Boiler & Air Heater Performance

Presentation Coverage
Performance Indices & Computations
Factors affecting AH & Boiler Performance
Performance Evaluation by Field Tests

Air Heater - Performance Indicators

Air-in-Leakage (~13%)
Gas Side Efficiency (~ 68 %)
X ratio (~ 0.76)
Flue gas temperature drop (~220 C)
Air side temperature rise (~260C)
Gas & Air side pressure drops
(The indices are affected by changes in entering
air or gas temperatures, their flow quantities and
coal moisture)

Air heater Air-in-leakage

The leakage of the high pressure air to the low pressure flue gas
is due to the Differential Pressure between fluids, increased seal
clearances in hot condition, seal erosion / improper seal settings.
Increased AH leakage leads to
Reduced AH efficiency
Increased fan power consumption
Higher gas velocities that affect ESP performance
Loss of fan margins leading to inefficient operation and at
times restricting unit loading
Typically air heater starts with a baseline leakage of 6 to 10%
after an overhaul.

Air Heater Leakage (%)

Direct - Hot End / Cold End
(~ 60% through radial seals + 30% through
Circumferential bypass)
Air leakage occurring at the hot end of the air heater affects its
thermal and hydraulic performance while cold end leakage
increases fans loading.

Entrained Leakage due to entrapped air between

the heating elements (depends on speed of rotation
& volume of rotor air space)

Rotor Turndown-

Hot end grows radially more than

cold end, rotor goes outward and downward

Seals - close the gaps & minimize leakage

Leakage Assessment

Leakage assessment must be done by a grid survey using

a portable gas analyser.

Calculation of leakage using CO2 values is preferred

because of higher absolute values and lower errors.

Method of determination of O2 or CO2 should be the same

at inlet and outlet - wet or dry (Orsat)

Single point O2 measurement feedback using orsat is on dry

basis while zirconia measurement is on wet basis.

Leakage assessment is impacted by air ingress from

expansion joints upstream of measurement sections.

Air Heater Leakage - Calculation

This leakage is assumed to occur entirely between air inlet
and gas outlet; Empirical relationship using the change in
concentration of O2 or CO2 in the flue gas
= CO2in - CO2out * 0.9 * 100
CO2out
= O2out - O2in * 0.9 * 100
(21- O2out)

= 5.7 2.8 * 90
(21-5.7)
= 17.1 %

Gas Side Efficiency

Ratio of Gas Temperature drop across the air heater,
corrected for no leakage, to the temperature head.
= (Temp drop / Temperature head) * 100
where Temp drop = Tgas in -Tgas out (no leakage)
Temp head = Tgasin - T air in
Gas Side Efficiency = (333.5-150.5) / (333.5-36.1) = 61.5 %

Tgas out (no leakage) = The temperature at which the gas

would have left the air heater if there were no AH leakage
= AL * Cpa * (Tgas out - Tair in) + Tgas out
Cpg * 100
Say AH leakage 17.1%, Gas In Temp 333.5 C, Gas Out Temp
133.8 C, Air In Temp 36.1 C
Tgasnl = 17.1 * (133.8 36.1) + 133.8 = 150.5 C
100

X Ratio
Ratio of heat capacity of air passing through the air heater to
the heat capacity of flue gas passing through the air heater.
=

Wair out * Cpa

Wgas in * Cpg

Tgas in - Tgas out (no leakage)

Tair out - Tair in

Say AH leakage 17.1%, Gas In Temp 333.5 C, Gas Out Temp

133.8 C , Air In Temp 36.1 C, Air Out Temp 288 C
X ratio = (333.5 150.5) / (288 36.1) = 0.73

X-Ratio depends on

moisture in coal, air infiltration, air & gas mass flow rates
leakage from the setting
specific heats of air & flue gas
X-ratio does not provide a measure of thermal performance
of the air heater, but is a measure of the operating
conditions.
A low X-ratio indicates either excessive gas weight through
the air heater or that air flow is bypassing the air heater.
A lower than design X-ratio leads to a higher than design
gas outlet temperature & can be used as an indication of
excessive tempering air to the mills or excessive boiler
setting infiltration.

