Marxism

For the political ideology commonly associated with social revolution. The eventual long-term outcome of this
states governed by Communist parties, see Marxism revolution would be the establishment of socialism a
Leninism.
socioeconomic system based on cooperative ownership
of the means of production, distribution based on ones
contribution, and production organized directly for use.
Marxism is a worldview and method of societal analysis that focuses on class relations and societal conict, Karl Marx hypothesized that, as the productive forces
and technology continued to advance, socialism would
that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, and a dialectical view of social transformation. eventually give way to a communist stage of social deMarxist methodology uses economic and sociopolitical velopment. Communism would be a classless, stateless,
inquiry and applies that to the critique and analysis of the humane society erected on common ownership and the
development of capitalism and the role of class struggle principle of "From each according to his ability, to each
according to his needs".
in systemic economic change.
Marxism has developed into dierent branches and
schools of thought. Dierent schools place a greater
emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while
de-emphasizing or rejecting other aspects of Marxism,
sometimes combining Marxist analysis with non-Marxian
concepts. Some variants of Marxism primarily focus
on one aspect of Marxism as the determining force in
social development such as the mode of production,
class, power-relationships or property ownership while
arguing other aspects are less important or current research makes them irrelevant. Despite sharing similar
premises, dierent schools of Marxism might reach contradictory conclusions from each other.[4] For instance,
dierent Marxian economists have contradictory explanations of economic crisis and dierent predictions for
the outcome of such crises. Furthermore, dierent variants of Marxism apply Marxist analysis to study dierent
aspects of society (e.g. mass culture, economic crises, or
feminism).[5]

In the mid-to-late 19th century, the intellectual tenets

of Marxism were inspired by two German philosophers:
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxist analyses and
methodologies have inuenced multiple political ideologies and social movements. Marxism encompasses an
economic theory, a sociological theory, a philosophical
method, and a revolutionary view of social change.[1]
There is no single denitive Marxist theory; Marxist analysis has been applied to diverse subjects and has been
misconceived and modied during the course of its development, resulting in numerous and sometimes contradictory theories that fall under the rubric of Marxism or
Marxian analysis.[2]
Marxism builds on a materialist understanding of societal development, taking as its starting point the necessary
economic activities required to satisfy the material needs
of human society. The form of economic organization
or mode of production is understood to give rise to, or
at least directly inuences, most other social phenomena
including social relations, political and legal systems,
morality and ideology. Thus, the economic system and
social relations are called a base and superstructure. As
the forces of production (most notably technology) improve, existing forms of social organization become inecient and stie further progress. These ineciencies
manifest themselves as social contradictions in the form
of class struggle.[3]

These theoretical dierences have led various socialist

and communist parties and political movements to embrace dierent political strategies for attaining socialism and advocate dierent programs and policies from
each other. One example of this is the division between
revolutionary socialists and reformists that emerged in
the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) during the
early 20th century. Similarly, although the Bolsheviks of
Russia declared Leninism and later MarxismLeninism
According to Marxist analysis, class conict within capi- to be the only legitimate development of Marxism, the
talism arises due to intensifying contradictions between Mensheviks and many other social democrats worldwide
highly productive mechanized and socialized produc- considered them totalitarian deviations.
tion performed by the proletariat, and private owner- Marxist understandings of history and of society
ship and appropriation of the surplus product in the form have been adopted by academics in the disciplines
of surplus value (prot) by a small minority of private of archaeology and anthropology,[6] media studies,[7]
owners called the bourgeoisie. As the contradiction be- political science, theater, history, sociology, art history
comes apparent to the proletariat, social unrest between and art theory, cultural studies, education, economics,
the two antagonistic classes intensies, culminating in a geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychol1

ogy, and philosophy.[8]

Overview

CONCEPTS

lation (the proletariat) who produce goods and services.

Taking the idea that social change occurs because of the
struggle between dierent classes within society who are
under contradiction against each other, leads the Marxist analysis to the conclusion that capitalism exploits and
oppresses the proletariat, which leads to a proletarian revolution.
Capitalism (according to Marxist theory) can no longer
sustain the living standards of the population due to its
need to compensate for falling rates of prot by driving
down wages, cutting social benets and pursuing military aggression. The socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising
from Crisis theory, Socialism is a historical necessity (but
not an inevitability).[10]
In a socialist society private property in the means of production would be superseded by co-operative ownership.
A socialist economy would not base production on the
creation of private prots, but on the criteria of satisfying human needs that is, production would be carried
out directly for use. As Engels observed: Then the capitalist mode of appropriation in which the product enslaves
rst the producer, and then appropriator, is replaced by
the mode of appropriation of the product that is based
upon the nature of the modern means of production; upon
the one hand, direct social appropriation, as means to the
maintenance and extension of production_ on the other,
direct individual appropriation, as means of subsistence
and of enjoyment."'[11]

