Introduction to

Acoustics Module

VERSION 4.4

Introduction to the Acoustics Module

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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Acoustics Module Physics Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Physics Interface List by Space Dimension and Study Type . . 7

The Model Libraries Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Basics of Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Length and Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Elastic Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Models with Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Model Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Domain Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Additional Examples from the Model Library. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Gaussian Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Eigenmodes in a Muffler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Piezoacoustic Transducer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Loudspeaker Driver in a Vented Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
The Brel & Kjr 4134 Condenser Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

|i

ii |

Introduction
The Acoustics Module consists of a set of physics interfaces, which enable you to
simulate the propagation of sound in fluids and in solids. The interface
applications include pressure acoustics, acoustic-solid interaction, aeroacoustics,
and thermoacoustics.

Figure 1: COMSOL model of the sound pressure level distribution in a muffler system.

Acoustic simulations using this module can easily model classical problems such as
scattering, diffraction, emission, radiation, and transmission of sound. These
problems are relevant to muffler design, loudspeaker construction, sound
insulation for absorbers and diffusers, the evaluation of directional acoustic
patterns like directivity, noise radiation problems, and much more. The
acoustic-structure interaction features can model problems involving structureand fluid-born sound and their interaction. For example, acoustic-structure
interaction is simulated for detailed muffler design, ultrasound piezo-actuators,
sonar technology, and noise and vibration analysis of machinery in the automotive
industry. Using the COMSOL Multiphysics capabilities enables the analysis and
design of electroacoustic transducers such as loudspeakers, sensors, microphones,
and receivers.
Aeroacosutic problems can be analyzed and modeled by solving either the
linearized potential flow equations or the linearized Euler equations. These are
used to model the one way interaction between an external flow and an acoustic
field, applications range from jet-engine noise analysis to simulating acoustic flow
sensors and mufflers with flow.

Introduction

|1

The Thermoacoustic interface can accurately model systems where small

geometrical dimensions are present, which is relevant to the mobile phone and
hearing aid industries, and for all transducer designers.
The Acoustics Module is of great benefit for engineers. By using 3D simulations,
existing products can be optimized and new products more quickly designed with
virtual prototypes. Simulations also help designers, researchers, and engineers gain
insight into problems that are difficult to handle experimentally. And by testing a
design before manufacturing it, companies also save time and money.
The many physics interfaces available with this module are shown in Figure 2 and
are available under the Acoustics branch in the Model Wizard. The next section
The Acoustics Module Physics Interfaces provides you with an overview of the
interface functionality.

Figure 2: The Acoustics Module physics interfaces. Some interfaces require additional modulesboth of
the Acoustic-Shell Interaction interfaces and the Thermoacoustic-Shell Interaction interface require the
Structural Mechanics Module. The Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface requires the Pipe Flow Module.

There are many application areas where these interfaces are usedfrom modeling
simple pressure waves in air to examining complex interactions between elastic
waves and pressure waves in porous materials. For a brief introduction to the basic
concepts and theory of acoustics see the Basics of Acoustics starting on page 12.
The Acoustics Module model library has many examples of applications ranging
from modeling sound insulation lining, modeling loudspeakers, microphones, and

2 | Introduction

mufflers. These examples show, among other things, how to simulate acoustic
losses. The loss models range from homogenized empirical fluid models for
fibrous materials to include thermal and viscous loss in detail using the
Thermoacoustics interface.
The Flow Duct model uses the Linearized Potential Flow interface to show the
influence a flow has on the sound field in a jet engine. Predefined couplings can
be used to model the interaction between acoustic, structure, and electric fields in
piezoelectric materials (see The Model Libraries Window on page 11 for
information about accessing these models). You can also get started with your
own model by going to the tutorial Model Example: Absorptive Muffler
starting on page 16.

The Acoustics Module Physics Interfaces

There are four main branchesPressure Acoustics, Acoustic-Structure
Interaction, Aeroacoustics, and Thermoacousticsand each of the physics
interfaces are briefly described here, followed by a table on page 7 listing the
physics interface availability by space dimension and preset study types.

P RESSURE A COUSTICS
The Pressure Acoustics branch ( ) has physics interfaces where the sound field
is described and solved by the pressure p. The pressure represents the acoustic
variations on top of the ambient stationary pressure. The ambient pressure is, in
the absence of flow, simply the static absolute pressure.
The interfaces enable solving the acoustic problem both in the frequency domain
using the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface ( ), where the
Helmholtz equation is solved, and as a transient system using the Pressure
Acoustics, Transient interface ( ), where the classical wave equation is solved.
The Boundary Mode Acoustics interface ( ) is used to study propagating modes
in waveguides and ducts (only a finite set of shapes, or modes can propagate over
a long distance).
A large variety of boundary conditions are available, include hard walls and
impedance conditions, radiation, symmetry, and periodic conditions for modeling
open boundaries, and conditions for applying sources. The interfaces also have
several fluid models, which, in a homogenized way, mimic the behavior of sound
propagation in more complex media. This includes the propagation in porous or
fibrous materials (the Poroacoustics domain feature), the propagation in narrow
structures of constant cross section (the Narrow Region Acoustics domain
feature), and fluid models for defining bulk absorption behavior. So-called
perfectly matched layers (PMLs) are also available to truncate the computational
domain. Finally, the far-field feature can be used to determine the pressure in any
Introduction

|3

point outside the computational domain. Dedicated results and analysis

capabilities exist for visualizing the far-field in polar 2D, 2D, and 3D plots.

Figure 3: A 3D far-field polar plot of the loudspeaker sensitivity at 3000 Hz. From the Vented
Loudspeaker Enclosure model found in the model library.