Air Heaters - Exit Gas Temperatures

Factors affecting EGT include
Entering air temperature - Any changes would change gas temperature in
same direction. (10C rise in air temp ~ 10*0.7(Efficiency) = 7C rise in
EGT)
Entering Gas Temperature - Any changes would change exit gas
temperature in same direction (10C rise in gas temp ~ 10*0.3 = 3C rise in
EGT)
X-ratio - An increase in X-ratio would decrease exit gas temperatures &
vice versa
Gas Weight - Increase in gas weight would result in higher exit gas
temperatures
AH leakage - An increase in AH leakage causes dilution of flue gas & a
drop in As read exit gas temperatures; So, Exit gas temperatures need to
be corrected to a reference ambient and to no leakage conditions for
comparison.

Pressure drops across air heater

Air & gas side pressure drops change approximately in

proportion to the square of the gas & air weights through
the air heaters.

If excess air is greater than expected, the pressure drops

will be greater than expected.

Deposits / choking of the basket elements would lead to an

increase in pressure drops

Pressure drops also vary directly with the mean absolute

temperatures of the fluids passing through the air heaters
due to changes in density.

Boiler Performance
Boiler Efficiency
The % of heat input to the boiler absorbed by the
working fluid (Typically 85-88%)

Steam

Direct Method

Flue
Gas
Boiler

Water

Fuel
+ Air

Efficiency =

Boiler Efficiency =

Heat addition to Steam x 100

Gross Heat in Fuel

Steam flow rate x (steam enthalpy feed water enthalpy)

x 100
Fuel firing rate x Gross calorific value

Boiler Efficiency
Direct method or Input / Output method measures the heat
absorbed by water & steam & compares it with the total
energy input based on HHV of fuel.

Direct method is based on fuel flow, GCV, steam flow

pressure & temperature measurements. For coal
fired boilers, its difficult to accurately measure coal
flow and heating value on real time basis.

Another problem with direct method is that the extent

and nature of the individual components losses is not
quantified.

Boiler Efficiency
Indirect method or Loss method
For utility boilers efficiency is generally calculated by heat
loss method wherein the component losses are calculated
and subtracted from 100.
Boiler Efficiency = 100 - Losses in %

Steam

Indirect Method

6. Radiation

1. Dry Flue gas loss

2. H2 loss
3. Moisture in fuel
4. Moisture in air
5. CO loss

7. Fly ash loss

Boiler

Flue gas

Water

Fuel + Air

8. Bottom ash loss

Efficiency = 100 (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)

The unit of heat input is the higher heating value

per kg of fuel. Heat losses from various sources are
summed & expressed per kg of fuel fired.

Boiler Efficiency
Commonly used standards for boiler performance testing are
ASME PTC 4 (1998)
BS 2885 (1974)
IS: 8753: 1977
DIN standards

Boiler Losses
Typical values
Dry Gas Loss
5.21
Unburnt Loss
0.63
Hydrogen Loss
4.22
Moisture in Fuel Loss
2.00
Moisture in Air Loss
0.19
Carbon Monoxide Loss
0.11
Radiation/Unaccounted Loss
1.00
Boiler Efficiency

86.63

Dry Gas Loss (Controllable)

This is the heat carried away by flue gas at AH outlet

Its a function of flue gas quantity and the temperature difference

between air heater exit gas temperature and FD fan inlet air
temperature

Typically 20 C increase in exit gas temperature ~ 1% reduction in

boiler efficiency.

Dry Gas Loss

Sensible Heat of flue gas (Sh)

Sh = Mass of dry flue gas X Sp. Heat X (Tfg Tair)

Dry Flue Gas Loss % = (Sh / GCV of Fuel) * 100

Dry Gas loss (DFG) reduction requires

Operation at optimum excess air Hi O2 ~ Hi DFG

Cleanliness of boiler surfaces Dirty tubes ~ Hi EGT

Good combustion of fuel

Reduction of tempering air to mill.

Reduction in air ingress

Representative Measurements

Cleaning of air heater surfaces and proper heating

elements / surface area

Unburnt Carbon Loss (Controllable)

The amount of unburnt is a measure of effectiveness of

combustion process in general and mills / burners in particular.

Unburnt carbon includes the unburned constituents in flyash as

well as bottom ash.

