TMJ Oclusion

9
Temporomandibular Disorders: Effects

of Occlusion, Orthodontic Treatment,
and Orthognathic Surgery
JEFFREY C. POSNICK, DMD, MD
Incidence of Temporomandibular Disorders

in the General Population and the Basic

Treatment Approach
Mandibular Range of Motion
Review of Occlusal Factors and Association
with Temporomandibular Disorders
Occlusal Conditions More Frequently
Associated with Temporomandibular
Disorders
Orthodontic Treatment and Its Effects on
Temporomandibular Disorders
Association of Jaw Deformities, Orthognathic
Surgery, and Temporomandibular Disorders
Brief Overview of Okesons Thinking About
Temporomandibular Disorders and the
Effects of Occlusion
Personal Thoughts About the Role of Open
Joint Procedures for Temporomandibular
Disorders
Conclusions
Incidence of Temporomandibular
Disorders in the General Population
and the Basic Treatment Approach
The prevalence of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) in
the general population as reported in the literature varies
widely. It is estimated that an average of 32% of the population reports at least one symptom of TMD, whereas an
264
average of 55% demonstrates at least one clinical sign.*

Schiffman and colleagues completed a cross-sectional epidemiologic study that indicated that, at any given time,
between 40% and 75% of individuals who were not
currently seeking treatment had at least one sign of TMD,
and about one third of individuals reported at least one
symptom of TMD.296 Mongini and colleagues documented
a prevalence of TMD symptoms in children and teenagers
of 12% and 20%, respectively.210 Wanman and colleagues
showed an incidence of joint noise in young adults in their
late teens to be as high as 17.5% over a 2-year period.345
TMDs remain a frequent cause of visits to primary care
physicians, otolaryngologists, internists, and pediatricians.
Despite the high incidence of TMDs, their natural history
suggests that, in up to 40% of patients, symptoms resolve
spontaneously.296
TMD includes various signs and symptoms of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), the masticatory muscles, and
related structures (Figs. 9-1 through 9-8). These may include
a spectrum of referred head and neck pain; joint noise (e.g.,
popping, clicking, crepitus); reduced or altered mandibular
range of movement as a result of muscle spasm or disc
displacement; condylar head erosion; and direct pain on
palpation of either the TMJ or the masticatory muscles. The
signs and symptoms associated with TMDs can also lead to
misdiagnosis.16,112,171,216,342
A wide variety of often contradictory conservative
treatment modalities (i.e., non-invasive or potentially
Text continued on p. 269
*References 22, 24, 39, 40, 50, 80, 81, 83, 94, 95, 116-118, 120, 122,
126, 139, 147, 148, 151, 161, 170, 173, 175-177, 181, 183, 190-195,
199, 207, 214, 218, 220-221, 223, 244, 251, 252, 262, 264, 270, 277,
300, 301, 319, 326, 343, 345, 348
CHAPTER 9 Temporomandibular Disorders: Effects of Occlusion, Orthodontic Treatment, and Orthognathic Surgery
A1
B1
A2
B2
Figure 9-1 A, Intraoral frontal view of dentition juxtaposed with the underlying alveolar bone. B, Intraoral lateral view of dentition juxtaposed
with the underlying alveolar bone. From Okeson JP: Management of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012, Elsevier,
p 3, Figures 1-1, A and B, 1-3, and 1-4.
Parietal
bone
Frontal bone
Temporal
bone
Sphenoid
bone
Nasal bone
Maxilla
Occipital
bone
Zygomatic bone
Mandible
Figure 9-2 Lateral view of the craniofacial skeleton. From Okeson JP: Management
of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012, Elsevier, p 4, Figure 1-5.
265
266 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts
AE
MF
AE
MF
STF
AE
Figure 9-3 Bony
structures (components) of the temporomandibular joint. MF, Mandibular fossa; AE, articular eminence;
STF, squamotympanic fissure. From Okeson JP: Management of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012,
Elsevier, p 4, Figure 1-12.
DISC
DISC
LP
MP
MP
LP
Figure 9-4 Anterior cross-sectional view of the articular disc, the fossa, and the condyle. A, Illustration. B, Cadaver speci-
men. The disc adapts to the morphology of the fossa and the condyle. LP, Lateral pole; MP, medial pole. From Okeson JP:
Management of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012, Elsevier, p 8, Figure 1-14.
B
Figure 9-5 A, Lateral view illustrations and B, cadaver specimen views of normal movement of the condyle and disc during vertical mouth
opening. As the disc moves out of the fossa, it rotates posteriorly on the condyle. First, rotational movement occurs (predominantly in the lower
joint space). After that, translation takes place (predominantly in the superior joint space) as mouth opening continues. A from Okeson JP:
Management of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012, Elsevier, p 17, Figure 1-30. B courtesy Terry Tanaka, MD, San
Diego, Calif.
267
Figure 9-6 Illustrations of the normal functional movement of the condyle and disc during the full range of opening and closing. The
disc is rotated posteriorly on the condyle as the condyle is translated anteriorly out of the fossa. The closing movement is the exact
opposite of the opening movement. From Okeson JP: Management of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012,
Elsevier, p 19, Figure 1-31.
reversible) have been recommended to alleviate the

symptoms of TMD and to prevent recurrence.* Enthusiasm
by clinicians for the direct surgical alteration of the structures that comprise the TMJ to treat TMD have waxed
and waned over the past half century.60,71,141,143,200,222,241,344
Occlusal factors (i.e., degrees of malocclusion) are
often claimed to be associated with TMD. Although it is
sometimes stated that orthodontic treatment increases the
prevalence of TMD, it is also claimed that orthodontic
maneuvers (for at least some types of malocclusion)
may reduce the signs and symptoms of TMD. Studies
document that the correction of a baseline jaw defor
mity with malocclusion through orthodontics and
orthognathic surgery improves the presenting TMD in the
majority of the treated patients, whereas a minority get
worse.6,29,31,67,102,131,152,232,236,347,349,356,359 This is described in
greater detail later in this chapter.
Mandibular Range of Motion

