100 OF THE WORLDS

WORST INVASIVE
ALIEN SPECIES
A SELECTION FROM THE GLOBAL
INVASIVE SPECIES DATABASE

Published by

Contribution to the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP)

In Association with

S PECIES S URVIVAL C OMMISSION

Citation
Lowe S., Browne M., Boudjelas S.,
De Poorter M. (2000) 100 of the
Worlds Worst Invasive Alien
Species A selection from the Global
Invasive Species Database.
Published by The Invasive Species
Specialist Group (ISSG) a specialist
group of the Species Survival
Commission (SSC) of the World
Conservation Union (IUCN), 12pp.
First published as special lift-out in
Aliens 12, December 2000.
Updated and reprinted version:
November 2004.
Electronic version available at:
www.issg.org/booklet.pdf
For information, or copies of the
booklet in English, French or
Spanish, please contact:
ISSG Office: School of Geography and Environmental Sciences
(SGES)
University of Auckland (Tamaki
Campus)
Private Bag 92019
Auckland, New Zealand
Phone: #64 9 3737 599 x85210
Fax: #64 9 3737 042
E-mail: issg@auckland.ac.nz

Development of the 100 of the

Worlds Worst Invasive Alien Species list has been made possible by
the support of the Fondation
dEntreprise TOTAL (1998 - 2000).

Cover image: Brown tree snake

(Boiga irregularis).
Photo: Gordon Rodda
Printed in New Zealand by:
Hollands Printing Ltd
Contact: Otto van Gulik
Email: print@hollandsprint.co.nz

Biological Invasion
What happens when a species is introduced into an ecosystem where
it doesnt occur naturally? Are ecosystems flexible and able to cope
with change, or can a new arrival
have far-reaching repercussions and
do permanent damage? Will something special be lost forever? Does
it matter?
In the distant past, the earths mountains and oceans represented formidable natural barriers to all but the
hardiest of species. Ecosystems
evolved in relative isolation. Early
human migration saw the first intentional introductions of alien species as our ancestors attempted to
satisfy physical and social needs,
but the magnitude and frequency of
those early introductions were minor compared to those associated
with todays extensive global trade
and passenger movements.
History is rich with tales of the disastrous outcomes of some intentional introductions such as that of
the Nile perch, which resulted in the
extinction of more than 200 other
fish species. We can avoid repeating such mistakes by learning from
history. Yet surprisingly, potentially
damaging introductions continue.
The ongoing release of the mosquito fish that feature in this brochure, is a good example. Another
is the questionable behaviour of
some participants in the international garden seed and pet trade.
Careless behaviour leads to unintentional introductions. So-called
accidents now account for the
majority of successful invasions.

The list of 100 of the Worlds

Worst Invasive Alien Species in
this booklet illustrates the incredible variety of species that have the
ability, not just to travel in ingenious ways, but also to establish,
thrive and dominate in new places.
Today, alien invasion is second only
to habitat loss as a cause of species
endangerment and extinction.
The genes, species and ecosystems
that make up the earths biological
diversity are important because
their loss and degradation diminishes nature. Species other than our
own have a right to exist and to retain their place in the world. We do
not know how to estimate which
species are essential to ecosystem
functioning, which are redundant,
and which will be the next to flourish as the world changes. When we
introduce a new species into an ecosystem, the full impact is often not
immediately apparent. Invasion by
species such as Miconia calvescens
can change entire habitats, making
them unsuitable for the original native community.
Safeguarding the earths diversity
is the best way to maintain our life
support system. There is evidence
to suggest that the biosphere acts
as a self-regulating whole and that
diverse systems may be more resilient. Island ecosystems, which have
evolved in isolation often have relatively fewer plants, herbivores, carnivores and decomposers to maintain essential processes and are
more vulnerable to invasion. On
islands around the world species
extinction is increasing at an un-

precedented rate. A number of the

invasive alien species featured in
this booklet are contributing to
these losses.
Useful initiatives, which contribute
to better management practices and
a reduced incidence of biological
invasion, are being taken by communities all over the world. Invasive alien species are now a major
focus of international conservation
concern and the subject of cooperative international efforts, such as the
Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP). As awareness
grows, people and their communities are able to make informed
choices that will have lasting effects
on their descendants.
The list of 100 of the Worlds
Worst Invasive Alien Species that
is presented here is designed to enhance awareness of the fascinating
complexity, and also the terrible
consequences, of invasive alien
species. Species were selected for
the list according to two criteria:
their serious impact on biological
diversity and/or human activities,
and their illustration of important
issues surrounding biological invasion. To ensure the inclusion of a
wide variety of examples, only one
species from each genus was selected. There are many other invasive alien species, in addition to
those on this list of examples. Absence from the list does not imply
that a species poses a lesser threat.
We hope that, by raising general
awareness, the risks of further
harmful invasions will be reduced
in future.

