Subject: ADVANCED FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Credits: 4

SYLLABUS
Overview
Introduction to Financial Management: Objectives of Financial Management, Functions of Financial
Management; Financial Instruments: Equity Shares, Preference Shares, Right Issues; Debts: Debentures, Types
of Debentures; Indian Financial System: Functions of Financial Market, Classification of Financial Markets,
Efficiency of Financial System, Skeleton of the Financial System; Time Value of Money; Valuation of Bonds
and Shares.
Financial Statements
Comparative Statement: Importance of Financial Statement, Limitations, Constructing Comparative Statement;
Common Size Statement: Advantages of Common Size Statement, Limitations of Common Size Statement,
Constructing Common Size Statement; Trend Analysis: Advantages of Trend Percentages Analysis, Limitations
of Trend Percentages Analysis, Method of Preparation of Trend Percentages, Precautions; Ratio Analysis:
Importance, Limitations and Classification of Ratios.
Cash Flow
Fund Flow Statement: Objectives of Funds Flow Statement, Limitations, Preparation of Funds Flow Statement;
Cash Flow Statement: Direct and Indirect Methods of Cash Flow.
Fixed Capital Analysis
Capital Budgeting: Features of Capital Budgeting, Importance of Capital Budgeting; Evaluations Techniques of
Projects: Traditional Techniques: Pay Back Period, ARR,Time Adjusted Techniques: NPV, IRR, PI; Risk and
Uncertainty in Capital Budgeting.
Capital Structure and Dividend Policy
Leverage Analysis: Operating Leverage, Financial Leverage, Combined Leverage; Capital Structure: Factors
Determining the Capital structure, Theories of Capital Structure; Cost of Capital: Significance of Cost of
Capital, Computation of Cost of Capital, EPS, EBIT Analysis; Dividend Policy: Dividend decision and
valuation of Firm, Determinants of Dividend Policy, Types of Dividends, Forms of Dividend, Bonus Issue.
Working Capital Analysis
Working Capital: Operating Cycle/Working Capital Cycle, Factors Effecting Working Capital, Importance of
Adequate Working Capital, Financing of Working Capital, Determining Working Capital Financing Mix,
Working Capital Analysis, Estimation of Working Capital Requirements; Receivables Management: Costs of
Maintaining Receivables, Meaning and Definition of Receivables Management , Dimensions of Receivables
Management.
Inventory Management
Inventory Management: Meaning of Inventory, Purpose of Holding Inventory, Inventory Management,
Objectives of Inventory Management; Inventory Management Techniques.
Cash Management Analysis
Cash Management: Motives for Holding Cash, Cash Management, Managing Cash Flows; Cash Management
Models.

Foreign Exchange Orientation

International Finance: Exchange Rate, Arbitrage Process as a Means of Attaining Equilibrium On Spot Markets,
Arbitrage in Forward Market; Managing of Foreign Exchange Risk: Foreign Exchange Risk Management,
Management of Economic exposure, Management of Operating Exposure; Raising Foreign Currency Finance.
Suggested Reading:
1. Financial Management: Text and Problems by M Y Khan & P K Jain, Publisher: TMH, New Delhi.
2. Financial Management Theory & Practice by Prasanna Chandra, Publisher: TMH, New Delhi.
3. Financial Management by I M Pandey, Publisher: Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi.
4. Fundamentals of Financial Management by Van Horne, Publisher: Prentice Hall of India.
5. Advanced Accounting by Gupta R.L. and Radha Swamy M., Publisher: Sultan Chand & Sons, New Delhi.
6. Financial Management by Kishore R., Publisher: Taxmans Publishing House, New Delhi.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

OVERVIEW
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
1.1 Introduction to Financial Management
1.1.1 Objectives of Financial Management
1.1.2 Functions of Financial Management
1.2 Financial Instruments: Equity Shares, Preference Shares; Right Issue
1.3 Debts: Debentures, Types of Debentures
1.4 Indian Financial System
1.4.1 Functions of Financial Markets
1.4.2 Classification of Financial Markets
1.4.3 Efficiency of Financial system
1.4.4 Skeleton of the Financial System
1.5 Time Value of Money
1.6 Valuation of Bonds and Shares.
1.7 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Finance is defined as the provision of money at the time when it is required. Every enterprise,
whether big, medium, small, needs finance to carry on its operations and to achieve its target. In
fact, finance is so indispensable today that it is rightly said to be the blood of an enterprise.
Without adequate finance, no enterprise can possibly accomplish its objectives.
Meaning of Financial Management: Financial management refers to that part of the
management activity, which is concerned with the planning, & controlling of firms financial
resources. It deals with finding out various sources for raising funds for the firm. Financial
management is practiced by many corporate firms and can be called Corporation finance or
Business Finance.
According to Guthmann and Dougall: Business finance can be broadly defined as the activity
concerned with the planning, raising controlling and administrating the funds used in the
business.
According to Joseph & Massie: Financial Management is the operational activity of a
business that is responsible for obtaining and effectively utilizing the funds necessary for
efficient operations

Financial Management is the application of the general management principles in the area of
financial decision-making, namely in the areas of investment of funds, financing various
activities, and disposal of profits.
Financial management is the art of planning; organizing, directing and controlling of the
procurement and utilization of the funds and safe disposal of profits to the end that individual,
organizational and social objectives are accomplished.

Financial management

Is concerned with

Financing decision

Investment Decision

Dividend Decision

Analysis

Risk and Return Relationship

To achieve the goal of

Profit
Maximization

Wealth
Maximization

Figure: 1.1 Financial Management Interrelationships

1.1.1 Functions of Financial Management

A financial manager has to concentrate on the following areas of the finance function.
1. Estimating Financial Requirements: The first task of the financial manager is to
estimate short term and long-term financial requirement of his business. For this purpose,
he will prepare a financial plan for present as well as future. The amount required for
purchasing fixed assets as well as the needs of funds for working capital has to be
6

ascertained. The estimation should be based on the sound financial principles so that
neither there are inadequate or excess funds with the concern. The inadequacy will affect
the working of the concern and excess funds may tempt a management to indulge in
extravagant spending.
2. Deciding Capital Structure: The capital structure refers to the kind and proportion of
the different securities for raising funds. After deciding about the quantum of funds
required it should be decided which type of security should be raised. It may be wise to
finance fixed securities through long term debts. Long-term funds should be employed to
finance working capital also. Decision about various sources of funds should be linked to
cost of raising funds. If cost of rising funds is high, then such sources may not be useful.
A decision about the kind of the securities to be employed and the proportion in which
these should be used is an important decision which influences the short term and the
long term planning of the enterprise.
3. Selecting a Source of Finance: After preparing a capital structure, an appropriate source
of finance is selected. Various sources from which finance may be raised, includes share
capital, debentures, financial deposits etc. If finance is needed for short periods then
banks, publics deposits, financial institutions may be appropriate. If long-term finance is
required the share capital, debentures may be useful.
4. Selecting a Pattern of Investment: When fund have been procured then a decision about
investment pattern is to be taken. The selection of investment pattern is related to the use
of the funds. A decision has to be taken as to which assets are to be purchased? The fund
will have to be spent first. Fixed asset and the appropriate portion will be retained for the
working capital. The decision making techniques such as capital Budgeting, opportunity
cost analysis may be applied in making decision about capital expenditures. While
spending in various assets, the principles of safety, profitability, and liquidity should not
be ignored.
5. Proper Cash Management: Cash management is an important task of financial
manager. He has to assess the various cash needs at different times and then make
arrangements for arranging cash. Cash may be required to make payments to creditors,
purchasing raw material, meet wage bills, and meet day to day expenses. The sources of
cash may be Cash sales, Collection of debts, Short-term arrangement with the banks. The
cash management should be such that neither there is shortage of it and nor it is idle. Any
shortage of cash will damage the creditworthiness of the enterprise. The idle cash with
the business mean that it is nit properly used. Through Cash Flow Statement one is able
to find out various sources and applications of cash.
6. Implementing Financial Controls: An efficient system of financial management
necessitates the use of various control devices. Financial control device generally used
are;
a. Return Investment
b. Ratio analysis

c. Break even analysis

d. Cost control
e. Cost and internal audit.
7. The use of various control techniques: This will help the financial manager in
evaluating the performance in various Areas and take corrective measures whenever
needed.
8. Proper use of Surpluses: The utilization of profits or surpluses as also an important
factor in financial management. A judicious use of surpluses is essential for the
expansion and diversification plans and also protecting the interest of the shareholders.
The ploughing back of profit is the best policy of further financing. A balance should be
struck in using the funds for paying dividends and retaining earnings for financing
expansion plans.

1.1.2 Objectives of the Financial Management

The main objective f a business is tom maximize the owners economic welfare. Financial
management provides a framework for selecting a proper course of action and deciding a
commercial strategy.
The objectives can be achieved by: (i) Profit maximization (ii) Wealth maximization
Profit Maximization: Profit earning is the main aim of every economic activity. A business
being an economic institution must earn profit to cover its cists and provide funds for growth. No
business ca survives without earning profit. Profit is a measure of efficiency of a business
enterprise. Profit also serves as a protection against risks which cannot be ensured.
Arguments in favor of Profit Maximization
1. When profit earning is the aim of the business then the profit maximization should be the
obvious objective.
2. Profitability is the barometer for measuring the efficiency and economic prosperity of a
business enterprise, thus profit maximization is justified on the ground of the rationality.
3. Profits are the main source of finance for the growth of the business. So a business should
aim at maximization of the profits for enabling its growth and development.
4. Profitability is essential for fulfilling the social goals also. A firm by pursuing the
objectives of profits maximization also maximizes the socio economic welfare.
5. A business may be able to survive under unfavorable condition only if it had some past
earnings to rely upon.
Arguments against of Profit Maximization
1. It is precisely defined. It means different things for different people. The term Profit is
vague and it cannot be precisely defined. It means different things for different people.
Should we mean (i) Short term profit or long term profit? (ii) Total profit or earning per

share? (iii) Profit before tax or after tax? (iv) Operating profit or profit available for the
shareholders?
2. It ignores the time value of money and does not consider the magnitude and the timing of
earnings. It treats all the earnings as equal though they occur in different time periods. It
ignores the fact that the cash received today is more important than the same amount if
cash received after, say, three years.
3. It does not take into consideration the risk of the prospective earning stream. Some
projects are more risky than others. Two firms may have same expected earnings per
share, but if the earning stream in one is more risky the market share of its share will be
comparatively less.
4. The effect of the dividend policy on the market price of the shares is also not considered
in the objective of the profit maximization. In case, earnings per share is the only
objective then the enterprise may not think of paying dividends at all because it retains
profits in the business or investing them in the market may satisfy this aim.
Wealth Maximization: Financial theory asserts that the wealth maximization is the single
substitute for a stake holders utility. When the firm maximizes the shareholders wealth, the
individual stakeholders can use this wealth to maximize his individual utility. It means that by
maximizing stakeholders wealth the firm is operating consistently toward maximizing
stakeholders utility. A stake solders wealth in the firm is the product of the numbers of the
shares owned, multiplied within the current stock price per share.
Stockholders current wealth in the firm = (No. Of shares owned) * (Current stock price
per share)
Higher the stock price per share, the greater will be the shareholders wealth. Thus a firm should
aim at maximizing its current stock price, which helps in increasing the value of shares in the
market.
Refers
to
Maximum
Utility

