Antenna Measurement Theory
Antenna Measurement Theory
Antenna Measurement Theory
Introduction to
Antenna Measurement
1. Basic Concepts
1.2.1 Antenna
The antenna is a device which transforms guided electromagnetic signals into
electromagnetic waves propagating in free space. It can be used for reception and
transmission.
1.2.2 Polarization
Polarization is the property of the electric field vector that
defines variation in direction and magnitude with time. If
we observe the field in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation at a fixed location in space, the
end point of the arrow representing the instantaneous
electric field magnitude traces a curve. In the general
case, this curve is an ellipse (Figure 2). The ellipse can be
characterized by the axial ratio (AR), the ratio of the two
major axes and its tilt angle t. Polarization may be
classified as linear, circular or elliptical according to the
shape of the curve. Linear and circular polarization are
special cases of elliptical polarization, when the ellipse
becomes a straight line or circle, respectively. Clockwise
rotation of the electric field vector is designated as right-
hand polarization (RH) and counterclockwise rotation is Figure 2: Elliptical
left-hand polarization (LH), for an observer looking in the Polarization
direction of propagation.
1.2.4 Directivity
The directivity is a measure that describes the directional transmitting properties of the
antenna. It is defined as the ratio of the antenna radiation intensity in a specific direction
in space over the radiation intensity of an isotropic source for the same radiated power.
There are cases in which the term directivity is implied to refer to its maximum value.
1.2.5 Gain
The gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, but takes into consideration
the losses in the antenna as well as its directional capabilities.
1.2.6 Efficiency
The antenna efficiency is the ratio of directivity to gain. It takes into consideration all the
power lost before radiation. The losses may be due to mismatch at the input terminals,
conduction losses, dielectric losses and spillover losses.
1.3.1 Mixers
The mixer is a critical component in the instrumentation of antenna measurements. It
converts RF power at one frequency into power at another frequency to make signal
processing easier and less expensive. It is a nonlinear device, which mixes the input RF
signal at a frequency, fRF, with a local oscillator signal at frequency, fLO, to obtain a signal
at an intermediate frequency fIF. The relationship among the frequencies is fIF = fRF ±nfLO ,
where n is the harmonic mixing number. At the IF port a filter is connected to reject all
spurious signals except the fIF frequency. If the mixer uses only the basic frequency of the
local oscillator (n = 1) it is called fundamental, while if it uses higher harmonics to obtain
the IF frequency it is called a harmonic mixer. Harmonic mixing is a cost-effective
technique used in the microwave frequency range to operate over an extremely wide
bandwidth with a single local oscillator that is tunable only a portion of the required
frequency band. The mixing efficiency is called the conversion loss and is defined as the
ratio of the IF output power to the RF input power. The typical conversion loss of a
broadband harmonic mixer employing the fundamental LO frequency is between 6 and 9
dB. As the harmonic number employed increases the mixer conversion loss increases by
approximately 6dB for each doubling of the harmonic mixing number. Consequently, the
system sensitivity is reduced with the increase in the operating frequency. In antenna
measurement systems, a harmonic mixer with only two ports is common. One port is
used for the RF input, while the other is common to the local oscillator and the IF signals.
This configuration is advantageous, since a single coaxial cable can connect the remote
Antenna Under Test (AUT) to the receiver.
2. Antenna Measurements
The testing and evaluation of the antenna parameters is performed in antenna ranges.
Typically, there exist indoor and outdoor ranges with associated limitations for both.
Outdoor ranges are not protected from environmental conditions, while indoor ranges
are limited by space restrictions. Indoor ranges make use of anechoic chambers, which
are chambers lined with radar absorbing material to eliminate reflections from the walls.
There are two basic forms of chambers:
rectangular anechoic chambers and tapered anechoic chambers. Rectangular
chambers are typically used for frequencies above 1 GHz, while for frequencies below 1
GHz tapered chambers are used.
Various methods exist to measure the antenna parameters: radiation pattern directivity,
gain and polarization. Some of the methods require the Far-Field criterion and uniform
plane illumination and some can be performed in the Near-Field of the Antenna Under
Test (AUT).
There are two basic methods that can be used to measure the gain of an antenna:
absolute gain and gain comparison techniques. The absolute gain method requires no a
priori knowledge of the transmitting or receiving antenna gain. If the receiving and
transmitting antennas are identical, one measurement and use of the transmission
formula is sufficient to determine the gain. If the antennas are different, three antennas
and three measurements are required to formulate a set of three equations with three
unknowns to determine the gain of the AUT. In the gain comparison method,
precalibrated Standard Gain Antennas are used to determine the absolute gain of the
AUT.