A COUSTIC -S TRUCTURE I NTERACTION

The Acoustic-Structure Interaction branch ( ) has interfaces that apply to a
multiphysics phenomenon where the fluids pressure causes a fluid load on the
solid domain, and the structural acceleration affects the fluid domain as normal
acceleration across the fluid-solid boundary. The interfaces under this branch are
the Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Frequency Domain ( ); the Acoustic-Solid
Interaction, Transient ( ); the Acoustic-Shell Interaction, Frequency
Domain ( ); the Acoustic-Shell Interaction, Transient ( ); the
Acoustic-Piezoelectric Interaction, Frequency Domain ( ); and the
Acoustic-Piezoelectric Interaction, Transient ( ) interfaces. The two
Acoustic-Piezoelectric Interaction interfaces also support solving and modeling
the electric field in a piezoelectric material. The piezoelectric coupling can be in
stress-charge or strain-charge form.
The Pipe Acoustics, Transient ( ) and the Pipe Acoustics, Frequency
Domain ( ) interfaces are available with the addition of the Pipe Flow Module.
These interfaces are used for modeling the propagation of sound waves in 1D
flexible pipe systems. The equations are formulated in a general way to include the
effects of the pipe wall compliance and allow the possibility of a stationary
background flow.

4 | Introduction

Two more physics interfaces are available under this branchElastic Waves ( ),
for modeling elastic waves in solids, and Poroelastic Waves ( ), for precisely
modeling the propagation of sound in a porous material. The latter includes the
two-way coupling between deformation of the solid matrix and the pressure waves
in the saturating fluid. The interface solves Biots equations in the frequency
domain.
With these interfaces you can model frequency domain and transient problems
involving pressure acoustics and solid mechanics, with 3D, 2D, and 2D
axisymmetric geometries.

A EROACOUSTICS
The one way interaction of a background fluid flow with an acoustic field (so
called flow borne noise/sound) is modeled using the interfaces found under the
Aeroacoustics branch ( ). The coupling between the fluid mechanics and the
acoustics is based on solving the set of linearized governing equations. In this way
solve for the acoustic variations of the dependent variables on top of a stationary
background mean-flow. Different interfaces exist that solve the governing
equations under various physical approximations.
The Linearized Potential Flow, Frequency Domain ( ) and the Linearized
Potential Flow, Transient ( ) interfaces model the interaction of a stationary
background potential flow with an acoustic field. This interface is only suited for
cases where the flow is inviscid and, being irrotational, has no vorticity. The
background flow is typically solved for using the Compressible Potential Flow
interface ( ).
The Linearized Potential Flow, Boundary Mode interface ( ) is used to study
boundary mode acoustic problems in a background flow field. It is typically used
to define sources at the inlet of ducts.
The Linearized Euler, Frequency Domain interface ( ) and the The Linearized
Euler, Transient interface ( ) solve the Linearized Euler equations. They are
used to compute the acoustic variations in density, velocity, and pressure in the
presence of a stationary background mean-flow that is well approximated by an
ideal gas flow.

T HERMOACOUSTICS
The interfaces under the Thermoacoustics branch ( ) are used to accurately
model acoustics in geometries with small dimensions. Near walls, viscosity and
thermal conduction become important because a viscous and a thermal boundary
layer are created, resulting in significant losses. This makes it necessary to include
thermal conduction effects and viscous losses explicitly in the governing

Introduction

|5

equations. This is done by solving the full set of linearized compressible flow
equations, that is, the linearized Navier-Stokes, continuity, and energy equations.
Because a detailed description is needed to model thermoacoustics, the interface
simultaneously solve for the acoustic pressure p, the particle velocity vector u, and
the acoustic temperature variation T.
In the Thermoacoustics, Frequency Domain interface ( ), the governing
equations are implemented in the time harmonic formulation and solved in the
frequency domain. Both mechanical and thermal boundary conditions exist.
Coupling the thermoacoustic domain to a pressure acoustic domain is also
straightforward, with a predefined boundary condition.
A Thermoacoustic-Solid Interaction, Frequency Domain interface ( ) is
available to solve coupled vibro-acoustic problems. This can, for example, be used
to model small electroacoustic transducers or damping in MEMS devices.
Predefined boundary conditions exist between solid domains and fluid domains.
The Thermoacoustic-Shell Interaction, Frequency Domain interface ( ) is used
for modeling the interactions between shells and acoustics in small dimensions.
This can, for example, be used to analyze the damped vibrations of shells in
hearing aids and prevent feedback problems.

Figure 4: Deformation of the diaphragm (or membrane) at 12 kHz in the Axisymmetric Condenser
Microphone model found in the model library.

6 | Introduction

The Physics Interface List by Space Dimension and Study Type

The table below list the interfaces available specifically with this module in
addition to those in the COMSOL Multiphysics basic license.
INTERFACE

ICON

TAG

SPACE
DIMENSION

AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY TYPE

Pressure Acoustics,
Frequency Domain1

acpr

all dimensions

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal; mode analysis (2D and
1D axisymmetric models only)

Pressure Acoustics,
Transient

actd

all dimensions

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal; time dependent;
time-dependent modal; modal
reduced order model; mode
analysis (2D and 1D
axisymmetric models only)

Boundary Mode
Acoustics

acbm

3D, 2D
axisymmetric

mode analysis

Acoustics
Pressure Acoustics

Acoustic-Structure Interaction
Acoustic-Solid
Interaction,
Frequency Domain

acsl

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal

Acoustic-Solid
Interaction, Transient

astd

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal; time dependent;
time-dependent modal; modal
reduced order model

Acoustic-Shell
Interaction,
Frequency Domain2

acsh

3D

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal

Acoustic-Shell
Interaction,
Transient2

acshtd

3D

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal; time dependent;
time-dependent modal; modal
reduced order model
Introduction

|7

INTERFACE

ICON

TAG

SPACE
DIMENSION

AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY TYPE

Acoustic-Piezoelectri
c Interaction,
Frequency Domain

acpz

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal

Acoustic-Piezoelectri
c Interaction,
Transient

acpztd

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal; time dependent;
time-dependent modal; modal
reduced order model

Elastic Waves

elw

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal

Poroelastic Waves

elw

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency-domain
modal

Pipe Acoustics,
Frequency Domain3

pafd

3D, 2D

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain

Pipe Acoustics,
Transient3

patd

3D, 2D

time dependent

Linearized Potential
Flow, Frequency
Domain

ae

all dimensions

frequency domain; mode

analysis (2D and 1D
axisymmetric models only)