Refers to

Maximum
stockholders
wealth

Refers to

Maximum
current stock
price per share

FACTORS AFFECTING THE STOCK PRICES

Economic Environment Factors
Level of economic Activity
Tax rates
Competition level
International business conditions

Policy Decision under Management Control

Products & Services
Technology
Capital structure
Dividend Policy

Amount, Timing & Risk of

expected Cash Flow

Financial market
Interest rates
Inflation

Shareholders Wealth
(Market Price of the Stock)

Implication of the wealth maximization:

1. The Concept of wealth maximization is universally accepted, because it takes care of
interest of financial institution, owners, employees and society at large.
2. Wealth maximization guides the management in framing the consistent strong dividend
policy to reach maximum returns to the equity holders.
3. Wealth maximization objective not only serves the interest of the shareholders by
increasing the value of their holdings but also ensures the security to the lenders.
Criticism of wealth maximization:
1. It is a prescriptive idea. The objective is not descriptive of what the firm actually does.
2. The objective of wealth maximization is not necessarily socially desirable.
3. There is some controversy as to whether the objective is to maximize the stockholders
wealth or the wealth of the firm, which includes other financial claimholders such as
debenture holders, preference shareholders.

10

4. The objective of wealth maximization may also face difficulties when ownership and
management are separated, as is the case in most of the corporate form of organizations.
When managers act as the agents of the real owner, there is the possibility for a conflict
of interest between shareholders and the managerial interests.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.2 FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS: EQUITY SHARES, PREFERENCE

SHARES, RIGHT ISSUE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Why there is a need for Finance: Every business needs funds both for short term and long
term. They may need working capital, or, fixed capital. The finance may be obtained from the
varied sources and through various instruments. The various sources of finance include
shareholders, financial instruments, and financial institutions and so on. The funds can be
collected through various instruments such as equity shares, convertible bonds, non- convertible
debentures, fixed deposits, loan agreements, and so on. The finance is needed at various stages
and for various purposes like promoting a business, smooth conduct of business activities.
Methods of Raising Finance
1. Public Issue of Shares: The company can raise a substantial amount of fixed capital by
issue of shares- equity and preference. In India, however, equity shares are more popular
as compared to preference shares. The issue of shares requires a number of formalities to
be completed such as approval of prospectus by S.E.B.I., appointment of underwriters,
bankers, and registrars to the issue, filing of the prospectus with the registrar of
companies, and so on.
2. Rights Issue of Shares: A Right issue is issue of shares to the existing shareholders of
the company through a Letter of Offer made in first instance to the existing shareholders
on pro data basis. The shareholders have a choice to forfeit this right partially or fully.
The company, then issue this additional capital to public. This is an inexpensive method
as underwriting commission, brokerage are very small. Rights issue prevents dilution of
control but it may conflict with the broader objective of wider diffusion of share capital.
3. Private Placement of Shares: This is a method of raising funds from a group of
financial institutions and others who are ready to invest in the company.
4. Issue of Debentures: There are companies who collect long term funds by issuing
debentures- convertible, or, non convertible. Convertible debentures are very popular in
the Indian market.
5. Long Term Loans: The company may also obtain long term loans from banks and
financial institutions like I.D.B.I., I.C.I.C.I., and so on. The funding of term loans by
financial institutions often acts as an inducement for the investors to sub- scribe for the
shares of the company. This is, because, the financial institutions study the project report
of the company before sanctioning loans. This creates confidence in the investors, and
they too, lend money to the company in form of shares, debentures, fixed deposits, and so
on.

11

6. Accumulated Earnings (Reserves): The Company often resorts to ploughing back of

profits that, is, retaining a part of profits instead of distributing the entire amount to
shareholders by way of dividend. Such accumulated earnings are very useful at the time
of replacements, or, purchases of additional fixed assets.
We will discuss rights issue in detail.
Rights Issue: Rights issue is an invitation to the existing shareholders to subscribe for further
shares to be issued by a company. A right simply means an option to buy certain securities at a
certain privileged price within a certain specified period. The Company Act, 1956 lays down the
manner in which further issue of shares, whether equity or preference, is to be made so as to
ensure equitable distribution of shares without disturbing the established equilibrium of
shareholding in the company. According to Section 81 of the Companies Act, whenever a public
limited company proposes to increase its subscribed capital by the allotment of further shares,
after the expiry of two years from the formation of the company or the expiry of one year from
the first allotment of shares in the company, whichever is earlier, the following conditions or
procedure must be followed:
1. Such shares must be offered to holders of equity shares in proportion, as nearly as
circumstances admit, to the capital paid-up on those share.
2. The offer must be made by giving a notice specifying the number of shares offered.
3. The offer must be made to accept the shares within a period specified in the notice being
not than 15 days.
4. Unless the articles of association of the company provide otherwise, the notice must also
state that the shareholder has the right to renounce all or any of the shares offered to him
in favor of his nominees.
Shares so offered to existing shareholders are called Right Shares as the existing equity
shareholders of the public company have a first right of allotment of further shares. The offer of
such shares to the existing equity shareholder is known as Privileged Subscription or Right
Issue. The prior right of the shareholders is also known as pre-emptive right. After expiry of
the time specified in the notice or on receipt of earlier information from the shareholder
declining to accept the shares offered, the Board of Directors may dispose them off in such a
manner as they think most beneficial to the company.
Advantages of Rights Issue
1. It ensures that the control of the company is preserved in the hands of the existing
shareholders.
2. The expenses to be incurred, otherwise if shares are offered to the public, are avoided
3. There is more certainty of the shares being sold to the existing shareholders.
4. It betters the image of the company and stimulates enthusiastic response from
shareholders and the investment market.
5. It ensures that the directors do not misuse the opportunity of issuing new shares to their
relatives and friends at lower prices on the one hand and on the other get more controlling
rights in the company.

12

Financial Instruments: The capital of a joint stock company can be divided into Owned
capital and Borrowed capital. Owned capital means the capital of the owners which
comprises of shares, both preference and equity and borrowed capital comprises of debentures,
fixed deposits and bonds.
Shares: A share can be defined as A fraction part of the capital of the company which forms the
basis of ownership and interest of a subscriber in the company. Precisely, a share is a small part
of the total capital. When the owned capital is divided into a number of equal parts, then, each
part is called as a share. A person who contributes for a share is called as a share- holder.
Types of shares: Shares can be broadly divided into equity shares and preference shares
Equity Shares: Shares which enjoy dividend and right to participate in the management of Joint
Stock Company are called equity shares, or, ordinary shares. They are the owners and real risk
bearers of the company. Equity shares can be defined as per as our Indian Companies Act (1956)
as, Shares which are not preference shares are equity shares, or, ordinary shares. Equity
shareholders are the real owners of the company and, therefore, they are eligible to share the
profits of the company. The share given to equity shareholders in profits is called Dividend. At
the time of winding of company, the capital is paid back last to them after all other claims have
been paid in full.
Advantages of Equity Shares:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

The company has no immediate liability to pay it.

No fixed dividend obligation.
Increases creditworthiness of business, ceteris paribus.
No charge created on assets of the business.
Shareholders control the company.
Limited liability of the investors.
High dividends.
No collateral security needed.
g. Increases firm credibility.

Disadvantages of Equity Shares:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Equity dividend not tax- deductible.

High cost of equity issue.
Gradual dilution of shareholders control over business.
Manipulation by a few shareholders.
Dividend at the discretion of the Directors.
Very risky investment.
Residual claim on investments.

2. Preference Shares: Shares which enjoy preference as regards dividend payment and capital
repayment are called Preference Shares. They get dividend before equity holders. They get
back their capital before equity holders in the event of winding up of the company. The owners

13

of these shares have a preference for dividend and a first claim for return of capital; when the
company is closed down. But, their dividend rate is fixed. Preference share can be of following
types:
a) Cumulative Preference Shares: Such shareholders have a right to claim the dividend. If,
dividend is not paid to them, then, such dividend gets accumulated, and, therefore, they
are called as Cumulative Preference shares.
b) Non- Cumulative Preference Shares: They are exactly opposite to cumulative
preference shares. Their right to get dividend lapses if, they are not paid dividend and it
does not get accumulated. Thus, their right to claim dividend for the past years will lapse
and will not be accumulated.
c) Participating Preference Shares: Such shareholders have a right to participate in the
excess profits of the company, in addition to their usual dividend. Thus, if, there are
excess profits and huge dividends, are declared in the equity shares, the holders of these
all shares get a second round of dividend along with equity shareholders; after a dividend
at a certain rate has been paid to equity shareholders.
d) Non- Participating Preference Shares: Such shareholders do not have any right to share
excess profits. They get only fixed dividend.
e) Convertible Preference Shares: Such shares can be converted into equity shares, at the
option of the company.
f) Redeemable Preference Shares: Such shares are to be redeemed, or, paid back in cash
to the holders after a period of time.
g) Non- Redeemable Preference Shares: Such shares are not paid in cash during the life of
the company.
Merits of Preference Shares
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Fixed dividend.
First claim on company assets.
Cost of capital is low.
No dilution over control.
No dividend obligation.
No redemption liability.

Demerits of Preference Shares:

a) Not a very high dividend rate.
b) No voting rights.
c) Dividends paid are not tax- deductible.
d) Non payment of dividend affects firm.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.3 DEBTS: DEBENTURES, TYPES OF DEBENTURES

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------DEBENTURES: When borrowed capital is divided into equal parts, then, each part is called as
a debenture. Debenture represents debt. For such debts, company pays interest at regular
intervals. It represents borrowed capital and a debenture holder is the creditor of the company.