Karl Marx

The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of material

conditions and the economic activities required to satisfy
societys material needs. It is understood that the form
of economic organization, or mode of production, gives
rise to, or at least directly inuences, most other social
phenomena including social relations, political and legal systems, morality and ideology. The economic system
and these social relations form a base and superstructure.
As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefcient and stie further progress. As Karl Marx observed:
At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conict with the existing
relations of production or_ this merely expresses the same
thing in legal terms with the property relations within the
framework of which they have operated hitherto. From
forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social
revolution.[9]

2 Concepts
2.1 Historical Materialism
Main article: Historical materialism
The discovery of the materialist conception of history,
or rather, the consistent continuation and extension of
materialism into the domain of social phenomenon, removed two chief defects of earlier historical theories. In
the rst place, they at best examined only the ideological motives of the historical activity of human beings,
without grasping the objective laws governing the development of the system of social relations ... in the second
place, the earlier theories did not cover the activities of
the masses of the population, whereas historical materialism made it possible for the rst time to study with the accuracy of the natural sciences the social conditions of the
life of the masses and the changes in these conditions.

These ineciencies manifest themselves as social con- Russian Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir
[12]
tradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under Lenin, 1913.
the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority (the bourgeoisie) who own the
means of production, and the vast majority of the popuSociety does not consist of individuals,

2.2

Criticism of capitalism
but expresses the sum of interrelations, the
relations within which these individuals stand.
Karl Marx, Grundrisse, 1858[13]

The historical materialist theory of history[14] dialectically analyses the underlying causes of societal development and change in the collective ways humans make
their living. All constituent features of a society (social classes, political pyramid, ideologies) stem from economic activity, an idea often conveyed with the metaphor
of the base and superstructure.
The base and superstructure metaphor explains that the
totality of social relations in and by which humans product and re-product their social existence, forms a societys
economic base. From this base rises a superstructure of
political and legal institutions, i.e., ruling class. The base
corresponds to the social consciousness (politics, religion,
philosophy, etc.), and it conditions the superstructure and
the dominant ideology. A conict between the development of material productive forces and the relations of
production provokes social revolutions, thus, the resultant
changes to the economic base will lead to the transformation of the superstructure.[15] This relationship is reexive; At rst the base gives rise to the superstructure and
remains the foundation of a form of social organization.
Hence, that formed social organization can act again upon
both parts of the base and superstructure, whose relationship is not unilinear but dialectic, namely a relationship
driven by conicts and contradictions. As Friedrich Engels claried: The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave,
patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and
journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood
in constant opposition to one another, carried on uninterrupted, now hidden, now open ght, a ght that each
time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending
classes."'[16]
Marx considered these socio-economic conicts as the
driving force of human history since these recurring conicts have manifested themselves as distinct transitional
stages of development in Western Europe. Accordingly
Marx designates human history as encompassing four
stages of development in relations of production.[17]
1. Primitive Communism: as in co-operative tribal societies.

2.2 Criticism of capitalism

We are, in Marxs terms, an ensemble
of social relations and we live our lives at
the core of the intersection of a number of
unequal social relations based on hierarchically interrelated structures which, together,
dene the historical specicity of the capitalist
modes of production and reproduction and
underlay their observable manifestations.
Martha E. Gimenez, Marxism and Class,
Gender and Race: Rethinking the Trilogy[18]

According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary

Vladimir Lenin, the principal content of Marxism was
Marxs economic doctrine.[19] Marx believed that the
capitalist bourgeois and their economists were promoting
what he saw as the lie that The interests of the capitalist
and those of the worker are ... one and the same"; he believed that they did this by purporting the concept that
the fastest possible growth of productive capital" was
best not only for the wealthy capitalists but also for the
workers because it provided them with employment.[20]
Exploitation is a matter of surplus labour the amount of
labour one performs beyond what one receives in goods.
Exploitation has been a socio-economic feature of every
class society, and is one of the principal features distinguishing the social classes. The power of one social class
to control the means of production enables its exploitation
of the other classes.
In capitalism, the labour theory of value is the operative
concern; the value of a commodity equals the socially
necessary labour time required to produce it. Under that
condition, surplus value (the dierence between the value
produced and the value received by a labourer) is synonymous with the term surplus labour"; thus, capitalist exploitation is realised as deriving surplus value from the
worker.
In pre-capitalist economies, exploitation of the worker
was achieved via physical coercion. In the capitalist mode
of production, that result is more subtly achieved; because
the worker does not own the means of production, he or
she must voluntarily enter into an exploitive work relationship with a capitalist in order to earn the necessities
of life. The workers entry into such employment is voluntary in that he or she chooses which capitalist to work
for. However, the worker must work or starve. Thus, exploitation is inevitable, and the voluntary nature of a
worker participating in a capitalist society is illusory.

