, when the company is appraising a new project they should calculate the of the project,
determine the required return for that , and appraise the project at that required return.
How to calculate the of a project? Find a similar quoted company and use the of that company
(ungeared if relevant).
We will illustrate the above with a full example:
E xample 11
X plc is an oil company with a gearing ratio (debt to equity) of 0.4. Shares in X plc have a of 1.48.
They are considering investing in a new operation to build ships, and have found a quoted shipbuilding
company Y plc. Y plc has a gearing ratio (debt to equity) of 0.2, and shares in Y plc have a of 1.8.
At what discount rate should X plc appraise the new project, if it is to be financed
(a) entirely from equity?
(b) by equity and debt in the ratio 50%/50%
(c) by debt and equity in the same ratio as that currently existing in X plc?
Chapter 11
Paper P4
DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW TECHNIQUES
1 Introduction
Most of this chapter should be revision for you. It is however extremely important and so make
sure that you revise it properly.
Of the few new items in this chapter, the most important is Modified Internal Rate of Return and
you should make sure that you learn the technique involved.
2 Net present value calculations

Here is a list of the main points to remember when performing a net present value calculation.
After we will look at a full example containing all the points.
49
Remember it is cash flows that you are considering, and only cash flows. Non-cash items (such as
depreciation) are irrelevant.
It is only future cash flows that you are interested in. Any amounts already spent (such as market
research already done) are sunk costs and are irrelevant.
There is very likely to be inflation in the question, in which case the cash flows should be adjusted
in your schedule in order to calculate the actual expected cash flows. The actual cash flows should
be discounted at the actual cost of capital (the money, or nominal rate). (Note: alternatively, it is
possible to discount the cash flows ignoring inflation at the cost of capital ignoring inflation (the
real rate). We will remind you of this later in this chapter, but it is much less likely to be relevant
in the examination.)
There is also very likely to be taxation in the question. Tax is a cash flow and needs bringing into
your schedule. It is usually easier to deal with tax in two stages to calculate the tax payable on the
operating cash flows (ignoring capital allowances) and then to calculate separately the tax saving
on the capital allowances.
You are often told that cash is needed to finance additional working capital necessary for the
project. These are cash flows in your schedule, but they have no tax effects and, unless told
otherwise, you assume that the total cash paid out is received back at the end of the project.
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E xample 1
Rome plc is considering buying a new machine in order to produce a new product.
The machine will cost $1,800,000 and is expected to last for 5 years at which time it will have an estimated
scrap value of $1,000,000.
They expect to produce 100,000 units p.a. of the new product, which will be sold for $20 per unit in the first
year.
Production costs p.u. (at current prices) are as follows:
Materials $8
Labour
$7
Materials are expected to inflate at 8% p.a. and labour is expected to inflate at 5% p.a..
Fixed overheads of the company currently amount to $1,000,000. The management accountant has decided
that 20% of these should be absorbed into the new product.
The company expects to be able to increase the selling price of the product by 7% p.a..
An additional $200,000 of working capital will be required at the start of the project.
Capital allowances: 25% reducing balance
Tax: 25%, payable immediately
Cost of capital: 10%
Calculate the NPV of the project and advise whether or not it should be accepted.
Paper P4
Chapter 11
3 Internal rate of return

One problem with decision making using the Net Present Value is that the Cost of Capital is at
best only an estimate and if it turns out to be different that the rate actually used in the calculation,
then the NPV will be different. Provided that the NPV remains positive then the project will still
be worthwhile, but if the NPV were to become negative that the wrong decision will have been
made.
The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is that rate of interest at which the NPV of the project is zero
(i.e. breakeven).
In order to estimate the IRR we calculate the NPV at two different rates of interest, and then
approximate between the two assuming linearity. (In fact, the relationship is not linear and so any
estimate will only be approximate)
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E xample 2
For the project in example 1, calculate the Internal Rate of Return.
4 Problems with the use of the internal rate of return

Although the IRR is the breakeven rate of interest for the project, and as such can be useful when
we are not certain of the Cost of Capital for the company, it does have many drawbacks.
It is only a relative measure of wealth creation, it can have multiple solutions, it is difficult to
calculate, and it does effectively assume that the cash flows produced by the project are re-invested
at the IRR.
A possible better measure is the Modified Internal Rate of Return (MIRR).
Paper P4
Chapter 11
5 Modified internal rate of return

The MIRR is quicker to calculate than the IRR and effectively assumes that the cash flows are reinvested at the Cost of Capital.
There are several ways of calculating it, but the method suggested by the examiner is to calculate
the Present Value of the investment phase (the flows in the years when the company is investing
in the project); to calculate the Present Value of the return phase (the flows in the years when the
project is generating returns) and then to use the following formula (which is provided for you in
the examination):
[ ]
MIRR =
PVR
PV1
1
n (1 + r ) 1
e
where: PVR = the PV of the return phase

PVI = the PV of the investment phase

n = the life of the project in years
and, re = the cost of capital
We will illustrate the calculation of the MIRR using the previous example.
E xample 3
For the project in example 1, calculate the MIRR.
The MIRR is usually lower than the IRR, because it assumes that the proceeds are re-invested at
the Cost of Capital. However in practice the proceeds are often re-invested elsewhere within the
firm. It does however have the advantage of being much quicker to calculate than the IRR.
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6 Multi-Period Capital Rationing

Capital rationing is the situation when the company has several projects that they wish to invest
it, but only have a limited amount of capital available for investment.
You will remember that when there is limited capital in only one year (single-period capital
rationing) then we rank the projects based on the NPV per $ invested (the profitability index).
However, it is more likely in practice that investment is needed in more than one year and that
capital is rationed also in more than one year. This situation is known as multi-period capital
rationing and the solution requires using linear programming techniques. As you will see in the
example that follows, you will not be required to solve the problem, but you may be required to
formulate the problem.
E xample 4
Paris plc is has three projects available for investment with the following cash flows and NPVs (at a cost of
capital of 10%):
Year
0
1
2
3
NPV at 10%
A
B
C
(5,000) (8,000) (6,000)
(4,000)
2,000 (6,000)
8,000
6,000
4,000
4,000
5,000 12,000
+976
+2529
+862
The projects are infinitely divisible (note: this means we can invest in any fraction of a project and that all the
cash flows (and therefore the NPV) will also be this fraction of those above).
Paris plc has cash available for investment as follows:
Year 0 $14,000

Year 1
$5,000
You are required to formulate the linear programming model necessary to decide how best to invest
the capital available. Any capital not used in Year 0 may be put on deposit for one year and earn interest at 7%.
Paper P4
Chapter 11
As stated earlier, you will not be expected to solve the problem (it cannot be solved graphically
because there are more than 2 variables, and therefore would need a more advanced technique).
Also, you should remember that there are two reasons why capital may be limited:
Hard capital rationing which is where the company is unable to borrow more, and
Soft capital rationing which is where the company can borrow more, but has chosen to limit
the amount it is prepared to borrow.
The formulation of the problem is the same, whatever the reason for the capital rationing.
7 Inflation revisited
In the example at the start of this chapter, there was inflation. We dealt with the problem by
inflating the cash flows to arrive at the actual expected cash flows, and then discounting at the
actual expected (or nominal) cost of capital.
An alternative general approach is to take the cash flows at current prices (i.e. without any inflation)
and then discount at the cost of capital ignoring inflation (i.e. the real cost of capital).
However this approach is much less likely to be relevant in the examination and is only useful if all cash
flows are expected to inflate at the same, general, rate of inflation.
The real cost of capital may be calculated using the Fisher equation (which is given to you on the
formula sheet in the examination):
(1 + i) = (1 + r)(1 + h)
where:
i = the actual / money / nominal rate
r = the real rate
h = the inflation rate
E xample 5
A new machine will cost $120,000 and is expected to last 3 years with no scrap value.
It is expected that production will be 10,000 units p.a.
The selling price is $20 p.u. and the variable production costs $14 p.u. (both quoted in current prices).
Inflation is expected to be 5% p.a., and the cost of capital is 15% p.a..
Calculate the NPV of the project
(a) inflating each flow and discounting at the cost of capital
(b) discounting the current price flows at the effective rate.
(c) why, in theory, will the decision remain the same whatever the actual rate of inflation turns out to
be
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As stated earlier, it is unlikely that you will be expected to use this approach usually you will
inflate the cash flows and then discount at the nominal rate. However do watch for the situation
where you are given the real cost of capital and the general rate of inflation. In this case you will
still inflate the cash flows to get the actual cash flow, but will need to use the Fisher equation to
calculate the nominal cost of capital.
8 Free cash flows

The free cash flow is the cash available for distribution to lenders (shareholders and debt lenders).
When appraising a project (as in the first example in this chapter) the net cash flow that we
calculated each year is the free cash flow.
However, it is also possible to use NPV techniques in exactly the same way to arrive at the value
of the company and for this we need to estimate the net cash flows (or free cash flow) each year
from the company as a whole.
In this situation we are more likely to be given the forecast profits of the company (as opposed to
forecasts of each individual cash flow) in which case we can estimate the free cash flows as follows:
Free cash flow =
Earnings before interest and tax (EBIT)
less:
tax on EBIT
plus:
non-cash items (depreciation)

less: cash required for capital expenditure
less (or plus):
working capital changes
We will look at an example of this in a later chapter when we consider the valuation of a company.
Paper P4
Chapter 12
THE IMPACT OF FINANCING
1 Introduction
This chapter considers the fact that if a company changes the way in which it is financed (for
example, raised more debt to finance a new project) then the cost of capital may change. This
would of course affect the investment decision.
2 Modigliani And Miller

Modigliani and Miller did a lot of work on the effect of the financial structure of a company on the
cost of capital.
You should already be aware of their conclusions from your Paper F9 studies, and you are not
required to know their proofs only their conclusions which are as follows:
2.1 M&M proposition without taxes:

M&M state that (ignoring tax) higher gearing will create more risk for shareholders and hence the
cost of equity will increase, but that this is compensated for by the lower cost of debt.
As a result, they stated that the weighted average cost of capital will stay constant for a company,
however the company is financed.
2.2 M&M proposition with company taxes:

Debt interest gets tax relief, which makes the effective cost of debt to a company lower. As a result,
even though the cost of equity will increase with higher gearing, the WACC will fall.
As a result, a company should raise as much debt as possible.
They derived a formula for calculating how the cost of equity will change with changes in gearing.
This formula is provided on the formula sheet in the examination, and is as follows:
k e = k ei + (1 T )(k ei k d )
Vd
Ve
where:
ke = cost of equity (of a geared company)
kie = cost of equity of the company if ungeared
Ve and Vd are the market values of equity and debt
Kd = pre-tax cost of debt

57
T = rate of corporation tax
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Chapter 12
E xample 1
London plc is an ungeared company with a cost of equity of 15%.
They propose raising debt at 8% (pre-tax) and have estimated that the resulting gearing ratio (debt:equity)
will be 0.4.
The rate of corporation tax is 30%.
You are required to calculate:
(a) the cost of equity after raising the debt, and
(b) the weighted average cost of capital before and after raising the debt.
3 Pecking order theory

Pecking order theory starts that companies raise finance in the easiest way (or the law of least
effort) and that therefore they prefer to use internal funds (retained earnings) first, followed by
debt finance, only raising new equity as a last resort.
Paper P4
Chapter 12
4 Static trade-off theory

M&M proved that the WACC of a company will reduce as more debt is raised, and therefore a
company should raise as much debt as possible.
However, their proof relies on many assumptions which are not completely realistic in real life
(such as investors having perfect knowledge, and acting rationally with respect to risk).
Static trade-off theory states that the cost of equity certainly is likely to increase with higher
gearing (although not necessarily in a predictable way) and that the cost of debt is certainly likely
to be lower. However, because it is impossible in practice to estimate the changes precisely, all we
can state it that the WACC is likely to change with different levels of gearing.
If the WACC is likely to change, then there must be a level of gearing at which the WACC is
a minimum. The company should aim for this level of gearing and should then maintain this
optimum level of gearing. (The theory does not predict the optimum level this would be found
by trial and error).
5 Adjusted Present Value

M&M stated that the only benefit of using debt (as opposed to equity) to finance a project was the
fact that the company gains as a result of the tax saved on the debt interest (the tax shield).
We can use this to provide a way of calculating the gain from a project taking into account the
method of financing used.
For adjusted present value calculations, there are two steps:
(1) Calculate the NPV of the project if all equity financed
(2) Calculate the PV of the tax benefit on any debt used
The total of the two is the overall gain (or loss) to the company and is known as the Adjusted
Present Value (APV).
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E xample 2
A company is considering a project that has the following after-tax flows:
0 (100M)
1 5
40M p.a.
The of the project has been calculated as 1.5.
The market is giving a return of 15% and the risk free rate is 5%.
The rate of corporation tax is 30%
Calculate the gain to shareholders if the project is to be financed:
(a) entirely from equity
(b) 70% from equity and 30% from irredeemable debt
(c) 70% from equity and 30% from debt redeemable in 5 years time.
Chapter 13
Paper P4
61
SHARE OPTIONS AND OPTION PRICING
1 Introduction
In this chapter we will explain what share options are, and explain the Black Scholes option pricing
model which you can be expected to use to calculate the value of an option.
2 Share option
A share option gives the holder the right to buy or sell a share at a fixed price on a future date. A
call option gives the holder the right to buy the share, whereas a put option gives the holder the
right to sell a share.
An investor wanting an option will have to pay for it, whether or not they ultimately decide to
exercise it.
E xample 1
The share price of Madrid plc is currently $2.00.
Johnson holds a call option with an exercise price of $1.80, exercisable in 3 months time.
What will Johnson do if the share price in 3 months time is:
(a) $2.50
(b) $1.50
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3 Option prices
As already stated, if an investor wishes to have an option to buy or sell shares, they will have to pay
for it (whether or not they ultimately choose to exercise the option).
Several factors will determine the value of the option the most obvious being the current share
price and the exercise price.
E xample 2
The share price of Lisbon plc is currently $2.50.
A call option is available with an exercise price of $2.00, exercisable immediately.
What will be the value of the option?
Although the last example should be very obvious, it is unrealistic in that options are not exercisable
immediately but at some date in the future.
The full list of factors that will determine the price of an option is as follows:
current share price

the exercise price
the time to expiry of the option
the risk free interest rate
the volatility of the share price
Although option prices in practice are determined by the dealers, in line with market forces,
Black and Scholes developed a formula for determining the value which is very commonly used
in practice.
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4 The Black Scholes Option Pricing Model