14

Debenture holder provides loan to the company and he has nothing to do with the management
of the company.
Kinds of Debentures: A company can issue different kinds of debentures.
a) Registered and Bearer Debentures: This classification of debentures is made on the
basis of transferability of debentures. Registered debentures are those in respect of which
the names, addresses, and particulars of the holdings of debenture holders are entered in a
register kept by the company. The transfer of ownership of such debentures is possible
through a regular instrument of transfer which is duly signed by the transferee and the
transferor. However, the transfers are freely allowed through the execution of a regular
Transfer Deed. Only formal approval of the Board is necessary. Interest on such
debentures is paid through interest warrants. Bearer debentures are transferable by mere
delivery. They are freely negotiable instruments. The company keeps no records of the
debenture- holders in the case of bearer debentures. Such debentures are similar to Share
Warrants; the interest on them is paid by means of attached coupons which encashed by
the holder are as and when cash falls due. On maturity, the principal sum of Bearer
Debenture is paid back to the holder.
b) Secured and Unsecured Debentures: This classification is made on the basis of security
offered to debenture-holders. Secured debentures are those which are secured by some
safe charge on the property of the company. The charge or, mortgage may be Fixed, or,
Floating, and thus, there may be Fixed Mortgage Debentures, or, Floating Mortgage
Debentures depending upon the nature of charge under the category of Secured
Debentures. Unsecured, or, Naked Debentures are those that, are secured by any charge
on the assets of the company. The holders of such debentures are like ordinary creditors
of the company. The general solvency of the company is the only security available to
unsecured or, naked debentures.
c) Redeemable And Irredeemable Debentures: This classification is made on the basis of
terms of repayment. Redeemable Debentures are for fixed period and they provide for
payment of the principal sum on specified date, or, on demand, or, notice. Irredeemable
Debentures are not issued for a fixed period. The issuing company does not fix any date
by which the principal would be paid back. The holders of such debentures cannot
demand payment from the company so long as it is a going concern. Such debentures are
perpetual in nature as they are payable after a long time, or, on winding up of the
company.
d) Convertible And Non- Convertible Debentures: This classification is made on the
convertibility of the debentures. Convertible Debentures are those which are convertible
into Equity Shares on maturity as per the terms of issue. Convertible Debentures are
those which are convertible into equity shares on maturity as per the terms of issue.
Convertible debentures are now popular in our India and many companies issue
convertible debentures which are automatically converted into shares after a fixed period,
or, date (usually, after three years). The rate of exchange of debentures into shares is also
decided at the time of issue of debentures. Interest is paid on such debentures till

15

conversion. Such debentures are popular with the investing class. Non- Convertible
Debentures are not convertible into Equity Shares after some period, or, on maturity.
Prior approval of the shareholders is necessary for the issue of convertible debentures. It
also requires sanction of the central government. The conversion of debentures into
shares particularly of profitable companies is always advantageous to debenture holders
as well as to the company.
Demerits of Debentures
a)
b)
c)
d)

Interest obligatory.
High liability.
Charged against assets.
Not meant for weak firms.

Merits of Debentures
a) Issuing is cheap.
b) No dilution of control.
c) Best for depression periods.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.4 INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Savings mobilization and promotion of investment are functions of the stock and capital markets,
which are a part of the organized financial system in India. The objective of all economic activity
is to promote the well being and standard of living of the people, which depends on the income
and distribution of income in terms of real goods and services in the economy. The production of
output, which is vital to the growth process in the economy, is a function of the many inputs used
in the productive process. These inputs are material inputs (in the form of physical materials,
viz., raw materials, plant, machinery, etc.), human inputs (in the form of labor and enterprise)
and financial inputs (in the form of capital, cash and credit). The easy availability of financial
inputs promotes the growth process through proper coordination between human and material
inputs.
The financial inputs emanate from the financial system, while real goods and services are part of
the real system. The interaction between the real system (goods and services) and the financial
system (money and capital) is necessary for the productive process. Trading in money and
monetary assets constitute the activity in the financial markets and are referred to as the financial
system.
Financial System: The term liquidity is used to refer to cash, money and nearness to cash.
Money and monetary assets are traded in the financial system. Thus, provision of liquidity and
trading in liquidity are the major functions of the financial system. While cash creation is the
function of the RBI, banks do credit creation and financial institutions including the RBI, banks
and term-leading institutions, deal in claims on money or monetary assets.

16

These institutions are all a part of the financial system. Sector-wise, government and business
sectors are the major borrowers whose investment is always greater than savings. On the other
hand, in India the household and foreign sectors are the net savers, with savings exceeding
investment. The financial system provides the intermediation between investors and helps the
process of specialization and sophistication in the financial infrastructure, leading to greater
financial development that is prerequisite for faster economic development.

1.4.1 Functions of Financial Markets

The primary function of the financial markets is to facilitate the transfer of funds from surplus
sectors (lenders) to deficit sectors (borrowers). Normally, households have excess of funds or
savings, which they lend to borrowers in the corporate and public sectors whose requirement of
funds, exceed their savings. A financial market consists of investors or buyers, sellers, dealers
and brokers and does not refer to a physical location. Formal trading rules and communication
networks for originating and trading financial securities link the participants in the market. The
primary market in which public issue of securities is made through a prospectus is a retail market
and there is no physical location. The investors are reached by direct mailing. On the other hand,
the secondary market or stock exchange where existing securities are traded is an auction market
and may have a physical location such as the rotunda of the Bombay Stock Exchange or\the
trading floor of Delhi, Ahmedabad and other exchanges where the exchange members meet to
trade securities face-to-face. In the Over-The-Counter (OTCEI) market and National Stock
Exchange, trading in securities is screen-based. The Bombay Stock Exchange (BOLT) now
introduces on-line trading, and other exchanges are in the process of introducing the same that is
screen-based.
Financial markets trade in money and their price is the rate of return the buyer expects the
financial asset to yield. The value of financial assets changes with the investors expectations on
earning or interest rates. Investors seek the highest return for a given level of risk (by paying the
lowest price) and users of funds attempt to borrow at the lowest rate possible. The aggressive
interaction, of investors and users of funds in a properly functioning capital market ensures the
flow of capital to the best user. Investors receive the highest return and the users obtain funds at
the lowest cost.
The three important functions of financial markets are:
a) Financial Markets Facilitate Price Discovery. Financial markets help in establishing
the prices of financial assets. Well organized financial markets seem to be remarkably in
the rate of return and other incentives, funds flow from less efficient in price discovery.
That is why financial economists productive to more productive activities. The efficient
functioning say: If you want to know what is the value of a financial asset simply look at
its price in the financial market
b) Financial Markets Provide Liquidity to Financial Assets. Investors can readily sell
their financial assets through the mechanism of financial markets. In the absence of
financial markets, which provide such liquidity, the motivation of investors to hold
financial assets will be considerably diminished. Thanks to negotiability and
transferability of securities through the financial markets, it is possible for companies

17

(and other entities) to raise long-term funds from investors with short-term and mediumterm horizons. While one investor is substituted by another when a security is transacted,
the company is assured of long-term availability of funds.
c) Financial Markets Considerably Reduce the Cost of Transacting. The two major
costs associated with transacting are search costs and information costs. Search costs
comprise explicit costs such as the expenses incurred on advertising when one wants to
buy or sell an asset and implicit costs such as the effort and time one has to put in to
locate a customer. Information costs refer to costs incurred in evaluating the investment
merits of financial assets.

1.4.2 Classification of Financial Markets

Financial markets can be classified in various types based on the different characteristics.
a) One way is to classify financial markets by the type of financial claim. The debt market is
the financial market for fixed claims (debt instruments) and the equity market is the
financial market for residual claims (equity instruments).
b) A second way is to classify financial markets by the maturity of claims. The market for
short-term financial claims is referred to as the money market and the market for Longterm financial cli.1ims is called the capital market traditionally the cut-off between shortterm and long-term financial claims has been one year-though this dividing line is
arbitrary, it is widely accepted. Since short-term financial claims are almost invariably
debt claims, the money market is the market for short-term debt instruments. The capital
market is the market for long-term debt instruments and equity instruments.
c) A third way to classify financial markets is based on whether the claims represent new
issues or outstanding issues. The market where issuers sell new claims is referred to as
the primary market and the market where investors trade outstanding securities is called
the secondary market
d) A fourth way to classify financial markets is by the timing of delivery. A cash or spot
market is one where the delivery occurs immediately and a forward or futures market is
one where the delivery occurs at a pre-determined time in future
e) A fifth way to classify financial markets is by the nature of its organisational structure.
An exchange-traded market is characterised by a centralised organisation with
standardised procedures. An over-the counter market is a decentralised market with
customised procedures.
We will concentrate on classification as per seasoning of claims:
a) Primary market
b) Secondary market

18

Both primary market and secondary market are parts of Capital market. The capital market is a
financial relationship created by a number of institutions and arrangements that allows suppliers
and demanders of long term funds to make transactions. It is a market for long term funds. The
backbone of the capital market is formed by various securities exchanges that provide a forum
for equity (equity market) transactions.
a) Primary Market / New Issue Market / Initial Public Offering Markets: The primary
market deals with the issue of new securities , that is, securities which are not previously
available, It provides additional funds to the issuing companies either for starting a new
enterprise or for the expansion or diversification of the existing one and, therefore its
contribution to company financing is direct. The primary market is not rooted in any particular
spot and have no geographical existence. It is recognized only by the services it renders to
lenders and borrowers of capital funds at the time of a particular operation.
Functions of primary market
The general function of primary market, namely, channelizing of investible funds in to industrial
enterprises, can be spilt in to three services, which are as follows:
a) Origination: The term origination refers to the work of investigation and analysis and
processing of new proposals. These functions are performed by specialist agencies which
act as sponsors of the issue. The preliminary investigation entails careful study of
technical, economical, financial, and legal aspects of the issuing companies. This is to
ensure that it warrants the backing of the issue houses in the sense of lending their name
to the - company and, thus, ,give the issue the stamp of respectability, to satisfy
themselves that the company is strongly based, has good market prospects, is wellmanaged and ;is worthy of stock exchange quotation. In the process of origination the
sponsoring institutions render, as a second function, some service of an advisory nature
which goes to improve the quality of capital issues. These services include advice on
such aspects of capital issues as: (i) determination of the class of securities to be issued
and price of the issues in the light of market conditions" (ii) the timing and magnitude e
of issues, (iii) methods of flotation, and (iv) technique of selling, and so on market.
b) Underwriting: To ensure success of an issue, the second specialist service underwriting
provided by the institutional setup of the NIM takes the form of a guarantee that the
issues would be sold by eliminating the risk arising from uncertainty of public response.
That adequate institutional arrangement for the provision of underwriting' is of crucial
significance both to the issuing companies as well as the investing public cannot be
overstressed.
c) Distribution: The, sale of securities to the ultimate investors is referred to as distribution;
It is a specialist job which can best be performed by brokers and dealers in securities,
who maintain regular and direct contact with the ultimate investors.
b) Secondary Market/ Stock exchange / Security Market: The secondary market deals in to
old securities, which may be defined as securities which have been issued already and listed on a
stock exchange. The stock exchanges, therefore, provide regular and continuous market for
buying and selling of securities and to that extent, lend liquidity and marketability play an
19