Photo: H. T. Imai and M. Kubota

Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes)

Crazy ants (so called because of their
frenetic movements) have invaded native ecosystems and caused environmental damage from Hawaii to the Seychelles and Zanzibar. On Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, they have
formed multi-queen supercolonies in at
least eight areas of rainforest, foraging
in all habitats, including the rainforest
canopy. They are also decimating the red
land crab (Gecarcoidea natalis)
populations. In 18 months the crazy ants
were able to kill 3 million crabs. The
land crabs play an important role in
Christmas Islands forest ecosystem
helping in litter breakdown and influencing forest composition by eating leaves and
seedlings of rainforest trees. Crazy ants also prey on, or interfere in, the reproduction of a variety of arthropods, reptiles, birds and mammals on the forest floor and
canopy. Their ability to farm and protect sap-sucking scale insects, which damage
the forest canopy on Christmas Island, is one of their more surprising attributes.
Although less than 5% of the rainforest on Christmas Island has been invaded so
far, scientists are concerned that endangered birds such as the Abbotts booby (Sula
abbotti), which nests nowhere else in the world, could eventually be driven to extinction through habitat alteration and direct attack by the ants.

Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis)

A native of Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands, the
brown tree snake is thought to have hitchhiked to Guam on military aircraft in the
late 1940s or early 1950s. The lack of natural predators and ample prey allowed the
snake population to explode. By the 1970s it was found island-wide and had done
extensive economic and ecological damage. It has caused major power outages
across the island and sometimes bites
people, but is most infamous for its near
complete extermination of Guams native forest birds. The brown tree snake
is a serious threat to the biological diversity of other tropical islands. It is able
to conceal itself in cargo on boats and
aircraft and even in airplane wheel-wells
and has reached destinations as far afield
as Micronesia, Hawaii, mainland
United States and Spain. Areas most at
risk are wet tropical locations that receive large volumes of human and commercial traffic.
Photo: Gordon Rodda

Caulerpa was introduced to the Mediterranean around 1984, possibly as waste

from the Monaco Aquarium. There is
speculation that the species released into
the Mediterranean was a hardier clone
of the original tropical seaweed. It
adapted well to colder waters and has
spread throughout the northern Mediterranean where it is a serious threat to the
native marine flora and fauna. New colonies are able to start from small segments of this plant and, being an opportunistic hitchhiker, it is a threat to the
whole of the Mediterranean. Wherever
it has established itself, it has smothered
habitats such as the beds of native sea
grass that serve as nurseries for many
species. On 12th June 2000, divers in a
lagoon near San Diego in the United
States discovered a patch of Caulerpa
measuring 20 metres by 10 metres. In
Caulerpa infestation
this case too, it is thought that the infestation occurred after somebody emptied a fish tank into a storm-water drain. Luckily
this invasion was discovered at an early stage and measures were taken to eradicate it.

Photo: Alexandre Meinesz

Caulerpa Seaweed (Caulerpa taxifolia)

Avian malaria was introduced to Hawaii in exotic birds kept by settlers, but it
needed a vector to spread. This was made possible following the introduction of the
southern house mosquito (Culex quiquefasciatus) in the water barrels of a sailing
ship in 1826. Hawaiis unique native birds succumbed quickly because, unlike nonnative birds, they have no
resistance to avian malaria. Unique birds such
as
the
colour-ful
honeycreepers, which
evolved into a diverse array of species and subspecies to fill different
niches, are threatened by
this disease and by habitat loss. Avian malaria,
through its mosquito vector has contributed to the
extinction of at least 10
native bird species in
Hawaii and threatens
many more.
Honeycreeper with malaria carrying mosquitos

Photo: Jack Jeffrey Photography

Avian Malaria (Plasmodium relictum)

100 OF THE WORLDS WORST INVASIVE

ALIEN SPECIES
MICRO-ORGANISM
avian malaria
banana bunchy top virus
rinderpest virus

(Plasmodium relictum)
(Banana bunchy top virus)
(Rinderpest virus)

MACRO-FUNGI
chestnut blight
crayfish plague
Dutch elm disease
frog chytrid fungus
phytophthora root rot

(Cryphonectria parasitica)
(Aphanomyces astaci)
(Ophiostoma ulmi)
(Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis)
(Phytophthora cinnamomi)