The formulae that Black and Scholes developed are as follows:
c = Pa N (d1 ) Pe N (d 2 )ert
Call option:
Where
d1 =
ln( Pa Pe ) + (r + 0.5 s 2 )t
s t
d2 = d1 s t
Put option:
Value of a put +

i.e.
Current value of
underlying security
= Value of a call + Present value of exercise price
p = c Pa + Pee-rt
Where:
Pa = the current share price
Pe = the exercise price of the option

e = the exponential constant (2.7183)
r = the annual risk free rate of interest
t = the time (in years) until expiry of the option
S = the share price volatility
N(d) = the probability that a deviation of less than d will occur in a normal distribution.
(You do not need to know this you just need to know how to find the value
using normal distribution tables).
Note that you will be given the option formulae in the examination.
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E xample 3
Current share price is $2.90.
Exercise price $2.60 in 6 months time.
Risk free rate of interest is 6% p.a.
Standard deviation of rate of return on share is 40%
(a) What is the value of a call option?
(b) What is the value of a put option?
E xample 4
Current share price is $35.00
Exercise price $35.00 in 1 yrs time.
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E xample 5
Exercise price $1.80 in 3 months.
5 The use of options

One use of options is as a way of rewarding managers of a company in a way that motivates them
to increase the share price.
By giving call options to the managers, it becomes very much in their interest to take decisions
that increase the share price.
Very often these options are not traded options and therefore the formula in the previous section
can be used to place a value on them.
Speculators also deal in options. The reason for this is that if (for example) you expect the price
of a share to increase, then you could make money simply by buying shares and then selling them
at the later, higher, price. As alternative, however, would be to buy call options. As the share price
increases then so too will the option price.
The financial manager is not a speculator. Consider, however, the following situation the
company currently has an investment in shares in another company. They intend to sell the shares
in six months time, and expect the price to increase. The are however worried in case they are
wrong and the price should fall. How can they protect the company against the possible fall?
If the share price were to fall, then so too would the value of call options. In order to profit out of
the fall the company will need to sell call options now (and would be able to buy them later and
make a profit, should the price fall).
This hedging is known as a delta hedge. The slight problem is that the change in the option price
will not be the same as the change in the share price and therefore we need to be able to calculate
how many options to deal in. We will cover the arithmetic shortly, but first we need to consider
the Greeks!
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6 The Greeks
From day to day the price of an option will change. It will change due to changes in all the factors
listed in section 3 of this chapter.
Black and Scholes also produced formulae to measure the rate of change in the options price with
changes in each of the factors listed. You do not need to know the formulae, but you need to be
aware of the names given to each of the measures, and they are as follows:
Delta
The rate at which the option price changes with the share price (=N(d1))
Theta
The rate at which the option price changes with the passing of time.
Vega
The rate at which the option price changes with changes in the volatility of the share
Rho
The rate at which the option price changes with changes in the risk-free interest rate
Gamma
The rate at which delta changes
Although you will not need the formulae for each of these, you may need to know about the
relevance of delta. This is because in the very short term, delta enables us to predict the effect on
the option price of movements in the share price. It will be equal to N(d1), and we can use it to
decide how many options we need to trade in to protect ourselves against movements in the share
price.
7 The Delta Hedge

If you own shares and you are worried that the share price might fall, then sell some call options.
As the share price falls, so will the value of the options. (You can buy back at a profit).
The problem is to decide how many call options we need to sell.
E xample 6
Call option exercise price is $1.80 in 3 months
Risk free interest rate is 10% p.a.
Martin owns 1,000 shares.
Devise a delta hedge to protect against changes in the share price.
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The problem with a delta hedge is that our answer to example 6 will only protect us in the very
short term. The reason for this is that over a longer term changes in the other factors will also
affect the option price. For this reason the delta hedge will have to be continuously reviewed
and changes made (which is why the other Greeks are of importance to a trader in options). You
will not be expected to deal with this but you can be expected to be aware of the problem (and
therefore of the other Greeks).
8 Styles of options
A European option can only be exercised at the date expiration, whereas an American option can
be exercised at any time up to the date of expiration. The terms refer to the style of option and
have nothing to do with where the dealing in the options takes place.
In either case, options can be traded prior to expiration (i.e. you can buy an option and later sell
the option, before the expiration date)
The Black Scholes formula applies to European options.
9 Long and short dealings

As mentioned in the last paragraph, it is perfectly possible to buy and sell options rather than
simply buying, holding until expiration and then exercising.
An investor who buys an option (and later either sells it or exercises it) is said to be taking a long
position (and so buying a call option can be referred to as a long call, and similarly buying a put
option can be referred to as a long put)
Less obviously, it is possible to sell an option (that you do not own) and buy it later to finish the
deal. This is known as taking a short position (leading to the terms short call and short put)
Be aware of the terms in this paragraph, but they do not affect the arithmetic.
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Chapter 14
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69
REAL OPTIONS
1 Introduction
A real option relates to project appraisal. In previous questions we have assumed that the only
choice available us is to accept or reject the project based on the expected cash flows.
However, as will be explained below, it may be possible to improve the potential return by having
the right to change something about the project during its life. This would be a real option. In the
exam you are expected to be aware of the different types of real options that might exist, and to
be able to value them using the Black Scholes model.
2 Types of real options

In order to explain the different types of real options, we will list them in turn together with a brief
illustration of the idea.
2.1 Option to delay

Suppose we are considering a project, but the returns are uncertain because of forecast general
economic problems over the next few years.
The ability to delay starting the project could be attractive because if economic conditions turn
out to be unfavourable we could cancel, whereas if they turn out to be favourable we could go
ahead and maybe get even better returns.
The fact that we would be able to remove the downside potential would mean that we had an
option and this would be worth paying for.
It would effectively be a call option (the right to invest in the project at a future date) and we could
use the formula to value it.
2.2 Option to expand

This would be similar to an option to delay in that we could invest a certain amount in the project
now and decide later whether or not to invest more (when we find out how successful the project
is).
Again, this right would be worth money to us and could be valued, as a call option.
2.3 Option to abandon

When appraising (for example) a 5 year project, we usually assume that the project lasts for the
full 5 years. However, if the cash flows turned out to be lower than expected, we would clearly
want to be able to consider stopping the project early.
Yet again, this right would effectively be an option although this time a put option.
2.4 Option to redeploy

A firm may have decided to invest a considerable amount in equipment, staff, training etc. to
commence teaching ACCA courses, on the basis that currently they appear to be the most
profitable use of the resources. However, projections could turn out to be wrong and it could be
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beneficial to effectively stop the project earlier than planned and use the resources to teach some
other qualification.
This ability would be a put option (and the option to abandon is a special case of this).
E xample 1
Warsaw plc is considering a new project which requires an outlay of $10 million and has an expected net
present value of $2 million.
However, the economic climate over the next few years is thought to be very risky and the volatility attaching
to the net present value of the project is 20%.
Warsaw is able to delay commencing the project for three years.
The risk free rate of interest is 6% p.a..
You are required to estimate the value of the option to delay the start of the project for three years,
using the Black Scholes option pricing model.
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Chapter 15
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
1 Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss briefly the reasons why a company may wish to merge with, or take
over, another company, and consider associated issues.
In the subsequent chapter we will look at the valuation of mergers and acquisitions.
2 The objectives of takeovers or mergers

Takeovers or mergers should increase shareholders wealth via:
(1) acquiring the target company at an undervalue

(2) synergistic benefits:
(a) economic efficiency gains

i.
economies of scale (volume related savings)
ii.
economies of scope (complementary resources)
(b) financial synergy

i. reduced total risk will not benefit well-diversified shareholders (the systematic
risk is not reduced by diversification) but reducing total risk may reduce
insolvency risks and hence borrowing costs
ii.
increased asset backing may bolster borrowing capacity
iii.
exploiting tax losses sooner
(c)
market power
i.
acquiring monopolistic powers (e.g. eliminate competition)
ii.
acquisition of a scarce resource
iii.
dynamic management
iv.
innovative product
v.
cash mountain
vi.
to enter a new market quickly
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3 Merger and acquisition activity in different countries
Due to the existence of well-developed capital markets it is comparatively easy to launch takeovers
in the UK and the US
To prevent monopolies forming, the US has strong anti-trust legislation and the UK has the
Competition Commission
In continental Europe and Japan, banks (rather than shareholders) have traditionally taken a more
direct role in financing and directing corporate activity. Other stakeholders such as employees
and suppliers have also been more influential.
However, the growth of global capital markets has seen the market for corporate control expand
into Europe and the Far East. If capital is to be attracted to markets then there must be attractive
investment opportunities available to it.
4 Predator issues on takeover

(1) The investment decision
(a) How much is the target worth to the predator?
(b) Are the target shareholders willing to sell?
(c)
What economic / industry and company assumptions underline the valuation?
(2) The financing decision

(a) Matching

i. has the predator adequate surplus cash / borrowing capacity / ability to issue
shares?
ii.
can the group service the new finance required for the acquisition?
(b) Cost

i. will the use of cash or shares change the predators capital structure for better or
worse?
(c)
Capital providers
i.
will any existing debt covenants or existing shareholder expectations be affected?
ii.
could the predator issue convertibles to delay control dilution issues?
iii.
is the current dividend policy desirable / sustainable after the acquisition?
iv.
will the EPS be affected, and does it matter?
(3) Market issues - often target companies are over-valued because of:
(a) Over optimism with regard to economies of scale
(b) The victims share price anticipating synergistic gains
(c)
The victims share price may be bid up in an auction
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5 Target issues on takeover

(a) What is the target worth to the predator can we extract maximum value?
(b) What is the target worth to us?
(c)
Do we want to sell?
(d) What is the after personal tax value of the offer?

(e) If the offer is in shares, are they attractive?
Market issues
The target company shareholders are the ones who must approve the offer. Generally, most of the
benefits on a takeover accrue to the target company shareholders.
Defensive tactics
(a) provide more information
i.
contest the offer on terms of being a poor offer, having no obvious advantage, and / or
employee opposition
ii.
issue forecasts to indicate that the sale of the shares is not a good option
iii.
revalue the assets
iv.
advertise (subject to the City Code see below)
(b) lobby to have the offer referred to the Competition Commission

(c)
stop shares falling into the predators hands

i.
find a White Knight (an alternative bidder who would be more acceptable)
ii.
arrange a management buyout
(d) Poison Pill tactics: the target builds in a tripwire to make itself less attractive. E.g. create a
new class of stock which automatically becomes redeemable at a high price in the event of a
take-over.
City Code
The following are examples of the general principles of the code:
(a) all shareholders of the same class must be treated the same and given the same information
(b) sufficient relevant information and time must be given to shareholders
(c)
once an offer is made, directors cannot frustrate it without shareholders approval
(d) a general offer to all other shareholders is required if the predator acquires control (30%).
6 Debtholder versus shareholder interests

Debtholders may benefit from a merger of two firms if this results in a co-insurance effect. i.e.
the larger firm is less liable to insolvency than the separate firms. This will increase the value of
that debt at the expense of shareholders.
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Chapter 16
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THE VALUATION OF ACQUISITIONS

AND MERGERS
1 Introduction
In this chapter we will outline the three types of situation that can occur in respect of an acquisition
or merger, and for each of them consider the ways in which we might place a value on the business.
2 Types of acquisitions
If one company is acquiring (or merging with) another company, then an important consideration
is the effect on the level of risk. The risk can be affecting in two ways:
Business risk when the type of business being acquired is inherently more (or less) risky that the
acquiring company; and,
Financial risk where the level of gearing in the business is different after the acquisition or
merger.
For the purposes of valuation, you need to be aware therefore of three types of acquisition:
Type I acquisition
Type II acquisition
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This is the situation where the firms exposure to both financial and business risk is not
affected
This is where the exposure to financial risk is affected, but where there is no affect on the
exposure to business risk
Type III acquisition
This is where exposure to both financial and business risk is affected.
3 Valuation of a type I acquisition

There is no correct way of valuing a business. The following are approaches that are likely to be
considered, resulting in a range of values as opposed to one single value.
3.1 Book value plus

This approach values shares at the value of the net assets divided by the number of shares.
The balance sheet value would be the starting point, although obviously this is likely to be
unrealistic.
The replacement value (plus an estimate of goodwill) is likely to be the maximum that the acquirer
would consider paying.
The break-up value of the assets is likely to be the absolute minimum that the selling company
would possibly accept.
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3.2 Market relative models

A very common method in practice is to take the P/E ratio of a similar quoted company and apply
this to the current earnings of the company in question to arrive at a valuation. Note however
that if the company in question is unquoted then the relevant P/E should be reduced (and hence a
lower market value) to reflect the fact that the shares are not traded.
3.3 Free cash flow models

With this approach we discount the free cash flows of the new company at the weighted average
cost of capital. It is identical to the approach used to appraise projects (and covered in an earlier
chapter of these notes) and is theoretically perhaps the best approach, although the problem is as
to how to estimate the future cash flows.
3.4 Economic Value Added (EVA)

The EVA is defined as being :
Net operating profit after tax WACC x book value of capital employed
The principle behind it is that a business is only really creating value if its profit is in excess of the
required minimum rate of return that shareholders and debt holders could obtain by investing in
other securities of comparable risk.
Several adjustments are required in EVA calculations including:
Intangibles (e.g. research expenditure):

Add back to net profit
Add net book value to capital employed
Goodwill written off:
Add to capital employed
Depreciations:
Replace accounting depreciation with economic depreciation
Provisions (for bad debts etc.):
Add back to capital employed
Interest on debt capital
Treat the debt as part of capital employed
E xample 1
Extracts from the accounts of Value Co are as follows:
Income Statements:
Revenue
Pre-tax accounting profit (note 1)
Taxation
Profit after tax
Dividends
Retained earnings
2007
$m
608
134
(46)
88
(29)
59
2006
$m
520
108
(37)
71
(24)
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Balance Sheets:
Non-current assets
Net current assets
Financed by:
Shareholders funds
Medium and long-term bank loans
Chapter 16
2007
$m
250
256
506
2006
$m
192
208
400
380
126
506
312
88
400
Note (1): After deduction of the economic depreciation of the companys non-current assets. This is also the
depreciation used for tax purposes.
Other information is as follows:
1. Capital employed at the end of 2005 amounted to $350m.
2. Value Co had non-capitalised leases valued at $16m in each of the years 2005 to 2007. The leases are not
subject to amortisation.
3. Value Cos pre-tax cost of debt was estimated to be 9% in 2006 and 10% in 2007.
4. Value Cos cost of equity was estimated to be 15% in 2006 and 17% in 2007.
5. The target capital structure is 70% equity and 30% debt.
6. The rate of taxation is 30% in both 2006 and 2007.
7. Economic depreciation amounted to $64m in 2006 and $72m in 2007. These amounts were equal to the
depreciation used for tax purposes and the depreciation charged in the income statements.
8. Interest payable amounted to $6m in 2006 and $8m in 2007.
9. Other non-cash expenses amounted to $20m per year in both 2006 and 2007.
Calculate the Economic Value Added in each of 2007 and 2006.
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EVA on its own is used as a measure of managerial performance.