important part in the process. Their role regarding supply of capital is indirect. The secondary
markets can in no circumstance supply additional funds since the company is not involved in the
transaction. The stock exchanges have physical existence and located in particular geographical
areas.
Functions of secondary markets: Stock exchanges discharge following three vital functions in
the orderly growth of capital formation:
a) Nexus between savings and investments: First and foremost, they are the nexus
between the savings and the investment of the community. The savings of the community
are mobilized and channelled by stock exchanges for investment in to those sectors and
units which are favored by the community at large, on the basis of such criteria as good
return, appreciation of capital, and so on. It is the preference of investors for individual
units a well as industry groups, which is reflected in the share price, that decides the
mode of investment. Stock exchanges render this service by arranging for the preliminary
distribution of new issues of capital, offered through prospectus, as also offers for sale of
existing securities, in an orderly and systematic manner. They themselves administrator
the same, by ensuring that the various requisites of listing are duly complied with
Members of stock exchanges also assist in the flotation of new issues by acting (i) as
brokers, in which capacity they, inter alia, try to procure subscription from investors
spread all over the country, and (ii) as underwriters.
b) Market Place: They provide a market place for the purchase and sale of securities,
thereby enabling their free transferability through several successive stages from the
original subscriber to the never-ending stream of buyers, who may be buying them today
to sell them at a later date for a variety of considerations like meeting their own needs of
liquidity, shuffling their investment portfolios to gear up for the ever-changing market
situations, and so on. Since the point of aggregate sale and purchase is centralised, with a
multiplicity of buyers and sellers at any point of time, by and large, a seller has a ready
purchaser and a purchaser has a ready seller at a price which can be said to be
competitive. This guarantees sales ability to one who has already invested and surety of
purchase to the other who desires to invest.
c) Continuous Price Formation: The third major function, discharged by the stock
exchanges is the process of continuous price formation. The collective judgment of many
people operating simultaneously in the market, resulting in the emergence of a large
number of buyers and sellers at any point of time, has the effect of bringing about
changes in the levels of security prices in small graduations, thereby evening out wide
swings in prices. The ever-changing demand and supply conditions result in a continuous
revaluation of assets, with today's prices being yesterday's prices, altered, corrected, and
adjusted, and tomorrows values being again today's values altered, corrected and
adjusted. The process is an unending one. Stock exchanges thus act as a barometer of the
state of health of the nations economy, by constantly measuring its progress or otherwise.
An investor can always have his eyes turned towards the stock exchanges to know, at any
point of time, the value of the investments and plan his personal needs accordingly.

20

1.4.3 Efficiency of Financial System

The real test of development of financial system is its efficiency in operations and functional
roles. The operational efficiency is reflected in the costs of intermediation, quality of service and
its width. The improved operational efficiency during the nineties is seen from significant
reforms in the capital market and stock markets, lowering of costs of credit and greater flow of
bank credit into these markets, lowering of costs raising funds from the capital market through
the route of book building and private placement. The strengthening of the institutions evidences
the Width of Services Structure and increasing the instruments of mobilizing funds, introduction
of technological innovations in the Stock and Capital markets and in the banking system,
deregulation, privatization and globalization of markets and freer flow of funds into and outside
country etc. The reforms in general and increasing role of technology and competitive forces in
particular have improved the quality of service.
Any financial system can be assessed for its functional efficiency through following criteria in
general:
1. Quantity of funds raised through saving for investment and pattern of allocation from less
to more productive purposes.
2. Its contribution to economic growth and its impact on real economic variables, reflected
in market capitalization as a proportion of GDP and the usual ratios, such as Finance ratio
- ratio of total issues to national income; Financial interrelations ratio -ratio of total issues
to net domestic capital, formation; and financial intermediation ratio -ratio of secondary
issues raised by banks and financial institutions to primary issues in the market
3. Information absorption - whether all information a market and economy are fully
reflected in the scrip prices.
4. Fundamental valuation efficiency - whether the company valuation are reflected in scrip
prices.

1.4.4 Skeleton of the Financial System

A radical restructuring of the economic system consisting of industrial deregulation,
liberalization of policies relating to foreign direct investment, public enterprise reforms, reforms
of taxation system, trade liberalization and financial sector reforms have been initiated in 199293. Financial sector reforms in the area of commercial banking, capital markets and non-banking
finance companies have also been undertaken.
The focus of reforms in the financial markets has been on removing the structural weaknesses
and developing the markets on sound lines. The money and foreign exchange market reforms
have attempted to broaden and deepen them. Reforms in the government securities market
sought to smoothen the maturity structure of debt, raising of debt at close-to-market rates and
improving the liquidity of government securities by developing an active secondary market. In
the capital market the focus of reforms has been on strengthening the disclosure standards,
developing the market infrastructure and strengthening the risk management systems at stock
exchanges to protect the integrity and safety of the market. Elements of the structural reforms in
various market segments are introduction of free pricing of financial assets such as interest rate
on government securities, pricing of capital issues and exchange rate, the enlargement of the
number of participants and introduction of new instruments.

21

Improving financial soundness and credibility of banks is a part of banking reforms undertaken
by the RBI, a regulatory and supervisory agency over commercial banks under the Banking
Companies Regulation Act 1949. The improvement of financial health of banks is sought to be
achieved by capital adequacy norms in relation to the risks to which banks are exposed,
prudential norms for income recognition and provision of bad debts The removal of external
constraints in norms of pre-emption of funds benefits and prudential regulation and
recapitalization and writing down of capital base are reflected in the relatively clean and healthy
balance sheets of banks. The reform process has, however, accentuated the inherent weaknesses
of public sector dominated banking systems. There is a need to further improve financial
soundness and to measure up to the increasing competition that a fast liberalizing and globalizing
economy would bring to the Indian banking system.
In the area of capital market, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) was set up in
1992 to protect the interests of investors in securities and to promote development and regulation
of the securities market. SEBI has issued guidelines for primary markets, stipulating access to
capital market to improve the quality of public issues, allotment of shares, private placement,
book building, takeover of companies and venture capital In the area of secondary markets,
measures to control volatility and transparency in dealings by modifying the backend system,
laying down insider regulations to protect integrity of markets, uniform settlement introduction
of screen based online trading, dematerializing shares by setting up depositor and trading in
derivative securities (stock index futures). There is a sea change in the institutional and
regulatory environment in the capital market area.
In regard to Non-Bank Finance Companies (NBFCs), the Reserve Bank of India has issued
several measures aimed at encouraging disciplined NBFCs, which run on sound business
principles. The measures seek to protect the interests of depositors and provide more effective,
prevision, particularly over those, which accept public deposits. The regulations stipulate upper
limit for public deposits, which NBFCs can accept. This limit is linked to credit rating an
approved rating agency. An upper limit is also placed on the rate of interest on deposits order to
restrain NBFCs from offering incentives and mobilizing excessive deposits, which they may not
be able to service. The heterogeneous nature, number, size, functions (deployment funds) and
level of managerial competence of the NBFCs affect their effective regulation.
Since the liberalization of the economy in 1992-93 and the initiation of reform measure the
financial system is getting market-oriented. Market efficiency would be reflected in the wide
dissemination of information, reduction of transaction costs and allocation of capital the most
productive users. Further, freeing the financial system from government interference has been an
important element of economic reforms.
Interpreting Bond and Stock Price Quotations: The financial manager needs to stay abreast of
the marker values of the firms outstanding bonds and stocks, whether they are traded on an
organized exchange, over the counter, or in international markets. Similarly, existing and
prospective bondholders and stockholders need to monitor the prices of the securities they own.
These prices are important because they represent the current value of their investment.
Information on bonds, stocks, and other securities is contained in quotations, which include
current price data along with statistics on recent price behavior. Security price quotations are

22

readily available for actively traded bonds and stocks. The most up-to-date quotes can be
obtained electronically, via a personal computer. Price information is available from
stockbrokers and is widely published in news media-both financial and non financial. Popular
sources of daily security price quotations are financial newspapers, such as the Economic Times
and the Business Standard, or the business sections of daily general newspapers published in
most major cities. Important To update yourself on regular basis read financial newspapers on
regular basis.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.5 TIME VALUE OF MONEY

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Most financial decisions, such as the purchase of assets or procurement of funds, affect the
firms cash flows in different time periods. For example, if fixed asset are purchased it will
require immediate cash outlays sand will generate cash flows during many future periods.
Similarly, if firm borrows funds from the bank it receives cash now and commits an obligation to
pay interest and repay principal in future periods. Cash flows become logically comparable when
they are appropriately adjusted for their differences in time and risk.
The recognition of the time value of money and risk is extremely vital in financial decisionmaking. If the timing and risk of cash floes is not considered, the firm may make decision, which
may allow too its objectives of maximize the owners welfare. The welfare of the owners would
be maximized when net worth or net value is created from making a financial decision. What is
Net Present Value? Its a time value concept. Money has time value. A rupee today is more
valuable then a rupee a year hence.
Reasons for individuals Time Preference for Money:
a) Uncertainty: An individual is not certain about future cash receipts, he prefers receiving
cash now.
b) Preference for Consumption: Most people have subjective preference for present
consumption over future consumption of goods and services either because of the
urgency of their present wants or because of the risk of not being in a position to enjoy
future consumption that may be caused by illness or death. As money is the means by
which individuals acquire most goods and services, they may prefer to money have now.
c) Investment Opportunities: Most individuals prefer present cash to future cash because
of the available opportunities to which they can put present cash to earn additional cash.
For e.g., an individual who is offered Rs. 100 now or Rs 100 one year from now would
prefer Rs100 now if he could earn interest of Rs 5 by putting in the saving account in the
bank for one year. His total cash in one year from now will be Rs.105.