2. Slave Society: a development of tribal to city-state;

Alienation is the estrangement of people from their
aristocracy is born.
humanity (German: Gattungswesen, species-essence,
3. Feudalism: aristocrats are the ruling class; mer- species-being), which is a systematic result of capitalism. Under capitalism, the fruits of production belong
chants evolve into capitalists.
to the employers, who expropriate the surplus created by
4. Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class, who cre- others, and so generate alienated labourers.[21] In Marxs
ate and employ the proletariat.
view, alienation is an objective characterization of the

3 CLASSICAL MARXISM

workers situation in capitalism his or her self-awareness an ideological process. Hence he imagines false or seemof this condition is not prerequisite.
ing motive forces.[24] Because the ruling class controls
the societys means of production, the superstructure of
society, the ruling social ideas are determined by the best
2.3 Social classes
interests of the said ruling class. In The German Ideology, the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the
The identity of a social class derives from its relation- ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material
ship to the means of production; Marx describes the so- force of society, is, at the same time, its ruling intelleccial classes in capitalist societies:
tual force.[25]
Proletariat: those individuals who has nothing to
oer but their labour power, because in the capitalist mode of production, they do not own the means
of production. As Andrei Platonov expressed The
working class is my home country and my future is
linked with the proletariat.[22] The capitalist mode
of production establishes the conditions enabling the
bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat because the
workers labour generates a surplus value greater
than the workers wages.

The term "political economy" originally denoted the study

of the conditions under which economic production was
organised in the capitalist system. In Marxism, political
economy studies the means of production, specically of
capital, and how that manifests as economic activity.

Marxism taught me what society was. I was like a blindfolded man in a forest, who doesn't even know where
north or south is. If you don't eventually come to truly understand the history of the class struggle, or at least have a
clear idea that society is divided between the rich and the
poor, and that some people subjugate and exploit other
Bourgeoisie: those who own the means of produc- people, you're lost in a forest, not knowing anything.
tion and buy labour power from the proletariat, thus Cuban revolutionary and Marxist-Leninist politician
exploiting the proletariat; they subdivide as bour- Fidel Castro on discovering Marxism, 2009.[26]
geoisie and the petit bourgeoisie.
Petit bourgeoisie are those who work and can
aord to buy little labour power i.e. small
business owners, peasant landlords, trade
workers et al. Marxism predicts that the continual reinvention of the means of production
eventually would destroy the petit bourgeoisie,
degrading them from the middle class to the
proletariat.

2.4 Revolution, socialism, and communism

Marxists believe that the transition from capitalism to socialism is an inevitable part of the development of human
society; as Lenin stated, it is evident that Marx deduces
the inevitability of the transformation of capitalist society
Lumpenproletariat: The outcasts of society such as [into a socialist society] wholly and exclusively from the
[27]
criminals, vagabonds, beggars, prostitutes, et al., economic law of motion of contemporary society.
who have no stake in the economy and no mind of Marxists believe that a socialist society will be far better
their own and so are decoyed by every bidder.
for the majority of the populace than its capitalist counterpart, for instance, prior to the Russian revolution of
Landlords: an historically important social class
1917, Lenin wrote that The socialization of production
who retain some wealth and power.
is bound to lead to the conversion of the means of pro Peasantry and farmers: a scattered class incapable duction into the property of society ... This conversion
of organizing and eecting socio-economic change, will directly result in an immense increase in productivmost of whom would enter the proletariat, and some ity of labour, a reduction of working hours, and the replacement of the remnants, the ruins of small-scale, primbecome landlords.
itive, disunited production by collective and improved
labour.[28]
Class consciousness denotes the awareness of itself and
the social world that a social class possesses, and its capacity to rationally act in their best interests; hence, class
consciousness is required before they can eect a success- 3 Classical Marxism
ful revolution.
Without dening ideology,[23] Marx used the term to de- Main article: Classical Marxism
note the production of images of social reality; according to Engels, ideology is a process accomplished by the
so-called thinker consciously, it is true, but with a false
consciousness. The real motive forces impelling him remain unknown to him; otherwise it simply would not be