Linearized Potential
Flow, Transient

aetd

all dimensions

frequency domain; time

dependent mode analysis (2D
and 1D axisymmetric models
only)

Linearized Potential
Flow, Boundary
Mode

aebm

3D, 2D
axisymmetric

mode analysis

Compressible
Potential Flow

cpf

all dimensions

stationary; time dependent

Linearized Euler,
Frequency Domain

lef

3D, 2D
axisymmetric,
2D, and 1D

frequency domain;
eigenfrequency

Linearized Euler,
Transient

let

3D, 2D
axisymmetric,
2D, and 1D

time dependent

Aeroacoustics

8 | Introduction

INTERFACE

ICON

TAG

SPACE
DIMENSION

AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY TYPE

Linearized
Navier-Stokes,
Frequency Domain4

lnsf

3D, 2D
axisymmetric,
2D, and 1D

frequency domain;
eigenfrequency

Linearized
Navier-Stokes,
Transient4

lnst

3D, 2D
axisymmetric,
2D, and 1D

time dependent

Thermoacoustics,
Frequency Domain

ta

all dimensions

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency domain
modal; mode analysis (2D and
1D axisymmetric models only)

Thermoacoustic-Soli
d Interaction,
Frequency Domain

tas

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency domain
modal

Thermoacoustic-Shel
l Interaction2

tash

3D

eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency domain
modal

solid

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

stationary; eigenfrequency;
prestressed analysis,
eigenfrequency; time
dependent; time-dependent
modal; frequency domain;
frequency-domain modal;
prestressed analysis, frequency
domain; modal reduced order
model

Thermoacoustics

Structural Mechanics
Solid Mechanics1

Introduction

|9

INTERFACE

Piezoelectric Devices

ICON

TAG

SPACE
DIMENSION

AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY TYPE

pzd

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

stationary; eigenfrequency;
time dependent;
time-dependent modal;
frequency domain; frequency
domain modal; modal reduced
order model

This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added functionality
for this module.
2
Requires both the Structural Mechanics Module and the Acoustics Module.
3 Requires both the Pipe Flow Module and the Acoustics Module.
4
These physics interfaces are available as a technology preview feature.

10 | Introduction

The Model Libraries Window

To open an Acoustics Module model library model, click Blank Model in the New
screen. Then on the Home or Main toolbar click Model Libraries
. In the
Model Libraries window that opens, expand the Acoustics Module folder and
browse or search the contents.
Click Open Model
to open the model in COMSOL Multiphysics or click
Open PDF Document
to read background about the model including the
step-by-step instructions to build it. The MPH-files in the COMSOL model
library can have two formatsFull MPH-files or Compact MPH-files.
Full MPH-files, including all meshes and solutions. In the Model Libraries

window these models appear with the

icon. If the MPH-files size
exceeds 25MB, a tip with the text Large file and the file size appears when
you position the cursor at the models node in the Model Libraries tree.
Compact MPH-files with all settings for the model but without built meshes

and solution data to save space on the DVD (a few MPH-files have no
solutions for other reasons). You can open these models to study the settings
and to mesh and re-solve the models. It is also possible to download the full
versionswith meshes and solutionsof most of these models when you
update your model library. These models appear in the Model Libraries
window with the
icon. If you position the cursor at a compact model in
the Model Libraries window, a No solutions stored message appears. If a full
MPH-file is available for download, the corresponding nodes context menu
includes a Download Full Model item ( ).
To check all available Model Libraries updates, select Update COMSOL Model
Library ( ) from the File>Help menu (Windows users) or from the Help menu
(Mac and Linux users).
The Absorptive Muffler model tutorial starts on page 16 and the last section,
starting on page 43, provides a brief overview of some of the other models also
available in the Acoustics Module model library.

The Model Libraries Window

| 11

Basics of Acoustics
Acoustics is the physics of sound. Sound is the sensation, as detected by the ear,
of very small rapid changes in the acoustic pressure p above and below a static value
p0. This static value is the atmospheric pressure (about 100,000 pascals). The
acoustic pressure variations are typically described as pressure waves propagating
in space and time. The wave crests are the pressure maxima while the troughs
represent the pressure minima.
Sound is created when the air is disturbed by a source. An example is a vibrating
object, such as a speaker cone in a sound system. It is possible to see the movement
of a bass speaker cone when it generates sound at a very low frequency. As the cone
moves forward it compresses the air in front of it, causing an increase in air
pressure. Then it moves back past its resting position and causes a reduction in air
pressure. This process continues, radiating a wave of alternating high and low
pressure at the speed of sound.
The frequency f (SI unit: Hz = 1/s) is the number of vibrations (pressure peaks)
perceived per second and the wavelength l (SI unit: m) is the distance between two
such peaks. The speed of sound c (SI unit: m/s) is given as the product of the
frequency and the wavelength, c = f. It is often convenient to define the angular
frequency (SI unit: rad/s) of the wave, which is = 2f, and relates the
frequency to a full 360o phase shift. The wave number k (SI unit: rad/m) is
defined as k = 2/. The wave number, which is the number of waves over a
specific distance, is also usually defined as a vector k, such that it also contains
information about the direction of propagation of the wave, with |k| = k. In
general, the relation between the angular frequency and the wave number k is
called the dispersion relation; for simple fluids it is /k = c.