23

DIMENSIONS OF TIME VALUE OF MONEY

PRESENT VALUE

FUTURE VALUE

Future Value
Of Single
Amount

Present Value of
Single Amount

Future Value of
Annuity

Present Value of
Annuity

Future Value of a Single Amount: Suppose you have Rs. 1000 today and you deposit it with a
financial institution, which pays 10% interest compound annually, for a period of 2 years.
Rs.
Ist Year
Principal at the beginning
1000
Interest for the year
100
Principal at the end
1100
IInd Year

Principal at the beginning

Interest for the year
Principal at the end

1100
110
1210

FORMULA:
FVn = PV (1+k) n
Where FVn = future value n years hence
PV = present value
k
= interest rate per year
n
= number of year for which compounding is done.
The factor (1+k) n is referred to as the compounding factor or the Future Value Interest Factor
(FVIFk,n)

24

Illustration 1: If you deposit Rs. 1000 today in a bank which pays 10% interest compounded
annually, how much will the deposit grow to after 8 years and 12 years?
Rs. 1000(1.10) 8 = Rs. 1000(2.144)
= Rs. 2.144
The future value, 12 years hence will be:
Rs. 1000(1.10) 12 = Rs. 1000(3.318)
= Rs. 3.318
FVn = PV

m*n
1+

k
m

Future Value of Annuity: An annuity is a series of periodic cash flows (payments or

receipt\pts) of equal amounts. The premium payment of a life insurance policy, for example, is
an annuity.
Illustration 2: Suppose you deposit Rs 1000 annually in a bank for 5 year and your deposits
earn a compound interest rate of 10%. What will be the value of series of deposits at the end of 5
years?
Rs 1000(1.10) 4 + Rs 1000(1.10) 3 + Rs1000 (1.10) 2 + Rs 1000(1.10) 2 + 1000 (1.10)
=Rs 6105
FVAn = A
Where

(1+k) n - 1
K
FVAn = future value of an annuity which has a duration of n Period
A = Constant periodic flow
K = Interest rate per period
N Duration of the annuity

The term (1+k) n - 1 is referred to as the future value interest factor for an annuity .
K
i.e. (FVIFAn)
Present Value of a Single Amount: The present value of a future cash inflows or outflow is the
amount of current cash flow that is equivalent desirability, to the decision maker, to a specified
amount of cash to be received or paid at the future date. The process of determining the present
value of a future payment or a series of future payments is called discounting.

25

Illustration 3: Suppose someone gives you Rs1000 six year hence. What is the present value of
this amount if the interest rate is 10%?
Formula:
1

PV = FVn
1+k
The factor

n
Is called the discounting factor or (PVIFkn)

1+k
The present value is
Rs1000 (PVIF10%, 6)

Rs 1000 (0.5645) = 564.5

Illustration 4: Find the present value of Rs1000 receivable 20 years hence if the discount rate is
8%.
10
10
Rs1000
1
20
= Rs1000
1
1
1.08

1.08

1.08

= Rs1000 (PVIF8%, 10) (PVIF8%, 10)

1000(0.463) (0.463) = Rs214
Present Value of an Annuity

PVAn

=A

(1+k) n - 1
K (1+k) n

PVAn =
A
=
K
=

Present value of annuity having duration n periods

constant periodic flow
Discount Rate

Illustration 5: Present value of a 4 year annuity of Rs10000 discounted at 10%

PVA4 = 10000(PVIFA10%,4)
= 10000(3.170)
= 31700

26

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.6 VALUATION OF BONDS AND SHARES

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Introduction: Valuation is the process that links risk and return to determine the worth of an
asset. It can be applied to expected benefits from real/physical as well as financial to determine
their worth at a given point of time. We will focus on valuation of two financial assets, namely,
bonds/debentures and shares. .the key inputs to valuation process are i) expected returns in terms
of cash flows together with their timing and ii) risk in terms of the required return.
The value of an asset depends on the return (cash flow) it is expected to provide over the holding
/ ownership period. The cash flow stream can be (1) annual, (2) intermittent and (3) even onetime. In addition to total cash flow estimates, their timing/pattern (e.g. amount year-wise) is also
required to identify the return expected from the bond/share. The required return is used in the
valuation process to incorporate risk into the analysis. Risk denotes the chance that an expected
cash flow would not be realized. The level of risk associated with a expected cash flow/return
has a significant bearing on its value, that is, the greater the risk, the lower the value and vice
versa. Higher risk can be incorporated into the valuation analysis by using a higher
capitalization/ discount rate to determine the present value.
Valuation of securities will be discussed in following parts:
1. The basic valuation model
2. Valuation of Bond / Debenture
a. Basic bond valuation
b. Yield to maturity
c. Semi-annual interest and bond value
3. Valuation of preference shares
4. Valuation of ordinary shares
a. Zero growth model
b. Constant growth model / Gordon model
c. Variable growth model
1. The Basic Valuation Model: The value of an security is the present value of all future cash
flows associated with it over the specified period. The expected returns are discounted, using the
required return matching with the risk of asset as the appropriate discount rate. Symbolically,
A2
An
A1
V=
+
+-----+
(1+k) 1 (1+k) 2
(1+k) n
Where V = Value of security at time zero (t = 0)
At = cash flow stream expected at the end of year t
K = appropriate discount rate
Alternatively, where expected cash flows is a mixed stream
V = [ ( A1 x PVIFk,1 ) + ( A2 x PVIFk,2 ) +- - - - - + ( An x PVIFk,n)

27

Where
PVIF1, PVIF2, PVIFn = present value interest factor in different period at discount rate k.
If expected cash flow is an Annuity,
V = A * PVIFA (k,n)
Illustration 6: Assuming a discount rate of 10 percent, and the associated cash flows detailed
below. Compute the value of assets X and Y.
Year

Expected cash flow

X

1
2
3

Rs.10,000
10,000
10,000

Y
5,000
10,000
15,000

Solution:
Value of asset X = Rs 10,000 x PVIFA (10,3) = Rs 10,000 x 2.4870 = Rs.24,870
Value of asset Y: = [(Rs.5, 000 x PVIF10,1 ) + (Rs. 10,000 xPVIF10,,2 ) + (Rs. 15,000 x PVIF10,3)
= [(Rs.5, 000 x 0.909) + (Rs. 10,000 x 0.826) + (Rs. 15,000 x 0.751)
= Rs.4545+ RS.8260+Rs.11265 = Rs. 24,070
Valuation of Bonds / Debentures: A bond / debenture are a long term debt instrument used by
the government/ business/ enterprises to raise a large sum of money. Most bonds (i) pay interest
half yearly at a stated coupon interest rate, (ii) have a maturity of 10-years and (iii) have a
par/face value of Rs 1,000 that must be repaid at maturity. Par value is the value on the face of
the bond. It represents the amount the entity borrows and promises to repay at the time of
maturity. Coupon is the specified interest rate. The interest payable to the bondholder is equal to
par value x coupon rate. Maturity period refers to the number of years after which the par value
is payable to the bondholder.
2. A Basic Bond Valuation: The value of bond is the present value of the contractual payments
its issuer is obliged .to make from the beginning till maturity.. The appropriate discount rate
would be the required return matching with risk and the prevailing interest rate. Symbolically,
B = I x (PVIFAkdn) + M x (PVIFkdn)
Where,
B = value of the bond at t = 0
I = annual interest paid
n = number of years' to maturity (term of the bond)
M = Par/maturity value
Kd = required return on the bond

28

Illustration 7: A firm has issued 10%, 10 year bond with a Rs, 1000 par value, that pays interest
annually, Compute the value of bond.
Solution:
Bo = [Rs 100 x (PVlFA10, 10) + Rs 1,000 (PVlF 10, 10)]
= (Rs 100 x 6.145) + (Rs 1,000 x 0.386)
= Rs 614.5 + Rs 386 = Rs 1,000
Impact of required Return (RR) on Bond Value

When the required Return (RR) is equal to the coupon rate (CR), the bond value equals
the par value.
When (RR) is more than (CR) , the bond value would be less than its par value, that is,
the bond would sell at a discount equal to (M-B)
When (RR) is less than (CR) , the bond value would be more than its par value, that is,
the bond would sell at a premium equals to (B-M)

Illustration 8: Assuming for the facts in illustration 2, the required return is (i) 12% (ii) 8%,
Find the value of the bond.
Solution:
(i) B = [Rs 100 x (PVlF12,10) + Rs 1,000 x (PVIF12,10)]
= [(Rs 100 x 5.650) + (Rs 1,000 x 0.322)
= Rs 565 + Rs 322 = Rs 887
The bond would sell at a discount of Rs 113 (Rs 887 - Rs 1,000)
(ii) B= [Rs 100 x (PVlF8, 10) + Rs 1,000 x (PVIF8, 10)]
= [(Rs 100 x 6.710) + (Rs 1,000 x 463)
= Rs 671 + Rs 463 = Rs 1,134
The bond would sell at a premium of Rs 134 (Rs 1,134 - Rs 1,000).
Impact of Maturity on Bond Value: When the required return (RR) is different from rate of
interest (CR), the time to maturity would affect value of bonds even though RR remains constant
till maturity. The relationship among (i) time to maturity, (ii) the RR and (iii) value are related to
(a) constant RR and (b) changing RR.
Constant Required Returns: In such a situation the value of the bond would approach as the
passage of time moves the value of the bond closer to maturity.
Changing Required Returns: The shorter the time period until a bond's maturity, the less
responsive is its market value to a given change in the required return. In other words, short
maturities have less "interest rate risk" than do long maturities when all other features, namely,
CR, par value, frequency of interest payment, are the same.
For example taking the same facts as in illustration 2 and 3, each of the three required returns
(i.e. 12, 10, and 8) is assumed to remain constant over the 10 years to its maturity. In each case,
the value ultimately equals the par value of maturity. At the 12 per cent RR, its discount declines