AQUATIC PLANT
caulerpa seaweed
common cord-grass
wakame seaweed
water hyacinth

(Caulerpa taxifolia)
(Spartina anglica)
(Undaria pinnatifida)
(Eichhornia crassipes)

LAND PLANT
African tulip tree
black wattle
Brazilian pepper tree
cogon grass
cluster pine
erect pricklypear
fire tree
giant reed
gorse
hiptage
Japanese knotweed
Kahili ginger
Kosters curse
kudzu
lantana
leafy spurge
leucaena
melaleuca
mesquite
miconia
mile-a-minute weed
mimosa
privet
pumpwood
purple loosestrife
quinine tree
shoebutton ardisia

(Spathodea campanulata)
(Acacia mearnsii)
(Schinus terebinthifolius)
(Imperata cylindrica)
(Pinus pinaster)
(Opuntia stricta)
(Myrica faya)
(Arundo donax)
(Ulex europaeus)
(Hiptage benghalensis)
(Fallopia japonica)
(Hedychium gardnerianum)
(Clidemia hirta)
(Pueraria montana var. lobata)
(Lantana camara)
(Euphorbia esula)
(Leucaena leucocephala)
(Melaleuca quinquenervia)
(Prosopis glandulosa)
(Miconia calvescens)
(Mikania micrantha)
(Mimosa pigra)
(Ligustrum robustum)
(Cecropia peltata)
(Lythrum salicaria)
(Cinchona pubescens)
(Ardisia elliptica)

LAND PLANT (CONTINUED)

Siam weed
strawberry guava
tamarisk
wedelia
yellow Himalayan raspberry

(Chromolaena odorata)
(Psidium cattleianum)
(Tamarix ramosissima)
(Sphagneticola trilobata)
(Rubus ellipticus)

AQUATIC INVERTEBRATE
Chinese mitten crab
comb jelly
fish hook flea
golden apple snail
green crab
marine clam
Mediterranean mussel
Northern Pacific seastar
zebra mussel

(Eriocheir sinensis)
(Mnemiopsis leidyi)
(Cercopagis pengoi)
(Pomacea canaliculata)
(Carcinus maenas)
(Potamocorbula amurensis)
(Mytilus galloprovincialis)
(Asterias amurensis)
(Dreissena polymorpha)

LAND INVERTEBRATE
Argentine ant
Asian longhorned beetle
Asian tiger mosquito
big-headed ant
common malaria mosquito
common wasp
crazy ant
cypress aphid
flatworm
Formosan subterranean termite
giant African snail
gypsy moth
khapra beetle
little fire ant
red imported fire ant
rosy wolf snail
sweet potato whitefly

(Linepithema humile)
(Anoplophora glabripennis)
(Aedes albopictus)
(Pheidole megacephala)
(Anopheles quadrimaculatus)
(Vespula vulgaris)
(Anoplolepis gracilipes)
(Cinara cupressi)
(Platydemus manokwari)
(Coptotermes formosanus shiraki)
(Achatina fulica)
(Lymantria dispar)
(Trogoderma granarium)
(Wasmannia auropunctata)
(Solenopsis invicta)
(Euglandina rosea)
(Bemisia tabaci)

AMPHIBIAN
bullfrog
cane toad
Caribbean tree frog

(Rana catesbeiana)
(Bufo marinus)
(Eleutherodactylus coqui)

FISH
brown trout
carp
large-mouth bass

(Salmo trutta)
(Cyprinus carpio)
(Micropterus salmoides)

FISH (CONTINUED)
Mozambique tilapia
Nile perch
rainbow trout
walking catfish
Western mosquito fish

(Oreochromis mossambicus)
(Lates niloticus)
(Oncorhynchus mykiss)
(Clarias batrachus)
(Gambusia affinis)

BIRD
Indian myna bird
red-vented bulbul
starling

(Acridotheres tristis)
(Pycnonotus cafer)
(Sturnus vulgaris)

REPTILE
brown tree snake
red-eared slider

(Boiga irregularis)
(Trachemys scripta)

MAMMAL
brushtail possum
domestic cat
goat
grey squirrel
macaque monkey
mouse
nutria
pig
rabbit
red deer
red fox
ship rat
small Indian mongoose
stoat

(Trichosurus vulpecula)
(Felis catus)
(Capra hircus)
(Sciurus carolinensis)
(Macaca fascicularis)
(Mus musculus)
(Myocastor coypus)
(Sus scrofa)
(Oryctolagus cuniculus)
(Cervus elaphus)
(Vulpes vulpes)
(Rattus rattus)
(Herpestes javanicus)
(Mustela erminea)

Species were selected for the list using two criteria: their serious
impact on biological diversity and/or human activities, and their
illustration of important issues of biological invasion. To ensure
a wide variety of examples, only one species from each genus
was selected. Absence from the list does not imply that a
species poses a lesser threat.
Development of the 100 of the
Worlds Worst Invasive Alien
Species list has been made
possible by the support of the
Fondation dEntreprise TOTAL
(1998 - 2000).