The polarization measurement method requires that a linearly polarized antenna, usually
a dipole or a small horn, is rotated in the plane of polarization, which is taken to be normal
to the direction of the incident field, and the output voltage of the probe is recorded. The
recorded signal describes a polarization pattern for an elliptically polarized antenna. The
polarization ellipse is tangent to the polarization pattern, and can be used to determine
the axial ratio and the tilt angle of the AUT.
3. Far-Field Measurements
4. Near-Field Measurements
4.1.1 Planar
In the planar scanning technique, a probe antenna
is moved in a plane situated in front of the AUT and
the received signal (amplitude and phase) is
recorded. The position of the probe is characterized
by the coordinates (x,y,z0) in the xyz coordinate
system of the AUT. During the scanning, z0, is kept
constant, while x and y are varied. The distance z0
is approximately 3λ - 10λ to avoid sampling of the
reactive energy of the AUT. The dimensions of the Figure 15: Maximum scan
size
Near-Field scanning aperture must be large enough
to accept all significant energy from the AUT. The
scan dimensions, Ds, have to meet the criterion Ds > D+2z0tanθ, where D is
the largest AUT dimension and θ is the maximum processed radiation pattern
angle (Figure 15). For a specific scanner with an allowable scan area Dp, this
criterion determines the maximum and minimum AUT size (Dmin » 2λ).
4.1.2 Cylindrical
In the cylindrical scanning technique, the AUT is rotated around the
z axis of an xyz-coordinate system in ∆φ steps, while the probe is
moved on the cylindrical surface at various heights relative to the
xy plane in ∆z steps (Figure 19). The probe is located at a distance
a, which is the smallest cylinder radius enclosing the AUT. The
cylindrical scanning enables obtaining the exact azimuth pattern
but limited elevation pattern due to the truncation of the scanning
aperture in z direction. In accordance with the sampling theory the
sampling spacing is determined from ∆φ = λ/ 2a and ∆z = λ/2. A
two-dimensional Fourier transform of the Near-Field data gives the
cylindrical vector wave functions that determine the test radiation Figure 19: Cylindrical
scan
pattern. The probe response is deconvoluted from the AUT angular
response in a similar way as in planar scanning.
4.1.3 Spherical
The incident field on the probe is expanded in spherical wave Figure 20: Spherical
functions. Given the coefficients of these functions, the radiation scan
pattern can be computed. The sampling spacing is determined by
the sampling theory to be ∆φ = ∆θ = λ/2a.
4.2.1 RF Reflections
In this category we can identify three types of errors: mutual coupling between the probe
and the AUT, multipath reflections (walls, scanner and AUT mount), and leakage from the
transmitting and receiving systems. The mutual coupling between the probe and the AUT
can be minimized by several methods: using absorbing material around the probe,
thinning the edge of the probe to minimize the reflective area, using an isolator at the
probe data input, and averaging the recorded data of a pair of Near-Field scans
separated by λ/4. The multipath reflections from the walls and the mount can be reduced
by using absorbing material on the wall behind the scanner, on the floor, on the scanner
and on the mount. Leakage from the transmitting and receiving systems can be
minimized by proper shielding and cabling, especially the connectors. This type of error
may be discovered by probing a possible signal when the transmitting terminals are
terminated.
If the system collection data repeatability is good, this requirement may be alleviated and
correction tables may be used. Misalignment between the scan surface and the phase
front of the AUT may cause boresight error of the calculated radiation pattern. To reduce
this type of error, stringent calibration techniques with theodolite or lasers are used during
installation. Probe positioning errors may cause phase errors in the Near-Field collected
data and perturb the sidelobe level of the AUT radiation pattern. This type of error may be
minimized by using a set of lasers to measure the exact position of the probe during the
scan or by using correction tables prepared during the system calibration stage.
Three major types of Near-Field ranges have been presented. The choice is primarily
determined by the antenna to be measured. The planar system is best suited for high-
gain and flat antennas, since the measured field is restricted to a plane. It is also the
lowest cost system, since it involves relatively simple hardware and its computational
complexity is relatively low. The cylindrical system fits antennas with cylindrical symmetry.
It gives the exact radiation pattern in the azimuth plane (360° coverage), but a truncated
pattern in elevation. The spherical system is the most accurate system for the entire
space and essential for low-gain and omnidirectional antennas. It is also best suited for
antennas with controlled sidelobe levels in the entire space. Its deficiency is in its
relatively complex computations and the related processing time.
5. Radome Measurements
The Radome Boresight Error Slope (RBES) is the rate of change of the RBE across
the radome. It can be computed from the RBE results as a function of the relative angle
between the radome and the antenna.
These are two different ways to represent the ratio between the electromagnetic power
transmitted through the radome in the direction of the main beam and the
electromagnetic power transmitted in the same direction in the free space (in the
absence of the radome). The Radome Transmission Efficiency is expressed in percent
(%) and the Radome Transmission Loss is expressed in dB, both as a function of the
relative angle between the radome and the antenna.
References