Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading
from waves.
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)

Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)

Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 8 - 1

Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Occurs with plastic deformation
Brittle fracture
Little or no plastic deformation
Catastrophic

engineering
stress

TS

Typical response of a metal

Chapter 8 - 2

strain

Ductile vs Brittle Failure

Classification:
Fracture
behavior:

Very
Ductile

Moderately
Ductile

Brittle

Large

Moderate

Small

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 7e.

%AR or %EL
Ductile
fracture is usually
desirable!

Ductile:
warning before
fracture

Brittle:
No
warning
Chapter 8 - 3

Example: Failure of a Pipe

Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 8 - 4

Moderately Ductile Failure

Evolution to failure:
necking

Resulting
fracture
surfaces

void
nucleation

void growth
and linkage

shearing
at surface

fracture

50
50mm
mm

(steel)
100 mm
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)

Fracture surface of tire cord wire

loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
OH. Used with permission.
Chapter 8 - 5

Stress-Strain Behavior versus Temperature

Ductility is reduced with temperature reduction.

So, Ambient and Operating temperatures can affect

failure mode of materials.
Such an effect shows Ductile to Brittle Transition.
Adapted from D. Johnson

choose materials with D-B transition T far away from its usage
T
Chapter 8 -

Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture

brittle fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 7

Brittle Fracture Surface

Chevron marks
From brittle fracture

Origin of crack

Fan-shaped ridges
coming from crack

Adapted from D. Johnson

Chapter 8 - 8

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

Intragranular

Intergranular
(between grains)

4 mm

304 S. Steel
(metal)

(within grains)
316 S. Steel
(metal)

Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials
Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
National Lab.)

Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Defor-mation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.

160 mm

Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.)

3 mm

1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)

Chapter 8 - 9

Ideal vs Real Materials

Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
E/10

perfect matl-no flaws

TSengineering << TS perfect

carefully produced glass fiber

E/100

typical ceramic
0.1

materials

materials

typical strengthened metal

typical polymer

DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...

-- the longer the wire, the
smaller the load for failure.
Reasons:
-- flaws cause premature failure.
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.

Chapter 8 - 10

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

Results from crack propagation
Griffith Crack

a
m = 2o
t
t

1/ 2

= K t o

where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.
Chapter 8 - 11

Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 12

Engineering Fracture Design

Avoid sharp corners!

o
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
w

max

r,
fillet
radius

2.5

Adapted from Fig.

8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)

2.0

increasing w/h

1.5
1.0

0.5
1.0
sharper fillet radius

r/h

Chapter 8 - 13

Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle

plastic

Energy balance on the crack

Elastic strain energy energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
this energy is released when the crack propagates
creation of new surfaces requires energy
Chapter 8 - 14

When Does a Crack Propagate?

Crack propagates if above critical stress
i.e., m > c
or

Kt > Kc

1/ 2

2E s
c =

where

E = modulus of elasticity
s = specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack
Kc = c/0

For ductile => replace s by s + p

where p is plastic deformation energy
Chapter 8 - 15

Fracture Toughness
Metals/
Alloys

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

100

K Ic (MPa m 0.5 )

70
60
50
40
30

C-C(|| fibers) 1
Steels
Ti alloys
Al alloys
Mg alloys

Based on data in Table B5,

Callister 7e.

20

Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4
C/C( fibers) 1
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3
Si nitr/SiC(w) 5
Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
Glass/SiC(w) 6

10
7
6
5
4

Diamond
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

PET
PP

PVC

1
0.7
0.6
0.5

Composites/
fibers

PC

<100>

Si crystal
<111>
Glass -soda
Concrete

PS
Polyester

Composite reinforcement geometry is: f

= fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
p = particles. Addition data as noted
(vol. fraction of reinforcement):
1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
Waltham, MA.
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
(1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.

