Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.1: Introduction ]

Objectives
In this section you will learn the following
Introduction

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.1: Introduction ]
Introduction
Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth or water or other materials such as coal, ore, etc; where
conditions do not permit the mass to assume its natural slope. The retaining material is usually termed as
backfill. The main function of retaining walls is to stabilize hillsides and control erosion. When roadway
construction is necessary over rugged terrain with steep slopes, retaining walls can help to reduce the grades
of roads and the land alongside the road. Some road projects lack available land beside the travel way,
requiring construction right along the toe of a slope. In these cases extensive grading may not be possible and
retaining walls become necessary to allow for safe construction and acceptable slope conditions for adjacent
land uses. Where soils are unstable, slopes are quite steep, or heavy runoff is present, retaining walls help to
stem erosion. Excessive runoff can undermine roadways and structures, and controlling sediment runoff is a
major environmental and water quality consideration in road and bridge projects. In these situations, building
retaining walls, rather than grading excessively, reduces vegetation removal and reduces erosion caused by
runoff. In turn, the vegetation serves to stabilize the soil and filter out sediments and pollutants before they
enter the water source, thus improving water quality.

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.1: Introduction ]
Recap
In this section you have learnt the following.
Introduction

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
Objectives
In this section you will learn the following
Gravity walls
Semi Gravity Retaining Wall
Flexible walls
Special type of retaining walls

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
Different Types of Retaining Structures
On the basis of attaining stability, the retaining structures are classified into following:
1.

Gravity walls :
Gravity walls are stabilized by their mass. They are constructed of dense, heavy materials such as concrete
and stone masonry and are usually reinforced. Some gravity walls do use mortar, relying solely on their
weight to stay in place, as in the case of dry stone walls. They are economical for only small heights.

Fig 6.1 Gravity wall

Fig 6.2 Dry Stone Gravity Wall

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
2.

Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

These walls generally are trapezoidal in section. This type of wall is
constructed in concrete and derives its stability from its weight. A small
amount of reinforcement is provided for reducing the mass of the
concrete.This can be classified into two:
Cantilever retaining wall
Counter fort retaining wall

Cantilever retaining wall

This is a reinforced concrete wall which utilises cantilever action to retain
the backfill. This type is suitable for retaining backfill to moderate
heights(4m-7m). In cross section most cantilevered walls look like Ls or
inverted Ts. To ensure stability, they are built on solid foundations with
the base tied to the vertical portion of the wall with reinforcement rods.
The base is then backfilled to counteract forward pressure on the vertical
portion of the wall. The cantilevered base is reinforced and is designed to
prevent uplifting at the heel of the base, making the wall strong and
stable. Local building codes, frost penetration levels and soil qualities
determine the foundation and structural requirements of taller cantilevered
walls. Reinforced concrete cantilevered walls sometimes have a batter.
They can be faced with stone, brick, or simulated veneers. Their front
faces can also be surfaced with a variety of textures. Reinforced Concrete
Cantilevered Walls are built using forms. When the use of forms is not
desired, Reinforced Concrete Block Cantilevered Walls are another option.
Where foundation soils are poor, Earth Tieback Retaining Walls are another
choice. These walls are counterbalanced not only by a large base but also
by a series of horizontal bars or strips extending out perpendicularly from
the vertical surface into the slope. The bars or strips, sometimes called
deadmen are made of wood, metal, or synthetic materials such as
geotextiles. Once an earth tieback retaining wall is backfilled, the weight
and friction of the fill against the horizontal members anchors the
structure.

Fig 6.3.Semi Gravity Retaining

Wall

Fig.6.4 Cantilever wall

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
Counterfort retaining wall
When the height of the cantilever retaining wall is more than about 7m, it is economical to provide vertical
bracing system known as counter forts. In this case, both base slab and face of wall span horizontally
between the counter forts.

Fig. 6.5 Counter fort retaining wall

3.

Flexible walls: there are two classes of flexible walls.

A.

Sheet pile walls and

B.

Diaphragm wall

A.