For further information on

these and other invasive alien
species consult The Global
Invasive Species Database:

www.issg.org/database

Feral Pig (Sus scrofa)

Photo: Jim Mitchell

Feral pigs are escaped or released domestic animals. Introduced to many parts
of the world, they damage crops, stock
and property and transmit many diseases
such as Leptospirosis and foot and
mouth disease. Rooting pigs dig up large
areas of native vegetation and spread
weeds, disrupting ecological processes
such as succession and species composition. They are omnivorous and their
diet can include juvenile land tortoises,
sea turtles, sea birds and endemic reptiles. Management of this invasive species is complicated by the fact that complete eradication is often not acceptable
to communities that value feral pigs for
hunting and food.

Photo: Wendy Strahm

Strawberry Guava (Psidium cattleianum)

The strawberry guava is

native to Brazil, but has
been naturalised in
Florida, Hawaii, tropical
Polynesia, Norfolk Island
and Mauritius for its edible fruit. It forms thickets and shades out native
vegetation in tropical forests and woodlands. It has
had a devastating effect
on native habitats in Mauritius and is considered
the worst plant pest in
Hawaii, where it has invaded a variety of natural
areas. It benefits from feral pigs (Sus scrofa) which, by feeding on its
fruit, serve as a dispersal agent for its seeds. In turn, the guava provides favourable conditions for feral pigs, facilitating further habitat
degradation.

Miconia (Miconia calvescens)

Photo: The Nature Conservancy

A highly ornamental tree from South America, Miconia

was introduced to a botanical garden on the island of
Tahiti in 1937. Its huge red and purple leaves made it
highly desirable for gardeners. It was spread into the
wild by fruit-eating birds and today, more than half the
island is heavily invaded by this plant. It has a superficial and tentacular rooting system that contributes to
landslides and has become the dominant canopy tree
over large areas of Tahiti, shading out the entire forest
under-story. Scientists estimate that several of the islands endemic species are threatened with extinction
as a result of habitat loss due to Miconia. It has been
introduced to other Pacific islands, including Hawaii
where it was introduced as an ornamental in the 1960s.
The plant has since been found in many locations on
the Hawaiian islands. It is still sold as an ornamental
plant in the tropics.
Miconia on a mountainside in Tahiti

Mosquitofish; male and female pair

The mosquito fish is a
small, harmless-looking
fish native to the fresh
waters of the eastern and
southern United States. It
has become a pest in
many waterways around
the world following initial
introductions early last
century as a biological
control of mosquito. In
general, it is considered to
be no more effective than
native predators of mosquitoes. The highly
predatory mosquito fish
eats the eggs of economically desirable fish and
preys on and endangers
rare indigenous fish and
invertebrate species. Mosquito fish are difficult to eliminate once
established, so the best way to reduce their effects is to control their
further spread. One of the main avenues of spread is continued, intentional release by mosquito-control agencies.

Photo: Bob McDowall

Western Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis)

Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus

(auropunctatus))

Photo: Jack Jeffrey Photography

This voracious and opportunistic predator is native to areas from Iran, through
India to Myanmar and the Malay Peninsula. It was introduced to Mauritius and
Fiji and to the West Indies and Hawaii
in the late 1800s to control rats. Unfortunately, this early attempt at biological
control has had disastrous impacts. Island populations of native fauna, which
had evolved without the threat of a fastmoving, mammalian predator, were no
match for the mongoose. It has caused
the local extinction of several endemic
birds, reptiles and amphibians and
threatens others including the rare Japanese Amami rabbit (Pentalagus
furnessi). The small Indian mongoose is
also a vector of rabies.