Governing Equations
The equations that describe the propagation of sound in fluids are derived from
the governing equations of fluid flow. That is, conservation of mass, which is
described by the continuity equation; the conservation of momentum, that is
often referred to as the Navier-Stokes equation; an energy conservation equation;
the model constitutive equations; and an equation of state to describe the relation
between thermodynamic variables. In the classical case of pressure acoustics,
which describes most acoustic phenomena accurately, the flow is assumed lossless
and adiabatic, viscous effects are neglected, and a linearized isentropic equation of
state is used.
Under these assumptions, the acoustic field is described by one variable, the
pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and is governed by the wave equation

12 | Basics of Acoustics

2p
1 -------1----------- + ---- p q = Q
2 t 2
0

0 c

where t is time (SI unit: s), 0 is the density of the fluid (SI unit: kg/m3), and q
and Q are possible acoustic dipole and monopole source terms (SI units: N/m3
and 1/s2, respectively).
Acoustic problems often involve simple harmonic waves such as sinusoidal waves.
More generally, any signal may be expanded into harmonic components via its
Fourier series. The wave equation can then be solved in the frequency domain for
one frequency at a time. A harmonic solution has the form
p x t = p x sin t

where the spatial p(x) and temporal sin(t) components are split. The pressure
may be written in a more general way using complex variables
p x t = p x e

it

(5)

where the actual physical value of the pressure is the real part of Equation 5. Using
this assumption for the pressure field, the time-dependent wave equation reduces
to the well-known Helmholtz equation
2

------ p q -----------2 p = Q
0
0 c

(6)

In the homogenous case where the two source terms q and Q are zero, one simple
solution to the Helmholtz equation (Equation 6) is the plane wave
p = P0 e

i t k x

(7)

where P0 is the wave amplitude and it is moving in the k direction with angular
frequency and wave number k = |k|.

Length and Time Scales

When solving acoustic problems, it is important to think about the different basic
length and time scales involved in the system. Some of the scales are set by the
physics of the problem, while others are set by the numerical solution method.
The relative size of these scales may influence the accuracy of the solution, but also
the selection of the physics interface used to model the problem.
When working with acoustics in the frequency domain, that is, solving the
Helmholtz equation, only one time scale T exists (the period) and it is set by the
frequency, T = 1/f. Several length scales exist: the wavelength = c/f, the smallest
geometric dimension Lmin, the mesh size h, and the thickness of the acoustic
Basics of Acoustics

| 13

boundary layer (the latter is discussed in Models with Losses on page 15). In
order to get an accurate solution, the mesh should be fine enough to both resolve
the geometric features and the wavelength. As a rule of thumb, the maximal mesh
size should be less than or equal to /N, where N is a number between 5 and 10.
For transient acoustic problems the same considerations apply. However, several
new time scales are also introduced. One is given by the frequency contents of the
signal and by the desired maximal frequency resolution: T = 1 fmax. The other is
given by the size of the time step t used by the numerical solver. A condition on
the so-called CFL number dictates the relation between the time step size and the
minimal mesh size hmin, The CFL number is defined as
ct
h min

CFL = -----------

(8)

where c is the speed of sound in the system. It is good practice to have CFL
numbers of approximately 0.2 (when using quadratic spatial elements). More
information is included with the Gaussian Explosion tutorial model described
on page 43.
In order to run accurate acoustic simulations it is important to think about these
physical and numerical scales and about their influence on the convergence and
correctness of the numerical solution. A good practical approach is to test the
robustness of a solution compared to changes in the mesh in all cases and the
numerical time stepping in the transient problems. If some measure of the
solution, within a given accuracy range, changes when the mesh is refined then the
mesh was probably not good enough.

Boundary Conditions
Boundary conditions define the nature of the boundaries of the computational
domain. Some define real physical obstacles, like a sound hard wall or a moving
interface. Others, called artificial boundary conditions, are used to truncate the
domain. The artificial boundary conditions are, for example, used to simulate an
open boundary where no sound is reflected. It may also mimic a reacting boundary
such as a perforated plate.

Elastic Waves
The propagation of sound in solids happens through small-amplitude elastic
oscillations of the solids shape and structure. These elastic waves are transmitted
to surrounding fluids as ordinary sound waves. Through acoustic-structure
interaction, the fluids pressure causes a fluid load on the solid domain, and the
structural acceleration affects the fluid domain as a normal acceleration across the
fluid-solid boundary.

14 | Basics of Acoustics

The Acoustics Module has the Poroelastic Waves interface available to model
poroelastic waves that propagate in porous materials. These waves result from the
complex interaction between acoustic pressure variations in the saturating fluid
and the elastic deformation of the solid porous matrix.

Models with Losses

In order to accurately model acoustics in geometries with small dimensions, it is
necessary to include thermal conduction effects and viscous losses explicitly in the
governing equations. Near walls, viscosity and thermal conduction become
important because the acoustic field creates a viscous and a thermal boundary layer
where losses are significant. A detailed description is needed to model these
phenomena; the dedicated Thermoacoustics, Frequency Domain interface solves
the full linearized Navier-Stokes, continuity, and energy equations simultaneously.
The interface solves for the acoustic pressure p, the particle velocity vector u, and
the acoustic temperature variation T. These are the acoustic variations on top of
the mean background values.
The length scale at which the thermoacoustic description is necessary is given by
the thickness of the viscous (v) and thermal (th) boundary layers
v =

-------f

th =

k
--------------fC p

where is the dynamic viscosity, k is the coefficient of thermal conduction, and Cp

is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure. These two length scales define an
acoustic boundary layer that needs to be resolved by the computational mesh.
Another way to introduce losses in the governing equations is to use the
equivalent fluid models available in the pressure acoustics interfaces. In a
homogenized way, this introduces attenuation properties to the bulk fluid that
mimic different loss mechanism. This is in contrast to the thermoacoustics
interfaces that model losses explicitly where they happen, that is, in the acoustic
boundary layer near walls. The fluid models include losses due to bulk thermal
conduction and viscosity (in the main Pressure Acoustics domain feature), models
for simulating the damping in certain porous materials (in the Poroacoustics
domain feature), and models to mimic the boundary absorption losses in long
narrow ducts (the Narrow Region Acoustics domain feature). When applicable,
the equivalent fluid models are computationally much less heavy than, for
example, solving a corresponding full poroelastic model.