It can be used to measure the value of a firm by adding present value of the future estimated EVAs
to the amount of capital invested.
3.5 Dividend valuation model

With this approach the valuation of the equity is based on the projected future dividends, using
the Growth Model formula given to you on the formula sheet:
P0 =
D0 (1 + g )
(re g )
4 Valuation of a type II acquisition

As stated earlier in this chapter, a Type II acquisition is one where the level of business risk is
unchanged, but where the financial risk changes (i.e. the level of gearing changes).
The approach we take is the Adjusted Present Value approach, which was covered in an earlier
chapter.
The APV is calculated as:
the present value if all equity financed
the present value of the tax shield on debt
plus
Do look back to the earlier chapter and make sure that you are happy with the calculation of the
APV.
5 Valuation of a type III acquisition

In this situation, we discount the future cash flows of the combined entity at the WACC of the
combined entity.
To arrive at the cash flows, we add those of the individual companies plus any synergies expected
to result from the acquisition/merger.
To arrive at a WACC, we need to arrive at the asset betas for each of the two companies and then
weight them to arrive at an asset beta for the merged company. We can then calculate an equity
beta for the merged company using in the formula the current values of the individual companies.
Then we can calculate a cost of equity, and together with the cost of debt calculate a WACC.
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E xample 2
Nairobi plc is considering the acquisition of Delhi plc.
The projected cash flows of the two companies over the next 5 years are as follows:
1
2
3
4
5 including terminal value
Nairobi
20
25
30
35
150
Delhi
8
10
10
10
50
Synergistic benefits of 10 p.a. are expected to result from the acquisition.
The current market values are as follows:
Nairobi
Delhi
Equity
170
55
Debt
170
55
Nairobi will pay 80 to acquire all the share capital of Delhi. The acquisition will be financed entirely by the
issue of more debt.
Nairobi and Delhi have asset betas of 0.8 and 1.1 respectively.
The risk free rate is 5%, the market return is 12%, and the rate of tax is 30%.
The cost of debt in the combined company is 8%
Calculate the market value of the new company
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Chapter 17
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CORPORATE REORGANISATION AND

CAPITAL RECONSTRUCTION SCHEMES
1 Introduction
This chapter examines the financial restructuring possibilities open to UK companies. These
include divestments, MBOs (which became increasingly popular in the 1980s) and more general
schemes of reconstruction.
2 Demergers, sell-offs, unbundling and asset stripping

All of these involve splitting a company into two or more businesses. With a demerger existing
shareholders are given shares in each of the two separate businesses control is maintained.
Under a sell-off , at least part of the business will be sold to a third party. Control is lost, but funds
are raised.
Unbundling means to take apart the components of a company with the intention of disposing of
part or all of the parts separately at a higher price than the whole. This would usually be done via
a sell-off . When done following a takeovers it is termed asset stripping.
Why demerge or sell?

(a) to focus on core competence
(b) to react to changes in strategic focus
(c)
to sell off unwanted asswets
(d) to capture revers synergy resulting from an existing conglomerate discount

(e) to remove co-insurance benefits from debtholders
(f )
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to meet regulatory requirements
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3 Management buyouts
A management buyout is the purchase of all or part of a business from its owners by one or more
of its executive managers
A management buy-in is where a team (usually assembled by a venture capitalist) identify a target
company to take-over.
A buy-in / buy-out is where a team is drawn from a combination of the existing management and
experts appointed via the venture capitalist.
Parties to a buyout
(a) the management team
(b) the directors of the company
(c)
the financial backers of the management team (often including a venture capitalist)
Reasons for a buyout

(a) from the buyout teams point of view:
i.
to obtain ownership of the business rather than remin as employee
ii. to avoid redundancy when the business is threatened with closure
(b) from the sellers point of view
i.
to dispose of part of the company that does not fit in with the overall strategy of the company
ii. to dispose of a loss-making segment of the business which the directors do not have time or
inclination to turn around
iii. in order to raise cash
iv. it is often easier to arrange a management buyout than to try and sell off parts of a business
in the open market
v. it may well avoid redundancy costs, strike action, etiii. if closure if the only alternative
Why may buyouts generate shareholder value?
(a) personal motivation of the buyout team
(b) a more hands-on approach to management
(c)
keener decision making on such areas as pricing, debt collection etiii.
(d) savings in head office overheads
Possible problems
(a) the main problem is likely to be the lack of experience of the management team in actually running
all aspects of the business
Obviously the more experience they have the better, and the more likely they are to be able
to find financial backing.
(b) other problems include:
i.
tax and legal complications
ii. motivation of other employees not party to the buyout
iii. the lack of additional finance once the buyout has taken place
iv. the maintenance of previous commitments made by the company to the workforce or other
parties
v. the loss of key employees
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Providers of capital
(a) the clearing banks (usually senior debt)
(b) merchant banks
(c)
pension funds
(d) venture capital (who require a high return!)

(e) government agencies
Post acquisition
Company problems post-acquisition can be related back to the three key decisions: investment /
financing / dividend decisions.
4 Capital reconstruction schemes

Restructuring a company is corporate surgery to enable a company to continue in business or to
go into liquidation.
Legal framework
(a) the company must receive the courts permission to launch a scheme
(b) compromises must be agreed by all parties classes of creditors should meet separately so that
substantial minorities are not voted down. Every class must vote in favour for the scheme to
succeed.
(c) Under the Insolvency Act a reconstruction can be achieved by transferring assets of the company
to a new company in exchange for shares, these new shared being distributed to the existing
shareholders. Creditors do not lose their rights in this arrangement.
Why restructure?
(a) to write off large debit balances in the profit and loss accounts, so allowing the company to pay
dividends in the future, and therefore encouraging the injection of new finance.
(b) To rearrange the capital structure. Ordinary shares may be worth very little so that small monetary
changes in value represent significant relative movements.
Approach to reconstructions
(a) evaluate the position of each party if liquidation were to go ahead. This will represent the minimum
acceptable payment for each group.
(b) Assess sources of finance e.g. selling assets, issuing shares, raising loans.
(c) Design the reconstruction (often given in the question)
(d) Calculate and assess new position / marginal costs and returns to each group separately, and
compare with (a). Do not forget the non-financial stakeholders.
(e) Check the company is financially viable after the reconstruction.
5 Going private
All the listed shares of a company are bought by a small group of investors, and the company is
de-listed.
(a) both direct and indirect listing costs are saved
(b) a hostile takeover bid is impossible
(c) a small number of shareholders reduces the agency problem
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Chapter 18
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85
FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK MANAGEMENT (1)
1 Introduction
Globalisation has served to increase the amount of foreign trade which has in turn increased the
amount of foreign currency transactions that companies have. Any dealing in foreign currency
presents the problem of the risk of changes in exchange rates. The adoption in most of Europe of
the single currency the euro has removed the problem for companies trading within Europe,
but for trading with companies in other countries an important role of the financial manager is to
look for ways of removing or reducing this risk.
This chapter and the next chapter look in detail at the different ways available for the removal or
reduction of the risk of changes in exchange rates.
2 Types of risk
(a) Transaction risk
This is the risk that a transaction in a foreign currency at one exchange rate is settled at
another rate (because the rate has changed). It is this risk that the financial manager may
attempt to manage and forms most of the work in the rest of this chapter.
(b) Translation (or accounting) risk
This relates to the exchange profits or losses that result from converting foreign currency
balances for the purposes of preparing the accounts.
These are of less relevance to the financial manager, because they are book entries as opposed
to actual cash flows.
(c) Economic risk

This refers to the change in the present value of future cash flows due to unexpected
movements in foreign exchange rates. E.g. raw material imports increasing in cost.
3 The foreign exchange market

The foreign exchange market is known as FOREX. The biggest centre is the London FOREX
market, although since the market is very competitive virtually no differences exist between one
FOREX market and another.
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4 Exchange rates
The exchange rate on a given day is known as the spot rate and two prices are quoted, depending
on whether we are buying or selling the currency the difference is known as the spread.
In the examination, the way exchange rates are quoted is always the amount of the first mentioned
currency that is equal to one of the second mentioned currency.
For example, suppose we are given an exchange rate as follows:

$/ 1.6250 1.6310
In this quote, the first number (1.6250) is the exchange rate if we are buying the first mentioned
currency ($s), and (1.6310) is the rate if we are selling the first mentioned currency ($s).
(Alternatively, if you prefer, the first number is the rate at which the bank will sell us $s and the
second number the rate at which the bank will buy $s from us. It is up to you how you choose to
remember it, but it is vital that you get the arithmetic correct!)
E xample 1
A plc receives $100,000 from a customer in the US.
The exchange rate is $/ 1.6250 1.6310.
How many s will A plc receive?
Usually the questions in the examination relate to real currencies (such as dollars and euros).
However, occasionally the examiner invents currencies which makes the answer a little less
obvious it becomes even more important that you know the rules.
E xample 2
Jimjam is a company based in India, where the currency is the Indian Rupee (IR). They owe money to a
supplier in Ruritania, where the currency is Ruritanian Dollars (R$). The amount owing is R$ 240,000.
The current exchange rate is IR/R$ 8.6380 9.2530
How many Indian Rupees will Jimjam have to pay?
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5 Methods of hedging transaction exposure

In the above examples, our answers are (hopefully!) correct provided that we convert the money
at the spot rate. The problem is that if the transaction is not going to take place until some time in
the future, the exchange rate stands to change. We obviously have no idea what the rate will be it
may change to our advantage or to our disadvantage and therefore there is risk.
The following methods of removing or reducing this risk are the methods of which you must be
aware for the examination:
(a) Invoicing in home currency
(b) Leading and lagging
(c) Netting
(d) Matching
The above methods do not require any special techniques, but in addition you must have knowledge
(and be able to perform detailed calculations) of the following:
(e) forward contracts

(f) money market hedges
(g) currency futures
(h) currency options
(i)
currency swaps
It is these last five methods that we will go through in this and the following chapters.
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6 Forward contracts
If a company wishes to buy or sell foreign currency at some date in the future, then they can obtain
a quote from the bank today which will apply on a fixed date in the future. Once the quote has
been accepted, that rate is then fixed (on the date, and on the amount specified) and what happens
to the actual (or spot) rate on the date of the transaction is then irrelevant.
An alternative way in which you might see forward rates quoted is as follows:
$/ 1.2845 0.0015
This means that the forward rates are: $/ 1.2830 1.2860
E xample 3
X is due to pay $200,000 in 1 months time.
Spot
$/ 1.4820 1.4905
1 month forward
$/ 1.4910 1.4970
If X contracts 1 month forward, how much will he have to pay in 1 months time (in s)?
More often, forward rates are quoted as difference from spot. The difference is expressed in the
smaller units of currency (e.g. cents, in the case of the US), and is expressed as a premium or a
discount depending on whether we should deduct or add the discount to the spot rate.
E xample 4
Y is due to receive $150,000 in 3 months time.
Spot
$/ 1.5326 1.5385
3m forward
0.62 0.51 c pm
How much will Y receive?
E xample 5
Z is due to pay $200,000 in 2 months time.
Spot
$/ 1.6582 1.6623
2m forward
0.83 0.92 dis
How much will Z pay?
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Advantages and disadvantages of using forward contracts:
7 Money market hedging

This approach involves converting the foreign currency at the current spot, which therefore makes
future changes in the exchange rate irrelevant. However, if we are (for example) not going to
receive the foreign currency for 3 months, then how can we convert the money today? The answer
is that we borrow foreign currency now at fixed interest, on the strength of the future receipt.
E xample 6
P is due to receive $5M in 3 months time.
Spot:
$/ 1.5384 1.5426
Current 3 month interest rates:
US prime 5.2% 5.8%

UK LIBOR 3.6% 3.9%
Show how P can use the money markets to hedge the risk.
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E xample 7
Q is due to pay $8M in 3 months time.
Spot:
$/ 1.6201 1.6283
Current 3 month interest rates: US prime 6.4% 6.9%

UK LIBOR 9.2% 9.9%
Show how Q can use the money markets to hedge the risk.
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Advantages and disadvantages of using the money markets:
8 Currency futures
If we buy a sterling futures contact it is a binding contract to buy pounds at a fixed rate on a fixed
date. This is similar to a forward rate, but there are two major differences:
(a) delivery dates for futures contracts occur only on 4 dates a year the ends of March, June,
September and December.
(b) futures contracts are traded and can be bought and sold from / to others during the period up to
the delivery date.
For these two reasons, most futures contracts are sold before the delivery date speculators use
them as a way of gambling on exchange rates. They buy at one price and sell later hopefully at a
higher price. To buy futures does not involve paying the full price the speculator gives a deposit
(called the margin) and later when the future is sold the margin is returned plus any profit on the
deal or less and loss. The deal must be completed by the delivery date at the latest. In this way it
is possible to gamble on an increase in the exchange rate. However, it is also possible to make a
profit if the exchange rate falls! To do this the speculator will sell a future at todays price (even
though he has nothing to sell) and then buy back later at a (hopefully) lower price. Again, at the
start of the deal he has to put forward a margin which is returned at the end of the deal plus any
profit and less any loss.
The role of the financial manager is not to speculate with the companys cash, but he can make use
of a futures deal in order to cancel (or hedge against) the risk of a commercial transaction.
Here is a simple example (note that there are more limitations that are ignored in this example but
will be explained later this example is just to illustrate the basic principle.).
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E xample 8
R is in the US and needs 800,000 on 10 August.
Spot today (12 June) is:
$/ 1.5526 1.5631
September $/ futures are available. The price today (12 June) is 1.5580.
Show the outcome of using a futures hedge (assuming that the spot and the futures prices both increase
by 0.02).
Note:
(a) the futures price on any day is not the same as the spot exchange rate on that date. They are two
different things and the futures prices are quoted on the futures exchanges in London this is
known as LIFFE (the London International Financial Futures Exchange). More importantly, the
movement in the futures price over a period is unlikely to be exactly the same as the movement in
the actual exchange rate. The futures market is efficient and prices do move very much in line with
exchange rates, but the movements are not the same (unlike in the simple example above). We will
illustrate the effect of this shortly.
(b) In practice any deal in futures must be in units of a fixed size (you will be given the size in the
examination). It is therefore not always possible to enter into a deal of precisely the same amount
as the underlying transaction whose risk we are trying to hedge against.