Figure 9-7 Illustration of rotational movement of the mandible. This
movement occurs with the condyles in the terminal hinge position. This
pretranslation opening will occur until the anterior teeth are approximately 20 to 25mm apart. From Okeson JP: Management of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012, Elsevier,
p 64, Figure 4-7.
The expected normal mandibular range of motion and

inter-incisor mouth opening is discussed periodically in the
literature.9,70,93,115,146,179,197,234,235,249,308,309,311-313,315,316,318 Even
a 6-year-old child can often open the mouth to a maximum
40mm or more. Measurements of maximum vertical
mouth opening with and without discomfort are considered
useful parameters of TMJ health. A restricted mouth
opening is considered by many to be a distance of less than
40mm. Only 1.2% of young adults open their mouths less
than 40mm. However, 15% of the healthy elderly population open their mouths less than 40mm. Any lateral or
protrusive movement of less than 8mm is considered
restricted, although the significance of this measurement is
unclear.
Review of Occlusal Factors

and Association with
Clinicians from a spectrum of medical and dental specialties
often consider malocclusion to be the major etiologic
factor of TMD. An assumed strong association between
TMD and the malpositioning of the teeth serves as one
reason why the diagnosis and treatment of TMD is generally considered within the purview of dentistry. Many of
the therapeutic options for the treatment of TMD are
based on the idea of normalizing or neutralizing the
Figure 9-8 The second stage of movement during mouth opening

is illustrated. Note that the condyle is translated down the articular
eminence as the mouth rotates open to its maximum limit. From
Okeson JP: Management of temporomandibular disorders and occlusion, St. Louis, 2012, Elsevier, p 64, Figure 4-8.
*References 10, 13, 20, 30, 53, 65, 72, 82, 91, 97, 113, 119, 142, 204206, 213, 219, 238, 266, 297, 324, 328, 336, 338, 339, 360
References 1, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 21, 23, 26-28, 37, 38, 41, 43,
44, 51, 56-58, 63, 64, 78, 79, 85-88, 92, 99-101, 106, 114, 125, 129,
130, 132, 133, 136, 140, 149, 153, 162, 163, 178, 186, 188, 196, 198,
201, 202, 208-210, 215, 217, 233, 239, 242, 243, 246, 248, 250, 254261, 263, 265, 269, 278, 280, 283-287, 298, 299, 302-307, 310, 314,
317, 321, 327, 333, 337, 341, 346, 351, 357
269
occlusion.135,355 Common treatment approaches to do so

include the reversible use of an occlusal appliance or definitive techniques such as occlusal adjustment (equilibration),
restorative dentistry, orthodontics, and orthognathic
surgery. Concurrently, it is also true that either the onset of
TMD or the worsening of current symptoms is frequently
blamed on any one of the previously mentioned treatment
regimens.
The dental literature contains clinical studies and reports
that claim there are causal relationships between occlusal
factors and the symptoms and signs associated with TMD.
Egermark-Eriksson and colleagues examined 402 children
and reported an association between signs and symptoms
of TMD, specific malocclusions (i.e., Class II, Class III,
anterior crossbite, and anterior open bite), and occlusal
supra-contacts.87 Brandt studied 1342 children and found
a correlation between TMD and degrees of overbite (deep
and open) and overjet.33 Nilner examined 749 teenagers and
young adults and reported an association with centric relation (CR)centric occlusion (CO) discrepancies (i.e., slides),
balancing-side contact slides, and symptoms and signs of
TMD.220 Confusion in the literature arises as independent
research studies have drawn contrary conclusions. DeBoever and colleagues examined 135 individuals with signs
and symptoms of TMD and found no specific associations
with malocclusion.59 Gunn and colleagues similarly found
no association between TMD and occlusion in 151 migrant
children that they studied.121 Dworkin and colleagues
examined 592 individuals within a specific health maintenance organization and found no association between TMD
signs and symptoms and specific occlusions.80
In their review article, Seligman and Pullinger pointed
out that the majority of existing clinical research (up to
that point in time) did not support a clear relationship
between occlusion and TMD symptoms.302 They further
clarified that the majority of published research relied
on symptom-based data rather than discrete disease classifications. Seligman pointed out that symptoms like joint
sounds (e.g., popping, clicking, crepitus) and pain (e.g., in
the TMJ region and the masticatory system) lack specificity.303 In addition, most published studies did not differen
tiate between TMD diagnostic categories (e.g., disc
displacement, myalgia, TMJ osteoarthritis). Most published
studies also suffered from a lack of or an inadequate control
group. Seligman and colleagues attempted to avoid these
shortcomings by completing a multifactorial analysis of the
risks and relative odds of an individual having a TMD as a
function of 1 of 11 common occlusal features.259,304 They
looked for correlations between each of these 11 specific
occlusal factors (Box 9-1) and 1 of 6 TMJ diagnostic categories (Box 9-2), including asymptomatic normal controls
without TMD.259
The asymptomatic control subjects (N = 147) were considered the reference standard because they were without
current symptoms or signs of TMD and because they had
no history of TMD. Occlusal findings in the symptomatic
group showed wide variations, including the following:
BOX 9-1
Occlusal Features and Factors to Consider

in TMD*
1. Anterior open bite
2. Maxillary lingual posterior crossbite
3. Retruded centric positioninter-contact position slide
length
4. Retruded centric positioninter-contact position slide
asymmetry
5. Unilateral retruded centric position contact
6. Overbite
7. Overjet
8. Dental midline discrepancy
9. Number of missing posterior teeth
10. First molar relationships (i.e., the greater of the
mesiodistal maxillary discrepancies at the first molar
location)
11. Right versus left first molar position asymmetry
*Data from Pullinger AG, Seligman DA, Gornbein JA: A multiple logistic
regression analysis of the risk and relative odds of temporomandibular
disorders as a function of common occlusal features. J Dent Res
72:968979, 1993.
BOX 9-2
Temporomandibular Joint Diagnostic Categories

to Consider in TMD*
1. Disc displacement with reduction (N = 81)
2. Disc displacement without reduction (N = 48)
3. Temporomandibular joint osteoarthrosis with disc
displacement history (N = 75)
4. Primary osteoarthrosis (N = 85)
5. Myalgia only (N = 124)
6. Asymptomatic normals (N = 147)
*Data from Pullinger AG, Seligman DA, Gornbein JA: A multiple logistic
regression analysis of the risk and relative odds of temporomandibular
disorders as a function of common occlusal features. J Dent Res
72:968979, 1993.
Overjets ranging from 1 to +6mm