29

with the passage of time as its value increases from Rs 887 to Rs 1,000. When the 10 per cent
RR equals the CR, its value remains Rs 1,000. Finally, at the 8 per cent RR, its premium will
decline as its value drops fro Rs 1,000. Thus, the value of a bond approaches Rs 1,000
par/maturity value as the time to maturitydeclines.
2 b Yield to Maturity: The YTM is the rate of return that investors earn if they buy a bond at a
specific price and hold it until maturity. It assumes that the issuer of the bond makes all due
interest payment and repayments of principal as contracted/promised. The YTM on a bond
whose price equals its par/face value (i.e. purchase price = maturity value) would always be
equal to its coupon interest rate. In case the bond value differs from the par value the YTM
would differ from the CR.
Illustration 9: The bonds of the Premier Company Ltd (PCL) are currently selling at Rs.10, 800.
Assuming (i) coupon rate of interest, 10 per cent, (ii) par value, Rs 10,000, (iii) maturity 10 years
and (iv) annual interest payment, compute the YTM.
Solution: Substituting the values in following Equation
B = I x (PVIFAkdn) + M x
Rs 10,800 = [Rs 1,000 x (PVIFAkd, 10) + Rs 10,000 x (PVIFkd, 10)
If kd= 10 per cent, that is, equal to' the coupon rate, the value of the bond would be Rs 10,000.
Since the value of the bond is Rs 10,800, the kd must be less than 10 per cent.
Using 9 per cent discount rate gets
= [Rs 1,000 x (PVIFA9,10) + Rs 10,000 x (PVIF9,10)
= (Rs 1,000 x 6.418) + (Rs 10,000 x 0.422) = Rs 6,418 + Rs 4,220 = Rs 10,638
Since the value of the bond (Rs 10,638) at kd = 9 per cent is less than Rs 10,800 (current market
price). Try a lower rate of discount (kd). Using 8 per cent, we get
(Rs 1,000 x 6.710) + (Rs 10,000 x 0.463)
= Rs 6,710 + Rs 4,630 = Rs 11,340
Since the bond value (Rs 11,340) is higher than the current price of Rs 10,800, the kd (YI'M)
between 8 and 9 per cent. The exact value can be found by interpolation, which is 8.77% `
2. Semiannual Interest and Bond Values: The procedure to value bonds paying interest
semiannually (half-yearly) is similar to that for compounding interest more frequently than
annually. However, here we find out the present value. The following steps are involved in
computing the value of a bond when interest is paid semiannually.

Convert annual interest, I, to semiannual interest by dividing it by 2.

Convert the number of years to maturity, n, to the number of 6-month periods to maturity
multiplying n by 2.

30

Convert the required stated return for similar-risk bonds that also pay half-yearly interest
from an annual rate, Kd, to a semiannual rate by dividing it by 2.

Symbolically,
B = I x (PVIFAkd/2, 2n) + M x (PVIFkd/2, 2n)
2
Illustration 10: For facts in illustration4, assume (i) the bonds of the firm pay interest
semiannually, (ii) the required stated return is 14 per cent for similar-risk bonds that also pays
half-yearly interest. Compute the value of bond.
Solution: Substituting the values in following Equation we get
B = I x (PVIFAkd/2, 2n) + M x (PVIFkd/2, 2n)
2
B = (Rs 1,000 / 2) x [PVlFA14I2 x 2; 10] + Rs 10,000 x [PVlF14I2 x 2; 10]
= (Rs 1,000 / 2) x [PVlFA7, 20] + Rs 10,000 x [PVlF7, 20]
= (Rs 500 x 10.594) + (Rs 1,000 x 0.258)
= Rs 5,297 + Rs 2,580 = Rs 7,877
3. Valuation of Preference Shares: Preference shares like debentures are usually subject to
fixed rate of return/dividend. In case of no stated maturity, their valuation is similar to perpetual
bonds. Symbolically,
V

Dp
Kp
The valuation of redeemable preference shares is given by following equation
= Dp( PVIFAkp,n) + MV( PVIFpv,n)
4. Valuation of Ordinary Shares: The ordinary / Equity shareholders buy / hold shares in
expectation of periodic cash dividends and increasing share value. They would buy a share' when
it is undervalued (i.e. its true value is more than its market price) and sell it when its market price
is more than its true value (i.e. it is overvalued). The value of a share is equal to the present value
of all future dividends it is expected to provide over an infinite time horizon. Symbolically,
+
D2
+- - - - - + D
D1
1
2
(l + Ke)
(l + Ke)
(l + Ke)
P = Value of shares
Dt = per share dividend expected at the end of year, t
Ke = required return on share
P

Where ,

The equation is designed to compute the value of shares with reference to the expected growth
pattern of future dividends and the appropriate discount rate. We illustrate below the
computation reference to (i) zero growth, (ii) constant growth and (iii) variable growth.

31

Zero Growth Model: This approach to dividend valuation assumes a constant non-growing
dividend stream. With zero growth in dividends, the value of share would equal the present value
of a perpetuity of dividends (D1) discounted at Ke. Symbolically,
P

D1 (PVIFAKe )

D1
Ke

Where D1 = constant dividend per share

Ke = required return of investors
Illustration 11: The per share dividend of Premier Instruments Ltd (PIL) remains constant
indefinitely at Rs 10. Assuming a required rate of return of 16 per cent, compute the value of the
PIL's shares.
Solution:

P=

D1
Ke

Rs. 10
0.16

= Rs. 62.5

Constant Growth Model/ Gordon Model: According to this approach, dividends are assumed
to grow at a constant rate which is less than the required rate. This model is primarily known as
the Gordon ModeL the value of a share is given by following Equation
P

D1
Ke -g

Where P = value of share Ke = required rate g = growth rate in dividend

Illustration 12: The Premier Instruments Ltd (PIL) had paid the following dividends per share.
Year

Dividend per share

year

Dividend per share

2.80

2.24

2.58

2.10

2.40

2.00

Assuming a 16 per cent required return and Rs 3 per share dividend in year 7 (D1) compute the
value of the shares of PIL.
Solution:
P
=

D1
Ke -g
Rs. 3
(0.16 - 0.07)

32

Rs.33.3 per share

Variable Growth Model: As a dividend valuation approach, this model incorporates a change in
the dividend growth rate. Assuming g1 = initial growth rate and g2 = the subsequent growth rate
occurs at the end of year N, the value of the shares can be determined as follows:
Step 1: Compute the value of cash dividends at the end of each year (Dt) during the initial
growth period (years 1 - N). Symbolically,
Dt = Do x (l + g1) t = Do x PVIF g1, t
Step 2: Compute the present value of the dividends expected during the initial growth period.
Symbolically,
= (Dt x PVIFke,t)
Step 3: Find the value of the share at the end of the initial growth year, PN = (DN + 1) / (Ke g2)
This is the present value of all dividends expected from year N + 1 onwards assuming a constant
dividend growth rate, g2. The present value of PN would represent the value today of all
dividends expected to be received from year N + 1 to infinity. Symbolically,
1
(1 + Ke)N

DN + 1
Ke g2

Step 4: Add the present value components found in Step 2 and 3 to find the value of share.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is financial Management? What major decisions are required to be taken in
Financial Management?
2. Explain the objectives of financial management.
3. Distinguish between Shares and Debentures.
4. What are debentures? What are types of debenture issued by a joint stock company?
Evaluate debenture as a source of capital.
5. Describe, illustrate, compare and contrast each of the following share valuation models:
a) Zero growth b) Constant growth c) Variable growth.
6. Briefly explain and illustrate the concept of Time value of money. What is difference
between future value and Present value?
7. Discuss the important functions of financial markets?
8. What are the different ways of classifying financial markets? Explain primary market and
secondary market in detail.

33

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
2.1 Comparative Statement
2.1.1 Importance of Comparative Statement
2.1.2 Limitations of Comparative Statement
2.1.3Construction of Comparative Statement
2.2 Common Size Statement
2.2.1Advantages of Common Size Statement
2.2.2 Limitations of Common Size Statement
2.2.3 Construction of Common Size Statement
2.3 Trend Analysis
2.3.1 Advantages of Trend Percentages Analysis
2.3.2 Limitations of Trend Percentages Analysis
2.3.3 Method of preparation of Trend percentages
2.3.4 Precautions to be taken before preparing trend statements
2.4 Ratio Analysis
2.4.1Importance of Ratio Analysis,
2.4.2Limitations of Ratio Analysis
2.4.3Classification of ratios
2.5 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Financial Analysis: Financial statements presents mass of complex data in absolute monetary
terms and reveals little about liquidity, solvency and profitability of the business. In financial
analysis, the data given in financial statements is classified into simple groups and a comparison
of various groups is made with one another to pin point the strong and weak points of the
business. For example, if all the items relating to current assets are placed in one group while the
items related to current liabilities are placed in other group, the comparison between the two
groups will provide useful information.
The principal techniques of financial analysis are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Comparative Statement
Common Size Statement
Trend Analysis
Ratio Analysis
Fund Flow Statement
Cash Flow Statement

34

Comparative Financial Statements: When financial statements figures for two or more years
are placed side-by-side to facilitate comparison, these are called 'Comparative Financial
Statements.' Such statements not only show the absolute figures of various years but also provide
for columns to indicate the increase or decrease in these figures from one year to another. 'In
addition, these statements may also show the change from one year to another in percentage
form. Because of the utmost usefulness of the comparative statements, the Companies Act, 1956
has provided that the Profit & Loss Account and Balance Sheet of a Company must show the
figures of the previous year also with the figures of the current year.
2.1.1 Purpose or Importance of Comparative Statements
1. To Make the Data Simpler and More Understandable: When data for a number of
years are put side-by-side in a comparative 'form it becomes easier to understand them
and the conclusions regarding the profitability and financial position of the concern can
be drawn very easily.
2. To Indicate the Trend: This helps in indicating the trend of change by putting the
figures of production, sales, expenses, profits etc. for number of years side-by-side.
3. To Indicate the Strong Points and Weak Points of the Concern: It may also indicate
the strong points and weak points of the firm. Management can then investigate and find
out the reasons for the weak areas and can take corrective measures.
4. To Compare the Firm's Performance with the Average Performance of the
Industry: Comparative financial statements help a business unit to compare its'
performance with the average performance of the industry.
5. To Help in Forecasting: Comparative study of the changes in the key figures over a
period helps the management in forecasting the profitability and financial soundness of
the business.
2.1.2 Limitations of Comparative Statements
1. These statements do not present the change in various items in relation to total assets,
total liabilities or net sales.
2. These statements are not useful in comparing financial statements of two or more
business because there is no common base