Sheet Pile Walls

Sheet piles are generally made of steel or timber. The use of timber piles is generally limited to temporary
sdtructures in which the depth of driving does not exceed 3m. for permanent structures and for depth of
driving greater than 3m, steel piles are most suitable. Moreover, steel iles are relatively water tight and can
be extracted if required and reused. However, the cost of sheet steel piles is generally more than that of
timber piles. Reinforced cement concrete piles are generally used when these are to be jetted into fine sand
or driven in very soft soils, such as peat. For tougher soils , the concrete piles generally break off. Based on
its structural form and loading system, sheet pile walls can be classified into 2 types:(i)Cantilever Sheet Piles
and(ii)Anchored Sheet Piles

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
1.

Cantilever sheet pile walls:

Fig. 6.6.Cantilever sheet pile wall

Cantilever sheet piles are further divide into two types:

2.

Free cantilever sheet pile

It is a sheet pile subjected to a concentrated horizontal load at its top. There is no back fill above the dredge
level. The free cantilever sheet pile derives its stability entirely from the lateral passive resistance of the soil
below the dredge level into which it is driven.
Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall with Backfill
A cantilever sheet pile retains backfill at a higher level on one side. The stability is entirely from the lateral
passive resistance of the soil into which the sheet pile is driven, like that of a free cantilever sheet pile.
Anchored sheet pile walls
Anchored shet pile walls are held above the driven depth by anchors provided ata suitable level. The anchors
provided for the stability of the sheet ile , in addition tomthe lateral passive resistance of the soil into which
the shet piles are driven. The anchored sheet piles are also of two types.

Fig. 6.7.Anchored sheet pile wall

Free earth support piles.
An anchored pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of embedment is small and the pile
rotates at its bottom tip. Thus there is a point of contraflexure in the pile.
Fixed earth support piles.
An anchored sheet pile has fixed earth support when the depth of embedment is large. The bottom tip of the
pile is fixed against rotations. There is a change in the curvature of the pile, and hence, an inflection point
occurs.

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
B.

Diaphragm Walls
Diaphragm walls are commonly used in congested areas for retention systems and permanent foundation
walls. They can be installed in close proximity to existing structures, with minimal loss of support to existing
foundations. In addition, construction dewatering is not required, so there is no associated subsidence.
Diaphragm walls have also been used as deep groundwater barriers through and under dams.
Diaphragm walls are constructed by the slurry trench technique which was developed in Europe, and has been
used in the United States since the l940's. The technique involves excavating a narrow trench that is kept full
of an engineered fluid or slurry. The slurry exerts hydraulic pressure against the trench walls and acts as
shoring to prevent collapse. Slurry trench excavations can be performed in all types of soil, even below the
ground water table. Cast in place; diaphragm walls are usually excavated under bentonite slurry. The
construction sequence usually begins with the excavation of discontinuous primary panels. Stop-end pipes are
placed vertically in each end of the primary panels, to form joints for adjacent secondary panels. Panels are
usually 8 to 20 feet long, with widths varying from 2 to 5 feet. Once the excavation of a panel is complete, a
steel reinforcement cage is placed in the center of the panel. Concrete is then poured in one continuous
operation, through one or several tremie pipes that extend to the bottom of the trench. The tremie pipes are
extracted as the concrete raises in the trench, however the discharge of the tremie pipe always remains
embedded in the fresh concrete. The slurry, which is displaced by the concrete, is saved and reused for
subsequent panel excavations. When the concrete sets, the end pipes are withdrawn. Similarly, secondary
panels are constructed between the primary panels, and the process continues to create a continuous wall.
The finished walls may cantilever or require anchors or props for lateral support.

Fig. 6.8. Construction Stages of a Diaphragm Wall using Slurry Trench Technique.

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
4.

Special type of retaining walls

Gabion walls
Gabion walls are constructed by stacking and tying wire cages filled with trap rock or native stone on top of
one another. They can have a continuous batter (gently sloping) or be stepped back (terraced) with each
successively higher course.
This is a good application where the retaining wall needs to allow high amounts of water to pass through it,
as in the case of riverbank stabilization. It is important to use a filter fabric with the gabion to keep adjacent
soil from flowing into or through the cages along with the water. As relatively flexible structures, they are
useful in situations where movement might be anticipated. Vegetation can be re-established around the
gabions and can soften the visible edges allowing them to blend into the surrounding landscape. For local
roads, they are a preferred low-cost retaining structure.