Overbites ranging from 2 to +10mm
Midline discrepancies of up to 5mm
Anteroposterior molar relationships from 6 to +6mm
Molar asymmetries of 0 to 6mm
CRCO slides of up to 2mm
There were also a wide variety of crossbites, asymmetrical

slides, posterior contacts, and severe attrition facets in the
control group. Interestingly, no anterior open bites were
found in the control group.
The authors concluded that what have been traditionally
considered malocclusions cannot be used to define or
predict either individuals with TMD or those who are or

will become asymptomatic. No single occlusal factor was
able to differentiate a TMD patient from a healthy subject.
The authors did identify four specific occlusal features that
occurred mainly in individuals who were symptomatic with
TMD (see diagnostic categories 1 through 5) and that were
rarely found in those who were asymptomatic for TMD (see
diagnostic category 6). The occlusal features that primarily
occurred in individuals with symptomatic TMD included
the following:
1. The presence of a skeletal anterior open bite
2. CR-CO slides of more than 2mm
3. Overjets of more than 4mm
4. Five or more missing and unreplaced posterior teeth
Pullinger and colleagues concluded that occlusion
cannot be considered the most important factor in the definition of TMD but that specific occlusal factors do make
biologic contributions to TMD and thus cannot be
ignored.254-261 In most individuals, they observed that the
human biologic system will adapt to a variety of malocclusions in an attempt to achieve TMJ stability. The authors
surmised that some occlusal features will place greater
adaptive demands on the individuals biologic system than
others. Although most individuals are able to compensate
for their occlusal disharmony without problems, adaptation
for others may lead to a greater risk for TMD. On the
basis of this data, the authors stressed the importance of
five occlusal conditions, which in isolation or combination
are more likely to reach the threshold that exceeds adaptation for an individual and therefore results in TMJ dysfunction. The high-risk malocclusions are discussed later in
this chapter.
Occlusal Conditions More

Frequently Associated with
Overjet (>6 to 7mm)

In the patients that were studied, an overjet of more than
4mm was more likely to be associated with osteoarthritis.
Only when the overjet was more than 6mm was there an
association with disc displacement. The occurrence of a
progressive overjet in adults would be suggestive of active
condylysis. It was not stated in what percentage of those
individuals with significant overjet (i.e., >6 to 7mm) the
occlusal feature was part of a developmental jaw deformity
rather than occurring secondarily only after condylysis with
a loss of condylar height.
Centric RelationCentric Occlusion Slides

Limited occlusal slides (i.e., 1mm) were common in all
patient groups, including the normal controls. CRCO
slides of more than 2mm were only found in the patients
with TMDs. Pullinger found that larger slides were frequently associated with osteoarthritis of the condylar head.
He questioned the advisability of the clinicians automatic
attempt to relieve the occlusal slides in all individuals
whether by irreversible (e.g., occlusal equilibration, orthodontics, surgery, restorative dentistry) or reversible (e.g.,
occlusal splints) meansbecause the observed slide may be
either adaptive or inconsequential.260
NOTE: The studies by Pullinger and colleagues
seem to confirm that the occlusal features of anterior
open bites; overjets of more than 6mm; and CRCO
slides of more than 2mm are frequently seen in
conjunction with osteoarthritis (i.e., loss of condylar
height) and less commonly seen with disc displacement
disease. Unfortunately, it is not clearly stated which came
first: a developmental deformity with malocclusion and
then osteoarthritis or condylysis with the loss of
posterior facial height that results in a secondary jaw
deformity with malocclusion.
Anterior Open Bite
Unilateral Maxillary (Lingual) Crossbite
Research by Pullinger and colleagues showed a strong

relationship between osteoarthritis of the condylar head
with a loss of condylar height and an anterior open-bite
malocclusion.254-261 Interestingly, anterior open bite was
not commonly associated with disc displacement disorders
with or without reduction. Myalgia (i.e., masticatory muscle
discomfort) was also a frequent symptom among patients
with an anterior open bite. It is not stated in what percentage of individuals the anterior open-bite malocclusion
occurred only secondarily as a result of osteoarthritis
followed by a loss of condylar height with clockwise
rotation of the mandible. Therefore, it is unclear what percentage of the examined individuals with anterior
open bites had these finding as part of a developmental
jaw deformity.
The occlusal feature of unilateral maxillary crossbite occurs

in about 10% of the adult population, and it is frequently
found in association with TMJ disc displacement with or
without disc reduction. Approximately 25% of the patients
with non-reducing disc displacements were found to have
unilateral maxillary lingual crossbites. This indicated to
Pullinger and colleagues that disc displacement may be a
biologic adaptive response of the individual to a unilateral
maxillary lingual crossbite.260 The investigators theorized
that these individuals may later be prone to osteoarthritis.
They suggested that the orthodontic treatment of a unilateral crossbite discovered during childhood should be considered as a preventative measure to reduce the adaptive
demands on the masticatory system. They did not come to
the same conclusion for the correction of a longstanding
271
unilateral posterior crossbite in an adult, because skeletal

adaptation would have already occurred. Unfortunately, the
investigators did not clarify if the crossbites in their study
patients were the result of developmental jaw deformities
(e.g., asymmetrical mandibular excess) or simply due to the
malpositioning of the teeth. They did not specifically
comment on whether orthognathic surgery should be
carried out in conjunction with orthodontics (if needed) in
young adults to correct the presenting malocclusion as a
way to prevent the progression of TMD.
Missing Posterior Teeth (5)

The investigators found that, when five or more posterior
teeth were missing, the incidence of TMD increased. This
includes TMD categories of both osteoarthritis and disc
displacement with or without osteoarthritis. Pullinger and
colleagues further claimed that, when two or four of the
posterior teeth (bicuspids) were removed as part of an
orthodontic treatment protocol, there was a negligible effect
on TMD.260 Other studies carried out by Kayser156 and
Witter354 have also documented acceptable masticatory
function after bicuspid extractions and orthodontic treatment without increased signs and symptoms of TMD.
NOTE: The multifactorial analysis of occlusal factors

and TMD disease categories carried out by Pullinger and
colleagues showed that, except for the few clearly
defined occlusal features described previously, there was
a low probability of a malocclusion being associated
with TMD. Seligman and colleagues estimated that the
overall contribution of occlusal factors for the defining of
patients with TMD was only in the range of 10% to
20%.302 The corollary is that 80% to 90% of the causative
factors cannot be explained by patients presenting
malocclusions.
In the Pullinger and Seligman study, it must be assumed

that many of the significant overjets observed in the adult
subjects were secondary deformities after condylar resorption (i.e., condylysis).260 The authors did not present evidence to suggest that the presence of significant overbite or
overjet plays a role in the pathophysiology of non-arthritic
disorders of the TMJ, and they did not show that it was a
causative factor in the observed osteoarthritis. They do
believe that a combination of unilateral retruded centric
position in the presence of a clinically apparent retruded
centric positioninter-contact position slide may encourage
TMJ disc displacement but that unilateral retruded centric
position per se is not associated with TMD. They found
that lost molar support (i.e., 4 or 5 posterior teeth) may be
associated with osteoarthrosis. They concluded that a dental
midline discrepancy is not a predictor of TMD development during adulthood. Anterior open bite is frequent in
the presence of condylysis or osteoarthritic changes in the
TMJ, but it is probably the result of (rather than the cause
of ) the osteoarthritic changes. Interestingly, when open