The term Classical Marxism denotes the collection of

socio-eco-political theories expounded by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels. Marxism, as Ernest Mandel remarked,
is always open, always critical, always self-critical. As

5
such, Classical Marxism distinguishes between Marxism as broadly perceived, and what Marx believed";
thus, in 1883, Marx wrote to the French labour leader
Jules Guesde and to Paul Lafargue (Marxs son-in-law)
both of whom claimed to represent Marxist principles
accusing them of revolutionary phrase-mongering and
of denying the value of reformist struggle; from Marxs
letter derives the paraphrase: If that is Marxism, then I
am not a Marxist.[29][30] American Marxist scholar Hal
Draper responded to this comment by saying, there are
few thinkers in modern history whose thought has been
so badly misrepresented, by Marxists and anti-Marxists
alike.[31]

3.1

Criticism

Some Marxists have criticised the academic

institutionalisation of Marxism for being too shallow and detached from political action. For instance,
Zimbabwean Trotskyist Alex Callinicos, himself a
professional academic, stated that Its practitioners
remind one of Narcissus, who in the Greek legend fell in
love with his own reection ... Sometimes it is necessary
to devote time to clarifying and developing the concepts
that we use, but indeed for Western Marxists this has
become an end in itself. The result is a body of writings
incomprehensible to all but a tiny minority of highly
One of the 20th centurys most prominent Marxist academics; the
qualied scholars.[32]
Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe

Academic Marxism

Marxism has been adopted by a large number of academics and other scholars working in various disciplines.

the dispute between the orthodox and revisionist followers of Marx.[35] Kautskys revisionist rival Eduard Bernstein also later adopted use of the term.[35] Engels did
not support the use of the term Marxism to describe
either Marxs or his views.[36] Engels claimed that the
term was being abusively used as a rhetorical qualier
by those attempting to cast themselves as real followers of Marx while casting others in dierent terms, such
as Lassallians.[36] In 1882, Engels claimed that Marx
had criticized self-proclaimed Marxist Paul Lafargue,
by saying that if Lafargues views were considered Marxist, then "[o]ne thing is certain and that is that I am not
a Marxist.[36]

The theoretical development of Marxist archaeology was

rst developed in the Soviet Union in 1929, when a young
archaeologist named Vladislav I. Ravdonikas (1894
1976) published a report entitled For a Soviet history of
material culture. Within this work, the very discipline
of archaeology as it then stood was criticised as being inherently bourgeoisie and therefore anti-socialist, and so,
as a part of the academic reforms instituted in the Soviet
Union under the administration of Premier Joseph Stalin,
a great emphasis was placed on the adoption of Marxist
archaeology throughout the country.[33] These theoretical
developments were subsequently adopted by archaeolo- 6 History
gists working in capitalist states outside of the Leninist
bloc, most notably by the Australian academic V. Gor- 6.1 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
don Childe (18921957), who used Marxist theory in his
understandings of the development of human society.[34] Main articles: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Karl Marx (5 May 1818 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political economist, and socialist revolutionary, who addressed the matters of alienation and
The term Marxism was popularized by Karl Kautsky exploitation of the working class, the capitalist mode of
who considered himself an orthodox Marxist during production, and historical materialism. He is famous for

Etymology

HISTORY

analysing history in terms of class struggle, summarised

in the initial line introducing the Communist Manifesto
(1848): The history of all hitherto existing society is the
history of class struggles.