Ratio of Flyash to Bottom ash is around 80:20

Focus to be on flyash due to uncertainty in repeatability and

representative ness of unburnt carbon in bottom ash

+50 PF fineness fractions to be < 1-1.5%

Unburnt Carbon Loss (Controllable)

Loss due to Unburnt Carbon
= U * CVc * 100 / GCV of Coal
CVc CV of Carbon 8077.8 kcal/kg

U =

Carbon in ash / kg of coal

= Ash
100

* C (Carbon in coal)
100 - C

Influencing Factors - Unburnt Carbon Loss

Type of mills and firing system

Furnace size

Coal FC/VM ratio, coal reactivity

Burners design / condition

PF fineness (Pulveriser problems)

Insufficient excess air in combustion zone

Air damper / register settings

Burner balance / worn orifices

Primary Air Flow / Pressure

Moisture Loss
Fuel Hydrogen Loss
This loss is due to combustion of H present in fuel. H is
burnt and converted in water, which gets evaporated.
Fuel Moisture Loss
This loss is due to evaporation and heating of inherent
and surface moisture present in fuel. (Can be reduced
by judicious sprays in coal yards)

Computation - Moisture Loss

Total Moisture Loss
= (9H+M) * Sw / GCV of Coal
Sw Sensible Heat of water vapour
= 1.88 (Tgo 25) + 2442 + 4.2 (25 - Trai)
The moisture in flue gases (along with Sulphur in fuel) limits the
temperature to which the flue gases may be cooled due to corrosion
considerations in the cold end of air heater, gas ducts etc.

Other Losses
1. Sensible Heat Loss of ash

Bottom Ash Hoppers

Eco Hoppers

AH Hoppers

ESP hoppers

Sensible Heat Loss (%) = (X / GCV) *100

X

= [{Ash * Pflyash * C pash * (T go - T rai)}

+ {Ash * Pahash * C pash * (T go - T rai)}
+ {Ash * Peash * C pash * (T gi -T rai )}
+ {Ash * Pba * C pash * (T ba - T rai )}]

(~0.5-0.6 %)

Other Losses
2. Radiation Loss through Bottom Ash Hopper

Coal Flow Rate 135 Tons/Hr

GCV of Coal 3300 Kcal/Kg

Eqv. Heat Flux thro Bottom opening 27090 Kcal/hr/m2

Bottom opening area of S-Panel 15.85 m2

Radiation Loss through Bottom Ash Hopper =

[H BOTTOM * A S-PANEL *100 ] / [Coal Flow * GCV * 1000]
= 0.096 %

Other Losses
3. Coal Mill Reject Loss

Coal Flow

135 T/hr

Coal Mill Rejects

200 kg/hr

GCV of Coal

3300 kcal/Kg

CV of Rejects

900 kcal/Kg

Mill Outlet Temp Tmillout

90 C

Reference Temperature Trai

30 C

Specific Heat of Rejects CpREJECT

0.16 kcal/Kg/C

Loss due to Mill Rejects = X / (Coal Flow * GCV * 1000)

X = [Rejects * (CVREJECT + CpREJECT (Tmillout Trai))* 100 ]
= (0.0408 %)

Other Losses
4.

Radiation Loss
Actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to
assess because of particular emissivity of various
surfaces.

HEAT CREDIT
Heat Credit due to Coal Mill Power
= [MP * 859.86 * 100] / [Coal Flow * GCV * 1000]
Coal Flow Rate Coal FLOW Tons/Hr
Total Coal Mill Power MP kWh
GCV of Coal Kcal/Kg

Factors affecting AH & Boiler Performance

Effect of Boiler side Parameters (Approx.)

OFF Design/Optimum Conditions
Parameter

Deviation

Excess Air (O2)

Exit Gas Temp
Unburnt Carbon
Coal moisture

per %
per oC
per %
per %

Effect on Heat
Rate
7.4 Kcal/kWh
1.2 Kcal/kWh
10-15 Kcal/kWh
2-3 Kcal/kWh

Boiler Efficiency

per %

25 Kcal/kWh

Boiler Control Volume

Factors affecting Boiler efficiency include

Design
Coal Quality
Mill Performance - PF Fineness
Burner-to-burner PF balance
Excess Air Level

Boiler Air Ingress

AH Performance

Furnace / Convective section Cleanliness

Quality of Overhauls

Water Chemistry, boiler loading, insulation etc.

