Teorii ale instruirii

-documentar
PROF.UNIV DR. ION NEGRE-DOBRIDOR

1. PRINCIPIILE
,
TEORIILE
DESIGNULUI INSTRUCIONAL

TEORETICIENII

Basic Principles
Objectivism/Behavioris
m

Cognitivism/Pragmatis
m

Constructivism/Interpretivis
m

Learning happens when a

correct response is
demonstrated following the
presentation of a specific
environmental stimulus

Learning is a change of
knowledge state

Learners build personal

interpretation of the world based
on experiences and interactions

Learning can be detected

by observing an organism
over a period of time
Emphasis is on observable
and measurable behaviors

Knowledge acquisition is
described as a mental
activity that entails
internal coding and
structuring by the learner
Learner is viewed as an
active participant in the
learning process

Uses a "black box"

Emphasis is on the
metaphor - the learner is a building blocks of
black box, what happens
knowledge (e.g.
inside is unknown
identifying prerequisite
relationships of content)
Emphasis is on
relationships between
Emphasis on structuring,
environmental variables
organizing and sequencing
and behavior
information to facilitate
optimal processing
Instruction utilizes
consequences and
Focus is on how learners
reinforcement of learned
remember, retrieve, and
behaviors
store information in
memory
Believes behavior is guided
by purpose
Examines the mental
structure and processes
related to learning
Cues are antecedents to
behavior and set the

Knowledge is embedded in the

context in which it is used
(authentic tasks in meaningful
realistic settings)
Create novel and situationspecific understandings by
"assembling" knowledge from
diverse sources appropriate to
the problem at hand (flexible
use of knowledge)
Believes that there are many
ways (multiple perspectives) of
structuring the world and its
entities
Believes that meaning is
imposed by the individual rather
than existing in the world
independently

conditions for its occurence Learning is viewed as an

active process that occurs
within the learner and
which can be influenced
by the learner
The outcome of learning is
not only dependent on
what the teacher presents
but also on what the
learner does to process
this information.

Embedded Theories (TOP)

Objectivism/Behavioris
m

Cognitivism/Pragmatis
m

Constructivism/Interpretivis
m

Pavlov's Classical
Conditioning

Component Display
Theory

Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Skinner's Operant
Conditioning

Dual Coding Theory

Generative Learning Theory

Elaboration Theory
Stimulus-Response Theory
Thorndike's Laws and
Connectionism
Information Processing

Knowledge as Tools
Situated Cognition

Gestalt Theory
Mental Models

Social-Cultural Learning

Schema Theory
Subsumption Theory

Principal Theorists (TOP)

Objectivism/Behavioris
m

Cognitivism/Pragmatis
m

Constructivism/Interpretivis
m

Bandura

Anderson

Bransford and the CTGV

Pavlov

Ausubel

Bruner

Skinner

Gardner

Dewey

Thorndike

Gagn

Grabinger

Merrill

Lave & Wenger

Norman

Papert

Novak

Piaget

Reigeluth

Spiro and colleagues

Rummelhart

Vygotsky

Goals of Instruction (TOP)

Objectivism
Communicate
or transfer
behaviors
representing
knowledge and
skills to the
learner (does
not consider
mental
processing)
Instruction is
to elicit the
desired
response from
the learner
who is
presented with
a target
stimulus
Learner must
know how to
execute the
proper
response as
well as the
conditions
under which
the response is
made
Learner
acquires skills
of
discrimination
(recalling
facts),
generalization
(defining and
illustrating
concepts),
association

Cognitivism/Pragmatism Constructivism/Interpretivism
Communicate or transfer
knowledge in the most
efficient, effective manner
(mind-independent, can be
mapped onto learners)
Focus of instruction is to
create learning or change
by encouraging the learner
to use appropriate learning
strategies

Build personal interpretations of

the world based on individual
experiences and interactions
(constantly open to change,
cannot achieve a predetermined,
"correct" meaning, knowledge
emerges in relevant contexts)
Learning is an active process of
constructing rather than acquiring
knowledge

Learning results when

information is stored in
memory in an organized,
meaningful way.

Instruction is a process of
supporting knowledge
construction rather than
communicating knowledge

Teachers/designers are
responsible for assisting
learners in organizing
information in an optimal
way so that it can be
readily assimilated

Do not structure learning for the

task, but engage learner in the
actual use of the tools in real
world situations
Learning activities should be
authentic and should center
around the problematic or
puzzlement as perceived by the
learner
The focus is on the process not
the product
Role of teacher is a mentor not a
teller
Encourage reflective thinking,
higher-order learning skills
Encourage testing viability of
ideas and seeking alternative
views

(applying
explanations),
and chaining
(automatically
performing a
specified
procedure).