E xample 9
It is 10 September 2004.
T plc expects to receive $1,200,000, on 12 November 2004
The spot rate (on 10 September) is
$/ 1.5020 1.5110
Futures prices (on 10 September) are:
$/ (62,500) contracts.
September
1.5035
December
1.5045
March
1.5054
On 12 November 2004:
Spot:
$/ 1.5100 1.5190
December futures: 1.5120
Show the outcome of the futures hedge.
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Notes:
(a) When deciding whether to buy or to sell futures, look at the underlying transaction. If the
underlying transaction involves buying the contract currency, then we need to buy futures.
If the underlying transaction involves selling the contract currency, then we need to sell
futures. The contract currency is the currency in which the contract size is quoted.
(b) The fact that the movement in the futures price does not exactly equal the movement in the
exchange rate does leave us exposed to a little risk. This risk is known as the basis risk. We
will investigate this more shortly.
Estimating futures prices

Unless you are told otherwise in the examination, we assume that the difference between the
futures price and the mid-market spot rate (the basis risk), falls linearly to zero over the life of the
future.
E xample 10
On 1 July:
Spot
$/ 1.5050 1.5150
September $/ futures: 1.4900.
On 31 August:
Spot
$/ 1.5250 1.5370
What will be the futures price on 31 August?
Now let us look at a full example with everything included!

E xample 11
It is 20 June 2004.
S plc owes an American supplier $500,000 payable on 12 September.
Spot rate on 20 June $/ 1.4821 1.4896
Futures prices on 20 June:
$/ (62,500 contracts)
June
1.4800
September
1.4840
December
1.4860
On 12 September, spot rate is $/ 1.4791 1.4812
Show the outcome of using a futures hedge.
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Hedging efficiency
It should be clear from the above example that a deal in futures in unlikely to give a perfect hedge.
The reasons for this are two-fold:
(a) deals have to be made in contracts of a fixed size, thus the exact amount may not be able to be
hedged
(b) the movements in the futures price will not be exactly equal to the movements in the spot rate.
Whenever we use futures to hedge risk, the profit or loss on the futures will largely compensate for
the loss of profit on the underlying transaction. If the profit on one is exactly equal to the loss on
the other, then we are said to have a perfect hedge. However, it is likely that we will end up with a
small net profit or a small net loss.
We can measure the efficiency of the hedge as follows:
Hedging efficiency =
Profit on one deal

Loss on other deal
100%
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E xample 12
Calculate the hedging efficiency for the futures deal in Example 11.
Ticks
In the previous examples we have calculated the profit on futures by looking at the change in the
futures price, and multiplying this by the amount of the futures deal.
In practice, the movement is expressed slightly differently (although the resulting figures will be
exactly the same).
Instead of referring to a change in futures price of (for example) 0.0135, it is referred to in practice
as a change of 135 ticks. 1 tick = 0.0001, which is the smallest possible movement.
We can use this to calculate the profit or loss on futures as we will illustrate by repeating part of
example 11.
E xample 13
In example 11 re-calculate the profit making use of ticks.
Advantages and disadvantages of using futures:
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FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK MANAGEMENT (2)
1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we looked at various ways of reducing the risk due to changes in exchange
rates. In this chapter we will look at three more, rather different, possibilities options, swaps,
and swaptions!
2 Options
If we know that we are going to need to convert currency at a future date but we think that
the exchange rate is going to move in our favour, then it would be more sensible to leave the
transaction to be converted at spot on the relevant date, rather than hedge against the risk and
therefore not receive the benefit of the exchange rate movements.
The above would be perfectly sensible if we were certain that the rate was going to move in our
favour, but of course it is impossible to be completely certain and therefore there would still be a
risk that we were wrong and that the rate moved against us.
In this situation where we are reasonable confident that the rate will move in our favour then
it might be worthwhile considering a currency option. With a currency option we have the right
(or option) to convert at a fixed rate on a future date (as with the use of a forward rate), but we do
not have to exercise the right.
As a result, if the exchange rate does move in our favour then we will throw away the option and
simply convert at whatever the spot rate happens to be. If, however, the exchange rate moves
against us then we will use the option and convert at the fixed rate.
Since we will get the benefit of any movement in our favour, but not suffer if the exchange rate
moves against us, options do not come free! We will have to pay (now) for the option whether or
not we eventually decide to use it. The amount we have to pay is called the option premium.
OTC options
OTC stands for over-the-counter and refers to the buying of an option as a private deal from a
bank. The company will approach the bank stating the amount, the future date, and the exchange
rate required, and the bank will quote a premium. It is then up to the company whether or not to
accept the quote and purchase the option.
E xample 1
It is 1 April and X plc expects to receive $2 million on the 30th June.
The current spot rate is $/ 1.5190 and X expects that this rate will move in their favour.
They have purchased from the bank an option to sell $2 million on 30 June at an exercise price of $/ 1.5200,
and the bank have charged a premium of 50,000.
Show the outcome on 30 June if the exchange rate on that date is:
(a) $/ 1.5180
(b) $/ 1.6153
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Traded options
As an alternative to buying a tailor-made OTC option from a bank, it is possible to buy and sell
currency option on the currency exchanges. A benefit of this is that the premiums are driven by
market forces and the company can therefore be more certain of paying a fair price. However,
traded options are only available between major currencies, at various quoted exchange rates,
exercisable on various quoted dates, and for fixed size units.
The option premia are published in a table which you must be able to interpret in the examination.
The table will appear as in the following illustration:
$/ Options
Strike price
1.425
1.450
1.475
31,250 (cents per 1)

Mar
6.29
3.81
1.53
Calls
Apr
6.32
4.17
2.45
May
6.49
4.54
2.92
Mar
0.02
0.03
0.13
Puts
Apr
0.14
0.48
1.20
May
0.45
0.98
1.84
E xample 2
Using the above table, explain the following:
(a) what is the strike price?
(b) what do call and put mean?
(c)
what do the months above each column mean?
(d) what do the numbers in the columns mean?
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(e) what does the 31,250 (cents per ) mean?
European and American options

European options can only be exercised on the last day of the relevant month. American options
can be exercised at any time up to the last day of the relevant month. This makes American options
more flexible (and therefore generally more expensive!). (Although do appreciate that as these
options are traded they can always be sold at any time.)
The terms European and American refer to the style of the option and are nothing to do with
where they are actually sold.
E xample 3
A UK company owes a US supplier $1,000,000 payable in April.
The spot rate is $/ 1.4850 1.4870 and the UK company is concerned that the $ might strengthen.
Traded options are available at prices as shown in the following table:
$/ Options
31,250 (cents per 1)
Strike price
Mar
Calls
Apr
May
Mar
Puts
Apr
May
1.425
6.29
6.32
6.49
0.02
0.14
0.45
1.450
3.81
4.17
4.54
0.03
0.48
0.98
1.475
1.53
2.45
2.92
0.13
1.20
1.84
(a) Show how traded $/ currency options can be used to hedge the risk at 1.475
(b) Show what will happen if the spot rate in April is $/1.4100 1.4120
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3 Currency swaps
Currency swaps are much less popular than interest rate swaps (which will be explained in a later
chapter).
They are best explained by way of a short illustration:
A UK company is intending to invest in the US and will therefore be earning income in $s. They
need to borrow money for the investment and have decided to borrow $s (as a way of reducing
the impact of changes in exchange rate the closer their interest payments are to their receipts
the less the effect on them of exchange rate movements).
Another company in the US is intending to invest in the UK and for the same reasons as above
they wish to borrow s.
Both companies can organise their borrowing independently, but a US company is likely to be able
to borrow $s at a lower interest rate than a UK company (and vice versa).
A solution which stands to benefit both companies is as follows:
(a) the UK company borrows s and the US company borrows an equivalent amount of $s. The two
parties then swap funds at the current spot rate.
(b) The UK company agrees to pay the US company the annual cost of the interest on the $ loan. In
return the US company pays the interest cost of the borrowing by the UK company.
(c) At the end of the period the two parties then swap back the principal amounts. This could be
at the prevailing spot rates or at a predetermined amount in order to reduce foreign exchange
transaction exposure.
Swaps are generally arranged by banks (who act as a dating agency finding the parties to a swap).
The bank will arrange guarantees, but they will charge commissions for their service.
More recently there has been a tendency for large companies to arrange swaps directly with each
other (and not using banks, thus saving costs). The tendency is known as disintermediarisation(!!).
4 Swaption
Suppose a company wants to borrow money on a future date and might want a swap to be arranged
on that date. However, they are not sure and do not want to make the decision until the date on
which they want to borrow the money.
In this situation it is possible to arrange with the bank to have the right (or option) to swap on a
future date. This is known as a swaption (and obviously the bank will charge a premium, whether
or not the option is exercised).
Chapter 20
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INTEREST RATE RISK MANAGEMENT (1)
1 Introduction
In this chapter we will consider the nature of interest rate risk and ways in which this risk can be
managed.
Note that throughout this chapter we will be considering a company wishing to borrow money. All
of the techniques dealt with are equally available for a company wishing to deposit money.
2 The nature of interest rate risk

Interest rates on borrowing have fluctuated greatly over the past. Companies can borrow money
at either floating interest rates or at fixed interest rates. If they have floating rate borrowing, then
clearly they are subject to the risk of future interest rate changes. We will consider the possible
advantages and disadvantages of this form of borrowing later.
However, more important for the examination is fixed interest borrowing. It would appear that
this carries no risk in that any later changes in the interest rate are irrelevant. However, there can
still be a problem which is illustrated below.
Illustration
It is now 1 June. A company has decided that they will wish to take out a loan of 100,000 for six
months, starting in 3 months time on 1 September.
If they were to take the loan today then the rate of interest that they would be charged is 10%
p.a. (fixed).
The problem is that they are not taking the loan today but in 3 months time. If they do nothing
then there is a risk that by the time they actually take the loan the rate of interest will have
changed.
The risk that we are concerned about is therefore the risk of interest rates changing between now
and the date the loan starts (not the risk of interest rates changing after the start of the loan the
loan will be taken at a fixed rate).
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3 Methods of managing interest rate risk

The methods with which you must be familiar for the examination are the following:
(a) forward rate agreements
(b) interest rate guarantees
(c)
interest rate futures
(d) interest rate options

The above are all ways of managing the risk involved with fixed interest borrowing, and will be
dealt with in this chapter.
In addition you must be familiar with swaps and swaptions, which are rather different (and deal
with a somewhat different situation). These will be dealt with in the next chapter.
4 Forward rate agreements

A forward rate agreement (FRA) is the fixing of an interest rate now to apply to a loan starting at
a fixed future date.
It is an OTC (over-the-counter) transaction and effectively involves asking the bank to quote an
interest rate now to apply to a specified amount of borrowing, for a specified period, the loan to
start at a specified future date. Once the interest rate has been agreed, then if the actual rate at the
start of the loan is any different the bank and the company will settle up for the difference.
Terminology
If we ask the bank to quote an FRA 3-9 on 100,000 then it means that we want a fixed interest
rate to be quoted for a loan of 100,000 starting in 3 months time and ending in 9 months time
(i.e. for a 6 month loan).
E xample 1
It is now 1 June and X plc will need a fixed interest rate loan of 500,000 for 9 months starting on 1 September.
The bank quotes a rate of 10% p.a. to apply to the loan.
(a) state what FRA is required
(b) calculate the result of the FRA and the effective interest rate if the actual interest rate for 9 month
loans on 1 September is:
i. 13%
ii. 8%
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5 Interest Rate Guarantees

An interest rate guarantee (IRG) is an arrangement with the bank whereby the bank fix a maximum
interest rate to be applied to a loan of a specified amount, for a specified period, starting on a
specified future date.
It is effectively an option, in that if interest rates rise above the agreed rate then the company is
protected whereas if interest rates should fall then the company gets all the benefit. Since the
company can only benefit, and not lose, the bank will charge a premium for the IRG which is
payable immediately, whether or not the option is eventually exercised.
It is an OTC instrument and can not be traded.
E xample 2
It is now 1 August and Y plc will need a fixed interest rate loan of 200,000 for 6 months starting on 1
December.
They ask the bank for an IRG at a rate of 12% p.a.. The bank quotes a premium of 1,500
Calculate the result of the IRG and the effective interest rate if the actual interest rate for 6 month loans
on 1 December is:
(a) 13%
(b) 8%
6 Interest rate futures

Interest rate futures operate in a similar way to currency futures in that they are instruments that
change as interest rates change, that an investor can buy today and sell later (or sell today and buy
later). At the end of the deal any profit or loss is calculated and settled between the investor and
the dealer. A company intending to borrowing money on a future date can leave the borrowing
at risk but use a futures gamble to create an opposite risk that will net off against the risk of the
underlying transaction.
Interest rate futures are not quoted as actual interest rates, but as a number which is 100 interest
rate.
For example, a futures price of 92.00 is equivalent to an interest rate of 8% p.a.
Similarly, an interest rate of 12% p.a. has an equivalent future price of 88.00.
It is important to note two things.
Firstly, if a company is borrowing money, then they will suffer if interest rates rise between now
and the date the loan will start. If interest rates do rise, then the futures price will fall. They need
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to make a profit from the future to cover against the increased interest, and the way in which they
can make a profit from a falling futures price is to sell futures today and buy them back later at a
lower price. A borrower will always SELL futures.
Secondly, the futures available are what are called 3 month futures. This means that any profit or
loss is always calculated for 3 months even though the equivalent interest rate is quoted on a 12
month basis. This means that if the futures price changes by 2.00, this is equivalent to a change
of 2% p.a., but any profit or loss is only calculated for a 3 month period and so will be 0.5% (2%
divided by 4). This is always 3 months and has nothing to do with the length of the loan. It does
however mean that we have to be careful to match the amount of the gamble taking account of
the length of the loan.
You will see how we deal with these two points in the following example. This example is intended
to demonstrate how we use interest rate futures in a simple way we will bring in the additional
rules afterwards.
E xample 3
Today is 3 October, and interest rates are 8% p.a.. X plc will wish to borrow 6M for 6 months starting on 1
January.
3 months January interest rate futures are available at 92.00.
Show how interest rate futures may be used to hedge the risk, and calculate the outcome on 1 January.
(Assume that on 1 January interest rates have changed to 10% and the futures price to 90.00)
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Additional points:
(a) Futures can only be dealt in contracts of fixed amounts you will be told the contract size in the
examination
(b) In practice the change in futures prices will not exactly equate to the change in interest rates the
difference being the basis risk. If you are not told the futures price at the start of the loan then you
will be expected to estimate it in the same way as we estimated the prices of currency futures we
assume that the basis risk falls linearly to zero over the life of the future.
(c) The previous two points mean that it is unlikely that we will end up with a prefect hedge. We can
measure the hedging efficiency in the same way as we did for currency futures:
Profit on one deal

100%
Loss on other deal
Now we will look at a full example.