35

Constructing Comparative Statements

In practical life any financial statement can be prepared as comparative statement but such
analysis is more popular in the case of balance sheet and income statements. Thus most
important comparative statements are:
a) Comparative Balance Sheet
b) Comparative profit &Loss Account
a) Comparative Balance Sheet: The Comparative Balance Sheet as on two or more different
dates can be prepared to increase or decrease in various assets, liabilities and capital. Such a
Comparative Sheet is very useful in studying the trends in a business enterprise.
Method of Preparing Comparative Balance Sheet: The form of comparative balance sheet
consists of four columns. In the first column the data for previous year is shown and in the
second column the data for current year is shown. In the third column the increases or decreases
in absolute data is shown in terms of rupee amounts. Fourth column shows the percentage of
increase or decrease in absolute data. The preparation of comparative balance sheet has been
explained in the following example:
Illustration 1: From, the following Balance Sheets of Asha Chemicals Ltd. as on 31st
December, 2007 and 31st December, 2008 prepare a Comparative Balance Sheet and comment
upon the changes:
BALANCE SHEETS
As on 31st December, 2007 and 2008
Liabilities
Current
Liabilities
Reserves
12% Loan
Share capital

2007
2,00,000

2008
4,00,000

3,00,000
5,00,000
5,00,000

2,00,000
8,00,000
10,00,000

15,00,000

24,00,000

Assets
Fixed Assets
Less: Accumulated
Depreciation
Current Assets

2007
12,00,000

2008
18,00,000

2,00,000
10,00,000
5,00,000

3,00,000
15,00,000
9,00,000

15,00,000

24,00,000

Solution:
COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET OF ASHA CHEMICALS LTD
as on 31st Dec., 2007 and 2008
Particulars

Increase or
decrease over
2007

% Increase or
Decrease over
2007

18,00,000
3,00,000

+6,00,000
+1,00,000

+ 50
+50

15,00,000

+5,00,000

+50

2007

2008

Fixed Assets
12,00,000
Less:
Accumulated 2,00,000
Depreciation
Net Fixed assets (A)
10,00,000

36

Working capital :Current assets (1)

Current Liabilities (2)
Working capital ((B) (1-2)

5,00,000
2,00,000
3,00,000

9,00,000
4,00,000
5,00,000

+4,00,000
+2,00,000
+2,00,000

+80
+100
+66.67

Capital Employed (A+B)

Less:- 12% Loan

13,00,000
5,00,000

20,00,000
8,00,000

+7,00,000
+3,00,000

+53.85
+60

Shareholders fund
Represented By:
Share capital
+ Reserves
Shareholders Fund

8,00,000

12,00,000

+4,00,000

+50

5,00,000
10,00,000
8,00,000

10,00,000
2,00,000
12,00,000

+5,00,000
-1,00,000
+4,00,000

+100
-33.33
+50

Comments: The analysis of the above Comparative Balance Sheets gives the following
conclusions:
a) Total fixed assets have increased by Rs. 6, 00,000, i.e. 50% increase.
b) Purchase of fixed assets was financed partly by the issue of shares for Rs. 5, 00,000 and
partly by increase in loan.
c) Share Capital has increased by Rs. 5, 00,000, i.e. 100% increase. It has strengthened the
financial position of the company.
d) Reserves have decreased by Rs. 1, 00,000 i.e. 33.33% decrease, which reflects loss in the
business during the current year.
e) Current liabilities have increased by Rs. 2, 00,000, i.e. 100% increase, but current assets
have also increased by Rs. 4, 00,000, i.e., 80% increase. It has resulted in increase in the
working capital of the firm by Rs. 2, 00,000 which has been financed by increase in loan.
f) 12% loan has increased by Rs. 3, 00,000 (60%). Out of it Rs. 1, 00,000 has been used for
purchase of fixed assets and the balance Rs. 2,00,000 has been used as working capital.
b) Comparative Profit &Loss account or Comparative Income Statement: Profit and Loss
account shows the net profit or net loss of a particular year whereas comparative profit and loss
account for a number of years provides the following information.
a) Rate of increase or decrease in sales.
b) Rate of increase or decrease in cost of goods sold.
c) Rate of increase or decrease in gross profit
d) Rate of increase or decrease in operating profit.
e) Rate of increase or decrease in net profit.
Method of Preparing Comparative Profit &Loss account: The form of comparative profit
and loss account (income statement) also consists of four columns. In the first column the data
for previous year is shown and in the second column the data for current year is shown. In the
third column the increase or decrease in absolute data is shown in terms of rupee amounts.

37

Fourth column shows the increase or decrease in various items in the form of percentages. The
preparation of Comparative Income Statement has been explained in the following illustrations:
Illustration 2: From the following Profit & Loss Account of Hindustan Trading Co. for the year
ending 31st Dec.,2005and 2006 you are required to prepare a comparative Profit & Loss Account
and give your comments.
PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
Particulars
To Cost of goods sold
To
administrative
expenses
To
selling
and
Distribution expenses
To
Interest
on
Debentures
To loss on sale of plant
To provision for income
tax
To net Profit

Solution:

2005
420,000
50,000

2006
5,60,000
66,000

25,000

23,000

12,000

12,000

6,000
40,000

4,000
48,000

77,000
6,30,000

97,000
8,10,000

Particulars
2005
By sales
6,0 0,000
By Dividend 30,000
Received

2006
7,20,000
90,000

6,30,000

8,10,000

Comparative Profit & Loss account

For the year ended 31st Dec 2005 and 2006

Particulars

2005(Rs.)

2006 (Rs.)

7,20,000
5,60,000
1,60,000

Absolute
Increase/
Decrease(Rs.)
+120,000
+140,000
-20,000

Percentage
Increase/
Decrease (%)
+20
+33.33
-11.11

Sales
Less: Cost of Goods Sold
Gross Profit(A)

6,00,000
4,20,000
1,80,000

Less :Operating expenses

Administrative expenses
Selling & distribution expenses

50,000
25,000

66,000
23,000

+16,000
-2,000

+32
-8

Total Operating expenses (B)

75,000

89,000

+14,000

+18.67

Operating profit (A-B)

105,000

71,000

-34,000

-32.38

38

Add: Dividend Received

Total Income (C)
Less: other expenses:
Interest on debentures
Loss on sale of plant
Total other expenses (D)
Income before tax (C - D)
Less Provision for Tax
Income After tax

30,000
135,000

90,000
161,000

+60,000
+26,000

+200
+19.26

12,000
6,000
18,000
117,000
40,000
77,000

12,000
4,000
16,000
145,000
48,000
97,000

-2,000
-2,000
+28,000
+8,000
+20,000

-33.33
-11.11
+23.93
+12
+25.97

Comments: The analysis of the above comparative Profit & Loss Account gives the following
information:
1. In 2006, sales have increased by Rs. 1, 20,000 (20%), but cost of goods sold has also
spurted by Rs. 1,40,000 (33.33%), as a result of which the gross profit has declined by
Rs. 20,000 (11.11 %). This means that there is a larger increase in cost of sales as
compared to sales. This should be a cause of concern and the management should
thoroughly investigate the causes of increase in cost of sales.
2. Operating expenses have increased by Rs. 14,000 (18.67%). Administrative expenses,
included in operating expenses have alone increased 'heavily and this must be a cause of
concern. Selling expenses have tome down by 8% in spite of increase in sales. This is a
favorable sign.
3. Increase in cost of sales and administrative expenses have led to a fall in operating profits
by Rs. 34,000 (32.38%).
4. Despite decrease in operating profits, the total income has increased by Rs. 26,000
(19.26%). This is due to Rs. 60,000 (200%) increase in non-operating income (dividend).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.2 COMMON SIZE STATEMENT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Common size statement that gives only the vertical percentages or ratios for financing data
without giving rupee value are known as common size statements. A comparison of two years
figures of a concern is easily made under the companies Act. Companies must show in their
profit and loss account and balance sheet the corresponding figures for the previous year.
Sometimes however the figures do not signify anything as the head of items are regrouped and
are incomparable. For a valid comparison, the previous heads should be strictly compared.

2.2.1 Advantages of Common Size Statement

Common size analysis reveals the sources of capital and all other sources of funds and the
distribution or application of the total funds in the asset of a business enterprise.

Comparison of common size statement over a number of years will clearly indicate the
changing proportion of the various components of asset, liabilities, costs, net sales and
profits.

39

Comparison of common size statement of two or more enterprises in the same industry or
that of an enterprise with the industry as a whole will assist corporate evaluation and
ranking.

2.2.2 Limitations of Common Size Statement

These statements show percentage of each item to total sum but do not show variations in
the individual items from period to period.
Common size statement is regarded by many as useless as there is no established standard
proportion of each item to total.

2.2.3 Constructing Common Size Statement

In common size statements individual figure are converted in to percentage to some common
base.

In balance sheet, the total of assets or liabilities is assumed to be equal to 100 and all the
figures are expressed as percentage of this total.
In profit and loss account, sales figure is taken as 100 and all other figure are expressed
as percentage of sales.

Illustration 3: Prepare a common size balance sheet from the following

Aroma Industries and interpret the same.
Balance Sheet
As on 31st December 2007 and 2008
Liabilities
2007(Rs.) 2008(Rs.) Assets
2007(Rs.)
Equity
share 6,00,000
6,00,000
Land & Building 8,00,000
capital
General reserve
6,80,000
10,00,000 Plant
& 3,00,000
Machinery
10% Debenture
3,00,000
3,00,000
Furniture
1,00,000
Bills Payable
84,000
1,40,000
Stock
4,50,000
Creditors
3,28,000
4,50,000
Sundry Debtors
2,55,000
Outstanding
8,000
10,000
Cash
95,000
Expenses
20,00,000 25,00,000
2000,000

Balance sheet of

2008(Rs.)
7,50,000
5,00,000
1,06,250
6,25,000
4,10,000
1,08,750
2500,000

Solution:
Balance Sheet
as on 31 December 2007 and 2008
st

Particulars
Fixed Assets:
Land & Building
Plant & Machinery

31st December 2007

31st December 2008

Amount (Rs)

Amount (Rs)

8,00,000
3,00,000

40
15

7,50,000
5,00,000

30
20

40

Furniture
Total Fixed Assets (A)
Current Assets
Stock
Sundry Debtors
Cash
Total Current Assets (B)
Total Assets (A+B)
Liabilities and Capital
Owners Equity
Equity share capital
General reserve
Total Owners Equity( C)
Long Term Borrowings
10% Debenture
Current Liabilities
Bills payable
Creditors
Outstanding expenses
Total Current Liabilities
(E)
Total liabilities and Capital
(C+D+E)

