CHAPTER 21

P RESERVING C ORAL R EEFS AND

OTHER C ORAL C OMMUNITIES

oral reefs and other coral communities are beautiful and diverse, as well as

biologically and economically valuable. In addition to well-known tropical coral

reefs, coral communities can also be found in deep waters and at high latitudes.
Increasingly, coral reefs and other coral communities are facing threats from a
number of natural and human-induced causes. To conserve these unique
ecosystems, comprehensive coral reef protection and management
legislation is needed to address research, protection, and restoration
of coral ecosystems. A strengthened U.S. Coral Reef Task Force should
lead and coordinate federal coral management efforts. The United
States must continue to be a leader in coral management at the
international level, including promoting the development of
international standards for sustainable harvesting of coral reef
resources. Finally, improved research and data collection are
critical to better understand coral ecosystems and the impacts
of human activities on them.

Assessing the Status of Coral Ecosystems

oral reefs are formed from layers of calcium carbonate deposited

over time by colonies of individual corals. These reefs provide
homes for tens of thousands of species of marine plants and animals,
making them among the worlds most diverse and productive habitats.
Nearly one-third of all fish species live on coral reefs,1 while other species
depend on the reefs and nearby seagrass beds and mangrove forests for
critical stages of their life cycles.

The Distribution of Coral Ecosystems

Most coral reefs are found in shallow, clear ocean waters in tropical and semitropical
areas. These warm-water corals derive significant food and energy from photosynthetic
algae that live in symbiosis with the corals. Warm-water corals have raised intense interest
in the last decade because of their apparent sensitivity to climate variability.
Other corals that do not depend directly on sunlight can form reef-like structures
or banks at depths of one hundred feet to more than three miles below the oceans
surface. While relatively little is known about these deep-water structures, many
scientists believe that their biological diversity may rival that of coral communities
in warmer, shallower waters.2
320

AN OCEAN BLUEPRINT

FOR THE

21ST CENTURY

Figure 21.1 Tropical Waters Are Home to the Majority of Known Reefs

Coral reef (reef area not to scale)

Most of the worlds known reefs are found in tropical and semitropical waters, between 30 north and 30 south latitudes.
Because these reefs are often in shallow water and close to shore, their health is easily threatened by human impacts, such as
increases in sedimentation, polluted runoff, and damage caused by fishing and recreation.
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <www.coris.noaa.gov> (Accessed January 2004).

Coral reefs are found in the waters of more than one hundred countries, including the
United States (Figure 21.1). They are particularly abundant in the South Pacific; Indonesian
waters are estimated to include the largest area of corals, approximately 18 percent of the
global total. U.S. waters include 12 percent of global warm-water corals.3 Deep-water corals
have been found around the globe, although little is known about their actual extent.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimates that U.S.
shallow-water coral reefs cover approximately 7,600 square miles. These reefs can be
found in western Atlantic and Caribbean waters off Florida, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin
Islands, the Navassa Island National Wildlife Refuge (a small U.S. island territory near
Haiti), and in the Pacific Ocean near Hawaii, American Samoa, Guam, the Commonwealth
of the Northern Mariana Islands, and several remote, unincorporated Pacific island areas.
Estimates of coral reef extent in the Pacific Freely Associated States (Palau, the Federated
States of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands) range from 4,500 to 31,500 square miles.4
Furthermore, emerging data indicate that unexplored deep-water reefs exist throughout
U.S. waters, although comprehensive information about their extent is not currently available (Figure 21.2).

The Value of Coral Ecosystems

Coral reefs are valued for their rich biological diversity as well as for the important ecosystem
functions they serve. Reefs buffer shorelines from storms and erosion, and provide homes,
food, and nursery areas for tens of thousands of species of marine life. They are also the
basis of thriving commercial and recreational fishing and tourism industries, and have the
potential to provide beneficial medical applications. Coral reef ecosystems are estimated to
provide a worldwide total of $375 billion a year in goods and services, with approximately
500 million people dependent on these ecosystems for food, materials, or income.5 In 2001,
C H A P T E R 2 1 : P R E S E RV I N G C O R A L R E E F S

AND OTHER

CORAL COMMUNITIES

321

coral reefs in the Florida Keys alone supported $105 million in income and more than
8,000 jobs.6 Further, approximately one-half of all federally managed commercial fish
species depend on coral reefs for at least part of their life cycle.7
Many people also value coral reefs for their unique aesthetic and cultural value. Coral
reefs are an important part of the heritage of many countries, and the use of reef resources
is integral to the social fabric of coastal communities. As one of the longest-lived and most
beautiful ecosystems on Earth, their intrinsic value is incalculable.