E xample 4
Barbara plc intends to borrow 40M for 6 months starting on 1 January.
Today is 1 November, LIBOR is 6% and Barbara can borrow at 1% above LIBOR.
Interest rate futures are available at the following prices:
(contract size is 1M):
January
93.50
February
93.40
March
93.35

(The contracts expire at the end of the relevant month.)
(a) Illustrate how futures may be used to hedge the interest rate risk. (Assume that on 1 January
LIBOR has risen to 9%.)
(b) Calculate the hedging efficiency.
(c) Calculate the effective interest rate
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7 Interest rate options

In section 5 of this chapter we looked at Interest Rate Guarantees, which are effectively options
but are OTC.
In this section we will look at traded options, which have the advantage that the premia are
determined by market forces and therefore we can be more certain that we will be paying a fair
price. Also they have the advantage that they are traded and that therefore the options can be sold.
There is one enormous difference from currency options in that the options here are not on
interest rates themselves, but are the option to buy or sell interest rate futures at a fixed price.
The option premia are given in the form of a table which you need to be able to interpret.
E xample 5
Sterling options. 500,000. Points of 100%
Calls
Strike price
Sep
Dec
Mar
94.25
0.18
0.08
0.04
94.50
0.10
0.04
0.01
94.75
0.03
0.01
0.01
Sep
0.19
0.21
0.48
Puts
Dec
0.83
1.24
1.48
Mar
1.42
1.68
1.92
(a) what does the strike price mean?
(b) What do the headings calls and puts mean?
(c)
what do the months at the top of each column mean?
(d) what does the sterling options 500,000. Points of 100% mean?
(e) what do the numbers in each column mean?
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E xample 6
Agne intends to borrow 5.6M for 8 months starting in September, and wishes to protect herself against LIBOR
rising above 5.75%.
LIBOR is currently 5% and Agne can borrow at 6.4%.
It is now 13 August, and options are available at the following prices:
Short Sterling options. 500,000. Points of 100%
Strike price
94.25
94.50
94.75
Sep
0.18
0.10
0.03
Calls
Dec
0.08
0.04
0.01
Mar
0.04
0.01
0.01
Sep
0.19
0.21
0.48
Puts
Dec
0.83
1.24
1.48
Mar
1.42
1.68
1.92
Futures prices on 13 August are:

September
94.30
December
94.20
March
94.10
(a) Show how the options can be used to hedge against the risk.
b) Show the outcome of the hedge if the loan is negotiated on 18 September and LIBOR is 6.5% on that date.
(c) Calculate the effective interest rate.
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Collars
In the previous example, we used options to effectively limit the maximum interest rate that the
company will have to pay.
However, in order to do this we had to pay a premium to buy the put option.
If we want we can effectively reduce the cost if we are prepared to place a limit on the minimum
effective interest that we will have to pay should interest rates fall. We can do this by selling a call
option, and thus reducing the net cost.
The resulting fixing of both a maximum and a minimum interest rate is known as a collar.
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E xample 7
Use the previous example (example 6) to show how Agne could use a Collar to hedge her borrowing.
Chapter 21
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INTEREST RATE RISK MANAGEMENT (2)
1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we looked at the risk involved in fixed interest rate borrowing, and methods
of dealing with this risk.
In this chapter we look at interest rate swaps which involve the choice between borrowing at fixed
or floating rate interest. It is unlikely that this topic will be in the compulsory part of the paper, but
it has been reasonably common in the choice section.
2 Fixed or floating?
The advantage of fixed rate borrowing is that once the loan has been taken out, the interest
payments are then certain and there is no risk due to future movements in interest rates.
However, a company may prefer to borrow at floating rate for two reasons:
a) they think that interest rates are going to fall and thus borrowing at floating rate will enable them
to get the benefit of the fall (although clearly there is still a risk that they are wrong and that
interest rates will rise)
b) more importantly, if they are in a type of business whose income rises and falls as interest rates
rise and fall then it makes good sense to borrow at floating rate so that their expense falls as their
income falls.
3 Interest rate swaps

Whether a company chooses to borrow fixed or floating, some companies can borrow at better
rates than other companies depending on their credit rating.
Because of this, it is potentially (but not always) possible for two companies to swap their
borrowings in a way that saves money for both of them.
This is illustrated in the following examples:
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E xample 1
Company X can borrow at a fixed rate of 10% or at a floating rate of LIBOR + 3%.
Company Y can borrow at a fixed rate of 12% or at a floating rate of LIBOR + 6.5%.
Company X wishes to borrow at fixed rate, whereas company Y wishes to borrow at floating rate.
Show how a swap can benefit both companies.
E xample 2
Company A and Company B can borrow as follows:
Fixed
Floating
Company A
10%
LIBOR + 1%
Company B
11%
LIBOR + 1.5%
LIBOR is currently 9%
Company As income fluctuates with interest rates, whereas Bs does not. They both wish to borrow the same
amount.
You are required to suggest a solution.
Chapter 22
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THE GLOBAL ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
1 Introduction
Globalisation has increased enormously in recent years due to the increased free trade between
countries. In this chapter we examine briefly the reasons for the increase in free trade.
2 Multinational companies
A multinational company is one that owns or controls production or service facilities outside the
country in which it is based.
The US, Europe and Japan are the major sources of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), whereas the
main recipients are in SE Asia, South America, Canada, and Europe.
More globalisation has been facilitated by deregulation, free movement of capital, and
telecommunications. Multinationals benefit in various ways, including:
(a) economies of scale
(b) access to specialist labour
(c)
access to cheaper labour and other resources
(d) closer to customers

(e) closer to suppliers
(f )
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access to grants / tax breaks
Most countries welcome multinationals because they bring employment, capital, and technology.
However, it can involve a loss of political and economic sovereignty, and undermine cultural
values.
3 Free trade
The advantages of free trade between countries include:
(a) specialisation
countries can specialise in producing goods / services in which they have expertise and trade
these for goods / services from other countries where they have the expertise.
(b) competition
free trade results in more competition hence increasing efficiency and resulting in lower
prices for consumers
(c) economies of scale
increased specialisation results in economies of scale
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4 Protectionism
Protectionism is the opposite of free trade and involves a country restricting imports. The reasons
for this include:
(a) protecting home industries
(b) protecting domestic employment
(c)
protecting strategic industries
(d) protecting against dangerous, unhealthy, or undesirable goods
Methods of protectionism
(a) tariffs or customs duties
(b) quotas
(c) embargos
(d) administrative controls
(e) exchange controls
(f )
subsidies for exporters and domestic producers
(g) trade blocs (to encourage trade between similar countries)
5 Common markets / customs unions

A free trade area is where there are no restrictions on the movement of goods and services between
countries.
A customs union is where there are also common external tariffs for goods from non-members.
A common (or single) market further incorporates the free movement of factors of production
and the achievement of stronger economic and political links.
The major example of a common market is the European Union.
6 The World Trade Organisation (WTO)

The WTO was formed to implement the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
The aims include:

(a) the reduction of existing barriers to free trade
(b) the elimination of discrimination in international trade
(c)
the prevention of growth in protectionism by requiring consultation before taking
protectionist measures.
The principle exists that all WTO members should treat each other the same with respect to
tariffs and trade. The greatest threat to this is the setting up of rich nation free trade areas such as
the EU and NAFTA (North American Free Trade Association).
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THE INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL SYSTEM
1 Introduction
This chapter covers the major international financial institutions. It then moves on to consider the
global debt problem.
2 Major international financial intstitutions

2.1 International Monetary Fund (IMF)
The IMF aims to:
(a) promote international monetary co-operation and facilitate international payments
(b) provide support to countries with temporary balance of payments problems
(c) provide for the orderly growth of international money through the Special Drawing Rights (SDR)
scheme
The IMF achieves (b) by short to medium term loans financed by quota contributions from all
members. The IMF only makes loans if deflationary policies are followed. IMF facilities are often
a pre-requisite to help from the World Bank and private banks.
2.2 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank)
This was created to rebuild Europe after World War 2. The World Bank provides long-term loans
to government on commercial terms for capital projects. The major source of funds is borrowing
via commercial bond issues.
2.3 The Bank for International Settlements

This is the Central Bankers Bank, based in Basle. It takes deposits and provides loans to central
banks on commercial terms. Its major achievement has been to co-ordinate internationally agreed
world capital adequacy standards for commercial banks.
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3 The debt crisis

3.1 The origins:
(a) a desire by developing countries to develop quickly by borrowing heavily and investing in large
infrastructure projects
(b) the increase in oil prices in the 70s which caused balance of payments problems and spiralling
inflation. A recession in the industrialised world at the same time caused a reduction in imports
from less developed countries.
(c)
An increase in real interest rates
3.2 Solutions to the debt crisis

(a) rescheduling debts
(b) selling debt at a discount to recoup capital and avoid bad publicity
(c)
substituting commercial debt with government bonds
(d) writing off debt

(e)
The Baker Plan (1985) suggested lending more to 15 countries, requiring these countries to follow
policies advocated by the IMF. The main problems with this were the reluctance of banks to lend
more, and reluctance of third world governments to adopt IMF policies.
(f )
The Brady Package (1989) suggested swapping loans for long term bonds at a discount (65%) while
agreeing to make new loans. Less developed countries were to offer, in return, better security and
undertake economic reforms. The reluctance of banks to lend new money remained a problem.
3.3 The impact of the debt crisis on multinationals

(a) Less developed countries often devalue their currency to improve the balance of payments, but
increase import costs of raw materials so reducing profits of local industry
(b) Little overseas investment means local financing is required, increasing local interest rates
(c)
Governments may insist that the multinational uses local inputs to help the balance of payments
(d) Governments will welcome foreign direct investment and may offer grants and tax benefits
Chapter 24
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EXCHANGE RATE DETERMINATION
1 Introduction
In this chapter we consider what factors are involved in the determination of foreign exchange
rates, and also the different types of exchange rate system.
Most of this chapter is only for written questions, but in addition we look at how (in theory)
we may attempt to predict future exchange rates a topic which can form part of a calculation
question.
2 Influences on exchange rate

(a) Rates of inflation in different countries
(b) Interest rates in different countries
(c)
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Economic and political prospects
(d) The balance of payments

Importantly, expectations concerning changes to the above will affect the exchange rate before
changes actually occur.
3 Government approaches to exchange rate management

(a) Fixed exchange rate systems
The government and the monetary authorities operate in the foreign exchange markets to
ensure that the rate of exchange remains fixed.
This approach reduces the currency risk faced by companies and hence encourages a higher
level of international trade.
However, keeping the exchange rate fixed places constraints on government policy.
(b) Floating exchange rate systems

Under this approach the government has no obligation to maintain the rate of exchange and
leaves its determination to market forces.
(i)
Free floating exchange rates

Here, the exchange rate is left entirely to market forces. However, governments do not like to
leave it entirely up to market forces due to the effect of the exchange rate on other economic
factors. More common is managed floating.
(ii) Managed floating
Under this approach the government allows the exchange rate to fluctuate between very
large bands but intervenes if the currency looks like moving outside of these bands.
From 1944 to 1971, a system of fixed exchange rates existed (known as the Bretton Woods
system). This collapsed in 1971 and most countries moved to a system of floating exchange
rates. The G7 group of countries now operate to manage their exchange rates and attempt to
endure reasonable stability.
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4 Monetary co-operation in Europe

The single currency for the EU (the Euro) was introduced on 1 January 1999 and has been adopted
by all of the old EU members with the exception of Denmark, Sweden and the UK. The new
entrants are all obliged to adopt the Euro is the reasonably near future.
There remains considerable debate in the UK as to whether or not they should adopt the Euro.
The main advantages are easier trade within Europe, and the attraction of foreign investments by
companies who prefer the stability of having the same currency throughout Europe.
The main disadvantage is that it is not possible for countries in the Eurozone to operate an
independent monetary policy resulting in more political power moving from the individual
country to Brussels.
5 Predicting future exchange rates

One important influence on exchange rates is the relative inflation rates between two countries.
The Purchasing Power Parity theory uses inflation rates to predict the future movement in
exchange rates. It states that identical goods should sell at the same price when converted into the
same currency. As the local currency prices changes with inflation then the exchange rate should
change to keep the relative price the same.
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Illustration
An item currently costs 100 in the UK.
The current exchange rate is $/ 1.50.
The rates of inflation are 2% p.a. in the UK and 4% p.a. in the US.
(a) what will be the price of the item in 1 years time in the UK and in the US
(b) as a result, what will be the exchange rate in 1 years time?
The above can be expressed as a formula that gives the percentage change in the spot rate as:
S1 = S0
(1 + hc )
(1 + hb )
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E xample 1
The exchange rate is currently $/ 1.70
The inflation rate in the US is 5% p.a. and in the UK is 2% p.a..
What will the exchange rate be in:
(a) one years time
(b) two years time
E xample 2
The exchange rate is currently / 2030
The inflation rate in Japan is 4% p.a. and in the UK is 8% p.a..
What will the exchange rate be in:
(a) one years time
(b) two years time
Chapter 25
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INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS
1 Introduction
In this chapter we briefly consider the different ways in which a company can conduct overseas
operations, and also examine the nature of political risk of overseas investments and ways of
attempting to manage it.
2 Forms of international operations