Instructional Models (TOP)

Objectivism
ComputerBased
Instruction
Contract
Learning
Individualized
Instruction
Programmed
Instruction
Information
Processing
Model
Systems
Approach

Cognitivism/Pragmatism Constructivism/Interpretivism
Collins & Stevens Inquiry
Teaching Model
Keller's ARCS Model of
Motivation
Merrills Component Display
Model

Action Learning
Anchored Instruction
Authentic Learning
Case-Based Learning
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
Collaborative Learning
Communities of Practice
Computer-Supported Intentional
Learning Environments (CSILEs)
Discovery Learning
Distributed Learning
Epistemic Games
Generative learning
Goal-Based Scenarios (GBSs)
Inquiry-Based Learning
Microworlds/Simulations
MOOs and MUDs
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

REALs
Reciprocal Teaching
Situated Learning
WebQuest(s)

Implications for Instructional Design

(TOP)

Objectivism/Behavioris
m

Cognitivism/Pragmatis
m

Constructivism/Interpretivis
m

Behavioral objectives

Cognitive objectives

Authentic assessment methods

Dick & Carey instructional

design model

Learning strategies

Learning through exploration

Performance-based
assessment
Systems models

Learning taxonomies
Problem-oriented activities
(Gagn's intellectual skills)
"Rich" environments
Prerequisite skills
Visual formats and mental
Task analysis
models

Events of Instruction

Computer-Based Instruction
Computer-assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the 1950s.
Early work was done by IBM and such people as Gordon Pask, and O.M. Moore, but CAI
grew rapidly in the 1960s when federal funding for research and development in
education and industrial laboratories was implemented. The U.S. Government wanted to
determine the possible effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction, so they developed
two competing companies, (Control Data Corporation and Mitre Corporation) who came
up with the PLATO and TICCIT projects. Despite money and research, by the mid
seventies it was apparent that CAI was not going to be the success that people had
believed. Some of the reasons are: CAI had been oversold and could not deliver, lack of
support from certain sectors, technical problems in implementation, lack of quality
software, and high cost. Computer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice controlled by the program developer rather than the learner. Little branching of
instruction was implemented although TICCIT did allow the learner to determine the
sequence of instruction or to skip certain topics.

Contract Learning
Contract learning involves the use of contingency contracts, which define the terminal
behavior the student is to achieve and conditions for achievement and consequences for
completion or non-completion of the assigned task(s). The contingency contract is
mutually agreed upon by teacher and student after negotiations. Contract learning is
often used in open educational systems in which students from various grade levels share
in learning activities.
Contract learning can also be useful in a college setting. According to Knowles, (1991, p.
39) "Contract learning is, in essence, an alternative way of structuring a learning
experience: It replaces a content plan with a process plan." For more information on the
concept of contract learning and adult learning theory, visit
http://www.msu.edu/user/coddejos/contract.htm.
Codde, J. R. (1996). Using learning contracts in the college classroom. Retrieved August
19, 2002, from Michigan State University, Educational Technology Certificate Program
Web site: http://www.msu.edu/user/coddejos/contract.htm
Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.

Individualized Instruction
Similar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualized instruction began
in the early 1900s, and was revived in the 1960s. The Keller Plan, Individually Prescribed
Instruction, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs, and Individually Guided
Education are all examples of individualized instruction in the U.S. (Saettler, 1990).

Programmed Instruction
After experimental use of programmed instruction in the 1920s and 1930s, B. F. Skinner
and J.G. Holland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at
Harvard in the late 1950s. Use of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and
secondary schools around the same time. Much of the programmed instruction in
American schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was more
often used in junior high schools than senior or elementary schools (Saettler, 1990).

Early use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development of

hardware rather than course content. Concerned developers moved away from hardware
development to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on learning
theory. Despite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of the
1960s because it did not appear to live up to its original claims (Saettler, 1990).

System Approach
The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language
laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and
the use of the computer in instruction. Most systems approaches are similar to computer
flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development of
instruction. Rooted in the military and business world, the systems approach involved
setting goals and objectives, analyzing resources, devising a plan of action and
continuous evaluation/modification of the program. (Saettler, 1990)

Collins & Stevens Inquiry Teaching Model

Collins' Cognitive Theory of Inquiry Teaching is a prescriptive model, primarily Socratic in
nature, meaning that it relies upon a dialectic process of discussion, questions and
answers that occurs between the learner and instructor. The process is guided in order to
reach the predetermined objectives, which are described in this theory as teacher goals
and subgoals. Ultimately, the learners will discover "how to learn".
Teacher goals and subgoals is one of three main portions of Collins' theory. The second is
the strategies used to realize said goals and subgoals and the third is the control
structure for selecting and pursuing the different goals and subgoals.
Brooks , C. E. (n.d.). Cognitive theory of inquiry teaching. Retrieved September 10,
2002, from University of Arkansas, Educational Technology Department Web site:
http://comp.uark.edu/~brooks/cognitive.html

Events of Instruction/Conditions of Learning

Events of Instruction
Preparation for Learning
1. Attending - gain learner's attention
2. Expectancy - inform learner of objectives
3. Retrieval - recall relevant information and/or skills to working memory or stimulate
recall of prior learning.
Acquisition and Performance
4. Selective perception - remembering stimulus features, distinctive features.
5. Semantic encoding - provide learning guidance
6. Retrieval and responding - elicit a performance
7. Reinforcement - provide informative feedback
Retrieval and Transfer
8. Cueing retrieval - assess performance
9. Generalizing - applying learning to a new situation
Barba, R. (1997). Events of instruction (Robert Gagne). Retrieved September 10, 2002,
from San Jos University, College of Education Web site:
http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/it/edit186/gagne.html

Information Processing Model

This model represents information processing as a computer model. Information
processing easily relates to computer input-process-output. Processing information
involves subroutines or procedures. Subroutines are performed in a hierarchical manner
to complete tasks. Flow of control can be diagrammed. Logic Theorist was a computer
program by Newell, Shaw and Simon (1955-60) used to simulate the human process of
solving theorems in symbolic language. At the same time MIT, had a pattern recognition
program.
There have been many computer models for human information processing. Two types of
information processing models are those dealing with simulation, or step by step, and
those that are dealing with artificial intelligence and are task driven. Logic Theorist
emulated six human characteristics of problem-solving behavior.
Information process theory of learning. (n.d.). Retrieved September 10, 2002, from
University of Missouri in Columbia, The College of Education Web site:
http://tiger.coe.missouri.edu/~t377/IPTheorists.html

Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation

John M. Keller proposed four conditions that must be met for a learner to be motivated to
learn. Attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) are the conditions that,
when integrated, motivate someone to learn. Moreover, Keller suggests that the ARCS
conditions occur as a sequential process (Driscoll, 1993, p. 312). The conditions should
be sustained to keep the learner interested in the topic. Once a learners attention is lost,
motivation is lost, and learning does not occur. Shneiderman (1998, p. 25) states that
"memorable educational experiences are enriching, joyful, and transformational."
Motivation theory argues that relevant phenomena fulfill personal needs or goals, which
enhances effort and performance (Means, Jonassen, & Dwyer, 1997). How then can one
ensure that the ARCS model remain active? The key is to vary the conditions to engage
the learner. Because each component of Kellers ARCS model builds upon the next model,
the instructor should keep the four components in mind when designing instruction.
Driscoll, M. (1993). Psychology of learning for instruction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
Bacon
Fernndez, J. (1999). Attribution theory and Kellers ARCS model of motivation.
Retrieved September 10, 2002, from George Mason University, Graduate School of
Education, Instructional Design & Development Immersion Program Web site:
http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/keller_ARCS.h
tm
Means, T., Jonassen, D., Dwyer, F. (1997). Enhancing relevance: Embedded ARCS
strategies vs. purpose. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45, 5-17.
Shneiderman, B. (1998). RelateCreateDonate: A teaching/learning philosophy for the
cyber-generation. Computers & Education, 31, 25-39.

Merrill's Component Display Model

CDT specifies how to design instruction for any cognitive domain. CDT provides the basis
for the lesson design in the TICCIT computer based learning system (Merrill, 1980). It
also was the basis for the Instructional Quality Profile, a quality control tool for
instructional materials (Merrill, Reigeluth & Faust, 1979). Fo example, if we were
designing a complete lesson on equilateral triangles according to CDT, it would have the
following minimum components:
Objective - Define an equilateral triangle (Remember-Use)
Generality - Definition (attributes, relationships)

Instance - Examples (attributes present, representations)

Generality Practice - State definition
Instance Practice - Classify (attributes present)
Feedback - Correct generalities/instances
Elaborations - Helps, prerequisites, context
If the generality was presented by an explanation or illustration, followed by practice
examples, this would be an expository strategy (EG, Eeg). On the other hand, if the
students were required to discover the generality on the basis of practice examples, this
would be an inquisitory strategy (IG, Ieg).
Merrill, M.D. (1980). Learner control in computer based learning. Computers and
Education, 4, 77-95.
Kearsley, G. (n.d.). Component display theory (M.D. Merrill). Retrieved September 7,
2002, from Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database
Web site: http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/tip/merrill.html

Action Learning
Reg Revans is considered the architect of action learning. Inglis (1994) defined AL as "a
process which brings people together to find solutions to problems and, in doing so,
develops both the individuals and the organization" (p. 3). According to Spence (1998),
Revans loosely defined action learning as the process of learning "from and with peers
while tackling real problems (O'Neil and Marsick 1994)" (p. 1). However, Revans (1980)
also says that it is not just project work, job rotation, case studies or business games.
According to Inglish (1994), action learning differs from these other methodologies in the
following ways.

Learning is centered around the need to find a solution to a real problem.

Learning is voluntary and learner driven.

Individual development is as important as finding the solution to the problem.

Action learning is a highly visible, social process, which may lead to organizational
change.

Action learning takes time. As originally envisioned, an action learning program

would take 4-9 months, excluding implementation. (Spence, 1998, p.1)

Problem, set, client, set advisor, and process are the basic elements of action learning.
The following is a brief explanation of each element (Spence, 1998).

Problem - The problem should be non-technical in nature and deal with either
strategic or tactical issues. The outcome of the problem solutions must matter to
the participants. Participants within a set may work on the same problem or
different problems.

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Set - A set of four to six action learners that solve the problem together. Set
members should be competent and committed and come have a range of
expertise.

Client - The owner of the problem. May be a set member or sponsoring

organization.

Set Advisor - The group facilitator. The set advisor explains the action learning
process and builds appropriate interpersonal skills. This person also maintains
open communication with the client. As the action learning progresses, set
members may take on some of these responsibilities.

Process - Observation of the problem, reflection and hypothesis forming and

action.

Action learning has been applied in many areas of adult education such as nursing
education and human resource development graduate programs.
Inglis, S. (1994). Making the Most of Action Learning. Aldershot, England: Gower.
O'Neil, J., and Marsick, V. J. (1994). Becoming critically reflective through action
reflection learning TM. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education no. 63, 17-29.
(EJ 494 200).
Revans, R (1980). Action learning: New techniques for management. London: Blond &
Briggs.
Spence, J. (1998). Practice application brief: Action learning for individual and
organizational development [Electronic version]. (Developed with funding from the Office
of Educational Research and Improvement, National Library of Education, U.S.
Department of Education, under Contract No. RR93002001). Retrieved August 24, 2002,
from http://ericacve.org/docs/pab00009.htm

Anchored Instruction
Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been
developed by Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of
John Bransford. While many people have contributed to the theory and research of
anchored instruction, Bransford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory is
attributed to him.
The initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive videodisc tools that
encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve complex, realistic problems. The
video materials serve as "anchors" (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning an d
instruction. As explained by CTGV (1993, p52): "The design of these anchors was quite
different from the design of videos that were typically used in education...our goal was to
create interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active construct ion of
knowledge by l earners. Our anchors were stories rather than lectures and were designed
to be explored by students and teachers. " The use of interactive videodisc technology
makes it possible for students to easily explore the content.