Photo: Jack Jeffrey Photography

Rosy wolfsnail (Euglandina rosea)

Native to the southeastern United States, the predatory rosy wolf snail
was introduced to islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans from the
1950s onwards as a biological control agent for another alien species, the giant African snail (Achatina fulica). The giant African snail
was intended as a food source for humans but became an agricultural
pest. In French Polynesia, the fast moving rosy wolf snail rapidly
eliminated local endemic species. One group threatened by the rosy
wolf snail is the Partulid
tree snails, which evolved
separately from each
other in isolated valleys
and exhibit a variety of
unique characteristics.
Many Partulid tree snails
have been lost already
and today the survivors
exist in zoos and in the
worlds first wildlife reserves for snails. This invasion by a biological
control agent has caused
a significant loss of
biodiversity.

10

This South American native is one of the

worst aquatic weeds in the world. Its
beautiful, large purple and violet flowers make it a popular ornamental plant
for ponds. It is now found in more than
50 countries on five continents. Water hyacinth is a very fast growing plant, with
populations known to double in as little
as 12 days. Infestations of this weed
block waterways, limiting boat traffic,
swimming and fishing. Water hyacinth
also prevents sunlight and oxygen from
reaching the water column and submerged plants. Its shading and crowding of native aquatic plants dramatically
reduces biological diversity in aquatic
ecosystems.

Photo: Aquarius Systems, North Prairie, Wisconsin, USA

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia

crassipes)

Water hyacinth on LakeVictoria

Nile Perch (Lates niloticus)

Photo: Jens Bursell

The Nile perch was introduced to Lake Victoria, Africa in 1954 to

counteract the drastic drop in native fish stocks caused by over-fishing. It has contributed to the extinction of more than 200 endemic
fish species through predation and competition for food. The flesh of
Nile perch is oilier than that of the local fish, so more trees were
felled to fuel fires to dry the catch. The subsequent erosion and runoff contributed to increased nutrient levels, opening the lake up to
invasions by algae and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). These
invasions in turn led to oxygen depletion in the lake, which resulted
in the death of more fish. Commercial exploitation of the Nile perch
has displaced local men and
women from their traditional
fishing and processing work.
The far-reaching impacts of
this introduction have been
devastating for the environment as well as for communities that depend on the lake.

11

The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) is a New Zealand-based specialist

group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). It is chaired by Dr Mick Clout (University of Auckland).
The goals of ISSG are to reduce threats to natural ecosystems and the native
species they contain - by increasing awareness of alien invasions and of ways to
prevent, control or eradicate them.
The Global Invasive Species Database, developed as part of GISP Phase I, managed by ISSG, is freely available online at www.issg.org/database and mirrored at
www.invasivespecies.net/database. Priorities range from a focus on the some of
the worlds worst invasive species to a focus on areas where information and resources are comparatively scarce, including small-island developing states. The
database has images and descriptions for a wide variety of invasive species. Records
for these species include information on the ecology, impacts, distribution and pathways of the species, and most importantly, information on management methods as
well as contact details of experts that can offer further advice. The database also
provides links to numerous other sources of information.
Aliens is the bi-annual newsletter of the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG).
Its role is to put researchers, managers and/or practitioners in contact with each
other and to publish information and news of alien invasive species and issues.
Aliens-L is a listserver dedicated to invasive species. It allows users to freely seek
and share information on alien invasive species and issues, and the threats posed
by them to the Earths biodiversity. To subscribe, look for instructions on the ISSG
website.
Cooperative Initiative on Invasive Alien Species on Islands: the aims of the
Cooperative Initiative on Invasive Island Alien Species on Islands are: to enhance
empowerment, capacity, cooperation and sharing of expertise in key areas of invasive alien species (IAS) management on islands; For more information, contact
ISSG.
IUCN Guidelines: The IUCN Guidelines For The Prevention Of Biodiversity Loss
Caused By Alien Invasive Species (As approved by 51st Meeting of Council, February 2000 ) can be obtained from the ISSG office, or http://iucn.org/themes/ssc/
pubs/policy/invasivesEng.htm
BioNET-INTERNATIONAL, the Global Network for Taxonomy, is an initiative
that promotes demand-driven capacity building in taxonomy to address sustainable development needs of developing countries. Comprised of a secretariat and
nine, government-endorsed subregional LOOPs with a membership of institutions
and individuals, BioNET helps coordinate and engage taxonomists, technology
providers and others in the capacity building partnerships needed to address priority issues such as invasive alien species. Why Taxonomy Matters is a set of case
studies, many of which highlight the contribution of taxonomy to IAS management (see: www.bionet-intl.org/case_studies).
Websites: Invasive Species Specialist Group: www.issg.org
Global Invasive Species Database: www.issg.org/database
IUCN-The World Conservation Union: www.iucn.org
The Global Invasive Species Programme: www.GISP.org
BioNET-INTERNATIONAL: www.bionet-intl.org