undertook the Cultural Revolution from 1966 through to

1976 in order to purge capitalist elements from Chinese
society and entrench socialism. However, upon Maos
death, his rivals seized political power and under the PreFriedrich Engels (28 November 1820 5 August 1895) miership of Deng Xiaoping (19781992), many of Maos
was a German political philosopher and Karl Marxs co- Cultural Revolution era policies were revised or abandeveloper of communist theory. Marx and Engels met in doned and much of the state sector privatised.
September 1844; discovering that they shared like views The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of most
of philosophy and socialism, they collaborated and wrote of those socialist states that had professed a Marxist
works such as Die heilige Familie (The Holy Family). Af- Leninist ideology. In the late 1970s and 1980s, the
ter Marx was deported from France in January 1845, En- emergence of the New Right and neoliberal capitalism
gels and Marx moved to Belgium, which then permitted as the dominant ideological trends in western politics
greater freedom of expression than other European coun- championed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and U.K.
tries; in January 1846, they returned to Brussels to estab- Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher led the west to take
lish the Communist Correspondence Committee.
a more aggressive stand against the Soviet Union and its
In 1847, they began writing The Communist Manifesto Leninist allies. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, the re(1848), based on Engels The Principles of Communism; formist Mikhael Gorbachev (1931) became Premier in
six weeks later, they published the 12,000-word pam- March 1985, and began to move away from Leninistphlet in February 1848. In March, Belgium expelled based models of development towards social democracy.
them, and they moved to Cologne, where they published Ultimately, Gorbachevs reforms, coupled with rising levthe Neue Rheinische Zeitung, a politically radical news- els of popular ethnic nationalism in the Soviet Union, led
paper. Again, by 1849, they had to leave Cologne for to the states dissolution in late 1991 into a series of conLondon. The Prussian authorities pressured the British stituent nations, all of which abandoned MarxistLeninist
government to expel Marx and Engels, but Prime Minis- models for socialism, with most converting to capitalist
economies.
ter Lord John Russell refused.
After Karl Marxs death in 1883, Friedrich Engels became the editor and translator of Marxs writings. With
his Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State
(1884) analysing monogamous marriage as guaranteeing male social domination of women, a concept analogous, in communist theory, to the capitalist classs economic domination of the working class Engels made
intellectually signicant contributions to feminist theory
and Marxist feminism.

6.2
6.2.1

Late 20th century

Political Marxism

In 1959, the Cuban Revolution led to the victory of antiimperialist Fidel Castro (1926) and his July 26 Movement. Although the revolution had not been explicitly
socialist, upon victory Castro ascended to the position
of Prime Minister and eventually adopted the Leninist
model of socialist development, forging an alliance with
the Soviet Union.[37] One of the leaders of the revolution, the Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara
(19281967), subsequently went on to aid revolutionary socialist movements in Congo-Kinshasa and Bolivia,
eventually being killed by the Bolivian government, possibly on the orders of the CIA, though the CIA agent sent
to search for Guevara, Felix Rodriguez expressed a desire to keep him alive as a possible bargaining tool with
the Cuban government; he would posthumously go on to
become an internationally recognised icon.
In the Peoples Republic of China, the Maoist government

6.3 21st century

6.3.1 Political Marxism
At the turn of the 21st century, China, Cuba, Laos and
Vietnam remained the only ocially MarxistLeninist
states remaining, although a Maoist government led by
Prachanda (1954) was elected into power in Nepal
in 2008 following a long guerrilla struggle. The early
21st century also saw the election of socialist and antiimperialist governments in several Latin American nations, in what has come to be known as the "Pink
tide". Dominated by the Venezuelan government of Hugo
Chvez, this trend also saw the election of Evo Morales
in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador and Daniel Ortega
in Nicaragua; forging political and economic alliances
through international organisations like the Bolivarian
Alliance for the Americas, these socialist governments
allied themselves with MarxistLeninist Cuba, and although none of them espoused a Leninist path directly,
most admitted to being signicantly inuenced by Marxist theory. For Italian Marxist Gianni Vattimo in his 2011
book Hermeneutic Communism this new weak communism diers substantially from its previous Soviet (and
current Chinese) realization, because the South American countries follow democratic electoral procedures and
also manage to decentralize the state bureaucratic system through the misiones (social missions for community
projects). In sum, if weakened communism is felt as a
specter in the West, it is not only because of media distortions but also for the alternative it represents through

7
the same democratic procedures that the West constantly V. K. Dmitriev, writing in 1898,[40] Ladislaus von
professes to cherish but is hesitant to apply[38]
Bortkiewicz, writing in 190607,[41] and subsequent critics have alleged that Marxs value theory and law of the
tendency of the rate of prot to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx drew
7 Criticisms
conclusions that actually do not follow from his theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected,
Main article: Criticisms of Marxism
his conclusion that aggregate price and prot are determined by, and equal to, aggregate value and surplus value
Criticisms of Marxism have come from various political no longer holds true. This result calls into question his
the exploitation of workers is the sole source
ideologies. Additionally, there are intellectual critiques theory that
[42]
of
prot.
of Marxism that contest certain assumptions prevalent in
Marxs thought and Marxism after him, without exactly
rejecting Marxist politics.[39] Other, contemporary supporters of Marxism argue that many aspects of Marxist
thought are viable, but that the corpus is incomplete or
outdated in regards to certain aspects of economic, political or social theory. They may therefore combine some
Marxist concepts with the ideas of other theorists such as
Max Weber: the Frankfurt school is one example.