Glass 6
Chapter 8 - 16

Design Against Crack Growth

Crack growth condition:
K Kc = Y a
Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size
dictates design stress.

design <

Kc
Y amax

--Result 2: Design stress

dictates max. flaw size.

amax

1 K c
<
Ydesign

amax

fracture
no
fracture

fracture

amax

no
fracture

Chapter 8 - 17

Design Example: Aircraft Wing

Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
Two designs to consider...
Design A

--use same material

--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?

--largest flaw is 9 mm
--failure stress = 112 MPa

Kc
c =
Y amax

Use...

Design B

Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.

--Result:

112 MPa

9 mm

amax

) = (
A

Reducing flaw size pays off!

4 mm

amax

Answer: (c )B = 168 MPa

Chapter 8 - 18

Loading Rate
Increased loading rate...
-- increases y and TS
-- decreases %EL

Why? An increased rate

gives less time for
dislocations to move past
obstacles.

TS

larger
TS

smaller

Chapter 8 - 19

Impact Testing
Impact loading:

(Charpy)

-- severe testing case

-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height

initial height

Chapter 8 - 20

Temperature
Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

Impact Energy

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)
polymers
Brittle

More Ductile
y > E/150)
High strength materials (

Temperature

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.

Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Chapter 8 - 21

Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,

"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)

WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,

"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)

Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.

Chapter 8 - 22

Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
bearing

bearing

motor

counter

flex coupling
tension on bottom

Stress varies with time.

-- key parameters are S, m, and
frequency

Adapted from Fig. 8.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.18 is
from Materials Science in
Engineering, 4/E by Carl.
A. Keyser, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ.)

max
m
min

S
time

Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though max < c.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 8 - 23

Fatigue Design Parameters

Fatigue limit, Sfat:

S = stress amplitude

--no fatigue if S < Sfat

case for
steel (typ.)

unsafe
Sfat
safe
10

Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero!

Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister 7e.

10
10
10
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
unsafe

safe
10 3

case for
Al (typ.)

Adapted from Fig.

8.19(b), Callister 7e.

10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 24

Fatigue Mechanism
Crack grows incrementally

da
m
= (K )
dN

typ. 1 to 6

~ ( ) a

increase in crack length per loading cycle

crack origin

Failed rotating shaft

--crack grew even though

Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
increases
crack gets longer
loading freq. increases.

Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Chapter 8 - 25

Improving Fatigue Life

1. Impose a compressive
surface stress
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing)

S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.

Increasing

near zero or compressive m

moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m
N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening

--Method 2: carburizing

shot

put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress
concentrators.

bad

C-rich gas

better
Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister 7e.

bad

better
Chapter 8 - 26

Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (
) vs. time

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope.
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate.

Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister 7e.
Chapter 8 - 27

Creep
Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary
primary

secondary

elastic

Adapted from Figs. 8.29,

Callister 7e.
Chapter 8 - 28

Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

Qc

& s = K 2 exp

RT
n

strain rate
material const.

Strain rate
increases
for higher T,

activation energy for creep

(material parameter)

applied stress
200
100

Stress (MPa)

40
20
10
10 -2
10 -1
Steady state creep rate

Adapted from
Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427C (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
Handbook: Properties
538 C and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
ed., D. Benjamin
649 C 9th
(Senior Ed.), American
Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)

1
s (%/1000hr)

Chapter 8 - 29

Creep Failure
Failure:

Estimate rupture time

along grain boundaries.

S-590 Iron, T = 800C, = 20 ksi

g.b. cavities
applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

Time to rupture, tr

T ( 20 + logt r ) = L
function of
applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

temperature

20
10

Stress, ksi

100

Adapted from
Fig. 8.32, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.32 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952).)

data for
S-590 Iron
1
12 16 20 24 28
L(10 3 K-log hr)

24x103 K-log hr

T ( 20 + logt r ) = L
1073K

Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 30

SUMMARY
Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.

- for cyclic :
- cycles to fail decreases as increases.

- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):

- time to fail decreases as or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 31