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Anchored instruction is closely related to the situated learning framework (see CTGV,
1990, 1993) and also to the Cognitive Flexibility theory in its emphasis on the use of
technology-based learning.
CTGV (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. Educational
Researcher, 19(6), 2-10.
CTGV (1993). Anchored instruction and situated cognition revisted. Educational
Technology, 33(3), 52- 70.
Kearsley, G. (n.d.). Anchored Instruction (John Bransford & the CTGV). Retrieved
September 7, 2002, from Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice
Database Web site: http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html

Authentic Learning
Authentic learning refers to the idea that learners should be presented to problems that
are realistic situations and found in everyday applications of knowledge (Smith & Ragan,
1999). Authentic learning is the type of learning promoted by anchored instruction, in
which instruction is "anchored" in a realistic problem situation (Cognition and Technology
Group, 1990).
Young (1993), recommends the following test of "authenticity." Learning situations
should include some of the characteristics of real-life problem solving, including illstructured complex goals. There should also be an opportunity to distinguish between
relevant and irrelevant information. Finding and defining problems as well as solving
them should be a generative process. Finally, students should engage in collaborative
activities in which they draw upon their beliefs and values.
For more information on Authentic Learning, visit Tiffany Mara's (University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor) Web site, http://www-personal.umich.edu/~tmarra/authenticity/authen.html.
Cognition and Technology Group. (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationship to
situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19(8), 2-10.
Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Young, M. (1993). Instructional design for situated learning. Educational Technology
Research & Development, 41(1), 43-58.

Case-Based Learning

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Case-based learning using case studies to present learners with a realistic situation and
require them to respond as the person who must solve a problem (Smith & Ragan,
1999). In order to solve problems, learners select and manipulate several principles.
According to Hudspeth and Knirk (1989),
A complete case describes an entire situation and includes background information, the
actions and reactions of persons involved, the solution, and the possible consequences of
the actions taken. Case materials should have enough background information and detail
to that they are readable and believable (p. 31).
Case-based learning is appropriate for learning to problem solve when there is no one
correct solution, particularly with more complex ill-structured problems (Smith & Ragan,
1999). Case studies can be written so that learners use more cognitive strategies as they
proceed through increasing levels of instruction. Cases were traditionally used in
professional education to teach decision making skills, such as the Harvard Business
School case approach. Use of case-based studies has also become widespread in the field
of medical education.
For an example of investigative case-based learning in biology, visit
http://www.bioquest.org/case99.html.
Hudspeth, D., & Knirk, F.G. (1991). Case study materials: Strategies for design and use.
Performance Improvement Quarterly, 2(4), 2.
Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Cognitive Apprenticeship
The focus of this learning-through-guided-experience is on cognitive and metacognitive
skills, rather than on the physical skills and processes of traditional apprenticeships.
Applying apprenticeship methods to largely cognitive skills requires the externalization of
processes that are usually carried out internally. Observing the processes by which an
expert listener or reader thinks and practices these skills can teach students to learn on
their own more skillfully (Collins, Brown, Newman, 1989, p. 457-548). This method
includes:
1. Modeling - involves an expert's carrying out a task so that student can observe
and build a conceptual model of the processes that are required to accomplish the
task. For example, a teacher might model the reading process by reading aloud in
one voice, while verbalizing her thought processes (summarize what she just
read, what she thinks might happen next) in another voice.
2. Coaching - consists of observing students while they carry out a task and offering
hints, feedback, modeling, reminders, etc.
3. Articulation - includes any method of getting students to articulate their
knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving processes.

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4. Reflection - enables students to compare their own problem-solving processes

with those of an expert or another student.
5. Exploration - involves pushing students into a mode of problem solving on their
own. Forcing them to do exploration is critical, if they are to learn how to frame
questions or problems that are interesting and that they can solve (Collins, Brown,
Newman, 1989, 481-482).

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext (CFH) is a hypermedia learning environment that provides
users with several nonlinear paths of traversing content through the use of cases,
themes, and multiple perspectives. A CFH supports exploration of an ill-structured (illdefined) knowledge domain through multiple representations of the content, promoting
flexible knowledge acquisition to enhance transfer to real-world contexts (Jonassen, Dyer,
Peters, Robinson, Harvey, King and Loughner, 1997). The WWW is an ideal medium for
designing CFH due to its hyperlinking feature and access to widespread resources that
add richness to content.

Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning, also called cooperative learning, is heavily emphasized in most
constructivist approaches (Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, 1996). Actually, students
working in groups to solve problems achieves many goals that supporters of both
constructivism and directed instruction consider to be important. The CTGV finds that
collaborative learning is the best way to promote generative learning.
Perkins (1991) finds that collaborative learning demonstrates the notion of distributive
intelligence, which states that accomplishment is not a function of one person, but rather
a group in which each contributes to the achievement of desired goals. Cooperative
learning is an ideal way for students to learn the skills that extend beyond the classroom
of sharing responsibility and working together toward common goals. According to
Driscoll (2000), collaboration also provides students with a way to understand point of
view outside their own. Advances in technology over the past several years have made
computer-supported collaborative learning possible. Web-based technologies can make
thinking more visible through virtual access to knowledge experts.
Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.