7.1

Socialist critiques

Democratic socialists and social democrats reject the idea

that socialism can be accomplished only through extralegal class conict and a proletarian revolution. The
relationship between Marx and other socialist thinkers
and organizations, rooted in Marxisms scientic and
anti-utopian socialism, among other factors, has divided
Marxists from other socialists since Marxs life. After
Marxs death, and with the emergence of Marxism, there
have additionally been dissensions within Marxism itselfthe splitting of the Russian Social Democratic Labour
Party into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks a notable example. Orthodox Marxism became counterposed to a less
dogmatic, more innovative, or even revisionist Marxism.

7.2

Anarchist critiques

Main article: Anarchism and Marxism

Both Marxism and socialism have received considerable critical analysis from multiple generations of
Austrian economists in terms of scientic methodology, economic theory, and political implications.[43][44]
During the marginal revolution, subjective value theory was rediscovered by Carl Menger, a development
which undermined the British cost theories of value
fundamentally. The restoration of subjectivism and
praxeological methodology previously used by classical
economic scientists including Richard Cantillon, AnneRobert-Jacques Turgot, Jean-Baptiste Say, and Frdric
Bastiat led Menger to criticise historicist methodology in
general. Second-generation Austrian economist Eugen
Bhm von Bawerk used praxeological and subjectivist
methodology to attack the law of value fundamentally.
Non-Marxist economists have regarded his criticism as
denitive, with Gottfried Haberler arguing that BhmBawerks critique of Marxs economics was so thorough
and devastating that as of the 1960s no Marxian scholar
had conclusively refuted it.[45] Third-generation Austrian
Ludwig Von Mises sparked the economic calculation debate by identifying that without price signals in capital
goods, all other aspects of the market economy are irrational. This led him to declare "... that rational economic
activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth.[46]
Mises then elaborated on every form of socialism more
completely in his 1922 book Socialism, an Economic and
Sociological Analysis. Contemporary Austrian critics include Murray Rothbard, David Gordon Yuri Maltsev,
Gary North, and Joseph Salerno.

Anarchism has had a strained relationship with Marx- 8

ism since Marxs life. Anarchists reject the need for a
transitory state phase, claiming that socialism can only
be established through decentralized, non-coercive orga- 9
nization. Individualist anarchists, who are often neither
socialists nor capitalists, reject Marxism as a statist ide9.1
ology.

See also
References
Footnotes

[1] social science : Marxist inuences Britannica Online

Encyclopedia

7.3

Economic critiques

Other critiques come from an economic standpoint.

Economists such as Friedrich Hayek have criticized
Marxism for allocating resources ineciently.

[2] Wol and Resnick, Richard and Stephen (August 1987).

Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-8018-3480-5.
Marxian theory (singular) gave way to Marxian theories
(plural).

[3] Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century,

2003, by Gregory and Stuart. P.62, Marxs Theory of
Change. ISBN 0-618-26181-8.
[4] O'Hara, Phillip (September 2003). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN
0-415-24187-1. Marxist political economists dier over
their denitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These dierences are so fundamental, the arguments among dierently persuaded Marxist political
economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to political economies that celebrate capitalism.
[5] Wol and Resnick, Richard and Stephen (August 1987).
Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-8018-3480-5. The
German Marxists extended the theory to groups and issues
Marx had barely touched. Marxian analyses of the legal
system, of the social role of women, of foreign trade, of international rivalries among capitalist nations, and the role
of parliamentary democracy in the transition to socialism
drew animated debates ... Marxian theory (singular) gave
way to Marxian theories (plural).
[6] Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) Marxist Approaches
in Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology Vol.
4: pp.
34170 (October 1975)
doi:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013.
William Roseberry (1997) Marx and Anthropology
Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 2546
(October 1997) doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25

REFERENCES

[16] Communist manifesto, chapter one 1847

[17] Marx does not claim to have produced a master-key
to history. Historical materialism is not an historicophilosophic theory of the marche generale, imposed by
fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it nds itself, K. Marx, Letter to editor of the Russian newspaper paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym, 1877. He explains that his ideas are based upon a
concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe.
[18] Marxism and Class, Gender and Race: Rethinking the
Trilogy, by Martha E. Gimenez, Published (2001) in Race,
Gender and Class, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 2333.
[19] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 07.
[20] Marx 1849.
[21] Alienation entry, A Dictionary of Sociology
[22] Andrei Platonov, the 20th-century Russian writer
[23] Joseph McCarney: Ideology and False Consciousness,
April 2005
[24] Engels: Letter to Franz Mehring, (London 14 July 1893),
Donna Torr, translator, in Marx and Engels Correspondence, International Publishers, 1968
[25] Karl Marx, The German Ideology".
[26] Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 100.