bites are observed in children, they are rarely associated
with TMJ symptoms. In the pediatric population, the
majority of observed open bites represent a developmental
jaw deformity rather than a result of osteoarthritis. Nevertheless, it is recommended that, when either a child or an
adult is found to have an anterior open bite, radiographic
analysis of the condylar head should be undertaken to check
for osteoarthritic changes.
Orthodontic Treatment and Its Effects

on Temporomandibular Disorders
Review of the Literature
The relationships among malocclusion, orthodontic treatment to improve the occlusion, and the effects on TMD is
discussed frequently in the literature.* A spectrum of orthodontic treatment philosophies has been championed by
individual practitioners on the basis of presumed effects on
TMD. The longitudinal nature of orthodontic treatment,
which is often carried out over several years, means that a
changing TMD history would also be expected in a control
group that is not simultaneously undergoing orthodontic
treatment. Therefore, the occurrence of joint noise (e.g.,
popping, clicking) or myalgia (i.e., masticatory muscle discomfort) during orthodontic treatment may either be the
result of the treatment or consistent with the natural history
of the untreated individual.
Sadowsky and colleagues reported on 75 adult study
patients who had undergone orthodontic treatment with
full appliances during adolescence at least 10 years earlier.290
The treated group was compared with a group of 75 similar
adults with untreated malocclusions. The authors also went
on to increase both their control and subject groups and to
report these additional findings several years later.291 In the
two sequenced studies, respectively, 15% to 21% of the
treated subjects presented with one or more signs of TMD
(e.g., joint noise), and 29% to 42% had at least one or more
symptoms of TMD. There were no statistically significant
differences between the treated and untreated (control)
groups.
Larsson and colleagues evaluated 23 individuals who
had undergone orthodontic treatment during adolescence
at least 10 years earlier.172 Mild TMD was recorded in 8 out
of 23 (35%) of the patients, whereas only 1 (4%) had severe
TMD. The authors compared this with published epidemiologic controls and stated that there was no difference in
the incidence of TMD in the treated group versus the
control group.
Dahl and colleagues examined 51 subjects 5 years after
the completion of orthodontic treatment and compared
them with an untreated control group.54 The authors found
*References 2, 3, 19, 34, 35, 42, 45-49, 52, 68, 69, 84, 89, 90, 104,
107-109, 127, 134, 137, 138, 150, 155, 159, 164, 168, 169, 182, 184,
185, 203, 224, 237, 240, 245, 253, 268, 271-276, 279, 281, 282, 288291, 323, 325, 329-332, 334, 352, 358
no statistical differences in TMD between the two groups.

The number of subjects in both groups who had at least one
mild TMD symptom was relatively high (70% in the treated
group versus 90% in the untreated group). Mild symptoms
(e.g., joint noise), masticatory muscle fatigue, and stiffness
in the lower jaw were frequently observed in both groups.
A study by Smith and Freer examined 87 individuals
who were treated with full orthodontic bracketing during
adolescence.320 The treatment group (N = 87) was compared with an untreated control group (N = 28). Four years
after treatment ended, TMD symptoms were found in 21%
of the treated group and 14% of the control group; this was
not found to be statistically significant. The one symptom
that was statistically more common in the treatment group
was a soft click (64% of the treated group versus 36% of
the untreated group).
Rendell and colleagues examined 462 individuals (90%
adolescents and 10% adults) who were undergoing orthodontic treatment in a graduate orthodontic dental school
clinic.267 With the use of a modified Helkimo Index, only
11 of the patients presented with TMD signs or symptoms
before treatment. Of the other 451 patients, during the
18-month study, none developed TMD signs or symptoms.
For those with preexisting TMD signs or symptoms (N =
11), there was no consistent change in the level of pain or
dysfunction reported during treatment.
Kremenak and colleagues reported pretreatment and
posttreatment TMD examination data from 109 patients
who were treated with full orthodontics.166,167 The Helkimo
Index scores were also compared. No statistically significant
differences were noted between the subjects pretreatment
and posttreatment scores. Ninety percent of the patients
had Helkimo Index scores that either remained the same or
improved, and 10% of the treated patients had scores that
worsened. The authors concluded that the orthodontic
treatment provided to their patients was not an important
etiologic factor for the development of TMD.
Hirata and colleagues examined 102 individuals before
and after orthodontic treatment for signs and symptoms of
TMD.128 They compared their treatment group with 41
untreated controls who were matched for age. The incidence
of TMD for the treatment and control groups was not
statistically significantly different.
Studies have also been carried out to evaluate specific
orthodontic treatment maneuvers and their relationship to
TMD symptoms and signs. The studied orthodontic
maneuvers include the type of orthodontic mechanics used;
extraction versus non-extraction therapy; orthodontic treatment and posterior condylar displacement; and orthodontic
treatment focused on classic gnathologic principles.
NOTE: In the studies that were reviewed, no

consistent benefits or causative factors of TMD were
identified on the basis of any specific orthodontic
treatment maneuvers carried out in the treatment group
as compared with controls.
Orthodontic Treatment Undertaken

Specifically to Relieve
In everyday dental practice, the establishment of a preferred
intra-arch morphologic relationship of the teeth and then
the achievement of a satisfactory inter-arch relationship of
the teeth in one jaw to those in the other jaw (i.e., occlusion) serves as the basis of treatment objectives. According
to a review of the literature, the establishment of a normal
occlusion through orthodontic mechanics or via other
dental means carried out for the purpose of eliminating or
preventing the worsening of TMD does not seem warranted. Pullinger and Seligman have stated five potential
exceptions to this, which were described previously in this
chapter.255-261 McNamara and colleagues also stated that
prudent basic dental treatment objectives will generally
include the establishment of the six keys to ideal occlusion
as advocated by Andrews, when feasible; the establishment
of a limited CRCO slide (i.e., <2mm); the limiting of an
anterior open bite; the alleviation of significant overjet (i.e.,
>6 to 7mm); the limiting of unilateral maxillary lingual
crossbites in children; and the establishment of a stable
posterior occlusion.
Orthodontic Treatment Undertaken

Specifically to Prevent
The literature also contains studies that suggest that specific
orthodontic maneuvers are effective for the prevention of
TMD. The studies by Magnusson and colleagues187-192 and
the study by Egermark and colleagues89 suggest preventative
TMD advantages related to orthodontic occlusal corrections. At 5 and 10 years, these investigators reevaluated a
group of 402 children and adolescents who had originally
undergone a full course of orthodontic treatment. The
Helkimo Index was used to measure clinical signs of TMD
in the now older age group (i.e., 25 years old). Interestingly, the Helkimo Index outcome was lower in those who
had undergone orthodontic treatment as compared with the
control group. The studies by Dahl and colleagues and
Sadowsky and colleagues also demonstrated a trend
(although not a statistically significant one) toward the
decreased prevalence of TMD signs and symptoms in
orthodontically treated patients.53,290,291 These studies would
require further confirmation before accepting them as credible indications of a cause-and-effect relationship.
Summary of Effects of Orthodontic Treatment