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Perkins, D. (1991). Technology meet constructivism: Do they make a marriage?

Educational Technology, 31(5), 18-23.
Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996) Learning Theories and Integration
Models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, Integrating educational technology
into teaching. Prentice Hall.

Communities of Practice
Communities of Practice include learners and instructors who interact with one another
and other experts via virtual spaces, to build a reciprocal interchange of ideas, data, and
opinions. Transformative styles of communication are characteristic, where the
contributor, participator and the lurker or receiver, are "changed" as they share in the
goal of learning and knowledge generation and application (Wilson & Cole, 1996).

Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILEs)

Essentially, CSILE is a type of computer conference in which learners create communal
databases entirely through person-to-group rather than person-to-person
communication. CSILE is a collective knowledge building effort that requires students to
do planning, goal setting and problem solving. CSILEs are based on a specific
environment developed at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Discovery Learning
Discovery learning has various definitions. At one end of the spectrum we find discovery
learning in its simplest form. The tools and information needed to solve a problem or
learn a concept are provided and the learner "makes sense" of them. Another definition is
discovery learning as experimentation with some extrinsic intervention -- clues, coaching,
and a framework to help learners get to a reasonable conclusion. At the other end of the

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continuum is the expository teaching model of discovery learning where the learner
"discovers" what the teacher decides he is to discover using a process prescribed by the
teacher.
Bardin, D. (1999). Discovery learning. Retrieved September 10, 2002, from San Diego
State University, Encyclopedia of Educational Technology Web site:
http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/discoverylearn/start.htm

Distributed Learning
Distributed Learning is when learning is distributed across space, time, and various
media. When telecommunications media is utilized, distributed learning refers to off-site
learning environments where learners complete courses and programs at home or work
by communicating with faculty and other students through e-mail, electronic forums,
videoconferences, and other forms computer-mediated communication and Internet and
Web-based technologies. Distributed learning environments "result in a diffuse sense of
cognition - where what is "known" lies in the interaction between individuals and
artifacts, such as computers and other technological devices (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland,
in preparation).
Dabbagh, N. & Bannan-Ritland, B. (in preparation - under contract). Online learning and
course management systems: Concepts, strategies, and application. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Expected Publication date, January 2003.

Epistemic Games
Epistemic games are a formalized structure learning communities use to create
knowledge. Conventions are set that represent defined cultural patterns or forms.
Working together to generate these forms is called participating in epistemic games. The
game involves creating rules or conventions to be followed in generating a given
epistemic form. The products of working together are called epistemic forms.
"Completed" forms contain new knowledge and adhere to defined structures accepted by
the community (Collins & Ferguson, 1993; Morrison & Collins, in press).

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Generative learning
Generative learning is a learning process in which learners are given an overall problem
and are asked to generate sub-problems, subgoals, and strategies in order to achieve the
larger task (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). Generative learning strategies can be divided into
four major stages: (1) recalling information from long-term memory; (2) integrating new
knowledge with prior knowledge; (3) relating prior knowledge to new concepts and ideas
in a meaningful way; and (4) connecting new materials to information or ideas already in
the learner's mind (Generative Learning, 2000). Using this strategy, a learner relates new
ideas to prior knowledge in order to provide meaning to the new material (Ryder, 1998).

Goal-Based Scenarios (GBSs)

GBSs offer learners the opportunity to role-play from a certain "character's" perspective
or point of view. Their "goal" is for the learner to accomplish a mission or task associated
with their role in the scenario. In order to achieve this goal, the learner needs to acquire
particular skills and knowledge. This is where and when learning takes place. A GBS,
therefore, serves both, to motivate learners, and to give them the opportunity to "learn
by doing." "As long as a goal is of inherent interest to learners, and the skills needed to
accomplish those goals are the targeted learning outcomes, [we] have a match and a
workable GBS (Naidu, 2001, p.2)."
A designer of a GBS tends to look at it from the top-down. What drives the design of a
GBS is the set of target skills the designer wishes the student to gain in the GBS. A
student, on the other hand, tends to look at a GBS from the bottom-up. What drives a
student is the context and structure of the activities the GBS offers.

Inquiry-based Learning
Inquiry-based learning is an approach to instruction that engages students in
investigations to satisfy curiosities. Curiosities are satisfied when individuals construct
mental frameworks that adequately explain their experiences (Haury, 1993). The
learner's involvement in the learning content fosters skills and attitudes that permit the
learner to seek resolutions to questions and issues while constructing new and
meaningful knowledge (Inquiry-based Learning: Explanation, 2001, April).

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Microworlds/Simulations
In microworlds, students test 'What do you think will happen if?' questions in "
constrained problem spaces that resemble existing problems in the real world (Jonassen,
1996, p.237)." Learners generate hypotheses as they use their knowledge and skill to
guess what will happen, try out those guesses, and reformulate them based on the
results of their actions within the microworld. Microworlds provide the learner with the
observation and manipulation tools necessary to explore and test. The key idea behind
microworlds is creating an environment in which students explore the ideas being learned
(Jonassen, 1996).
Simulations are similar to microworlds in that they are experiential and model reality.
Simulations "range from models that mirror the simplified essence of reality to
elaborate synthetic environments with immersion interfaces that place students inside
alternate virtual worlds (Dede, 1996, p.14)." Microworlds differ from simulations in that
microworlds are structured to match the user's cognitive level so that it is appropriate to
the users needs and level of experience (Rieber, 1992).