Basics of Acoustics

| 15

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

This model describes the pressure-wave propagation in a muffler for an internal
combustion engine. The approach is generally applicable to analyses of the
damping of propagation of harmonic pressure waves.
The purpose of this model is to show how to analyze both inductive and resistive
damping in pressure acoustics. The main output is the transmission loss for the
frequency range 50 Hz1500 Hz.

Model Definition
The muffler, schematically shown in Figure 9, consists of a 24-liter resonator
chamber with a section of the centered exhaust pipe included at each end. In the
first version of the model, the chamber is empty. In the second version it is lined
with 15 mm of absorbing glass wool.

Figure 9: Geometry of the lined muffler with the upper half removed. The exhaust fumes enter through
the left pipe (inlet) and exit through the right pipe (outlet).

Domain Equations
This model solves the problem in the frequency domain using the time-harmonic
Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface. The model equation is a slightly
modified version of the Helmholtz equation for the acoustic pressure, p:
2

p
p ------- ---------= 0
2
c
cc c

16 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

where c is the density, cc is the speed of sound, and gives the angular frequency.
The subscript c refers to that these can be complex valued.
In the absorbing glass wool, modeled as a Poroacoustics domain, the damping
enters the equation as a complex speed of sound, cc/kc, and a complex density,
ckc Zc/, where kc is the complex wave number and Zc equals the complex
impedance. This is a so-called equivalent fluid model for the porous domain where
the losses are modeled in a homogenized way.
For a highly porous material with a rigid skeleton, the well-known Delany and
Bazley model estimates these parameters as functions of frequency and flow
resistivity. Using the original coefficients of Delany and Bazley (Ref. 1), the
expressions are
a f 0.7
a f 0.595
k c = k a 1 + 0.098 ---------
i 0.189 ---------
Rf
Rf

a f 0.734
a f 0.732
Z c = Z a 1 + 0.057 ---------
i 0.087 ---------

Rf
Rf

where Rf is the flow resistivity, and where ka/ca and Zaa ca are the free-space
wave number and impedance of air, respectively. This model is the default selected
for the Delany-Bazley-Miki model in the Poroacoustics domain feature. You can
find flow resistivities in tables, see for example Ref. 4 or by measuring it. For
glass-wool-like materials, Bies and Hansen (Ref. 2) give an empirical correlation
1.53
3.18 10 9 ap
R f = -----------------------------------------2
d av

where ap is the materials apparent density and dav is the mean fiber diameter.
This model uses a lightweight glass wool with ap12 kg/m3 and dav 10 m.

Boundary Conditions
There are three types boundary conditions used in this model.
At the solid boundaries, which are the outer walls of the resonator chamber

and the pipes, the model uses sound hard (wall) boundary conditions. The
condition imposes that the normal velocity at the boundary is zero.
The boundary condition at the inlet involves a combination of an incoming

imposed plane wave and an outgoing radiating plane wave (see Ref. 3 and
the documentation for details). This boundary condition is valid as long as

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 17

the frequency is kept below the cutoff frequency for the second propagating
mode in the tube.
At the outlet boundary, the model specifies an outgoing radiating plane

wave.

Results and Discussion

Figure 10 shows the isosurface plot for the total acoustic pressure field. The
pressure is represented as iso-barometric surfaces in the muffler. From the figure
it is clear that at this frequency longitudinal standing waves exist as well as
transverse modes.

Figure 10: The pressure distribution in the absorptive muffler without the liner is shown for f = 1500 Hz.

An important parameter for a muffler is the transmission loss or attenuation. It is

defined as the ratio between the incoming and the outgoing acoustic energy. The
attenuation dw (given in dB) of the acoustic energy is:
w in
d w = 10 log -----------
w out

Here win and wout denote the incoming power at the inlet and the outgoing power
at the outlet, respectively. Each of these quantities can be calculated as an integral
over the corresponding surface:

18 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

w out =

p --------dA
2c

w in =

p0
--------- dA
2c

Figure 11: Attenuation (dB) in the empty muffler as a function of frequency (blue curve). The first four
dips are due to longitudinal resonances. In the muffler with absorbing liner (green curve) the dips are still
present, but the general trend is that the higher the frequency, the better the damping.

Figure 11 shows the result of a parametric frequency study. For the undamped
muffler, the graph shows that the damping works rather well for most low
frequencies, with the exception of a few distinct dips where the muffler chamber
displays resonances. At frequencies higher than approximately 1250 Hz, the plots
behavior is more complicated and there is generally less damping. This is because
for such frequencies, the tube supports not only longitudinal resonances but also
cross-sectional propagation modes. Slightly above this frequency, a range of
modes that are combinations of this propagation mode and the longitudinal
modes participate. This will make the damping properties increasingly
unpredictable. For an analysis of these modes, see Eigenmodes in a Muffler
described on page 43. The glass wool lining improves the attenuation at the
resonance frequencies as well as at higher frequencies.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 19

References
1. M. A. Delany and E. N. Bazley, Acoustic Properties of Fibrous Absorbent Materials,
Appl. Acoust., vol. 3, pp. 105116, 1970.
2. D. A. Bies and C. H. Hansen, Flow Resistance Information for Acoustical Design,
Appl. Acoust., vol. 13, pp. 357391, 1980.
3. D. Givoli and B. Neta, High-order Non-reflecting Boundary Scheme for
Time-dependent Waves, J. Comp. Phys., vol. 186, pp. 2446, 2003.
4. T. J. Cox and P. DAntonio, Acoustic Absorbers and Diffusers, Second Edition, Taylor
and Francis, 2009.

M o d e l W i z a rd
The instructions take you through two versions of the model, first with a
completely hollow chamber with rigid walls, then where the chamber is lined with
glass wool.
Note: These instructions are for the user interface on Windows but apply, with
minor differences, also to Linux and Mac.
1 To start the software, double-click the COMSOL icon on the desktop. When
the software opens, you can choose to use the Model Wizard to create a new
COMSOL model or Blank Model to create one manually. For this tutorial, click
the Model Wizard button.
If COMSOL is already open, you can start the Model Wizard by selecting
New
from the File menu and then click Model Wizard
.
The Model Wizard guides you through the first steps of setting up a model. The
next window lets you select the dimension of the modeling space.
2 In the Space Dimension window click the 3D button

3 In the Select physics tree, select Acoustics>Pressure Acoustics>Pressure

Acoustics, Frequency Domain (acpr)
.
4 Double-click the physics interface, click the Add button, or right-click and
select
Add Physics.
5 Click Study

6 On the Select Study window, in the tree, select Preset Studies>Frequency

Domain
.