McNamara, Seligman, and Okeson summarize their understanding of the relationship between orthodontic treatment
and TMDs as follows203:
1. Signs and symptoms of TMD do occur in healthy
individuals.
273
2. Signs and symptoms of TMD increase with age, particularly during adolescence.
3. Orthodontic treatment performed during adolescence
generally does not increase or decrease the odds of developing TMD later in life.
4. The extraction of teeth as part of an orthodontic treatment plan does not increase the risk of TMD.
5. There is no elevated risk for TMD associated with
any particular type of conventional orthodontic
mechanics.
6. Although a stable occlusion is a reasonable orthodontic
treatment goal, the inability to achieve a specific gnathologic ideal occlusion does not result in TMD signs or
symptoms.
7. No specific method of TMD prevention has been demonstrated to be effective.
8. When more severe TMD signs and symptoms are
present, simple forms of treatment can alleviate them in
most patients.
NOTE: McNamara, Seligman, and Okeson suggest
that until reliable criteria are developed for the
treatment of TMD, the dental and medical professions
should be encouraged to manage presenting TMJ
symptoms with reversible therapies and to only consider
permanent alterations in the occlusion (for the specific
purpose of treating or preventing TMD) in patients with
very unique circumstances. This is in agreement with the
National Institure of Health conference guidelines which
states that reversible therapies should be used in the
primary treatment of TMD219
A summary of evidence-based systematic reviews of

TMDs was carried out by Rinchuse and McMinn.283 Their
systematic review resulted in the following conclusions:
1. Occlusion, which was once considered the primary and
sole cause of TMD, now at best is recognized as having
a secondary role in causing it.
2. Conventional orthodontic treatment that improves the
occlusion does not cause TMD.
3. The use of occlusal adjustments in orthodontic patients
has no evidence-based support for the treatment of
TMD.
4. There is evidence-based support for the use of occlusal
splints and biofeedback for the treatment of TMD.
Association of Jaw Deformities,

Orthognathic Surgery, and
Review of the Literature
The association of a jaw deformity with malocclusion and
the effects of orthodontic and surgical correction on TMD
signs and symptoms have been examined in clinical studies

for the past several decades.* The quality of the research and
therefore the value of the conclusions vary. There are just
three longitudinal prospective controlled clinical trial
studies that have been carried out to assess the effects of
orthognathic surgery on TMD: the studies by Onizawa and
colleagues,232 Panula and colleagues,236 and Dervis and
colleagues.67
The study by Onizawa and colleagues sought to evaluate changes in the symptoms of TMD after orthognathic
surgery.232 TMJ symptoms in preoperative orthognathic
patients (N = 30) were compared with those of healthy
control volunteers (N = 30). Changes in TMD symptoms
were evaluated in both groups at 3- and 6-month postoperative intervals. The authors found no significant differences
in the incidence of TMJ sounds, deviation of mouth
opening, or tenderness on direct palpation of the TMJ
and masticatory muscles between patients who were scheduled to undergo orthognathic surgery and control volunteers. The treatment group did not report TMJ symptoms
significantly more often than the control subjects. At both
the 3- and 6-month postoperative intervals, half or more of
the treatment group showed no change in TMJ sounds,
deviation of mouth opening, or tenderness on palpation of
the TMJ or masticatory muscles. At each evaluation time
frame, some individuals in both the control group and the
study group exhibited improvement in TMJ symptoms,
whereas others showed a change for the worse. Findings of
postoperative TMJ sounds were observed to be associated
with a reduction of mandibular mobility (i.e., mouth
opening). The authors concluded that TMD symptoms
did not always show improvement after surgical correction
and that, for some patients, the symptoms changed for
the worse.
Panula and colleagues carried out research to study the
effects of orthognathic surgery on TMJ dysfunction.236
They completed a prospective follow-up study to examine
the influence of orthognathic procedures for the correction
of dentofacial deformities on signs and symptoms of TMJ
dysfunction. Sixty consecutive patients with dentofacial
deformities were examined preoperatively and then twice
after orthognathic surgery. The Helkimo Anamnestic and
Dysfunction Indices were also given as a questionnaire, and
the results were used as part of the determination. The
prevalence of headache was also assessed. The average
follow-up was 4 years after the initial preoperative examination. A group (N = 20) with a similar type and grade of
dentofacial deformity who elected not to undergo surgical
correction or any other occlusal therapy served as the control
group. The majority of the treatment group (73%) was
found to have signs and symptoms of TMJ dysfunction or
TMD during the preoperative examination. At the final
*References 6, 7, 25, 32, 33, 36, 55, 61, 62, 66, 67, 96, 98, 103, 105,
110, 111, 123, 124, 131, 144, 145, 154, 157, 158, 160, 174, 180, 187,
189, 211, 225, 226, 232, 236, 247, 292-295, 322, 335, 340, 347, 349,
350, 353, 356, 359
postsurgery examination (i.e., 4 years after surgery), the

prevalence of TMD had been reduced to 60%. There was
also a dramatic improvement in the prevalence of headache,
which was initially experienced by 63% of patients and
reduced to 25% of patients at the final visit. The authors
concluded that signs and symptoms of TMD, including
pain (headache) levels, could be reduced with orthognathic
treatment. The risk of an orthognathic patient experiencing
new TMD was extremely low. No association could be
shown between TMD and any specific type or magnitude
of dentofacial deformity.
A study was conducted by Dervis and colleagues with
the objective of looking at the long-term prevalence of
TMD in individuals with a dentofacial deformity who then
underwent orthognathic surgery as compared with a control
group.67 Signs and symptoms of TMD in both the dentofacial deformity patients and the control group were evaluated before surgery, 1 week after release of intermaxillary
fixation, and 1 and 2 years after surgery with the use of the
Helkimo Anamnestic and Dysfunction Indices. At both the
initial preoperative examination and the final examination
(i.e., 2 years after surgery), signs and symptoms of TMD in
the patients who were undergoing orthognathic surgery
were compared with those of healthy control subjects. The
lengths of condylar pathways during opening and with
lateral and protrusive movements were also evaluated with
the use of axiography. A statistically significant reduction of
TMD symptoms and signs 2 years after surgery as compared with before surgery was found. Interestingly, at the
initial examination, the patients with dentofacial deformities who were scheduled to undergo orthognathic surgery
did not report TMD signs and symptoms with a greater
frequency than other healthy control subjects. At the final
examination (i.e., 2 years after surgery), greater improvements in TMD symptoms in the patients who had undergone orthognathic surgery were found as compared with
healthy control subjects. The authors also found a statistically significant decrease in masticatory muscle tenderness
after surgery. The authors concluded that the functional
status of the TMJ can be improved with orthognathic
surgery. There was no clear association between TMD
symptoms and a specific type or pattern of dentofacial
deformity.
When comparing and contrasting the three published
longitudinal prospective controlled studies that were conducted to determine the effects of orthognathic procedures
on TMD symptoms and signs (i.e., Onizawa and colleagues,232 Panula and colleagues,236 and Dervis and colleagues67), several observations can be made:
1. Patients with dentofacial deformities who were scheduled to undergo orthognathic surgery were not found to
have significant differences in their TMD signs and
symptoms as compared with patients in the control
groups.
2. After orthognathic surgery and orthodontics, signs and
symptoms related to TMD were frequently improved.
3. Despite the trend for diminished signs and symptoms of