(a) export from the home country

low risk; low capital needs

little local knowledge
slow response to market
(b) set up overseas branch

profits of branch treated as profit of parent company

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cheap to run
(c) set up overseas subsidiary

may be able to claim local grants / tax advantages

local profile may be better for subsidiary
takes longer to form; less flexible
(d) joint venture

access to new markets at comparatively low cost

use of partners expertise and local knowledge
easier access to government incentives and local capital markets
but, cultural difference / finding partner may be difficult
(e) licensing

rapid penetration of local markets

low investment
regular licensing fee income (often regardless of profitability)
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3 Ways of remitting income from overseas investments

(a) Dividends
(b) Loan interest
(c) Royalties
(d) Management charges
(e) Transfer prices
(f ) Countertrade
4 Political risk
Political risk is the risk that political action will affect the position and value of a company.
Examples of macro (country specific) political risk:

outbreak of war / civil unrest
confiscation of assets (nationalisation) / restrictions on foreign ownership

import quotas / tariffs
exchange controls
Examples of micro (firm specific) political risk

These are risks that affect only certain firms in certain industries, rather than all foreign firms.
minimum wage legislation

pollution controls
product legislation
health and safety legislation
Managing political risk

(a) negotiate the environment prior to investing
(i)
negotiate an investment agreement
(ii) obtain insurance (either privately or through the home government)

(iii) gain local government support e.g. grants
(b) select risk reducing operating strategies
(i) control distribution channels / transportation / technology (e.g. oil refining away from
politically sensitive oil fields)
(ii) ensure that some components are imported from the home country
(c)
marketing strategy
(i) branding
(ii) control of final product markets
(d) financial strategy

(i)
low equity base / large local debt
(ii) multiple source (and therefore pressure) borrowing

(iii) shared ownership / join venture with strong local partner
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RAISING CAPITAL OVERSEAS
1 Introduction
This chapter covers very briefly international banking and the capital markets
2 International banking
International banking covers two broad types of banking activity:
(a) traditional foreign banking involving transactions in the domestic currency with non-resident
organisations (e.g. a foreign company borrowing pounds from a UK-based bank)
(b) Eurocurrency banking which involves transactions in currencies other than the domestic currency
(e.g. a company taking a loan in dollars from a UK bank). (Note: in this context the word euro
equals foreign)
3 The Euromarkets
Eurocurrency loans
These are short term floating rate loans taken in a foreign currency.
Eurobonds
This is long-term borrowing, again in a foreign currency. They are usually between 3 and 20 years
duration and are issued and sold in more than one country simultaneously. They are denominated
in a single currency, which is not that of the country of origin of the borrower. They can be fixed
or floating rate.
Euroequity
These are shares placed on a stock market in a country other than that of the country of origin of
the company. E.g. a US company issuing shares on the UK stock exchange denominated in pounds.
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Chapter 27
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THE MANAGEMENT OF
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
1 Introduction
This is another very short chapter (involving no calculations!) which considers the risks and
rewards of international trade, and explains the nature of countertrade.
2 Rewards and risks of international trade

2.1 Rewards:
(a) growth when domestic market is exhausted
(b) may extend the product life cycle
(c)
reduction of risk
(d) economies of scale
2.2 Risks:
(a) exchange rate risk (transaction risk)
(b) credit / commercial risk
(c)
trade risk (importer may refuse ownership or payment)
(d) political risk

(e) physical risk (theft of goods en route)
(f )
cultural risk
2.3 Insurance against risks

Commercial and political risk can be insured against in the UK as follows:
(a)
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Export Credit Guarantee Department (ECGD) a self financing government departments offering
medium to long term insurance for large schemes or those judged to be in the public interest.
(b) Private insurance companies offer short term (up to 180 days) insurance for similar risks.
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2.4 Methods of payment for foreign trade:

(a) open an account
(b) deposit on order (combined with one of the other methods for collection of the balance)
(c)
payment on shipment
(d) Bills of exchange

(e) Promissory note (importer promises to pay the exporter on a future date)
(f )
Documentary letter of credit (issued by the importer and guaranteed by the importers bank)
(g) Payment in advance
3 Countertrade
This is a trade deal in which none (or only a part) of the value of the trade is paid in cash. Instead,
payment is made in goods or services.
Countertrade represents approximately 25% of international trade.
3.1 Attractions of countertrading:

(a) foreign currency may be unavailable or in short supply
(b) exchange controls are avoided
(c)
medium / long term agreements provide price stability
(d) can avoid risk of exchange rate movements
3.2 Types of countertrade:

(a) barter: either a direct swap of a swap via a third party who makes payment to the supplier
(b) counterpurchase: an agreement by the supplier to buy goods from another foreign company
(c)
buy back: a UK company agrees to buy goods produced with supplied plant and machinery
(d) industrial offset: the supplier of equipment agrees to buy components from the buyer country
Chapter 28
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SOURCES OF FINANCE ISLAMIC FINANCE
1 Introduction
Under the principles of Islamic law, wealth must be generated from legitimate trade and asset-based
investment. Also, investments must have a social and ethical benefit. Speculative investments are
not allowed, and investments in such areas as alcohol and gambling are forbidden.
2 Riba
As a consequence of the laws regarding the generation of wealth, it is strictly forbidden to use
money for the purpose of making money i.e. it is forbidden to charge interest (riba).
Financial institutions cannot therefore make money by charging interest, but instead provide
services for a fee or enter into a form of agreement with the client in which the risk and the profits
or losses are shared between the institution and the client.
3 Islamic financial instruments

You should be aware of the following Islamic financial instruments and be able to briefly discuss
them:
(a) Murabaha
This is effectively a form of credit sale, where the customer receives the goods but pays for
them later on a fixed date.
However, instead of charging interest, a fixed price is agreed before delivery the mark-up
effectively including the time value of money.
(b) Ijara
This is effectively a lease, where the lessee pays rent to the lessor to use the asset.
Depending on the agreement, at the end ot he rental period the lessor might take back the
asset (effectively an operating lease) or might sell it to the lessee (effectively a finance lease
Ijara-wa-Iqtina).
Whatever the agreement, the lessor remains the owner of the asset and is responsible for
maintenance and insurance, thus incurring the risk of ownership.
(c) Muduraba
This is similar to equity finance, or a special kind of partnership. The investor provides
capital and the business partner runs the business. Profits are shared between both parties,
but all losses are attributable to the investor (limited to the capital provided).
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(d) Musharaka
This again is similar to a partnership, but here both parties provide both capital and expertise.
Profits are shared between the parties according to whatever ratio is agreed in the contract,
but losses are shared in proportion to the capital contributions.
It is regarded as being similar to venture capital.
(e) Sukuk
This is the equivalent of debt finance (Islamic bonds).
Sukuk must have an underlying tangible asset, and the holders of the Sukuk certificates have
ownership of a proportional share of the asset, sharing revenues from the asset but also
sharing the ownership risk.
An example may be where the financial institution purchases a property financed by Sukuk
certificates and rents it out at fixed rent. The certificate holders receive a share of the rent
(instead of interest) and a share of the eventual sale proceeds.
The Sukuk manager is responsible for managing the assets on behalf of the Sukuk holders
(and can charge a fee). The Sukuk holders have the right to dismiss the manager.
(Although there can be a secondary market as with conventional debt (the purchase and sale
of certificates on the stock exchange) it is currently very small. Most Sukuk are bought and
held virtually all of any trading is done by institutions.)
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FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT TERMS
Accounting rate of return

The ratio of the average operating profit generated by a project (net operating flows less
depreciation) to the average capital employed.
Alternative Investment Market (AIM)

A UK market (similar ones in other countries) which exist for the issue and trading in equity
of small and intermediate size companies. The AIM has lower admission costs and regulatory
requirements than the full market.
American option
An option that can be exercised at any time up until the exercise date.
Asset beta
Measures the sensitivity of the underlying business to market risk. It is the beta we would expect
to observe if the firm was financed solely from equity.
Basis point
is equal to 1/100th of a percentage point.
E.g. a change in interest rates of 0.10% is equivalent to a change of 10 basis points.
Basis risk
The variability in the prices of two related securities in the hedging arrangement. For example,
if changes in the price of a currency future do not perfectly match the change in the price of
the underlying security then a profit (or loss) may occur on the hedged position. This potential
variability in the outcome of a hedge is basis risk.
Bills
Money market securities issued by the government and others. They are normally offered to the
market at a discount and do not carry interest, but are repaid at par.
Call option
An option to purchase the underlying asset at a stated price on or before a given date from another
party, the option writer.
Capital market
The market for the purchase and sale of securities which have longer than one year to maturity.
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Certificates of Deposit (CD)

In exchange for a deposit of funds the issuer writes a receipt (the CD) offering a one-off interest
payment plus repayment of the face value of the deposit at maturity. The CDs are negotiable and
can be traded.
Commercial paper
Corporate IOUs against borrowed funds. They are issued at a discount and repaid at their face
value and no extra interest is paid. They are the short term equivalent of corporate bonds and
can be asset backed or credit backed where the issuing firm has a weak credit rating but can
obtain credit support from another company. A CP is not normally traded but is usually held until
maturity once issued.
Coupon
The fixed rate of interest paid on a bond at regular (usually annual or semi-annual) intervals.
Credit risk (or default risk)

The risk borne by a lender that the borrower will default either on interest payments, the repayment
of the borrowing at the due date, or both.
Currency future
An exchange traded forward contract for the sale or purchase of currency.
Derivative security
A security whose value is derived from the value of some other security such as a share, bond,
money market bill or foreign exchange.
Discounted payback
The time taken for a firm to recover with its discounted cash flows the initial capital investment
on a capital project.
Disintermediarisation
The removal of intermediaries such as banks and other financial institutions in the borrowing
and lending process whereby borrowers issue securities in exchange for loan finance directly with
investors.
Dividend cover
The ratio of earnings per share to dividend per share
Dividend yield
The ratio of dividend per share to price per share
Dynamic Delta hedging

The continuous adjustment of the balance between options and shares so as to ensure the
maintenance of a risk neutral position.
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Economic Value Added (EVA)

A measure of the super profit generated by a firm. It can be defined as net operation profit after
tax (NOPAT) less the value of the firms invested capital multiplied by its weighted average cost
of capital.
Efficient markets hypothesis

The hypothesis that share prices respond instantly and without bias to new information such that
an investor with access to that information cannot expect to make a systematic return greater than
that offered by the market for the level of risk to which they are exposed. The EMH is traditionally
presented in three forms: weak form (the information in past share prices), semi-strong form
(publicly available information), and strong form (private information).
Eurobonds
Debt denominated in any currency (dollars, yen, euros etc) which are traded on the international
capital markets.
European option
An option that can be exercised only on the exercise date.
Financial risk
The alteration in the volatility of the residual earnings to the equity investor caused by an alteration
in the firms gearing.
Fisher effect
The proposition that real rates of interest are constant between countries which implies that there
is a direct relationship between changes in nominal interest rates and inflation rates in different
countries.
FOREX
Foreign exchange
Forward agreement
An over-the-counter agreement to by or sell an asset on a specified date at an agreed price.
Forward Rate Agreements (FRAs)

An agreement by the bank to enter into a notional loan or accept a deposit with a customer for a
specified period of time and to settle with the customer the difference between the rate of interest
agreed when the agreement is made and the rate prevailing when the notional loan/deposit is
deemed to start.
Free cash flow to equity

Operating cash flow less interest and tax paid. The free cash flow to equity is potentially distributable
to shareholders as dividend or can be retained in the form of net capital investment.
Future
An exchange traded forward agreements to buy or sell some underlying security at some future
date for a currently agreed price.
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FX swap
An agreement to swap currencies without a commitment to swap interest rate liabilities.
GEMMS
Gilt edged market makers
Gilts (gilt edged security)

Bonds issued by the UK Government (also known as Treasury Bonds)
Hedging
Taking positions in two or more securities which by their nature are designed to create perfectly
counter varying returns. A short sale in a futures contract, for example, can offset the risk
associated with a long position on an underlying asset. A perfect hedge is one where all chance of
loss is eliminated.
Hostile bid
A bid to acquire another company that is opposed by the companys directors.
Initial margin
A deposit of cash or securities required by an exchange by parties to derivative agreements to
underwrite any early losses that may be made on the position. Initial margin is about 20% of the
value of the position in the underlying.
Interest rate futures

These are notional securities traded on the futures markets whose prices depend on the prevailing
interest rates. The value of the future is (100 implied interest rate). Thus the greater the interest
rate the lower the value of the future, and vice versa.
Interest rate swaps

Where two partied agree to swap their liabilities for interest rate payments on a given capital sum.
This is usually, but not necessarily, a fixed for variable interest rate swap.
Internal Rate of Return

The rate of discount which gives a zero Net Present Value when applied to an investments cash
flows. The IRR assumes that all cash flows throughout the life of the project are reinvested at the
IRR.
International Fisher Effect

If the Fisher Effect holds then changes in the spot rate are directly related to changes in interest
rate.
Intrinsic value (of an option)

The payoff if an option could be exercised immediately.
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LIBID
The London Inter-Bank Bid Rate. The effective lending rate in the interbank market representing
the spread against LIBOR.
LIBOR
London Inter-Bank Offered Rate. The average overnight rate of interest offered by deposit
accepting banks as complied on a daily basis by the British Bankers Association. A LIBOR is
quoted for sterling, dollar, yen, euro and other currency deposits.
LIFFE
London International Financial Futures Exchange.
Market to book ratio

The ratio of the market value of a firm (or on a per share basis, its share price) to its book value (or
net assets divided by the number of shares in issue).
Matching and netting

A process where interfirm indebtedness in different currencies are netted (with group companies)
or matched (with trading partners) with the purpose of reducing the requirement for funds to
move across international borders and suffer transaction costs on conversion.
Mezzanine debt
Low grade debt issued by fast expanding businesses (often as a result of leveraged buyouts)
which promises high rates of return and usually some form of equity participation through the
attachment of warrants.
Money market
The market for securities which normally have less than one year to maturity.
Monte Carlo simulation