Efficiency Vs Moisture
in Coal
Assumptions
Exit Gas Temp - Constt.
Fuel Moisture - 20.5 %
Excess Air - 20 %
GCV - 3700 kal/kg

Efficiency Vs Hydrogen
in Coal
Assumptions
Exit Gas Temp - Constt.
Fuel Hydrogen - 2.33 %
Excess Air - 20 %
GCV - 3700 kal/kg

Efficiency Vs HHV of
Coal
Assumptions
Exit Gas Temp - Constt.
Fuel Moisture - Constt
Fuel Hydrogen - Constt
Excess Air - 20 %
GCV - 3700 kal/kg

Efficiency Vs Excess
Air
Assumptions
Exit Gas Temp - Constt.
Ambient Temp - 27 C
GCV - 3700 kal/kg

Efficiency Vs Ambient
Temp / RH
Assumptions
Exit Gas Temp - Constt.
Excess Air - 20 %
GCV - 3700 kal/kg

The Coal

Proximate Analysis, Ultimate Analysis, Calorific Value, Ash

Constituents, Ash Fusion Temperatures, FC/VM ratio, Hard Grove
Index, YGP (Yeer Geer Price) Index

Typical Proximate Coal Analysis - Fixed Carbon - 32.4 %, Volatile

matter - 21.6 %, Moisture 16.0 %, Ash 30.0 %, GCV 4050 kcal/kg
+ve aspects - Low Sulfur, Low chlorine, Low iron content and High Ash
fusion temp
-ve aspects - High ash, moisture, high silica / alumina ratio, low calorific
value, high electrical resistivity of ash,

Problem
Variation in heating values, moisture, ash content and volatile matter

FACTORS AFFECTING MILL PERFORMANCE

2
MILL OUTPUT X 100%

CAPACITY FACTOR

1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

1.5
1
0.5
0
40

100

FINENESS

MOISTURE

SIZE OF RAW COAL

MILL WEAR (YGP)

MTC PRACTICES

70

80

90

100

1.05
CAPACITY FACTOR

GRINDABILITY (HGI)

60

HARDGROOVE INDEX (HGI)

FINENESS - % THRU 200 MESH

50

1
0.95

0.9
0.85
0

12

% MOISTURE

16

20

PF fineness
Fineness is expressed as the percentage pass through a 200mesh screen (74m).
Coarseness is expressed as the percentage retained on a 50mesh screen (297m).
Screen mesh - number of openings per linear inch.
Typical recommended value of pulverised fuel fineness through
200 mesh Sieve is 70% and 1% retention on 50 mesh sieve.
Flyash is over 80% of total ash, So its important to test for unburnt
carbon; For monitoring unburnts in bottom ash, a visual in shift
beginning or after mill change overs is good enough.

PF fineness is influenced by

Coal Quality, Mill settings, mill problems

PA flows / velocities
Sampling Techniques


Conventional Cyclone / ASME Sampler


64 point rotary sampler
Sampling location Preferably near burner from all the pipes
Testing Preferably using a motorised sieve shaker
Mill loading Always at Nominal / defined loading of the mill.

Burner Imbalance

Mill discharge pipes offer different resistance to the flows due to

unequal lengths and different geometry layouts.

Fixed orifices are put in shorter pipes to balance velocities / dirty

air flow / coal flows. The sizes of the orifices are specified by
equipment supplier.

E
3

Boiler
1

Control Room

Mills

TANGENTIAL FIRING
Uneven fuel and air
distribution can result in

High unburnt carbon in flyash

Non - uniform release and

absorption of heat across the
furnace resulting in
temperature imbalance

Reducing furnace leading to

slagging and fouling

High furnace and boiler exit gas

temperatures

Water wall wastage and tube

metal overheating

Burner Imbalance

Primary Air Flow

Coal Flow
Dirty air flow distribution should be with in +/- 5.0%
of the average of fuel pipes
Coal distribution should be with in +/-10% of the
average of fuel pipes
Balanced Clean air flows do not necessarily result in
balanced Dirty air flows.