TMD after orthognathic surgery and orthodontics, individuals did not always show improvement; for some, the
symptoms changed for the worse.
4. After orthognathic surgery and orthodontic treatment,
a decrease in masticatory muscle tenderness was frequent. A decrease in joint tenderness on palpation was
also a common occurrence.
5. In one of the three studies reviewed, a decrease in
maximum mouth opening was observed, but this was
not found to be of clinical importance.
There are other less rigorous reports and studies that can
be found in the literature that also analyze the effects of
orthodontics and orthognathic surgery carried out for the
correction of dentofacial deformities on TMD, including
the following:
Karabouta and colleagues reviewed 280 individuals with
different patterns of mandibular deformities (e.g., prognathism, retrognathia, open bite, asymmetry) who underwent
orthognathic surgery that included sagittal split ramus osteotomies of the mandible. Before surgery, the patients were
found to present subjective or objective TMJ dysfunction
symptoms with an incidence of 41%.154 After surgery, the
incidence of such symptoms in the same patients was
reduced to 11%. Individuals with no preoperative TMJ
dysfunction symptoms developed such symptoms with an
incidence of 4% after surgery.
White and colleagues set out to review the prevalence
of TMD in patients with dentofacial deformities who were
undergoing orthognathic surgery.349 Preoperatively, 49% of
their study group presented with TMD. After orthognathic
surgery, in the symptomatic patients, 89% had improved
temporomandibular function, 3% were unchanged, and
8% developed increased symptoms. Of the preoperative
asymptomatic patients, 8% developed TMD after surgery.
In the study group, TMD was significantly greater in
patients with Class II skeletal deformities as compared with
those with Class III tendencies. Overall, temporomandibular function generally improved in both treatment groups
(i.e., Class II and Class III) after successful surgery.
Hori and colleagues reported three individual (nonconsecutive) cases in which there was a worsening of preexisting TMJ dysfunction after sagittal split ramus osteotomy
of the mandible and 6 weeks of intermaxillary fixation.131
All three of their patients initially presented specifically
seeking treatment of malocclusion for the relief of TMD.
All three patients had active TMD before and after their
orthognathic procedures.
Aghabeigi and colleagues studied the effect of orthognathic surgery on the TMJ of patients who presented with an
anterior open bite.6 This was a retrospective survey study of
patients (N = 83) who presented with an anterior open bite
who then underwent orthognathic surgery. The preoperative prevalence of head and neck pain was 32%, TMJ dysfunction was found in 40% of patients, and limited mouth
275
opening was found in 7%. The overall prevalence of TMJ

signs and symptoms was not found to be significantly different after orthognathic surgery. In the study group, an
abnormal psychological profile was the most significant
factor associated with the presence and persistence of TMJ
pain. The authors concluded that orthognathic surgery does
not significantly influence TMD in patients with anterior
open bites. Female patientsparticularly those with abnormal psychological profilewere at higher risk for persistent
postoperative TMJ pain.
Westermark and colleagues studied a consecutive series of
individuals to understand the effects of orthognathic surgery
on the signs and symptoms of TMD.347 The authors sent a
survey questionnaire to a consecutive series of patients (N
= 1516) who initially presented with dentofacial deformities
and who then underwent orthognathic surgeries that were
performed by a group of experienced surgeons at a single
institution. The survey was given at least 2 years after
surgery. The questions asked in the survey related to joint
pain, chewing pain, joint noise, grinding, daytime headache, and morning headache. Preoperatively, 43% of the
patients reported subjective symptoms of TMD; postoperatively, 28% of the patients did. This difference suggested an
overall beneficial effect of orthognathic surgery on TMD
signs and symptoms. Patients with Class II skeletal deformities did not improve as much as with those with Class III
skeletal prognathism.
Yamada and colleagues studied the incidence of condylar
morphologic change, disc displacement, and signs and
symptoms of TMD in individuals set to undergo orthognathic surgery.359 The study showed preoperative condylar
morphologic change (unilateral or bilateral) in 36% of the
subjects and in 24% of each joint. Preoperative disc displacement (unilateral or bilateral) was seen in 41% of the
subjects and in 30% of each joint. The percentage of condylar morphologic change and disc displacement was higher
for individuals with anterior open-bite skeletal Class II
growth patterns and lower for patients with skeletal Class
III deformities.
Wolford and colleagues studied changes in TMD after
orthognathic surgery in a series of 25 patients who were
scheduled to undergo bimaxillary surgery.356 They used
magnetic resonance imaging and clinical verification of
TMJ articular disc displacement. This was a retrospective
evaluation with an average follow up of 2.2 years. Presurgically, 16% of the patients had only TMJ pain, 64% had
only TMJ sounds, and 20% had both TMJ pain and sounds.
Postoperatively, 24% of the patients had only TMJ pain,
16% had only TMJ sounds, and 60% had both TMJ pain
and sounds. Thirty-six percent of the patients had TMJ
pain preoperatively; this jumped to 84% after surgery. In
addition, the authors claimed that 6 out of 25 of their
patients (24%) developed condylar resorption postoperatively, thereby explaining the high incidence of observed
Class II open-bite malocclusion. The authors demonstrated
that patients with preexisting TMJ dysfunction who undergo
bimaxillary osteotomies via the techniques that they used
have a high probability of the significant worsening of TMJ