MOOs and MUDs

MOO is an acronym for MUD, Object-Oriented. MUD stands for Multi-user Dimension, or
Dungeon, reflecting its origin as a form of the Dungeons and Dragons game developed
for multi-users on the Internet. "In Web-based learning, simulated role portrayal can be
facilitated through Multi-User Dialogue (MUD) environments, in which instructors create a
multi-user space with a central theme, characters and artifacts (Khan, 2001, p.81, in
Walker, 1997)."
Most MUDs still retain this game-like atmosphere, with players earning levels often by
shooting and killing other players. MOOs, however, developed as more social spaces,
lending themselves readily to use as a virtual classroom, or as spaces for conferences
and meetings.
Walker, J. (1997, revised 2001). Workshop on synchronous communication in the
language arts classroom. Retrieved September 10, 2002, from Georgia Southern
University, Department of Writing and Linguistics Web site:
http://www2.gasou.edu/facstaff/jwalker/tutorials/cte.html

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

PBL engages the learner in a problem-solving activity. In this process, instruction begins
with a problem to be solved rather than content to be mastered (Hsiao, 1996). Students
are introduced to a real-world problem and are encouraged to dive into it, construct their
own understanding of the situation, and eventually find a solution (Grabowski, Koszalka,
& Mccarth, 1998). Major goals of PBL are to help students develop collaborative learning
skills, reasoning skills, and self-directed learning strategies (Hsiao, 1996).
Five Strategies for Using PBL:
1. The Problem as a Guide - The problem is presented in order to gain attention
prior to presenting the lesson.
2. The Problem as an Integrator or Test - The problem is presented after
readings are completed and/or discussed -- these are used to check for
understanding.
3. The Problem as an Example - The problem is integrated into the material in
order to illustrate a particular principle, concept or procedure.
4. The Problem as a Vehicle for Process - The problem is used to promote critical
thinking whereby the analysis of how to solve it becomes a lesson in itself.
5. The Problem as a Stimulus for Authentic Activity - The problem is used to
develop skills necessary to solve it and other problems -- skills can include
physical skills, recall of prior knowledge, and metacognitive skills related to the
problem solving process. A form of authentic assessment of the skills and activity
necessary in the content domain (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, p.190).

REALs
Rich Environments for Active Learning. Based on constructivist ideas, REALs involve
students in constantly shaping and reshaping knowledge constructed through their
learning experiences. REALs may be implemented through cooperative learning,
generative learning, student centered learning, and problem based learning (Schott).
Grabinger and Dunlap (1995) used the term to summarize the literature on constructivist
learning theory and its five instructional design implications. Learning is active knowledge
construction by learners, learners gaining knowledge in realistic contexts and the social
negotiation of learning. Thus, learning environments should be characterized by five
themes (Bostock, 1998, par. 14):
1. Student responsibility and initiative
2. Generative learning strategies

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3. Authentic learning contexts

4. Authentic assessment
5. Cooperative support
Bostock, S. (1998). Constructivism in mass higher education: A case study. Learning
Technology. Retrieved August 24, 2002, from Keele University, Learning Technology Web
site: http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/cs/Stephen_Bostock/docs/sin98pa6.htm
Grabinger, S.R. and Dunlap, J.C. (1995) Rich environments for active learning: a
definition. ALT-J, Journal of the Association for Learning Technology, 3 (2) 5-34.
Schott, M. (1999). Rich environments for active learning. Retrieved August 24, 2002,
from San Diego State University, Encyclopedia of Educational Technology Web site:
http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/reals/start.htm

Reciprocal Teaching
Palincsar (1986) describes the concept of reciprocal teaching: Reciprocal teaching refers
to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers
and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use of four
strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and
students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue. Purpose: The
purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group effort between teacher and students
as well as among students in the task of bringing meaning to the text.
Reciprocal teaching. (2002). Retrieved September 10, 2002, from North Central Regional
Educational Laboratory, Pathways to School Improvement Web site:
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm

Situated Learning
Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity, context and
culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts with most classroom learning
activities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context. Social interaction
is a critical component of situated learning -- learners become involved in a "community
of practice" which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner
or newcomer moves from the periphery of this community to its center, they become

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more active and engaged within the culture and hence assume the role of expert or oldtimer. Furthermore, situated learning is usually unintentional rather than deliberate.
These ideas are what Lave & Wenger (1991) call the process of "legitimate peripheral
participation."
Other researchers have further developed the theory of situated learning. Brown, Collins
& Duguid (1989) emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship: "Cognitive
apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop
and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both outside and inside
school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of
knowledge." Brown et al. also emphasize the need for a new epistemology for learning -one that emphasizes active perception over concepts and representation. Suchman
(1988) explores the situated learning framework in the context of artificial intelligence.
Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of affordances) and
Vygotsky (social learning). In addition, the theory of Schoenfeld on mathematical
problem solving embodies some of the critical elements of situated learning framework.
Brown, J. S., Collins, A. & Duguid, S. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of
learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
Kearsley, G. (n.d.). Situated learning (J. Lave). Retrieved September 10, 2002, from
Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database Web site:
http://tip.psychology.org/lave.html
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate periperal participation.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Suchman, L. (1988). Plans and situated actions: The problem of human/machine
communication. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

WebQuest(s)
A WebQuest is "an inquiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information that
students interact with comes from resources on the Internet" (Goldstein, 1997, para. 1).
There are two types of WebQuests:
Short term WebQuest - Lasts one to three periods or days and its goal is basic
knowledge acquisition. A good short term WebQuest will also include some type of
subject integration.
Long term WebQuest - Takes between one week and on month to complete. A well
planned long term WebQuest involves "extending and refining knowledge" (Goldstein,
1997, Types of WebQuests).
Goldstein, B. (1997). So - What's WebQuest???. Retrieved September 10, 2002,