Excess Air
Typically 20 % excess air is recommended for boiler
operation; Actual optimal value would vary from boiler to
boiler depending on coal quality, fineness and other
operating practices.
Optimum level of oxygen could be less than value
specified by OEM.
O2 instruments are installed at the economizer exit, where
they can be influenced by air infiltration. The O2 reading
in control room may not be necessarily representative of
the actual O2 in furnace.

Excess Air
C + O2

2C+ O2
=
2H2+ O2 =
S + O2
=

- CO monitors a must for boilers

CO2

8084 kcal / kg of Carbon

2CO +
2H2O +
SO2 +

2430 kcal / kg of Carbon

28922 kcal / kg of H
2224 kcal / kg of Sulphur

All boilers need to be equipped with On line CO monitors at Eco

Outlet / ID fan discharge. We lose 5654 kcal for each kg of CO
formed.
Ideally, average CO at gooseneck after combustion completion
should be below 100 ppm and no single value over 200 ppm

Excess Air
Low excess air operation can lead to

unstable combustion (furnace puffs)

slagging of waterwalls and SH sections

loss in boiler efficiency due to increased CO / unburnt

combustibles
High excess air operation can lead to

Increased boiler losses

High SH / RH temperatures

Higher component erosion

Boiler Air Ingress

Cold air leaks into the boiler from openings in the furnace and
convective pass and through open observation doors.

Some of the boiler leakage air aids the combustion process;

some air that leaks into the boiler in the low temperature zones
causes only a dilution of the flue gas.

This portion of air appears as a difference in O2 level between

the furnace exit and oxygen analysers at economizer exit.
Actual oxygen in the furnace could be much less.

Also, boiler casing and ducting air ingress affects ID fans

power consumption and margins in a major way.

Air Ingress Points Furnace Roof , Expansion joints, Air

heaters, Ducts, ESP Hoppers, Peep Holes, Manholes,
Furnace Bottom
Air-inleakage

Furnace
Outlet
Zirconia
O2 Probe
Expansion Joints
AH
Seal
Lkg

ESP

Typical Air ingress

Penthouse & 2nd pass ~ 0-5%
Air heaters ~ 12-20% (tri sector)
AH outlet to ID suction ~ 5 to 9%.

Boiler Air Ingress

The difference between oxygen at furnace outlet
(HVT) and economizer outlet (zirconia) was in the
range of 1.0 to 2.5 % in many boilers.
Apart from degradation of AH baskets performance,
another reason for lower heat recovery across air
heaters is boiler operation at lesser SA flows due
to high air-in-leakage.
Replacement of Metallic / Fabric Expansion joints in
10 years / 5 years cycle recommended.

Boiler Air Ingress Track ID Amperages from OH

to OH

Air ingress can be quantified by the increase in

oxygen % in flue gas; The temperature drop of the
flue gas from air heater outlet to ID fan discharge also
provides an indication of the same.
9

Oxygen in Flue Gas (%) - 200 MW (Nov'07)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Furnace Exit

Eco Outlet

AH Inlet

AH Outlet

ID Fan Outlet

Penthouse Air-In-Leakage 210 MW Unit

Ash Level

Penthouse Ash deposit in some boilers are reportedly as high as 5 feet

and it takes up a substantial time of overhaul duration for this ash to be
cooled and removed for inspection work to start.

One possible reason of Penthouse Ash

Many Ceiling Tubes (binder tubes for Platen
& Pendants) sag causing the roof seals to fail
and ash to infiltrate the penthouse.

Ceiling Tubes

Sagging tube

Eroded Ducts & Expansion Joints

Gas ducts downstream AHs

Eroded Metallic Expansion Joints

210 MW Bottom Hopper Seal Trough

Large cracks in seal plates and

trough connections to hoppers

Air Heaters
Factors affecting performance include

Operating excess air levels

PA/SA ratio

Inlet air / gas temperature

Coal moisture

Air ingress levels

Sootblowing

No. of mills in service

(Contd)

Air Heaters
Factors affecting performance include

PA Header Pressure
High pressure results in increased AH leakage,
higher ID fan loading, higher PA fan power
consumption, deteriorates PF fineness & can
increase mechanical erosion

Upstream ash evacuation

Maintenance practices
Condition of heating elements, seals / seal setting,
sector plates / axial seal plates, diaphragm plates,
casing / enclosure, insulation