dysfunction after surgery. This reported high incidence of
TMD and condylar resorption after orthognathic surgery is
contrary to all other studies reported in the literature.
Borstlap and colleagues reported about a consecutive
series of individuals who were scheduled to undergo sagittal
split ramus osteotomies for both Class II mandibular retrognathism and Class III mandibular prognathism.31
Patients were reviewed preoperatively, immediately postoperatively, and at 3, 6, and 24 months postoperatively. Any
signs and symptoms of TMD were documented, including
clicking, preauricular pain, maximum mouth opening, protrusive movements, and lateral excursions. The authors
documented that 56% of the patients with preexisting
TMD had relief of their signs and symptoms. Interestingly,
22% of individuals without preexisting TMD went on to
develop clinical signs or symptoms after surgery.
Bock and colleagues studied the importance of temporomandibular function as a factor in the achievement of
patient satisfaction after orthognathic surgery.29 The authors
orthognathic surgery patients (N = 102) were examined at
an average of 47 months after surgery. The average age of
their patients was 24 years. A patient satisfaction questionnaire and other modalities were reviewed, including the
Helkimo Index, clinical findings, nerve function parameters, and the incidence of intraoperative and postoperative
complications. The results of their study showed that 91%
of patients were satisfied or very satisfied with their overall
orthognathic results. Answers to the questionnaires revealed
that only 79% of patients would undergo treatment again
(i.e., 21% of the patients would not). Statistically significant
differences were found in the Helkimo Index and in the
pain reported both in the TMJs and with jaw movements
between the satisfied and dissatisfied postoperative patients.
The authors surmised that the 21% of patients who would
not undergo treatment again were more likely to have a
greater degree of TMD and limitations with regard to mandibular range of movement. Statistically significant differences were found between those who were satisfied and
those who were dissatisfied with surgery on the basis of their
Helkimo Indices. Those with pain on palpation in the TMJ
region and those with pain experienced during motion of
the mandible were more likely to be overall dissatisfied with
the treatment. The persistence of postoperative symptoms
of TMD, including pain, was the single most important
correlation with low patient satisfaction.
Frey and colleagues studied the effects of mandibular
advancement procedures and counterclockwise rotation on
signs and symptoms of TMD.102 The study patients were
followed for a minimum of 2 years after orthognathic
surgery. A series of patients with Angle Class II malocclusions (N = 127) who were undergoing sagittal split ramus
osteotomies with advancement and counterclockwise rotation of the mandible were studied to evaluate signs and
symptoms of TMD at specific intervals after surgery. The
results of the study indicate that counterclockwise rotation
of the mandible was associated with more masticatory
muscle tenderness early after surgery, especially in those

who were undergoing more than 7mm of advancement.
The combination of extensive mandibular advancement
with counterclockwise rotation was also associated with
increased TMD symptoms early after surgery. Interestingly,
all TMJ symptoms declined by 2 years after surgery. The
authors conclude that surgical advancement and counterclockwise rotation of the mandible (i.e., sagittal split ramus
osteotomy) is associated with a slight increase in masticatory
muscle discomfort during initial recovery. All symptomatology tended to decline over time, which suggests that the
amount of advancement and the amount of mandibular
counterclockwise rotation should not be considered as risk
factors for the long-term development of TMD in patients
without preexisting symptoms.
Jung and colleagues retrospectively evaluated the effects of
bilateral intraoral vertical ramus osteotomies with setback
for the management of Class III skeletal patterns on symptoms that are associated with TMD.152 Patients were evaluated preoperatively and at intervals (i.e., 1, 3, 6, 12, 18, and
24 months) after surgery for specific parameters, including
mouth opening, clicking, and TMJ pain. The authors
reported that 94% of those with preoperative joint noise
achieved resolution. After surgery, 8% of individuals who
were free of noise before surgery developed joint noise afterward. On average, mouth opening was 50mm before
surgery and 49mm 6 months after surgery. Joints that were
free of pain before surgery remained so. Those individuals
with preoperative TMJ pain remained free of pain at 18
months. The authors concluded that bilateral intraoral vertical ramus osteotomy with setback as a method of managing Class III skeletal deformities was also effective for the
relief of undesirable TMJ symptoms (e.g., joint noise, pain)
without negatively affecting mouth opening.
Additional thoughts Concerning Effects

of Orthodontics and Orthognathic Surgery
It may not be correct to conclude that orthodontic treatment and orthognathic surgery carried out for the correction of a presenting jaw deformity with malocclusion are
the responsible factors for any observed reduction or resolution of TMD signs and symptoms.18 During the decades
that have passed since McCarty and Farrar first defined the
diagnoses of internal derangement of the TMJ and then
described a disc repositioning procedure to treat it, quality
research to evaluate their recommended treatment has been
scant.200 The experience of orthopedic surgeons with regard
to the treatment of derangements of the knee should
remind us of the need for clinical practice to be based on
sound supporting evidence. Moseley and colleagues carried
out a controlled clinical trial of arthroscopic surgery (i.e.,
lysis and lavage or arthroplasty) for osteoarthritis of the
knee that should give us pause when considering irreversible TMD treatment.212 Clinician opinions regarding the
effectiveness of lysis and lavage or arthroplasty to manage
knee pathology in anticipation of improved function and

relief of pain have varied but are currently without consensus. Therefore, a randomized clinical trial that included a
placebo group was designed by Moseley and colleagues to
address this controversy. To blind the placebo group, a
sham surgical procedure was designed as part of the study.
The placebo subjects were given a general or regional anesthetic, and incisions were made; however, the arthroscope
was not inserted into the joint, and no therapeutic procedure was carried out. The results of the study were that
neither treatment group (i.e., lysis and lavage or arthroplasty) offered improved clinical outcomes as compared
with the placebo group for osteoarthritis. As a consequence
of this evidence-based study, many orthopedic surgeons
have changed treatment recommendations for their
patients. In any case, Medicare (i.e., the U.S. government
medical insurance plan for the elderly) made a decision
that it would no longer cover arthroscopy for osteoarthritis
of the knee. Restorative dentists, orthodontists, and orthognathic surgeons should remain circumspect when advising
patients regarding irreversible treatment specifically for the
purpose of relieving TMD.
Brief Overview of Okesons Thinking