Threats to Coral Ecosystems

Coral reefs are declining at a disturbing pace.8 The causes of this decline are varied, particularly for warm-water reefs. Many scientists believe that excessive fishing pressure has
been the primary threat to coral ecosystems for decades.9 However, pollution and runoff
from coastal areas also deprive reefs of life-sustaining light and oxygen, and elevated sea
surface temperatures are causing increasingly frequent episodes of coral bleaching and
Figure 21.2 Deep, Cold-water Coral Reefs Found Throughout U.S. Waters

Known deep, cold-water reefs (reef area not to scale)

Although most Americans are aware of the coral reefs that exist in the warm waters off Florida, Hawaii,
and the U.S. island territories, few realize that deep, cold-water reefs are also found throughout U.S.
waters. While scientists continue to discover new deep-sea coral communities, little is known about
their true extent. Learning more about these species is necessary to manage them wisely.
Source: Oceana. Deep Sea Corals: Out of Sight, But No Longer Out of Mind.
<northamerica.oceana.org/uploads/oceana_coral_report_final.pdf> (Accessed June 2004).

322

AN OCEAN BLUEPRINT

FOR THE

21ST CENTURY

appear to be exacerbating other coral disease outbreaks.10 Although little is known about
the condition of the worlds deep-water coral communities, extensive damage has been
documented in some areas, with fishing activities suspected as being the largest humanrelated threat.11
Worldwide, no pristine, undamaged warm-water coral reefs remain, and one-third of
the worlds identified reefs are severely damaged.12 In the United States, every warm-water
reef system has suffered varying degrees of impacts from natural and human disturbances.
Only the coral reefs in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands and some remote Pacific refuges
are in near-pristine condition, although they too have started to show signs of damage,
particularly from marine debris. In the U.S. waters of the south Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico,
and Caribbean, two-thirds of reef fish species are overfished. In addition, during the 1990s,
white band disease killed 9096 percent of the most common nearshore species of corals.13
Coral communities have existed for millions of years and have developed mechanisms
to cope with natural threats such as hurricanes, landslides, and predation. Often, when one
part of a coral community is damaged, the overall functioning of the coral reef ecosystem is
sustained by other, untouched communities that are able to repopulate damaged areas.
However, the point is fast approaching where this natural cycle of repair may not be able to
keep pace with the increasing rate of damage. Without immediate and large-scale protection
from the cumulative impacts of a multitude of human activities, many reefs, particularly
those located near heavily populated coastal areas, may soon be irretrievably harmed.14

Managing U.S. Coral Resources

Federal Agency Roles and Responsibilities
Although a number of longstanding environmental laws can be applied to the protection
of coral reefs, the first legislation specifically targeted at coral reef issues, the Coral Reef
Conservation Act, was passed in 2000. The Act focuses primarily on NOAA activities,
requiring the agency to develop a national coral reef action strategy, initiate a matching
grants program for reef conservation, and create a conservation fund to encourage publicprivate partnerships.
The National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA) also provides protection for many coral
reefs by authorizing NOAA to designate areas as marine sanctuaries and promulgate regulations for the conservation and management of those areas. Since the Act was passed in
1972, thirteen sanctuaries have been designated, several of which contain coral communities. Coral research, monitoring, and management activities are conducted in these sanctuaries, as well as in the Reef Ecosystem Reserve, which is currently under consideration
to become the nations fourteenth sanctuary.
The NMSA includes a provision that allows NOAA to fund repairs to injured habitats
within sanctuaries, including coral reefs, with cost recovery from responsible parties. If a
damaged coral reef cannot be restored or replaced, recovered funds may be used to restore
other habitats within the same sanctuary; if neither is possible, restoration efforts may be
funded in another national marine sanctuary. The statute does not address the use of
recovered funds for proactive projects designed to prevent injuries before they occur, such
as the installation of navigational aids to prevent ships grounding on coral reefs. Further,
the NMSA does not apply to coral reefs outside sanctuaries and does not help in preventing
long-term chronic damage to corals from pollution, nutrient overloading, or disease.
Other federal laws that are used to manage and protect coral reef resources include the
following (a description of these and other federal statutes are included in Appendix D):
The MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, which allows for
management of coral harvest and provides limited protections for corals if they are
designated as essential fish habitat.
C H A P T E R 2 1 : P R E S E RV I N G C O R A L R E E F S