Fig. 6.9 (i) Gabion Wall

Fig.6.9 (ii) Gabion Wall

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.2 : Different Types of Retaining Structures ]
Crib walls
Crib walls have been made of various materials including wood, concrete and even plastic. The cribs are made
of interlocking headers and stretchers that are stacked like the walls of a log cabin. Crib walls are usually
quite large and can be out of scale and character with the surrounding landscape. In addition, heavy
construction equipment is required to lay the courses, possibly impacting sensitive areas. It can be used for
moderate heights of 4m to 6m

Fig. 6.10 (i) Crib wall

Fig. 6.11 (ii) Crib wall

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.1: Introduction ]
Recap
In this section you have learnt the following.
Gravity walls
Semi Gravity Retaining Wall
Flexible walls
Special type of retaining walls

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.3 : Design Requirement for Gravity walls ]
Objectives
In this section you will learn the following
Design Requirement for Gravity walls

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.3 : Design Requirement for Gravity walls ]
Design Requirement for Gravity walls
Gravity Retaining walls are designed to resist earth pressure by their weight. They are constructed of the
mass, concrete, brick or stone masonry. Since these materials can not resist appreciable tension, the design
aims at preventing tension in the wall. The wall must be safe against sliding and overturning. Also the
maximum pressure exerted on the foundation soil should exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
So before the actual design, the soil parameters that influence the earth pressure and the bearing capacity of
the soil must be evaluated. These include the unit weight of the soil, the angle of the shearing resistance, the
cohesion intercept and the angle of wall friction. Knowing these parameters, the lateral earth pressure and
bearing capacity of the soil determined.

Fig-6.12a

Fig-6.12b

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.3 : Design Requirement for Gravity walls ]
Fig. 6.12a shows a typical trapezoidal section of a gravity retaining wall.
The forces acting on the wall per unit length are:
Active Earth pressure
.
The weight of the wall (

The Resultant soil reaction R on the base. (or Resultant of weight

&

).Strike the base at point D. There

is equal and opposite reaction R' at the base between the wall and the foundation.
Passive earth pressure

acting on the lower portion of the face of the wall, which usually small and usually

neglected for design purposes. The full mobilization of passive earth pressure not occurs at the time of failure
so we not consider it. If we consider it then it shows resistance against instability. So if we ignore it then we
will be in safer side.
First decide which theory we want to apply for calculating the active earth pressure. Normally we calculate
earth pressure using Rankine's theory or Coulomb's Earth pressure theory.
For using Rankine's theory, a vertical line AB is drawn through the heel point
( Fig 6.12-b ). It is assumed that the Rankine active condition exist along the vertical line AB. While checking
) above the heel in the zone ABC should also be taken in to
the stability, the weight of the soil (
consideration, in addition to the Earth pressure (

) and weight of the wall (

But Coulomb's theory gives directly the lateral pressure (

considered only

(Coulomb) and the Weight of the wall (

).

) on the back face of the wall, the forces to be

). In this case, the weight of soil (

) is

need not be considered.

Once the forces acting on the wall have been determined, the Stability is checked using the procedure
discussed in the proceeding section. For convenience, the section of the retaining wall is divided in to
rectangles & triangles for the computation of the Weight and the determination of the line of action of the
Weight.

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.3 : Design Requirement for Gravity walls ]
For a safe design, the following requirement must be satisfied.
No Sliding
Horizontal forces tend to slide the wall away from the fill. This tendency is resisted by friction at the base.

= Coefficient of friction between the base of the wall and soil (= tan

).

= Sum of the all vertical forces i.e. vertical component of inclined active force.
A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against sliding is recommended.
No Overturning
The wall must be safe against overturning about toe.

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.3 : Design Requirement for Gravity walls ]
No Bearing Capacity Failure and No Tension
First calculate the line of action of the Resultant force ( e ) from centre of the base.
(No Tension will develop at the heel)

The pressure at the toe of the wall must not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. The pressure
at the base is assumed to be linear. The max. Pressure at the Toe & min at the Heel is given by:

should be less than the Safe bearing capacity(

) of the soil &

should not be Tensile in any

case. Tension is not desirable. The tensile strength of the soil is very small and tensile crack would develop.
The effective base area is reduced.

Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures

Lecture 26 : Introduction [ Section 26.3 : Design Requirement for Gravity walls ]
Recap
In this section you have learnt the following.
Design Requirement for Gravity walls