A mathematical modelling process where random numbers are drawn from assumed distributions
attaching to the variables within a given model. By repeated trials using random numbers the
performance of the model can be examined under different assumptions about the nature of the
underlying distribution.
NOPAT
Net operating profit after tax
NYBOT
The New York Board of Trade (the parent body for the New York options and futures exchange).
Options on Forward Rate Agreements (caps and floors)

The bank as write of the option agrees to cap the interest rate charged on a loan over a set period
of times such that if the interest rate rises above the cap the difference is paid to the holder. If the
interest rate does not reach the cap the holder does not have to reimburse the bank (as with the
FRA). A floor is exactly the opposite where a minimum interest rate is set on a deposit.
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OTC
Over the counter the term relating to private agreements between counterparties to by or sell a
security (normally, but not always, referring to derivatives).
Pecking order hypothesis

This is the hypothesis that there is a natural progression in the way that a manager will use the
capital resources with the most preferred being retained earnings followed by debt followed by
new equity issue.
Perfect capital market

This is a market characterized by unrestricted access to capital at the current market rate of return,
perfect certainty, zero information costs and an absence of transaction costs and taxes.
Price/earnings (P/E) ratio

The ratio of a companys price per share divided by its earnings per share. This ratio is commonly
used as a valuation metric by the multiple method.
Primary capital/money market

The market for the issue of new capital or money market securities by governments, corporates
or other organizations.
Profitability index
The ratio of a projects Net Present Value to the capital outlay.
Put option
An option to sell the underlying asset at the stated price on or before a given date to another party,
the option writer.
Put call parity

A formal relationship between the value of a European call and put option in the same underlying
security.
Real option
An option attaching to the future cash flows derived from an investment in a capital asset by a
firm. Real options include managerial discretion to delay, expand, withdraw, or redeploy resources
within an investment project.
Repo agreements and reverse repos

An agreement to sell a security at a given price with a simultaneous agreement with the purchaser
to buy the security back at a given future date and price. A reverse repo is simply an agreement to
purchase a security with a simultaneous agreement to resell.
Scenario planning
A general methodology which allows managers to speculate upon, analyze and prepare for a range
of alternative futures.
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Secondary capital/money market

The market for trading in existing securities.
Securitization
The process of converting claims upon an entity such as a government or a firm, or its assets, into
negotiable certificates of entitlement that can be traded between individuals and where the holder
at any point in time has the same rights as were held by the person to whom they were originally
issued.
Senior debt
Unsubordinated debt, i.e. debt which takes priority in the even of liquidation.
STRIPS
The separate trading of interest and principal. This is where (normally) government bonds are
decomposed into a coupon element and a redemption element which are traded separately in the
market.
Swap
An agreement between two counterparties to swap a liability to interest payments or to swap an
asset such as foreign currency.
Synergy
The concept that mergers and acquisitions can create value that would not be available to either
company independently. Synergy can be either: revenue, cost, or financially induced and is often
used by management to justify mergers or acquisitions.
Tick
The smallest price movement on an exchange traded derivative contact . A tick is defined as the
number of basis point movement in the value of the derivative times the unit of trading multiplied
by the fraction of the year that the movement has occurred over.
Tobins Q
The ratio of the market capitalization of a firm to the replacement cost of its assets.
Treasury Bills
Government IOUs of usually one or three months maturity.
Value at risk (VAR)

The value that can be attached to the downside of a value or price distribution of known standard
deviation and within a given confidence level.
Value at risk and related measures give an indication of the potential loss in monetary value which
is likely to occur with a given level of confidence. The setting of the confidence level is necessary
because in principle, if a price distribution is normally distributed for example, the downside loss
is potentially infinite.
135
136
Paper P4
Chapter 29
Variation margin
Further calls of cash or other securities from traders to underwrite any losses that may have
accumulated against their position in a given derivative contract.
Venture capital
High risk finance for start-ups and other business ventures which is normally achieved through
equity participation in the company concerned. Providers of venture capital are commonly backed
by private equity finance.
Volatility
This is the measurement of the change in security price over time. It is normally calculated as the
annualized standard deviation of the change in share price taken over time intervals (t). In finance
it is the most common measure of risk.
Warrant
A long term call option to purchase equity in a company (usually) issued with debt to enhance its
marketability.
Yield curve
The relationship between the yield that investors require upon risk-free bonds and the time to
maturity.
Yield (with respect to bonds and other fixed interest securities)

The discount rate which equates the present value of the future stream of coupon payments and
redemption value with the current market value of the bond concerned.
Paper P4
Paper P4
ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES
Chapter 1
No Examples
Chapter 2
No Examples
Chapter 3
No Examples
Chapter 4
Answer to Example 1
Begin with a review of the summary information - notable points

Growth in turnover
Growth in PBIT
Growth in PAT
Growth in total assets, debtors approx. in line with turnover, creditors at a higher rate.
Reduction of gearing (result of rights issue?) and reduced interest charge
Dividend growth
P/E ratio has overtaken industry average.
Profitability
ROCE
Profit Margin
Asset Turnover
Gearing
Gearing (book values)
Interest cover (times)
Liquidity
Debtor days
Creditor days
Investor ratios
Share Price
Market Capitalisation
Divi per share (p)
Divi yield
137
Year 1
26%
19.86%
1.29
50%
7.25
Year 2
34.6%
9.5
Year3
6%
48.5
73
68
9.63
86.67
22.2
2.3%
Year 4
22%
19.15%
1.17
3.9%
75.3
70
83
11.40
9.66
24.4
2%
21.65
2.2%
11.95
143.4
30.0
2.5%
138
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Chapter 5
No Examples
Chapter 6
No Examples
Chapter 7
Answer to Example 1
30
= 12.5%
240
ke=
Answer to Example 2
40 (1.06)
420
ke=
+ 0.06 = 16.10%
Answer to Example 3
30 (1.08)
360
ke=
+ 0.08 = 17%
Answer to Example 4
33, 000
= 1.042
28, 000
g = 0.042 = 4.2%p.a.
1+ g =
Answer to Example 5
g=rb
= 0.20 0.40
= 0.08 / 8% p.a.
Answer to Example 6
r = 18%
b=
12
32
= 37.5%
(a)
g = r b = 18% 37.5% = 6.75% p.a.
(b)
ke=
(c)
MV in 2 years = 280 (1.0675)2 = 319 / $3.19
20(1.0675)
+ 0.0675 = 0.14375 / 14.375%
280
Answer to Example 7
8
= 8.89%
90
(a)
kd=
(b)
Cost to company
(or kd= (1 t) = 8.89% (1 0.3) = 6.22%)
8(1 03)
90
= 6.22%
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 8
(a)
0
15
5
(85)
6 p.a.
110
k d = IRR = 10%+
(b)
0
15
5
df @ 10%
1
3.791
0.621
PV @ 10%
(85)
22.75
68.31
6.06
df @ 15%
1
3.352
0.497
PV @ 15%
(85)
20.11
54.67
(10.22)
6.06
5% = 11.86%
6.06 10.22
(85)
4.20 p.a.
110
df @ 10%
1
3.791
0.621
PV @ 10%
(85)
15.92
68.31
0.77 (= nearly 0!)
Cost of debt = 10%
Answer to Example 9
32
= 14.68%
250 32
(a)
ke=
(b)
8
= 8.70%
92
Cost of equity = ke = 14.68%
Cost of debt = 8.70 0.7 = 6.09%
kd=
W . A .C.C. = 14.68
10.9
3.68
+ 6.09
= 12.51%
10.9 + 3.68
10.9 + 3.68
Answer to Example 10
20(1.08)
Cost of equity = k e =
+ 0.08 = 14.75%
320
Cost of debt
0
16
6
(105)
7 p.a.
110
df @ 10%
1
4.355
0.564
PV @ 10%
(105)
30.49
62.04
(12.47)
df @ 5%
1
5.076
0.746
PV @ 5%
(105)
35.53
82.06
12.59
12.59
5% = 7.51%
12.59 + 12.47
32
6.3
WACC = 14.75%
+ 7.51%
= 13.56%
32 + 6.3
32 + 6.3
Cost of debt = IRR =5% +
Chapter 8
Answer to Example 1
Time
Receipt
d.f. at 10%
P.V.
1
8
0.909
7.27
2
8
0.826
6.61
3
8
0.751
6.01
4
8
0.683
5.46
Market value = total P.V. = 7.27 + 6.61 + 6.01 + 5.46 + 73.28 = 98.63
5
118
0.621
73.28
139
140
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 2
Guess at 10%:
Time
0
Cash
(91.61)
d.f.
1
P.V.
(91.61)
1
8
.909
7.27
2
8
.826
6.61
3
8
.751
6.01
4
8
.683
5.46
5
8
.621
4.97
6
8
.564
4.51
7
8
.513
4.10
8
8
.467
3.74
9
8
.424
3.39
10
118
.386
45.55
NPV = 0, therefore Gross Redemption Yield = IRR = 10%.

(Normally we would have needed to make two guesses as usual when calculating the IRR)
Answer to Example 3
First bond:
Time
Receipt
d.f. at 15%
P.V.
1
8
.870
6.96
2
8
.756
6.05
3
8
.658
5.26
4
8
.572
4.58
5
118
.497
58.65
Market value = total PV = 6.96 + 6.05 + 5.26 + 4.58 + 58.65 = 81.50

Fall in value: (98.63 81.50) / 98.63 = 17.4%
Second bond:
Time
1
2
3
4
Cash
8
8
8
8
d.f.
.870 .756 .658 .572
P.V.
6.96 6.05 5.26 4.58
Market value = total PV = 67.34
5
8
.497
3.98
6
8
.432
3.46
7
8
.376
3.01
8
8
.327
2.62
9
8
.284
2.27
10
118
.247
29.15
Fall in value = (91.61 67.34) / 91.61 = 26.5%
Answer to Example 4
The gross redemption yield is 10% (see example 1)

Time
1
2
3
Receipt
8
8
8
d.f. at 10%
0.909
0.826
0.751
P.V.
7.27
6.61
6.01
4
8
0.683
5.46
5
118
0.621
73.28
The total present value = market value = 98.63

Macaulay duration = ( (7.27 x 1) + (6.61 x 2) + (6.01 x 3) + (5.46 x 4) + (73.28 x 5)) / 98.63 = 426.76 / 98.63 =
4.33 years
Chapter 9
Answer to Example 1
x
10
15
20
p
0.2
0.5
0.3
px
2
7.5
6
15.5%
x
Standard deviation= 12.25 = 3.5%
xx
5.5%
0.5%
+ 4.5%
p (x x)2
6.05
0.125
6.075
12.25
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 2
Investors will not choose:

A
- lower return, higher risk than C
D
- lower return, same risk as E
Answer to Example 3
x
20%
15%
10%
(a)
px
6.67
5
3.33
15%
x
xx
5
0
-5
p (x x)2
8.33
0
8.33
16.66
risk = = 16.66 = 4.08%

(b)
Sun
Cloud
Rain
Overall
return
15%
15%
15%
average return

= 15%
Risk = 0%
Answer to Example 4
New return = 20%
= 10 20.62 + 1220.4 2 + 2 0.4 0.6 0.2 10 12 = 36 + 23.04 + 11.52 = 8.4%
Example 5
A
: New return
= 0.8 18% + 0.2 8% = 16%
: New return
= 520.22 + 10 20.82 2 0.2 0.8 0.7 5 10 = 1 + 64 11.2 = 7.33%

= 16% (as before)
= 320.22 + 10 20.82 + 2 0.2 0.8 0.4 3 10 = 0.36 + 64 + 3.84 = 8.25%
Chapter 10
Answer to Example 1
182
2
= 5% + sys
sys
= 324 25
= 17.29%
Answer to Example 2
=
8
= 0.8
10
141
142
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 3
152
2
= 4 2 + sys
sys
= 225 16 = 14.46%
= 30 = 5.48%
14.46
= 2.64
=
5.48
mkt
Answer to Example 4
6
= 1.5
4
return = 5% + (12% 5%)1.5 = 15.5%
Answer to Example 5
20% = 8% + (25% 8%)
12
= 0.71
17
sys = 0.71 8% = 5.68%
Answer to Example 6
32
= 1.28
25
Return = 7% + (16% 7%)1.8 = 18.52%
Answer to Example 7
12
= 2.1
4
= 2.1 4 = 8.4%
= 0.7
sys
Return = 6% + (14% 6%)2.1 = 22.8%
Answer to Example 8
(a)
(0.2 1.2) + (0.4 11.8) + (0.3 1) + (0.1 0) = 1.26
(b)
Return = 8% (20% 8%)1.20 = 23.12%
Answer to Example 9
Theoretical return = 4% + (10% 4%)0.6 = 7.6%

Actual return = 8%
= 8 7.6 = + 0.4%
(a)
Ps shares have the highest and so are the more risky shares.
(b)
Ungeared s:
100
= 1.41
100 + (40 0.7)
100
= 1.32
Q plc = a = 1.5
100 + (20 0.7)
1.41 > 1.32 so P is the more
e risky business
P plc = a = 1.8
Paper P4
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
For Y plc:
a = e
(a)
E
100
= 1.8
= 1.57
E + D(1 t )
100 + (20 0.75)
Required return = 8% (18% 8%) 1.57 = 23.7%
Chapter 11
Answer to Example 1
Sales
1
2,000
(864)
(735)
401
(100)
Materials
Labour
Net operating flow
Tax on operating flow
Cost
2
2,140
(933)
(772)
435
(109)
3
2,290
(1,008)
(810)
472
(118)
4
2,450
(1,088)
(851)
511
(128)
(1,800)
Scrap
1,000
Tax on saving on capital allowed

Working Capital
Net cash flow
d.f. @ 10%
P.V.
113
Net cash flow

d.f. @ 10%
P.V.
84
63
47
(200)
(107)
(200)
(2,000)
414
410
417
430
1,508
.909
0.826
0.751
0.683
0.621
(2,000)
376
339
313
294
936
The NPV is positive and so the project should be accepted.
Answer to Example 2
5
2,622
(1,175)
(893)
554
(139)
0
(2,000)
1
(2,000)
414
NPV = $258
410
417
430
.870
0.756
0.658
0.572
360
310
274
246
5
1,508
0.497
749
NPV = $ (61) at 15%