AND OTHER

CORAL COMMUNITIES

323

NOAA, Damage Assessment and Restoration Program

Accidental vessel groundings can cause devastating damage to fragile coral reefs. Restoration efforts,
such as the project illustrated here, can help promote recovery. Boulders are placed on the damaged reef
to create a substrate for transplanted corals and future natural growth.

The Coastal Zone Management Act, which provides for management of shoreline
areas that may include coral reefs.
The Clean Water Act, which regulates the discharge of dredged or fill materials into
U.S. waters.
The Sikes Act, which requires the U.S. Department of Defense to provide for conservation and rehabilitation of natural resources on military installations, which in some
locations include corals.
The Endangered Species Act, National Environmental Policy Act, and Lacey Act, all of
which contain some provisions that can be applied to the protection of corals.

Responsibility for implementing these and other laws with implications for coral reef
management is shared by a number of federal agencies. For example, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA)and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) have regulatory
and management responsibilities related to pollution from land-based sources. NOAA has
the authority to regulate fishing in coral reef ecosystems. And, action on global climate
change is under the purview of many agencies, including the U.S. Departments of Energy
and State.

Interagency and Intergovernmental Coral Reef Management Initiatives

The U.S. Coral Reef Task Force
The U.S. Coral Reef Task Force was created by executive order in 1998 with the purpose
of improving coordination among the many agencies that manage various aspects of the
nations coral reef resources. Task Force responsibilities include developing strategies to
map and monitor U.S. coral reefs, studying the causes of, and recommending solutions
for, coral reef degradation, and promoting conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs
at the international level. Several broad action plans have been developed by the Task
Force, although not all have been implemented.
The Task Force, which is co-chaired by the U.S. Departments of the Interior and
Commerce, works primarily through consensus building among its member federal agencies and state and territorial government representatives. Two notable absences from the

324

AN OCEAN BLUEPRINT

FOR THE

21ST CENTURY

task force are the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE). DOE is actively involved in investigating the impact of global climate change on
coral reefs and thus has relevant expertise to contribute. Civil works projects sponsored by
the USACE, such as the construction of inland and shore structures, beach nourishment
programs, and mooring permits, can have significant effects on coral reefs. For this reason
it would be helpful to have direct USACE involvement in the Task Force, in addition to
existing participation by the Department of Defense.

The U.S. All Islands Coral Reef Initiative

The U.S. All Islands Coral Reef Initiative, a cooperative effort among Hawaii, American
Samoa, Guam, the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the
U.S. Virgin Islands, is working to improve the management of coral reefs in island areas.
Regional approaches that incorporate traditional knowledge are of particular interest to
these islands, many of which share common cultural concerns about coral reef resources
and manage similar threats, such as erosion, sea-level rise, and degraded water quality.

Improving the Management of U.S. Coral Resources

Despite recent management efforts, the health of coral reef ecosystems is continuing to
decline at a rapid pace, demanding that further action be taken to overcome gaps and
inefficiencies in the existing patchwork of laws, regulations, and agency programs. An
improved governance regime is needed to better respond to coral reef management priorities at all levels (local, state, territorial, regional, and national), improve coordination
among agencies, facilitate regional approaches, and implement national action on coral
reefs. This regime can build on existing ideas and strategies of the U.S. Coral Reef Task
Force, the U.S. All Islands Coral Reef Initiative, the Coral Reef Conservation Act, and the
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, tasking federal agencies with the promulgation and enforcement of effective regulations to protect coral reef resources. Concerted
support among all levels of government and increased public awareness are also essential
for successfully implementing improved management strategies to achieve and sustain
healthy coral reef ecosystems.
Recommendation 211
Congress should establish a Coral Protection and Management Act that enhances research,
protection, management, and restoration of coral ecosystems.
The new legislation should include the following elements:
mapping, monitoring, assessment, and research programs to fill critical information gaps,
to be carried out primarily through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
and the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force in partnership with the academic research community.
increased protections for vulnerable coral reefs, including the use of marine protected areas.
liability provisions for damages to coral reefs, similar to those in the National Marine
Sanctuaries Act, but with greater flexibility to use funds in a manner that provides maximum short- and long-term benefits to the reef.
support for state-level coral reef management.
outreach activities to educate the public about coral conservation and reduce human
impacts.
support for U.S. involvement, particularly through the sharing of scientific and management expertise, in bilateral, regional, and international coral reef management programs.