[7] S. L. Becker (1984) Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience, Critical Studies in Mass
Communication, 1(1): pp. 6680.
[8] See Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen
(1987) Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching, Palgrave Macmillan.
[9] A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Introduction 1859
[10] Free will, non-predestination and non-determinism are
emphasized in Marxs famous quote Men make their own
history ... The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte,
Karl Marx 1852.
[11] Socialism, Utopian and Scientic, Chapter three 1882
[12] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 15.
[13] Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy, by Karl Marx & Martin Nicolaus, Penguin Classics,
1993, ISBN 0-14-044575-7, pg 265

[27] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 35.

[28] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 3536.
[29] Accusing Guesde and Lafargue of 'revolutionary phrasemongering' and of denying the value of reformist struggles, Marx made his famous remark that, if their politics
represented Marxism, 'ce qu'il y a de certain c'est que moi,
je ne suis pas Marxiste' ('what is certain is that I myself am
not a Marxist'). See: http://www.marxists.org/archive/
marx/works/1880/05/parti-ouvrier.htm
[30] Hall, Stuart; Dave Morely; Kuan-Hsing Chen (1996).
Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies. London: Routledge. p. 418. ISBN 978-0-415-08803-9. Retrieved 4 March 2013. I have no hesitation in saying that
this represents a gigantic crudication and simplication
of Marxs work the kind of simplication and reductionism which once led him, in despair, to say if that is
marxism, then I am not a marxist
[31] Not found in search function at Draper Arkiv

[14] Evans, p. 53; Marxs account of the theory is the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). . Another exposition of the theory is in
The German Ideology. It, too, is available online from
marxists.org.

[32] Callinicos 2010. p. 12.

[15] See A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy

(1859), Preface, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1977,
with some notes by R. Rojas, and Engels: Anti-Dhring
(1877), Introduction General

[35] Georges Haupt, Peter Fawcett, Eric Hobsbawm. Aspects

of International Socialism, 18711914: Essays by Georges
Haupt. Paperback Edition. Cambridge, England, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2010. pp. 1819.

[33] Trigger 2007. p. 326340.

[34] Green 1981. p. 79.

[36] Georges Haupt, Peter Fawcett, Eric Hobsbawm. Aspects

of International Socialism, 18711914: Essays by Georges
Haupt. Paperback Edition. Cambridge, England, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2010. Pp. 12.

Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief

Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism.
Peking: Foreign Languages Press. Retrieved 201406-17.

[37] See Coltman 2003 and Bourne 1986.

Marx, Karl (1849). Wage Labour and Capital. Germany: Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Retrieved 201406-17.

[38] Gianni Vattimo and Santiago Zabala. Hermeneutic Communism: From Heidegger to Marx Columbia University
Press. 2011. p. 122
[39] For example, Baudrillard, Jean (1973). The Mirror of
Production.
[40] V. K. Dmitriev, 1974 (1898), Economic Essays on Value,
Competition and Utility. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Press
[41] Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1952 (19061907), Value
and Price in the Marxian System, International Economic
Papers 2, 560; Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1984 (1907),
On the Correction of Marxs Fundamental Theoretical
Construction in the Third Volume of Capital". In Eugen
von Bhm-Bawerk 1984 (1896), Karl Marx and the Close
of his System, Philadelphia: Orion Editions.
[42] M. C. Howard and J. E. King. (1992) A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 19291990, chapter 12, sect.
III. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
[43]

What We Can Know About The World.

Sennholz.

Hans F.

[44] Omnipotent Government. Ludwig Von Mises

[45] Gottfried Haberler in Milorad M. Drachkovitch (ed.),
Marxist Ideology in the Contemporary World Its Appeals
and Paradoxes (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 124
[46] Von Mises, Ludwig (1990). Economic calculation in the
Socialist Commonwealth (pdf). Ludwig von Mises Institute. Retrieved 2008-09-08.

9.2

Bibliography

Bourne, Peter G. (1986). Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
Callinicos, Alex (2010) [1983]. The Revolutionary
Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.