20 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

7 Click Done

Global Definitions
Note: The location of the text files used in this exercise vary based on the
installation. For example, if the installation is on your hard drive, the file path
might be similar to C:\Program Files\COMSOL44\models\.

Parameters
1 On the Home toolbar, click Parameters

Note: On Linux and Mac, the Home toolbar refers to the specific set of controls
near the top of the Desktop.
2 Go to the Parameters settings window. Under Parameters click Load from
File
.
3 Browse to the model library folder (Acoustics_Module\Industrial Models) and
double-click the file absorptive_muffler_parameters.txt.
The parameters define the physical values and the geometrical dimensions of the
system. The geometry is now parameterized and simply changing the value of a
dimension in the parameters list updates the geometry automatically.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 21

Geometr y 1
1 In the Model Builder under
Component 1, click Geometry 1

2 Go to the Geometry settings window.

Under Units from the Length unit list,
choose mm.

Work Plane 1
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Work
Plane
.
2 Go to the Work Plane settings window.
Under Plane Definition, from the Plane
list, choose yz-plane.

Rectangle 1
1 In the Model Builder, right-click Plane Geometry
and add a Rectangle
. A Rectangle node is added
to the Model Builder.
2 Go to the Rectangle settings window.
Under Size in the:
- Width field, enter W.
- Height field, enter H.

3 Locate the Position section. From the Base

list, choose Center.

Fillet 1
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click Fillet
2 Click the Zoom Extents button
Graphics toolbar.

22 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

on the

3 On the object r1, select Points 1,2,3,4

only.
4 Go to the Fillet settings window. Under
Radius in the Radius field, enter H/2.

Rectangle 2
1 Right-click Plane Geometry

and choose Rectangle

2 Go to the Rectangle settings window.

Under Size in the:
- Width field, enter W-2*D.
- Height field, enter H-2*D.

3 Locate the Position section. From the

Base list, choose Center.

Fillet 2
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click
Fillet
.
2 On the object r2, select Points 1,2,3,4 only.
3 Go to the Fillet settings window. Under Radius in the Radius field, enter
(H-2*D)/2.
4 On the Home toolbar, click the Build All
button
. The node sequence under
Work Plane 1 should match this figure at
this point:

Extrude 1
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click
Close
.
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Extrude

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 23

3 Go to the Extrude settings window.

Under Distances from Plane in the table
under Distances (mm), enter L in the
column.

Cylinder 1
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click
Cylinder
.
2 Go to the Cylinder settings window. Under
Size and Shape in the:
- Radius field, enter R_io.
- Height field, enter L_io.

3 Under Position in the x field, enter -L_io.

4 Under Axis, from the Axis type list, choose
Cartesian.
5 Under Axis in the:
- x field, enter 1.
- z field, enter 0.

Cylinder 2
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click
Cylinder
.
2 Go to the Cylinder settings window. Under Size and Shape in the:
- Radius field, enter R_io.
- Height field, enter L_io.

3 Under Position in the x field, enter L.

4 Under Axis, from the Axis type list, choose Cartesian.
5 Under Axis in the:
- x field, enter 1.
- z field, enter 0.

6 Click the Build All button

the Graphics toolbar.

and then click the Zoom Extents button

24 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

on

The node sequence in the Model Builder should

match the figure.

The finished geometry is shown in the figure below,

the axis dimensions are in mm, as selected, and the
system of coordinates is also shown.

Definitions
Explicit 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Explicit

2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1>Definitions right-click

Explicit 1
and choose Rename (or press F2).
3 Go to the Rename Explicit dialog box and enter Inlet in the New name field.
4 Click OK.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 25

5 Go to the Explicit settings window. Under Input Entities from the Geometric
entity level list, choose Boundary.
6 Select Boundary 1 only.

Explicit 2
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Explicit

2 In the Model Builder window, click Explicit 2

and press F2. In the Rename
Explicit dialog box, enter Outlet as the New name. Click OK.
3 Go to the Explicit settings window.
Under Input Entities from the Geometric
entity level list, choose Boundary.
4 Select Boundary 28 only.

Integration 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click
Component Couplings and choose
Integration
.
2 Go to the Integration settings window.
Under Source Selection from the
Geometric entity level list, choose
Boundary.
3 From the Selection list, choose Inlet.

Integration 2
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Component
Couplings and choose Integration
. An
Integration 2 node is added to the Model Builder.
2 Go to the Integration settings window. Under
Source Selection from the Geometric entity level
list, choose Boundary.

26 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

3 From the Selection list, choose Outlet.

You have now defined the integration coupling operators intop1 and intop2, for
integration over the inlet and outlet, respectively. Use the operators in defining
the in-going and out-going power, as defined in the Results and Discussion
section.

Variables 1
1 In the Model Builder, right-click Definitions

and choose Variables

2 Go to the Variables settings window. Under Variables in the table, enter the
following settings:
NAME

EXPRESSION

DESCRIPTION

w_in

intop1(p0^2/(2*acpr.rho*
acpr.c))

Power of the incoming

wave

w_out

intop2(abs(p)^2/(2*acpr.
rho*acpr.c))

Power of the outgoing

wave

Mate rials
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Material

2 Go to the Add Material window.

3 In the tree, select Built-In>Air

4 In the Add material window, click Add

to Component
.
5 Click the Air node under Materials to
look at the Material Contents in the
settings window.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 27

The green check marks indicate which material parameters are necessary in the
model.

Note: By default the first material added applies to all domains so the geometric
scope settings do not need to be changed.
In the second version of this model, a lining material is inserted in Domain 2. For
now, the muffler is completely hollow.