Air Heaters Good Practices

AH sootblowing immediately after boiler light up

Monitoring of Lub oil of Guide & Support bearings

through Quarterly wear-debris analysis

Hot water washing of air heaters after boiler

shutdown - flue gas temperature ~ 180 to 150 C
with draft fans in stopped condition. (Ideally pH
value can verify effective cleaning)

Basket drying to be ensured by running draft fans

for atleast six hours after basket washing

Air Heaters Good Practices contd

Baskets cleaning with HP water jet during Overhauls

after removal from position

Heating elements to be covered with templates during

maintenance of air heaters

Timely basket replacements; Reversal of baskets not

recommended

Gaps between diaphragms & baskets to be closed

for better heat recovery & lower erosion rate at edges

Ensuring healthiness of flushing apparatus of Eco &

AH ash hoppers

Flue Gas Bypassing Air heaters

Intermediate Baskets

Cold End Baskets

Correct Design

Small Baskets

HOT
END

HOT
END

COLD
END

COLD
END

Excessive gaps
between AH baskets
& diaphragms,
leading to gas
bypass and erosion

Air heater Performance Enhancement

through Up gradations
Double sealing retrofits with Fixed sealing plates
Before

After

(Slide Howden)

Double Sealing

(Slide Howden)

Rotor modifications
Before
Typical 24 sector rotor design

New axial seal

carrying bars fitted

After
Rotor modified to 48 sectors

(Slide Howden)

Flexible seal assembly - Cold Condition

Flexible seal assembly - Hot Condition

New Type of seals

Gas side circumferential seals erode
with time from OH to OH

Better to replace all the segments
every overhaul

New seals of fish scale design have
been recommended by a consultant

Heating Surface Element retrofits

All our air heaters have DU & NF profile at Hot
end & Cold end
Potential for improvement by changing basket
profiles
Reduction in Air heater exit gas temperatures
to 125C

Additional Surface area in 150mm gaps in Hot End

Gaps

Hot End
Hot Intermediate
Cold End

AUXILIARY POWER CONSUMPTION

Major auxiliaries Consuming Power in a Boiler are FD
fans, PA fans, ID fans and mills. Reasons for higher
APC include
*

Boiler air ingress

Air heater air-in-leakage

High PA fan outlet pressure

Degree of Pulverisation

Operation at higher than optimum excess air

Main Steam/ Reheated Steam Temperature

While an increase in steam temperatures is beneficial
to Turbine Cycle Heat Rate, theres no benefit to
boiler efficiency, infact it affects reliability adversely.

Performance Evaluation by Field Tests

Test Objective To generate feedback for

opn & mtc.

To determine current AH & boiler efficiency levels

To determine each component of the heat loss to find

the reasons for deterioration

To establish the cost / benefit of annual boiler O/H

To establish baseline performance data on the

boiler after major equipment modifications

To build a database for problem solving and

diagnosis

Suggested Frequency of Testing

Dirty Air Flow

Frequency
Pre/Post O/H

AH Perf. Test

Quarterly

Boiler Efficiency

Quarterly

FG Path O2
mapping

Pre/Post O/H & Six

monthly

Boiler & Air Heater Tests

Tests to be conducted under defined operating regime (O2
level / PA Header Pressure / no. of mills) at nominal load

Pre Test Stabilisation Period

Prior to the test run, equipment must be operated at steady
state conditions to ensure that there is no net change in
energy stored in steam generator envelope.
Minimum Stabilisation Time - 1 hour

Pre Test Checks

Sootblowing completed at least one hour before start of the test
Steam coil air preheaters steam supply kept isolated
All feedwater heaters in service with normal levels, vent settings
and with normal drain cascading
No sootblowing or mill change over during the test. In case oil guns
are used, the test shall be repeated
Air heater gas outlet dampers are modulated to ensure minimum
opening of cold air dampers to mills
Auxiliary steam flow control kept isolated or defined during the test.
CBD / IBD blowdowns kept isolated for the test duration
Bottom hopper deashing after completion of test and not during the
tests

Test Duration
Should be sufficient to take care of deviations in parameters
due to controls, fuel variations & other operating conditions.
When point by point traverse of Flue gas ducts is done, test
should be long enough for atleast two traverses.
In case of continuous Data Acquisition System & use of
composite sampling grids, shall be based on collection of
representative coal & ash samples.
Could be 1/2 to 2 hours in case of parametric optimisation
tests or 4 hours for Acceptance Tests.