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Implications for Instructional Design

Behavioral objectives
Behaviorists place "an emphasis on producing observable and measurable outcomes in
students" (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p. 56). They believe that learning occurs when
learners show the correct response to a certain stimulus (Smith & Ragan, 1999). The
current instructional design application of behavioral objectives is reminiscent of these
behaviorist views. However, most current instructional designers writing objectives based
on action do not share the behaviorists' disinterest in the cognitive processes that also
take place. Rather, they write objectives with an attempt to extract "best evidence" of the
cognitive processes that cannot be directly observed.
Ertmer, P. and Newby, T. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 6 (4), 50-72.
Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Dick and Carey instructional design model

Walter Dick and Lou Carey (1996) advocate a systems approach model for designing
instruction in the fourth edition of their text, The Systematic Design of Instruction. Their
work is based on the behaviorist view that there is a predictable link between a stimulus
and the response it produces in a learner (Colaric, n.d.). It is the designer's responsibility
to determine the sub-skills a student must master in order for the behavior to be learned
and choose the stimulus and strategy for instruction in order to assemble the sub-skills.
The basic steps in the Dick and Carey instructional design model are as follows:
1. Determine instructional goal
2. Analyze the instructional goal
3. Analyze learners and contexts
4. Write performance objectives
5. Develop assessment instruments
6. Develop instructional strategy
7. Develop and select instructional materials
8. Design and conduct formative evaluation
9. Revise instruction
10. Summative evaluation
For a visual of the Dick and Carey design model, visit
http://www.student.seas.gwu.edu/~tlooms/ISD/GIFS/dc_design.gif.

22

Colaric, S. (n.d.). Systems approach model for designing instruction. Retrieved

September 2, 2002, from Pennsylvania State University, Personal Web page:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/s/m/smc258/KB/DickCarey.html
Dick, W. and Carey, L. (1996). The systematic design of instruction (4th ed.). New York:
Harper Collins Publishing.

Performance-based assessment
The idea of assessing students based on observable performance started with
behaviorism. According to Ertmer & Newby (1993), "Behaviorism equates learning with
changes in either the form or frequency of observable performance" (p. 55). Once a
student can display the proper response following the presentation of a certain
environmental stimulus, learning has been achieved. Traditional behaviorist assessment
makes no evaluation of the knowledge structure or mental processes leading to a
student's response.
Criterion-referenced assessment, which measures what a student can do as compared to
behavior described in specific learning objectives (Smith & Ragan, 1999), is based on
behaviorist principles. Such assessment is used to determine a student's individual
competency in skills defined as goals for instruction, as opposed to rank them with other
learners.
Ertmer, P. and Newby, T. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 6 (4), 50-72.
Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Systems models
Behaviorist theories contributed to the development of "more efficient methods of
creating directed instruction" (Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, 1996, p. 62). Systems
models take information from learning theories and turn them into step-by-step
procedures for planning instruction. Systems models were developed in response to
problems teachers were having in satisfying the needs of large numbers of students.
According to Saettler (1990) these models were initially embraced more by military and
industrial trainers than by K-12 classroom teachers. While systems approaches are
heavily used in the design and development of self-contained tutorials, teachers can also
use the same approach to plan their own directed instruction with technology. Systems
models can help teachers evaluate the effectiveness of their own teaching as well as the
usefulness of computer-based resources. Most instructional design models and methods
are rooted in systems models.

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Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996). Learning theories and integration
models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, Integrating educational technology
into teaching. Prentice Hall.
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unlimited.

Cognitive objectives
Cognitive psychology has influenced the types of goals and objectives that are developed
as a result of task analysis (Smith & Ragan, 1999). In addition to observable
performance, attention is now given to the underlying "understanding" of a performance.
For example, an objective might specify that a learner should be able to explain the
reasoning behind his/her performance. Bloom's taxonomy addresses the cognitive
domain.
Smith, P. and Rag, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Learning strategies
Cognitivists conduct learner analyses to determine a learner's predisposition to learning
and decide how to design instruction so that is can be assimilated according to the
learner's existing mental structures (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Learner characteristics are
considered when a designer plans what instructional techniques, called learning
strategies, to use in the instruction (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Strategies that focus on
structuring, organizing, and sequencing information for optimal processing are based on
cognitivism. For example, outlining, summarizing, synthesizing, and advance organizers.
Ertmer, P. and Newby, T. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 6 (4), 50-72.
Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Learning taxonomies
Robert Gagne, among others who developed taxonomies, made one of the first attempts
to classify learning behaviors and supply specific measures for determining different
levels of learning. Gagne developed a taxonomy for intellectual skills, one of his five
learned capabilities. Closely related to the development of taxonomies are instructional
objectives and instructional systems design.