P re s su re A c o u s ti c s , Fre q u e n c y D o m a in
Plane Wave Radiation 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Plane Wave Radiation

2 Select Boundaries 1 and 28 only.

Incident Pressure Field 1

1 Under Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain, right-click Plane Wave
Radiation 1 and choose Incident Pressure Field
. An Incident Pressure Field

28 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

node is added to the Model Builder. Nodes with a D in the upper left corner
indicate it is a default node.

2 Go to the Incident Pressure Field settings window. Under Boundary Selection

from the Selection list, choose Inlet.
3 Under Incident Pressure Field in the p0
field, enter p0.
You have now specified the plane wave
radiation condition to be active on both the
inlet and outlet boundaries, but with an
incident wave on the inlet. The remaining
boundaries by default use the sound hard
condition.
Now, add a second pressure acoustics model
for the absorptive liner domain. You will
deactivate this domain when configuring the first study step.

Po ro ac o u s ti c s
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Poroacoustics

2 Go to the Poroacoustics settings window. Select Domain 2 only.

3 Under Porous Matrix Properties, from the Rf list, choose User defined. In the
associated field, enter R_f.

Me sh 1
Because the geometry is long and slender and it has constant cross sections, an
extruded mesh is used. This reduces the number of mesh elements while still
retaining the desired mesh resolution of the acoustic field.
Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 29

Free Triangular 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 right-click Mesh 1 and
choose More Operations>Free Triangular
.
2 To more easily locate and select a boundary, click the Wireframe Rendering
button
on the Graphics window toolbar.
3 Select Boundaries 6, 9, and 16 only.

Size
1 In the Model Builder under
Component 1>Mesh 1, click Size

2 Go to the Size settings window. Under

Element Size click the Custom button.
3 Under Element Size Parameters in the
Maximum element size field, enter
343[m/s]/1500[Hz]/5.
The global maximum element size is set
equal to the minimal wavelength divided
by 5, that is, /5 = c0/fmax/5, where c0 is
the speed of sound.

30 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

4 Click the Build All button

Swept 1
1 On the Mesh toolbar, click Swept

2 Now, simply push the Build All button

and the mesher will automatically
detect source and destination boundaries for the swept mesh.
3 Click the Zoom Extents button

on the Graphics toolbar.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 31

Study 1
Step 1: Frequency Domain
1 In the Model Builder, expand the Study 1 node, then click Step 1: Frequency
Domain
.
2 Go to the Frequency Domain settings window. Under Study Settings in the
Frequencies field, enter range(50,25,1500).
3 Locate the Physics and Variables
Selection section. Select the Modify
physics tree and variables for study
step check box.
4 In the tree, under
Component 1>Pressure Acoustics,
Frequency Domain, click Pressure
Acoustics Model 2.
5 Click the Disable button
the table.

under

6 On the Home toolbar, click

Compute
.

Results
The first default plot shows the pressure distribution on the walls of the muffler at
the highest frequency, 1500 Hz. To get a better view of the standing wave pattern,
you can plot the norm of the pressure instead of the real part of the pressure.

Acoustic Pressure (acpr)

1 In the Model Builder under Results, expand the Acoustic Pressure (acpr) node
then click Surface 1
.

32 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

2 Go to the Surface settings window. In the

upper-right corner of the Expression
section, click Replace Expression
.
3 From the menu, choose Pressure
Acoustics, Frequency Domain>Absolute
pressure (acpr.absp) (or enter acpr.absp
in the Expression field).
4 On the 3D plot group toolbar, click the
Plot button
.

The pattern is very different at different frequencies. See for example what happens
at 1250 Hz.
1 In the Model Builder under Results, click Acoustic Pressure (acpr)

2 Go to the 3D Plot Group settings window. Under Data from the Parameter
value (freq) list, choose 1250.
3 On the 3D plot group toolbar, click the Plot button

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 33

At 1250 Hz, the absolute value of the pressure does not vary much with the
x-coordinate. The reason is that this is just higher than the cutoff frequency for
the first symmetric propagating mode, which is excited by the incoming wave. For
a separate analysis of the propagating modes in the chamber, see the description
for the Eigenmodes in a Muffler model starting on page 43.
The two other default plot groups show the sound pressure level on the wall
surface and the pressure inside the muffler as isosurfaces.

Acoustic Pressure, Isosurfaces (acpr)

In the Model Builder, under Results>Acoustic Pressure, Isosurfaces (acpr), click
the Isosurface node
to display the plot in the next figure.

34 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

1D Plot Group 4
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Plot Group and choose 1D Plot Group
2 On the 1D plot group toolbar, click Global

3 Go to the Global settings window. Under

y-Axis Data in the table, enter the
following settings:
- In the Expression column, enter
10*log10(w_in/w_out)
- In the Description column, enter No
liner.

4 On the 1D plot group toolbar, click the Plot button

. Your plot should be a
reproduction of the blue curve in Figure 11 on page 19.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 35

M o d e l W i z a rd
In this, the second version of the model, the muffler is lined with a layer of
absorptive glass wool. Continue working with the model developed so far and
make the following changes. The first task is to add a second study to keep the
existing results intact.
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Study

2 Go to the Add Study window. Under Studies>Preset Studies click Frequency

Domain
.

36 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

3 Click Add Study

. A Study 2 node is added to the Model Builder.

Study 2
1 In the Model Builder, click Study 2

2 In the Study settings window, under the Study Settings section, click to clear
the Generate default plots check box.

Step 1: Frequency Domain

1 In the Model Builder under Study 2, click Step 1: Frequency Domain

2 In the Frequency Domain settings window, locate the Study Settings section.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 37

3 In the Frequencies field, enter

range(50,25,1500).
4 On the Home toolbar, click
Compute
.

Results
You chose not to have new default plots generated. Once the solution process is
finished you can use the existing plot groups and just switch the data set to see
how the damping material affects the solution.