NPV @ 10% = $258
IRR = 10% + (
(from example 1)
258
5%) = 14.04%
258 + 61
143
144
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 3
Net cash flow
d.f. @ 10%
P.V.
PVI
0
(2,000)
1
(2,000)
(2,000)
414
410
417
430
.909
0.826
0.751
0.683
376
339
313
294
PVR
5
1,508
0.621
936
2,258
MIRR = (
PVR n1
) (1 + re ) 1
PVI
2, 258
(1.10 ) 1
2, 000
= 0.1270 or 12.70%
%
=
Answer to Example 4
a
b
c
x
N
be the proportion of project A

be the proportion of project B
be the proportion of project C
be the amount put on deposit at time 0
be the total NPV
Constraints
5,000a + 8,000b + 6,000 c + x 14,000
4,000 a 2,000b + 6,000c 5,000 + 1.07 x
1 a, b, c 0
x0
Objective
Maximise N = 976 a + 2,596b + 862 c + (
1.07
x x)
1.1
Answer to Example 5
(a)
(b)
Current prices
Cash flows
d.f. @ 15%
(120,000)
(120,000)
1
60,000
1.05 =
63,000
0.870
60,000 (1.05)2 =
66,150
0.756
60,000 (1.05)3 =
69,457
0.658
0
1
2
3
1+r=
=
P.V.
= (120,000)
=
54,810
=
50,009
45,703
=
NPV +30,522
1+m
1 +i
1.15
= 1.0952
1.05
r = 9.52% (use 10% in the tables)
P.V.
1
= (120,000)
2.487
=
149,200
NPV
+29,220
(Note: the difference is due to using an effective rate of 10% instead of 9.52%)
(c)
In theory, higher inflation would lead to higher cost of capital. The real (or effective) rate would stay unchanged.
0
13
Current prices
(120,000)
60,000
d.f. @ 10%
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Chapter 12
Answer to Example 1
Gearing ratio:
Equity
100
Debt
40
140
k e = k ei + (1 T )(k e k d )

Vd
Ve
= 15 + 0.7 (15 8) 40/100
= 16.96%
Cost of equity = 16.96%
Cost of debt = kd (1 T) = 8 0.7 = 5.6%
WACC before raising debt = ke = 15%
WACC after raising debt = (16.96 100/140) + (5.6 40/100)
= 13.71%
Answer to Example 2
(a)
If all equity, required return = 5% + (15% 5%) 1.5 = 20%

0
15
(b)
(100M)
40M p.a.
df @ 20%
1
2.991
Tax benefit = tD = 0.3 30M = 9M
PV @ 20%
(100M)
119.64
19.64 M
(or: tax saving on interest = 0.3 5% 30M = 0.45M p.a.

Discount for perpetuity at risk free rate: 0.45M 1 = 9M
0.05
(c)
Gain from project

19.64M
Gain from debt
9 M
Total gain
28.64M
Tax benefit = present value of tax saving on interest.
15
0.45M p.a.
Gain from project

Gain from debt
Total gain
df @ 5%
4.329
PV @ 5%
1.9481 M
19.64M
1.95M
21.59M
Chapter 13
Answer to Example 1
(a)
$2.50 > $1.80 so exercise
(b)
$1.50 < $1.80 so do not exercise
Answer to Example 2
Value of option = $2.50 $2.00 = $0.50
145
146
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 3
d1 =
ln
290
+ 0.06 0.5
260
+ 0.5 0.4 0.5 = 0.4921 + 0.1414 = 0.6335
0.4 0.5
d 2 = 0.6335 0.4 0.5 = 0.3507

N(d1) = 0.5 + 0.2357 = 0.7357
N(d2) = 0.5 + 0.1368 = 0.6368
Option price = 290 0.7357 260e0.06 0.5 0.6368 = 213 161 = 52c
Answer to Example 4
d1 =
ln
35
+ 0.1
35
+ 0.5 0.2 1 = 0.5 + 0.1 = 0.6
0.2 1
d 2 = 0.6 0.2 1 = 0.4

N(d1) = 0.5 + 0.2257 = 0.7257
N(d2) = 0.5 + 0.1554 = 0.6554
Option price = 35 0.7257 35e0.1 0.6554 = 25.40 20.76 = $4.64
Answer to Example 5
d1 =
ln
150
+ 0.1 0.25
180
+ 0.5 0.4 0.25 = 0.7866 + 0.1 = 0.6886
0.4 0.25
d 2 = 0.6866 0.4 0.25 = 0.8866

N(d1) = 0.5 0.2549 = 0.2451
N(d2) = 0.5 0.3133 = 0.1867
Option price = 150 0.2451 180e0.1 0.25 0.1867 = 37 33 = 4c
Answer to Example 6
N(d1) = 0.2451 (as in example 5)
Number of options =
1, 000
= 4 , 080
0, 2451
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Chapter 14
Answer to Example 1
Pa = current P.V. of project = $12 M

Pe = capital expenditure = $10M
t = 3 years
r = 6%
s = 20%
12
ln( ) + (0.06 + 0.5 (0.2)2 ) 3
10
d1 =
0.20 3
0.1823 + 0.24
=
= 1.22
0.3464
d 2 = 1.22 0.2 3 = 0.87
N(d1) =
0.5 + 0.3888 = 0.8888
N(d2) =
0.5 + 0.3078 = 0.8078
c = 12 0.8888 10 0.8078 e-0.18

= $3.92M
The value of the call option to delay is $3.92M
(and therefore the full value of the project at the current time is $2M + $3.92M = $5.92M)
Chapter 15
No Examples
Chapter 16
Answer to Example 1
Profit after tax
Non-cash expenses
After tax interest (0.7 8); (0.7 6)
Adjusted profit
Adjusted Capital Employed
Capital employed at start of the year
Non-capital leases
Weighted average Cost of Capital:
2006: (15% 0.7) + (9% 0.7 0.3) = 12.39%
2007: (17% 0.7) + (10% 0.7 0.3) = 14.00%
2007
$m
88
20
5.6
$113.6
2006
$m
71
71
4.2
$95.2
2007
400
16
$416
2006
350
16
$366
EVA 2006 = 95.2 (366 0.1239) = $49.85m

EVA 2007 = 113.6 (416 0.14) = $55.36m
Answer to Example 2
New asset of enlarged company:

(weight s by market values)
(0.8 170/225) + (1.1 55/225) = 0.87
Equity of enlarged company:
147
148
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Ve
Ve + Vd (1 t )
170
0.87 = e
170 + (80 0.7)
e = 1.16
a = e
Cost of equity = 5% + (12% 5%) 1.16 = 13.12%

Cost of debt = 8% 0.7 = 5.6%
170
80
WACC = (
13.12%) + (
5.6%) = 10.71% ( say 11%)
170 + 80
170 + 80
Discount total cash flows:
d.f. @ 11%
35
42
47
52
0.901
0.812
0.731
0.659
32
34
34
34
P.V.
5
207
0.593
123
Total P.V = $257

New M.Vs of enlarged company:
Debt
Equity (balance)
80
177
257
Shareholders of Nairobi will therefore gain 4 if the acquisition goes ahead

BUT in the calculations, we assumed that the ratio of market values of equity to debt was 170:80. However, the final
answer gives a ratio of 177:80
Strictly therefore we should go back and rework the answer on the basis of 177:80. The answer will again be different but
by keep repeating we will eventually arrive at a final answer.
This is knows as an iterative approach. You will not be required to keep repeating in the examination
Chapter 17
No Examples
Chapter 18
Answer to Example 1
$100,000 1.6310 = 61,312
Answer to Example 2
240,000 9.2530 = IR 2,220,720
Answer to Example 3
200,000 1.4910 = 134,138
Answer to Example 4
Forward rate = 1.5385 0.0051 = 1.5334

150,000 1.5334 = 97,822
Answer to Example 5
Forward rate
200,000 1.6665 =
1.6582 + 0.0083 = 1.6665
120,012
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 6
Borrow $s:
5M 1.0145
$4,928,536
Convert at spot
4,928,536 1.5426
Invest s
3,194,954 1.009 =
3,223,709
Answer to Example 7
Invest $s:
8M 1.0116
3,194,954
$7,874,016
Convert at spot
7,874,016 1.6201
4,860,204
Borrow s
4,860,204 1.02475
4,980,494
Answer to Example 8
If converted at spot on 10 August:

800,000 1.5631 =
In 3 months time, spot

futures:
$1,250,480
1.5726 1.5831

1.5780
Underlying transaction at spot:

800,000 1.5831 =
1,266,480
800,000 (1.5780 1.5580) =
16,000
Profits on futures
$1,250,480
Net payments
Answer to Example 9
Converting at current (12 Nov) spot: 1,200,000 1.5110 = 794,176

Futures:
BUY
December (at 1.5045)
Number of contracts = 1,200,000 1.5045 62,500 = 13
On 10 September:
1,200,000 1.5190 =
789,993
Profits on futures
13 62,500 (1.5120 1.5045) = $6,094 1.5190
4,012
Net receipt
794,005
1 July
1.5100
1.4900
0.0200
Mid-market spot
Futures
Difference
31 August
1.5310
1.5243
0.0067
0.02
30 September
(a)
If converted at current spot rate on 20 June:
(b)
Futures
SELL
September (at 1.4840)
Contracts = 500,000 1.4840 62,500 = 5
500,000 1.4821 = 337,359
149
150
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
(c)
Futures price on 12 September
20 June
1.4859
1.44840
0.0200
Mid-market spot
Futures
Difference
(d)
12 September 30 September
1.4802
1.4799
0.0003
0
18102 0.0019
Illustration on 12 September:
500,000 1.4791 =
338,043
Profits on futures
5 62,500 (1.4840 1.4799) = $1,281 1.4812
Net receipt
865
337,178
865
100% = 126%
338,043 337,359
Profit / loss per tick = 62,500 0.0001 = $6.25

Movement in futures price = 1.4840 1.4799 = 41 ticks
Profit = 5 41 $6.25 = $1,281.25
Chapter 19
Answer to Example 1
(a)
Do not exercise option:

$2M 1.5190 =
1,316,656
less: premium
50,000
Net receipt
(b)
1,266,656
Exercise option
$2M 1.5200 =
1,315,789
less: premium
50,000
Net receipt
1,265,789
Answer to Example 2
No answer
Answer to Example 3
(a)
Put options
April
Strike of 1475
Contracts: 1,000,000 1475 31,250 = 22
22 31,250 0.0120 = $8,250
8,250 14850 = 5,556 (payable now)
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
(b)
In April:
Underlying transaction
$1,000,000 14100 =
709,220
Profits on options:
22 31,250 (14750 14100) = $44,688 14120 =
31,649
677,571
Add: premium
5,556
Total payment
683,127
Chapter 20
Answer to Example 1
(a)
FRA 312 500,000
(b)
(i)
Interest: 500,000 /12 13% =
500,000
FRA: 500,000 /12 (13% 10%)
11,250
37,500
37,500
Efficient rate =
(ii)
500,000
/9 = 10%
Interest: 500,000 /12 8% =
30,000
FRA: 500,000 /12 (10% 8%)
7,500
37,500
37,500
Efficient rate =
500,000
/9 = 10%
Answer to Example 2
(a)
Interest: 200,000 6/12 13% =
13,000
IRG: 200,000 6/12 (13% 12%)
1,000
12,000
1,500
Premium
13,500
Efficient rate =
(b)
13,500
200,000
/ = 13.5%
Interest: 200,000 6/12 8% =
8,000
IRG
1,500
Premium
9,500
Efficient rate =
9,500
200,000
/ = 9.5%
Answer to Example 3
Interest at current interest rates: 6M 8% 12 =
240,000
Futures gamble required = 6M 3 = 12M
151
152
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
On 1 January:
Interest 6M 10% 6/12 =
Profit in futures: 12M
NET COST
300,000
92.00 90.00
40
60,000
240,000
Answer to Example 4
(a)
Interest at current interest rates: 40M 12 7% =
Futures:
SELL
January
Contracts: 40M 3 1M =
1,400,000
80
Future price on 1 January:

Interest
1 November
94.00
Futures
1 January
91.00
90.83
93.50
0.50
Difference
31 January
0.17
0.50

Illustration on 1 January:
Interest at current interest rates: 40M 12 10% =
Profit in futures: 80 1M
NET COST
(b)
2,000,000
93 50 90 83
400
534,000
1,466,000
Hedging efficiency
534 , 000
100% = 89%
2, 000, 000 1, 400, 000
Effective interest rate
1, 466, 000 12
100% = 7.33%
40M
6
Answer to Example 5
No answer
Answer to Example 6
(a)
PUT
September
Strike price 94.25
Contracts: 5.6M 83 0.5M = 30
Premium 30 0.5M
(b)
On 18 September
Interest
Futures
Difference
0.19
= 7,125
400
13 August
95.00
18 September 30 September
93.50
94.30
93.32
0.70
0.18
12
0.70
48
Paper P4
Answers to Examples
Interest on loan: 5.6M 7.9% 8/12 =
Profit on options: 30 0.5M
294,933
94.25 93.32
=
400
Premium
260,058
7,125
Net payment
(c)
34,875
Effective interest rate =
267, 183 12
100% = 7.16%
5.6M
8
267,183
Answer to Example 7
No answer
Chapter 21
Answer to Example 1
X
Own borrowing
Swap
10%
L + 3%
Answer to Example 2
L + 6.5%
12%
Benefit
Own borrowing
Swap
A
L + 1%
10%
B
11%
L + 15%
Saving
B pays A 0.75%
NET INTEREST
L + 15%
(0.75%)
L + 0.75%
10%
0.75%
10.75%
Total
L + 16.5%
L + 15%
1.5%
Total
L + 12%
L + 11.5%
0.5%
Split equally = 0.25% each
Chapter 22
No Examples
Chapter 23
No Examples
Chapter 24
Illustration
(a)
U.K.:
100 1.02 = 102 in 1 year
U.S.:
currently 100 1.50 = $150
$150 1.04 = $156 in 1 year
(b)
Exchange rate in 1 year =
156 = $/ 1.5294
10
153
154
Answers to Examples
Answer to Example 1
In 1 year:
In 2 year:
1.05
= $ / 1.75
1.02
1.05 2
1.70 (
) = $ / 1.80
1.02
1.70
Answer to Example 2
In 1 year:
In 2 year:
1.04
= / 1,955
1.08
1.04 2
2,030 (
) = / 1,882
1.08
2,030
Chapter 25
No Examples
Chapter 26
No Examples
Chapter 27
No Examples
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