Trigger, Bruce G. (2007). A History of Archaeological Thought (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60049-1.
Avineri, Shlomo (1968). The Social and Political
Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge University Press.
Dahrendorf, Ralf (1959). Class and Class Conict
in Industrial Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Jon Elster, An Introduction to Karl Marx. Cambridge, England, 1986.
Michael Evans, Karl Marx. London, 1975.
Koakowski, Leszek (1976). Main Currents of
Marxism. Oxford University Press.
Parkes, Henry Bamford (1939). Marxism: An Autopsy. Boston: Houghton Miin.
Prychitko, David L. (2008). Marxism. In
David R. Henderson (.). Concise Encyclopedia
of Economics (2nd ed.). Library of Economics
and Liberty. ISBN 978-0-86597-665-8. OCLC
237794267.
Robinson, Cedric J.: Black Marxism: The Making
of the Black Radical Tradition, 1983, Reissue: Univ
North Carolina Press, 2000
Rummel, R.J. (1977) Conict In Perspective Chap.
5 Marxism, Class Conict, and the Conict Helix
Screpanti, E; S. Zamagna (1993). An Outline of the
History of Economic Thought.
McLellan, David (2007). Marxism After Marx. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

10 External links

Castro, Fidel; Ramonet, Ignacio (interviewer) 10.1 General resources

(2009). My Life: A Spoken Autobiography. New
Marxists Internet Archive (MIA)
York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4165-6233-7.
Marxmail.org
Coltman, Leycester (2003). The Real Fidel Cas Marx Myths & Legends
tro. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-10760-9.
Marxism Page
Green, Sally (1981). Prehistorian: A Biography of
V. Gordon Childe. Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire:
Moonraker Press. ISBN 0-239-00206-7.

London Philosophy Study Guide on Marxism (oers

many suggestions on what to read, depending on the
students familiarity with the subject)

10

10.2

10

Introductory articles

History of Economic Thought: Marxian School

History of Economic Thought: Neo Marxian

EXTERNAL LINKS

11

11
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gimme 7, Charly Matte, Traxs7, BHeart, Tulandro, Truelight234, Textingtyper, Aplex84, Chafrador2, Phineas fo, Choam Chumsky, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Unused000705, Everard Proudfoot, ClaudioSantos, Semmler, H3llBot, Zoam zumsky, Zloyvolsheb, Smile and heave,
EWikist, Vindaloo Bfast, Ocaasi, Labnoor, Akiva orr, Shemen zayiit, IGeMiNix, Brandmeister, Coasterlover1994, Betsies to heaven,
Beaver builder, L Kensington, Atzmon gillie, Smekking about, Red is like dead, Red is oh so dead, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, DumitruRaduPopa,
Sugerall111, Polisher of Cobwebs, Sugerall2 chippy, Thedude1967, Financestudent, ClamDip, Grampion76, Concert Interruptus, Terra
Novus, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, Qwertyalex11, JoeMclynn, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Somedierentstu, Spychal james, Camawiki, Tweb96,
RJFF, CindyC78, Hazhk, Muon, Sohanshahriar, Jbeau18, DontClickMeName, Helpful Pixie Bot, Praiseinchrist, Phukyuall, Readingwords, Natemup, Marxmsu, Signal9 char, Idtejjkj, Lowercase sigmabot, Trantsbugle, Okidan, XLeGenDx Pwnage, Cpfazz, PhnomPencil,
Darenwithoner, Mark Arsten, Smoothgoomer2, Chmarkine, Zedshort, AnieHall, Glacialfox, ThirdLounge, MattMauler, Anbu121, Boeing720, Popopo8776, Mahmadullah, Arcandam, SD5bot, Khazar2, Harpsichord246, Dudanotak, XCynicaLManiaCx, Symphonic Spenguin, Dexbot, Mpjd500, Advocate.srinivas, Insomesia, Rothbardanswer, Sarg Pepper, Webclient101, Charles Essie, Mr Alex M, Lugia2453,
Idlskk, Joseph90x,
, JonesBredd, Sonia.john2012, Brnly123, Leninostu, Telfordbuck, Urnze, Donfbreed2, CsDix, Mexican former
trot, Frankporridge, Isuperspider, Hendrick 99, Dustin V. S., DavidLeighEllis, Nixin06, Finnusertop, Tooraj-Prospero, Lucy1982, Zozs,
Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, Dark Liberty, Alyxr, Karmanatory, YeOldeGentleman, Ajdckiykfy and Anonymous: 1420

11.2

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11.3

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11.3

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