Acoustic Pressure, Isosurfaces (acpr)

1 In the Model Builder under Results, click the Acoustic Pressure, Isosurfaces
(acpr)
node.

2 In the 3D Plot Group settings window under Data, from the Data set list
choose Solution 2.

3 On the 3D plot group toolbar, click the Plot button

38 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

At 1500 Hz, the pressure in the chamber is much lower than before. Continue to
study how the transmission has changed.

1D Plot Group 4
1 On the 1D plot group toolbar, click Global

2 Go to the Global settings window.

Under Data from the Data set list,
choose Solution 2.
3 Under y-Axis Data enter these
settings in the table:
- In the Expression column, enter
10*log10(w_in/w_out).
- In the Description column, enter
Absorptive liner.

4 On the 1D plot group toolbar, click

the Plot button
.
5 In the Model Builder, click 1D Plot Group 4
. Go to the 1D Plot Group
settings window. Click to expand the Legend section.
6 From the Position list, choose Upper left.

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 39

7 Right-click 1D Plot Group 4 and choose Rename. Go to the Rename 1D Plot

Group dialog box and type Transmission Loss in the New name edit field.
8 Click OK.

Now, create a plot that represents the intensity flux through the muffler system.
Use streamlines that follow the intensity vector (flux of energy through the
muffler). You can change between solutions and frequencies to study and visualize
the muffler's sound-absorbing properties.

3 D P l o t G ro u p 5
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Plot Group and choose 3D Plot Group

2 Click 3D Plot Group 5

and press F2. In the Rename 3D Plot Group dialog
box enter Intensity as the New name.
3 Click OK.

Intensity
1 Click Intensity

and from the toolbar, click Streamline

40 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

2 In the Streamline settings window, click the Replace Expression

button.
From the menu, choose Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain>Intensity
(RMS) (acpr.Ix,acpr.Iy,acpr.Iz).
3 Under Selection, select Boundary 1 only.
4 Under Coloring and Style:
- From the Line type list, choose Tube.
- In the Tube radius expression field, enter 2.

5 Under Intensity, right-click Streamline 1

and choose Color Expression

6 In the Color Expression settings window, click the Replace Expression

button
. From the menu, choose Pressure Acoustics, Frequency
Domain>Intensity magnitude (RMS) (acpr.I_rms).
7 On the 3D plot group toolbar, click the Plot button

Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

| 41

As a final step, pick one of the plots to use as a model thumbnail.

1 In the Model Builder under Results click Acoustic Pressure, Isosurfaces

2 Click the Root node (the first node in the model tree). On the Root settings
window under Model Thumbnail, click Set Model Thumbnail.
Make adjustments to the image in the Graphics window using the toolbar buttons
until the image is one that is suitable to your purposes.

42 | Model Example: Absorptive Muffler

Additional Examples from the Model Library

The Acoustics Module model library has other tutorial models available as well as
advanced industrial and verification models. Short explanations and examples are
given below for a cross-section of these models. Go to The Model Libraries
Window to learn how to access these model files from COMSOL Multiphysics.

Gaussian Explosion
This model introduces important concepts to remember when solving transient
problems. In particular, it examines the relationship between the frequency
content in the sources driving the model, the mesh resolution, and the time step.

Figure 12: Representation of the pulse at time t=0.0315s.

Eigenmodes in a Muffler
In this model, the propagating modes in the chamber of an automotive muffler
are computed. The geometry is a cross-section of the chamber as described in the
Absorptive Muffler example in this guide.
The purpose of the model is to study the shape of the propagating modes and to
find the cut-off frequencies. As discussed in the Absorptive Muffler tutorial, some
of the modes significantly affect the damping of the muffler at frequencies above

Additional Examples from the Model Library

| 43

the cut-off. In the Eigenmodes in Muffler model, modes with cut-off frequencies
up to 1500 Hz are studied.

Figure 13: First fully symmetric propagation mode of the muffler chamber (with no absorbing liner). The
plot shows the absolute value of the pressure.

Piezoacoustic Transducer
A piezoelectric transducer can be used either to transform an electric current to an
acoustic pressure field or, the opposite, to produce an electric current from an
acoustic field. These devices are generally useful for applications that require the
generation of sound in air and liquids. Examples of such applications include
phased array microphones, ultrasound equipment, inkjet droplet actuators, sonar
transducers, and devices for drug discovery, bioimaging, and
acousto-biotherapeutics.

44 | Additional Examples from the Model Library

Figure 14: Surface and height plot of the pressure distribution created by the piezoactuator at f = 100
kHz.

Loudspeaker Driver in a Vented Enclosure

An important class of acoustic models are transducers, that is,
electro-mechanic-acoustic transducers. Transducers are true multiphysics models
that often in addition to acoustics necessitate a structural mechanic and an
electromagnetic physics added. One such class are loudspeakers (presented here),
another are microphones presented below.
This model of a boxed loudspeaker lets you apply a nominal driving voltage and
extract the resulting sound pressure level in the outside room as a function of the
frequency. The electromagnetic properties of the driver are supplied from the
Loudspeaker Driver model (available with the AC/DC Module). The model uses

Additional Examples from the Model Library

| 45

the Acoustic-Shell Interaction interface and therefore requires the Structural

Mechanics Module.

Figure 15: Iso-pressure contours (in gray scale) and deformation of the speaker cone (colors).

The Brel & Kjr 4134 Condenser Microphone

Another type of transducer is the microphone. This is a model of the Brel and
Kjr 4134 condenser microphone. The geometry and material parameters are
those of the microphone. The modeled sensitivity level is compared to
measurements performed on an actual microphone and shows good agreement.
The membrane deformation, pressure, velocity, and electric field are also

46 | Additional Examples from the Model Library

determined. The model requires the Acoustics Module, the AC/DC Module, and
the Structural Mechanics Module.

Figure 16: Deformation of the microphone membrane (diaphragm) at 20 kHz. The geometry is courtesy
of Brel & Kjr.

This concludes this introduction.

Additional Examples from the Model Library

| 47

48 | Additional Examples from the Model Library