Frequency of Observations
Parameter readings to be taken at a maximum interval of 15
minutes & a preferred interval of 2 minutes or less

Measurements during a Boiler Test

Coal Sample for Proximate analysis & GCV

Bottom Ash and Flyash Samples

Flue Gas Composition at AH Outlet

Flue Gas Temperature at AH Inlet / Outlet

Primary / Secondary air temp at AH inlet / outlet

Dry / Wet bulb temperatures

Control Room Parameters

(All measurements / sampling to be done simultaneously)

Coal Sampling

Coal Samples are drawn from all individual running

feeders from sampling ports in feeder inlet chutes

Composite sample is collected from all running feeders

One sample is sealed in an air tight container for total

moisture determination

Flyash Sampling

Flyash is collected in several hoppers as Flue Gas goes

to stack; Heavier particles fall out first due to turns in
gas stream

Relative distribution of ash to various hoppers is not

accurately known

Preferred way to collect a) a representative sample b)

sample of the test period is to use High Volume
Sampler probes on both sides of boiler

High Volume Sampler

This sampler uses 2-3 ksc air through an aspirator to

create vacuum to pull out a large volume of flue gas & ash
into probes canister; A filter catches the ash but allows
the gas to pass through.

Bottom Ash Sampling

Bottom ash samples are collected every 15 minutes from the
scrappers system during the test
In case of impounded hoppers, incremental samples are
collected from bottom ash hoppers disposal line at slurry
discharge end
Unburnt carbon is determined as LOI (Loss on Ignition)

Test Locations - AH Inlet & Outlet

Inlet Sampling plane to be as close to AH as possible; Outlet

grid to be a little away to reduce stratification
AH hopper / Manhole air ingress can influence test data
FG
Expansion
Bellow

Economizer
APH
APH

Sampling
Locations
FG

Sampling Ports in Flue Gas Ducts (Typical )

100mm

Sampling Point for Flue Gas Temperature & Composition

Gas Duct is divided into equal cross-sectional areas and gas

samples are drawn from each center using multi point
probes or point by point traverse

HVT - High Velocity Thermocouple Probe - A Diagnostic Tool

To establish furnace gas exit temp

profile
To establish CO & O2 profile at
furnace outlet
To confirm proper distribution of
fuel and air
To quantify air ingress between
furnace outlet and AH inlet

HVT Feedback 200 MW (Nov07)

4

Variation of Oxygen & Temperature across the Furnace

at 203 MW (Nov'07)

1400
1300

3
1200

Oxygen %
2

Temperatrue C

1100
1000

1
900
0

800

Variation of Oxygen & Temperature across the Furnace at 197

MW (Nov'07)

1400
1300

3
1200
2

Oxygen %

1100

Temperatrue C
1000
1
900
0

800

Excess air is amongst the most important factors affecting

boiler performance; Cross-check with HVT

1000

800

600

400

UCB O2 (L/R):
1.8/2.1 %
After Zir. calibration: 3.4/3.35 %

200

0
0

10

11

12

13

14

Oxygen %

Temperature C

Variation of Oxygen & Temp across at RH Inlet Left & Right side
210 MW (May'07)

Case Study Air Heaters

High air temp rise

Low gas temp drop
High AH leakages
Low X-ratio

Unit 1
Design PGT
A
B
Air Temp Rise
C 230
228 228 221
Gas Temp Drop
C 200
185 165 162
Leakage
% 8.8
6.6 15.9 16.6
Gas Out Temp (NL) C 146.8 164.5 190 188
X ratio
% 0.83 0.73 0.64 0.64
Gas Side Efficiency % 62.6 56.1 49.1 49.1

Unit 2
A
B
222 217
166 155
15.4 16.9
182 195
0.67 0.61
50.2 45.4

Unit 3
A
B
219 222
155 158
16.5 18.4
185 188
0.62 0.61
47.9 47.5

Increased air flows ~ better heat recovery across Air Heaters

Constraint ID fan margins - reduction in AH leakage
boiler casing air-in-leakage
gas ducts air ingress

THANKS