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Kearsley, G. (n.d.). Taxonomies. Retrieved September 7, 2002, from Explorations in

Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database Web site:
http://tip.psychology.org/taxonomy.html

Prerequisite skills
A prerequisite is something a person must know or be able to do before they are able to
learn something else (Smith & Ragan, 1999). To determine prerequisite information, an
analysis must be done from the learner's (novice's) perspective, rather than the expert's
perspective. An expert tends to overlook some of the things they needed to know in
order to achieve the learning goal. Determining prerequisite skills does not specify
instructional strategies. An analysis for prerequisites can be used for a top-down,
problem-based environment as well as a bottom-up structured instructional strategy.
Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Task analysis
With the shift to cognitivism, analysis of relevant concepts goes beyond behavioral
observations of job performance. "Content analysis has outgrown the mere listing of
statements the learner will be able to recite. It has advanced way beyond the old
conventions of S-R tables" (Tiemann and Markle, 1984, p. 26).
During task analysis, goal statements are transformed into a format that can be used to
guide the rest of the instructional design process (Smith & Ragan, 1999). To complete a
learning task analysis:
1. Write a learning goal.
2. Determine the types of learning of the goal.
3. Conduct an information-processing analysis of that goal.
4. Conduct a prerequisite analysis and determine the type of learning of the
prerequisites.
5. Write learning objectives for the learning goal and each of the prerequisite (p.
63).
Upon completion of a task analysis, the designer has a list of goals describing what
learners should know or be able to do upon completion of instruction, as well as the
prerequisite skills an knowledge needed to achieve those goals.
Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Tiemann, P. and Markle, S. (1984). On getting expertise into an expert system.
Performance and Instruction Journal, 23 (9), 25-29.

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Authentic assessment methods

As a result of the change in goals and methods of education, constructivist learning
environments tend to use more qualitative assessment strategies rather than quantitative
ones (Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, 1996). For example, one of the more popular ways to
assess students in a constructivist learning environment is through portfolios. Portfolios
consist of samples of students' work and products developed. A portfolio might also
include teacher narration describing students' work habits, strengths and weaknesses.
Performance-based assessments and checklists of criteria used to judge students'
performance might also be included (Linn, 1994).
According to Wiggins (1990), "Assessment is authentic when we directly examine student
performance on worthy intellectual tasks" (par. 1). Assessments should be built on
intellectual challenges such as problem-solving, experimental research, discussion, and
writing. Furthermore, the goal of assessment is primarily to support the needs of the
learner. The best tests should teach students the type of work that matters most.
Linn, R. (1994). Performance assessment: Policy promises and technical measurement
standards. Educational Researcher, 23(9), 4-14.
Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996). Learning theories and integration
models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, Integrating educational technology
into teaching. Prentice Hall.
Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. [Electronic Version]. Washington
DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests Measurement and Evaluation. (ERIC Identifier
ED328611). Retrieved September 3, 2002, from:
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed328611.html

Learning through exploration

While constructivists differ among themselves about how much guidance a teacher
should provide, all agree that there should be some flexibility in achieving desired goals
(Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, 1996). Most constructivist approaches emphasize
exploration over "getting the right answer." A few of the radical constructivists believe
that students should have total freedom and infinite time when it comes to learning
through exploration. However, Perkins (1991) states, "Education given over entirely to
WIG (without any given) instruction would prove grossly inefficient and ineffective, failing
to pass on in straightforward ways the achievements of the past" (p. 20).
Perkins, D. (1991). Technology meets constructivism: Do they make a marriage?
Educational Technology, 31 (5), 18-23).
Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996). Learning theories and integration
models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, Integrating educational technology
into teaching. Prentice Hall.

26

Problem-oriented activities
Students solving problems, whether in a specific content area or in an interdisciplinary
approach, is the focus of most constructivist models (Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, 1996).
For example, one problem might require students to use only math skills, while another
might require math, science and language arts skills. According to Jungck (1991)
constructivist methods often integrate problem posing, problem solving and "persuasion
of peers" (p. 155). Furthermore, problems can be presented with specific goals, as "what
if" questions or as open-ended questions. Problem solving in a constructivist learning
environments is usually more complex and demands more time and use of varied skills
than problem solving with directed instruction.
Jungck, J. (1991). Constructivism, computer exploratoriums, and collaborative learning:
Construction scientific knowledge. Teaching Education, 3 (2), 151-170.
Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996). Learning theories and integration
models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, Integrating Educational Technology
into Teaching. Prentice Hall.

"Rich" environments
Most constructivist approaches advocate what Perkins (1991) terms "richer learning
environments" (p. 19) as opposed to the "minimalist" classroom environment, which
depends on the teacher, textbooks and prepared materials (Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk,
1996). According to Perkins, most constructivist models use any combination of the
following five basic resources.

Information banks - allow access to required information (e.g., books,

encyclopedias)
Symbols pads - supports learners' short-term memory (e.g., notebooks, laptops)

Construction kits - facilitates manipulation and building (e.g., Legos, Tinkertoys,

Logo)

Phenomenaria - allows exploration (e.g., terrarium, computer simulation)

Task managers - gives help and feedback when tasks are completed (e.g.,
teachers, electronic tutors)

Perkins, D. (1991). Technology meets constructivism: Do they make a marriage?

Educational Technology, 31 (5), 18-23.
Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996). Learning theories and integration
models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, Integrating educational technology
into teaching. Prentice Hall.

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Visual formats and mental models

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) is a strong advocate of helping
students build good "mental models" of problems to be solved (Roblyer, Edwards &
Havriluk, 1996). To promote the use of these mental models, teachers should present
problems in visual rather than written formats. CTGV researchers (1990) say, "Visual
formats allow students to develop their own pattern recognition skills," and they are
"dynamic, rich , and spatial" (p. 3). The use of visual formats may be particularly
important for low-achieving students who have difficulty reading.
Cognition and Technology Groups at Vanderbilt (1990). Anchored instruction and its
relationship to situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19 (6), 2-10.
Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996). Learning theories and integration
models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, Integrating educational technology
into teaching. Prentice Hall.

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