In addition to new legislation directed specifically at improving the management of

the nations coral reef resources, a strengthened U.S. Coral Reef Task Force is needed to
improve collaborative efforts at reducing the threats to these resources.

C H A P T E R 2 1 : P R E S E RV I N G C O R A L R E E F S

AND OTHER

CORAL COMMUNITIES

325

Recommendation 212
As part of the new Coral Protection and Management Act, Congress should codify and
strengthen the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force and place it under the oversight of the National
Ocean Council (NOC).
The Coral Reef Task Force should be strengthened in the following ways:
it should report to the NOCs Committee on Ocean Resource Management.
its membership should be expanded to include the U.S. Department of Energy and
specify participation by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers within the U.S. Department
of Defense.

in collaboration with the states and territories, it should coordinate the development and implementation of regional ecosystem-based plans to address the impacts
of nonpoint source pollution, fishing, and other activities on coral reef resources.

The plans and goals developed by the Task Force will need to be carried out by the
various agencies with authorities in these areas. For example, EPA and USDA can implement pollution reduction goals, NOAA and the Regional Fishery Management Councils
can reduce the effects of fishing on corals, and states and territories can reduce impacts on
coral reefs within their own waters.
Although most U.S. efforts to date have focused on protecting tropical, shallow-water
coral reefs, threats to deep-water corals are just beginning to be recognized. Currently, the
federal government does not have a coordinated program for oversight of deep-water coral
communities and information concerning their distribution, abundance, and status remains
sparse. The North Pacific Fishery Management Council has set aside large areas near the
Aleutian Islands to protect deep-water corals from the impacts of fishing. Little else has been
done to protect these communities, including those in international waters. There is growing concern that unrestricted fishing around seamounts, and the deep-water coral communities associated with them, may be causing long-term damage. It will be necessary to increase
our knowledge of the basic biology and ecology of corals so that threats can be addressed.
Recommendation 213
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) should serve as the lead
agency for management of deep-water coral communities. In this role, NOAA should work
with states, academic institutions, and others to enhance national capabilities related to
deep-water corals, including expanded surveys of their distribution and abundance and
research on the major threats to their continued existence. After an appropriate review,
NOAA should make recommendations to the National Ocean Council on the advisability of
expanding the Coral Reef Task Forces charter and membership to oversee deep-water corals
or creating a similar task force on deep-water corals.

Promoting International Coral Reef Initiatives

The United States has been a leader in the management of coral reef ecosystems at the
international level. The State Department, NOAA, the U.S. Agency for International
Development, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service contribute significantly to building
enhanced management capacity in developing countries through direct funding and
through training in areas such as research, enforcement, management procedures, and
environmentally sustainable harvesting techniques.
The United States also participates in many international initiatives that protect coral
reef resources, including the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES), an international agreement designed to protect endangered species from over-

326

AN OCEAN BLUEPRINT

FOR THE

21ST CENTURY

exploitation by strictly regulating trade with countries that cannot certify that their harvest of these species is not detrimental to their survival. (For a listing of many oceanrelated international agreements, see Table 29.1.) Over 2,000 species of coral are listed
under CITES. The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) was developed in 1994 as an
informal mechanism to develop the best strategies for conserving the worlds coral reef
resources. ICRI membership is made up of over eighty developing countries, donor countries, development banks, international environmental and development agencies, scientific associations, the private sector, and nongovernmental organizations. ICRIs Global
Coral Reef Monitoring Network has published the only global estimates of coral reef coverage and status, although the accuracy of these estimates could be improved.15