About Temporomandibular Disorders
and the Effects of Occlusion
Okeson believes that, during the normal use of the masticatory system, either local or systemic events can occur that
may influence function.165,227-231 Each individual has a
varied ability to tolerate these events without any adverse
head and neck effects. It is likely that an individuals
tolerance can be influenced by these local or systemic
factors. When an event exceeds the individuals physiologic
tolerance, the system begins to reveal changes. Each component of the masticatory system can tolerate a certain
amount of change. When functional change exceeds a critical level, alteration of the tissues begins. The tissue breakdown site is generally seen in the structure with the least
tolerance. Therefore, the breakdown site varies from individual to individual. This is influenced by factors such as
the individuals unique maxillofacial morphology, previous
head and neck trauma, and local tissue conditions. The
weakest link in the masticatory system will break first
(i.e. masticatory muscles, TMJs, supporting structures of
the teeth, the teeth themselves). Typically, the weakest structures in the system are the masticatory muscles; this is
evidenced by muscle tenderness and pain during mandibular movements.
When the TMJs are the weakened structures in the
system, the individual may experience joint tenderness and
pain. The TMJ can also produce sounds such as clicking or
grating. When the individual has increased muscle activity
(e.g., bruxism, grinding), then the next weakest link is frequently either the supporting structures of the teeth (i.e.,
the periodontium) or the teeth themselves. The teeth may
277
show mobility or wear (e.g., loss of enamel, breakdown of

restorations, fracture). Emotional stress seems to be a major
influence on bruxing activity.
According to Okeson, the occlusal condition can influence TMDs by way of two mechanisms. One mechanism
relates to the introduction of acute changes in the occlusal
condition (e.g., recent restorative dentistry with an uneven
alteration of the occlusal surfaces). Acute changes can lead
to a muscle co-contraction response that leads to a condition of muscle pain. Typically, in these circumstances, new
muscle engrams are developed, and the patient adapts with
little consequence. A second mechanism relates to a more
longstanding variation in the occlusal condition. In these
conditions, maximum intercuspation (i.e., centric occlusion) results in the instability of the masticatory system
(e.g., a CRCO discrepancy). The orthopedic instability is
not likely to withstand significant compressive loading
forces on the TMJs. Dental therapy (i.e., the alteration of
the occlusion) will only be helpful for the relief of TMDs
when it effectively relieves one of these conditions (i.e., the
muscle co-contraction response or the orthopedic instability
accompanied by loading forces).
Dr. Okeson concludes that, in general, conventional
orthodontic treatment is not an effective method for the
prevention of TMD. As a corollary, a review of the literature
suggests that patients who receive conventional orthodontic
therapy are at no greater risk for the development of TMD
than those who do not. According to Dr. Okesons work,
any dental or surgical procedure that produces an occlusal
condition that is not in harmony with a musculoskeletal
stable position of the joint canbut does not necessarily
predispose the individual to these problems. Alternatively,
dental or surgical procedures that reduce one of these occlusal conditions and restore harmony may improve the masticatory system.
Personal Thoughts About the Role of

Open Joint Procedures for
Unanswered questions remain: What is the appropriate
treatment for an individual with a persistent symptomatic
intracapsular TMJ disorder that has either not resolved
spontaneously or not responded to conservative therapy? In
these cases, what are the best studies to use to confirm the
diagnosis and then select the appropriate treatment
intervention?
A critical review of the literature suggests that outcomes

for open TMJ procedures are often unpredictable and may
result in further TMD.73-77 The success rate for redo open
joint surgery is even less favorable. Among the criteria for
an open joint procedure are the following: that the clinician
must be confident that the source of the pain or dysfunction
is arising from within the joint; that the appropriate use of
conservative measures has failed; that the current symptoms
are intolerable to a patient who is psychosocially stable; and
that a significant long-term success rate for the selected
open joint procedure in the specific patient can be assured.
Although an intracapsular lavage procedure with or
without limited debridement and lysis of adhesions to
relieve inflammation and improve function may be relatively benign in experienced hands, disc repositioning and
discectomy have generally proven to be of little statistical
value as compared with conservative measures. The technical simplicity of disc repositioning and discectomy procedures has lured many clinicians into offering them as
standard options; however, a significant long-term success
rate has not been documented.
The overall approach to TMD should aim to avoid
further harm to the joint and err on the side of appropriate
conservative management to relieve symptoms and to
achieve or maintain reasonable function for the long term.
Conclusions
It is estimated that an average of 32% of the population
will report at least one symptom of TMD and that an
average of 55% will demonstrate at least one clinical sign.
Historically, clinicians from a spectrum of medical and
dental specialties have considered occlusion to be the major
etiologic factor for TMD. A review of the literature suggests
that the overall contribution of occlusal factors to identifying patients with TMD to only be in the range of 10% to
20%. The corollary is that 80% to 90% of the causative
factors among patients with TMD cannot be explained by
those patients occlusions.
The National Institude of Health conference guidelines
state that reversible therapies should be used for the primary
treatment of TMD. Despite these words of caution, studies
document that, for whatever combination of reasons, the
correction of an individuals developmental jaw deformity
and malocclusion through successful orthodontics and
orthognathic surgery tends to have a positive effect on preexisting TMD in the majority of patients, whereas a minority of patients will get worse.
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9

Temporomandibular Disorders: Effects

Incidence of Temporomandibular Disorders

in the General Population and the Basic

average of 55% demonstrates at least one clinical sign.*

266 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts

Figure 9-3 Bony

268 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts

reversible) have been recommended to alleviate the

Mandibular Range of Motion

The expected normal mandibular range of motion and

Review of Occlusal Factors

Figure 9-8 The second stage of movement during mouth opening

270 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts

occlusion.135,355 Common treatment approaches to do so

Occlusal Features and Factors to Consider

Temporomandibular Joint Diagnostic Categories

Overjets ranging from 1 to +6mm

There were also a wide variety of crossbites, asymmetrical

predict either individuals with TMD or those who are or

Occlusal Conditions More

Overjet (>6 to 7mm)

Centric RelationCentric Occlusion Slides

Anterior Open Bite

Unilateral Maxillary (Lingual) Crossbite

Research by Pullinger and colleagues showed a strong

The occlusal feature of unilateral maxillary crossbite occurs

272 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts

unilateral posterior crossbite in an adult, because skeletal

Missing Posterior Teeth (5)

NOTE: The multifactorial analysis of occlusal factors

In the Pullinger and Seligman study, it must be assumed

of ) the osteoarthritic changes. Interestingly, when open

Orthodontic Treatment and Its Effects

no statistical differences in TMD between the two groups.

NOTE: In the studies that were reviewed, no

Orthodontic Treatment Undertaken

Orthodontic Treatment Undertaken

Summary of Effects of Orthodontic Treatment

274 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts

A summary of evidence-based systematic reviews of

Association of Jaw Deformities,

signs and symptoms have been examined in clinical studies

postsurgery examination (i.e., 4 years after surgery), the

3. Despite the trend for diminished signs and symptoms of

276 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts

opening was found in 7%. The overall prevalence of TMJ

have a high probability of the significant worsening of TMJ

muscle tenderness early after surgery, especially in those

Additional thoughts Concerning Effects

knee pathology in anticipation of improved function and

Brief Overview of Okesons Thinking

278 S E C T I O N 1 Basic Principles and Concepts

show mobility or wear (e.g., loss of enamel, breakdown of

Personal Thoughts About the Role of

A critical review of the literature suggests that outcomes

3. Ackerman M: Evidence-based orthodontics

5. Agerberg A: Occlusal and

anterior open bite. Int J Adult Orthodon