Creating More Sustainable Harvesting Practices

As the worlds largest importer of ornamental coral reef resources,16 the United States has a
particular responsibility to help eliminate destructive harvesting practices and ensure the
sustainable use of these resources. Many are harvested by methods that destroy reefs and
overexploit ornamental species. A balance is needed between protecting legitimate trade
and sustaining the health and survival of the worlds coral reef resources.
The Tropical Forest Conservation Act of 1998 offers a potential model for the role of
the United States in curbing destructive harvesting practices. The Act authorizes the
President to reduce debt owed to the United States if a developing country establishes a
tropical forest management program and uses funds freed from the debt reduction agreement to support tropical forest conservation. Applying this type of program to the management of international coral reef resources could greatly enhance the ability of the
United States to promote stewardship and conservation of coral reef ecosystems around
the world.

Although coral reefs

occupy less than one
quarter of one percent of the marine
environment, they
contribute about a
fourth of the total
fish catch, feeding as
many as one billion
people in Asia alone.
The Honorable William
Reilly, Chairman, World
Wildlife Fund, testimony
to the Commission,
July 2002

Recommendation 214
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration should develop national standards
and promote adoption of international standardsto ensure that coral reef resources are
harvested in a sustainable manner. The U.S. Department of State should implement incentive
programs to encourage international compliance with these standards.

Improving Understanding of Coral Ecosystems

Improved research and data collection activities are needed to better understand coral reef
ecosystems and the impact of human activities on these ecosystems. The national monitoring network called for in Chapter 15 and the Integrated Ocean Observing System discussed in Chapter 26 are intended to become an integrated and continuous monitoring
system encompassing all watershed, coastal, and ocean environments, including coral
communities. More finely-tuned measurements of water quality, temperature, and
currentsand corresponding changes in coral communitieswill allow scientists to
understand and better predict the impacts of global climate change and other natural and
human-induced events on coral communities. In addition, NOAA is working on a set of
comprehensive maps of U.S. coral reefs that will incorporate an assessment of the current
status of these reefs.
As data collection programs (including the regional ocean information programs discussed in Chapter 5) move forward, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force can provide guidance
on additional information needs to support ecosystem-based management plans.

C H A P T E R 2 1 : P R E S E RV I N G C O R A L R E E F S

AND OTHER

CORAL COMMUNITIES

327

Recommendation 215
The U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, in coordination with the regional ocean information programs,
should develop regional, ecosystem-based research plans to help protect coral reef ecosystems. These plans should guide agency research funding and be incorporated into the design
and implementation of the national monitoring network and the Integrated Ocean
Observing System.

References

328

National Marine Fisheries Service. Coral Reefs: Critical Biodiversity and Fishery Resources.
<www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/PR/coralhome.html> Accessed February, 2004.

Oceana. Deep Sea Corals. Washington, DC, 2003.

Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. Ed. C. Wilkinson. Cape Ferguson,
Queensland: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific
Freely Associated States: 2002. Silver Spring, MD, 2002.

Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. Ed. C. Wilkinson. Cape Ferguson,
Queensland: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002.

Johns, G.M., et al. Socioeconomic Study of Reefs in Southeast Florida. Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, 2001.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. A National Coral Reef Action Strategy. Report to Congress on
Implementation of the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 and the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs in
20022003. Silver Spring, MD, June 2002.

Pandolfi, J.M., et al. Global Trajectories of the Long-Term Decline of Coral Reef Ecosystems. Science 301 (2003):
95558.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific
Freely Associated States: 2002. Silver Spring, MD, 2002.

10

Hughes, T.P., et al. Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs. Science 301 (2003): 92933.

11

Oceana. 2003. Deep Sea Corals. Washington, DC, 2003.

12

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. A National Coral Reef Action Strategy. Report to Congress on
Implementation of the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 and the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs in
20022003. Silver Spring, MD, June 2002.

13

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific
Freely Associated States: 2002 Report. Silver Spring, MD, 2002.

14

Pandolfi, J.M., et al. Global Trajectories of the Long-Term Decline of Coral Reef Ecosystems. Science 301 (2003):
95558.

15

Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. Ed. C. Wilkinson. Cape Ferguson,
Queensland: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002.

16

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. A National Coral Reef Action Strategy. Report to Congress on
Implementation of the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 and the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs in
20022003. Silver Spring, MD, June 2002.

AN OCEAN BLUEPRINT

FOR THE

21ST CENTURY