1,00,000
12,00,000

5
60

1,06,250
13,56,250

4.25
54.25

4,50,000
2,55,000
95,000
8,00,000
20,00,000

22.50
12.75
4.75
40
100

6,25,000
4,10,000
1,08,750
11,43,750
25,00,000

25
16.40
4.35
45.75
100

6,00,000
6,80,000
12,80,000

30
34
64

6,00,000
10,00,000
16,00,000

24
40
64

3,00,000

15

3,00,000

12

84,000
3,28,000
8,000
4,20,000

4.20
16.40
.40
21

1,40,000
4,50,000
10,000
6,00,000

5.60
18
.40
24

20,00,000

100

25,00,000

100

Working Notes: All the % will be calculated on basis of total of Balance sheet. Hence in 2007
% will be based on Rs. 20, 00,000 and in 2008 % will be based on 25, 00,000
Interpretation: in 2007, current assets were 40% of Total assets. In 2008, these have increased
to 45.75%. Current liabilities have also increased from 21% to 24%. Because of greater increase
in current assets than in current liabilities, the position of working capital has improved. The
percentage of fixed assets has come down from 60% to 54.25% .owners equity has remained
constant.
Illustration 4: Prepare a common size Income Statement from the following Income statement
of M/S Toshi Traders and interpret the same.
Particulars
Gross Sales
Less: Sales returns
Net Sales
Less: Cost of goods sold
Gross profit
Less: Operating expenses
Administrative expenses
Selling expenses

41

31st Dec 2000

10,30,000
30,000
10,00,000
6,00,000
4,00,000

31st Dec 2001

12,42,000
42,000
12,00,000
6,60,000
5,40,000

85,000
2,00,000

1,14,000
1,93,200

Total operating expenses

Income from operations
Add: Non-operating Income
Total Income
Less: Non-operating expenses
Net Profit

2,85,000
1,15,000
24,000
1,39,000
36,000
1,03,000

3,07,200
2,32,800
34,200
2,67,000
53,280
2,13,720

Solution:
Particulars

COMMON SIZE INCOMEW STATEMENT

31stDecember2008
31st December 2007

Gross Sales
Less: Sales returns
Net Sales
Less: Cost of goods sold
Gross profit

Amount (Rs)
10,30,000
30,000
10,00,000
6,00,000
4,00,000

%
103
3
100
60
40

Amount (Rs)
12,42,000
42,000
12,00,000
,60,000
5,40,000

%
103.50
3.50
100
55
45

Less: Operating expenses

Administrative expenses
Selling expenses
Total operating Expenses
Income from operations
Add: Non-operating Income
Total Income
Less: Non-operating expenses
Net Profit

85,000
2,00,000
2,85,000
1,15,000
24,000
1,39,000
36,000
1,03,000

8.50
20
28.50
11.50
2.40
13.90
3.60
10.30

1,14,000
1,93,200
3,07,200
2,32,800
34,200
2,67,000
53,280
2,13,720

9.50
16.10
25.60
19.40
2.85
22.25
4.44
17.81

Working Notes: All the % will be calculated on the basis of net sales
Interpretation: i) Cost of goods sold has reduced by 5% in 2001. This is due to reduction in cost
of raw material. As a result of reduction the gross profit has increased from 40% to 45%.
ii) Operating expenses have been decreased by 2.9% due to this reduction and reduction in cost if
goods sold; income from operation has increased from 11.50% to 19.40%
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.3 TREND ANALYSIS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Trend percentages analysis moves in one direction-either upward or downward progression or
regression. This method involves the calculation of percentages relationship that each statement
bears to the same item in the base year. The base year may be any one of the periods involved in
the analysis but the earliest period is mostly taken as the base year.
This trend percentage can be represented in various ways. They may be shown in a horizontal or
vertical manner. They can be plotted on a chart or on a graph by slotting curves. They are

42

sometimes calculated using the trend X as index.

2.3.1 Methods of Calculation of Trend Percentage

a) The Statement of any of the years is taken as the base.
b) Every item in the base year statement is taken as 100
c) Trend ratios are computed by dividing each figure in the other years statement with the
corresponding item in the base year statement and the result is expressed as percentages.

2.3.2 Advantages of trend analysis

a) Trend percentages indicate the increase in an accounted item along with the magnitude of
change in percentage which is more effective then absolute data.
b) The trend percentage facilitates an efficient comparative study of the financial
performance of business enterprises over a period of time.

2.3.3Limitations of trend analysis

a) Any one trend by itself is not very analytical and informative.
b) If interpretation has to be done on percentages and ratio in isolation and not along with
the absolute data from which the percentages have been derived, the interferences tend to
be absurd and baseless.
c) Comparability of trend percentages is unfavorable affected when accounts have not been
drawn on a consistent basis year after year and when the price level is not constant.
d) During the inflationary periods the data over a period of time becomes incomparable,
unless the absolute rupee data is adjusted.
e) There is always the danger of selecting the base year which may not be representative,
normal and typical. f. Trend percentages calculated for items having no logical
relationship with one another tend to be meaningless and unscientific.
f) Though the trend percentages provide significant information, undue importance and
emphasis should not be laid down on the percentages when there is a small number in the
base year. In such cases, even a slight variation will be magnified by the percentage
change.

2.3.4 Precautions to be taken before preparing trend statements

a) There should be consistency in the principles and practices followed by the organization
through out the period for which analysis is made.
b) The base year should be normal i.e. representative of the items shown in the statement.
c) Trend percentages should be calculated only for the items which are having logical
relationship with each other.
d) Trend percentages should be studied after considering the absolute figures on which they
are based.
e) Figures of the current year should be adjusted in the light of price level changes as
compared to the base year before calculating trend percentages.

43

Illustration 5: Calculate the trend percentages from the following data relating to asset side of
the Balance sheet of X Ltd. taking year ending 31st March 2006 as the base year:
2006
4,00,000
1,50,000
50,000
1,00,000
50,000
10,000
40,000

As at 31st March
2007
2008
5,00,000
5,00,000
1,50,000
2,00,000
60,000
60,000
1,25,000
1,40,000
60,000
75,000
15,000
25,000
30,000
60,000

2009
5,00,000
2,00,000
80,000
1,50,000
1,00,000
20,000
50,000

8,00,000

9,40,000

11,00,000

Assets
Land & Building
Plant
Furniture
Stock
Debtors
Cash & Bank
Other
current
Assets

10,60,000

Solution:
Trend Percentages
31 March 2006 to 2009
Absolute Amounts(Rs.)
Trend
Percentages(Base
Year 2006)
2007
2008
2009
2006 2007 2008 2009
st

Assets
2006
Fixed Assets:
Land
& 4,00,00
Building
0
Plant
1,50,00
0
Furniture
50,000
Total Fixed 6,00,00
Assets(A)
0
Current
Assets:
Stock
1,00,00
0
Debtors
50,000
Cash & Bank 10,000
Other current 40,000
Assets
Total current 2,00,00
Assets (B)
0
Total Assets 8,00,00
(A+B)
0

5,00,00
0
1,50,00
0
60,000
7,10,00
0
1,25,00
0
60,000
15,000
30,000
2,30,00
0
9,40,00
0

5,00,000

5,00,000

100

125

125

125

2,00,000

2,00,000

100

100

133

133

60,000
7,60,000

80,000
7,80,000

100
100

120
118

120
127

160
130

1,40,000

1,50,000

100

125

140

150

75,000
25,000
60,000

1,00,000
20,000
50,000

100
100
100

120
150
75

150
250
150

200
200
125

3,00,000

3,20,000

100

115

150

160

10,60,00
0

11,00,00
0

100

118

133

138

44

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.4 RATIO ANALYSIS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Introduction: Absolute figures expressed in monetary terms in financial statements by

themselves are meaningless. These figures often do -not convey much meaning unless expressed
in relation to other figures. The relationship between two figures, expressed in arithmetical term
is called a 'ratio'. In the words of R. N. Anthony A Ratio is simply one number expressed in
terms of-another. It is found by dividing one number in to other. - Ratio can be expressed in
the following three ways:
1. Pure Ratio or Simple Ratio: It is expressed by the simple division of one number by
another. For example, if the current assets of a business are Rs. 2, 00,000 and its current
liabilities are Rs. 1, 00,000, the ratio of 'Current assets to current liabilities' will be 2: 1.
2. Rate' or 'So Many Times': It is calculated how many times a figure, is in comparison to
another figure. For example, if a firm's credit sales during the year are Rs. 2,00,000 and
its debtors at the end of the year are Rs. 40,000, its Debtors Turnover Ratio = 2,00,000 /
40,000 = 5 times. It shows that the credit sales are 5 times in comparison to debtors.
3. Percentage: In this type, the re1ation between two figures is expressed in hundredth. For
example, if a firm's capital is Rs. 10, 00,000 and its profit is Rs. 2, 00,000. The ratio of
profit to capital in terms of percentage, is
2, 00,000 x 100 = 20%.
10, 00,000

2.4.1 Objectives and Advantages or Uses of Ratio Analysis

It helps the reader in giving tongue to mute the mute heaps of figures given in financial
statements. The figures then speak of liquidity, solvency, profitability etc. of the business
enterprise. Some important objects and advantages of accounting ratios are:
a) Helpful in Analysis of Financial Statements: Ratio analysis is an extremely useful
device for analyzing the financial statements. It helps the bankers, creditors, investors,
shareholders etc. in acquiring enough knowledge about the profitability and financial
health of the business.
b) Simplification of Accounting Data: Accounting ratio simplifies and summarizes a long
array of accounting data and makes them understandable. It discloses the relationship
between two such figures which have a cause and effect relationship with each other.
c) Helpful in Comparative Study: With the help of ratio analysis comparison of
profitability and financial soundness can be made between one firm and another in the
same industry. Similarly, comparison of current year figures can also be made with those
previous years with the help of ratio analysis.

45

d) Helpful in Locating the Weak Spots of the Business: Current years ratios are
compared with those of the previous years and if some weak spots are located, remedial
measures are taken to correct them.
e) Helpful in Forecasting: Accounting ratios are very helpful in forecasting and preparing
the plans for the future. For example, if sales of a firm during this year are Rs. 10 Lakhs
and the average amount of stock kept during the year was Rs. 2 Lakhs, i.e., 20% of sales
and if the firm wishes to increase sales in next year to Rs.15 Lakhs, it must be ready to
keep a stock of Rs.3, 00,000, i.e., 20% of 15 Lakhs.
f) Estimate About the Trend of the Business: If accounting ratios are prepared for a
number of years, they will reveal the trend of costs, sales, profits and other important
factsg) Fixation of Ideal Standards: Ratios help us in establishing ideal standards of the
different items of the business. By comparing the actual ratios calculated at the end of the
year with the ideal ratios, the efficiency of the business can be easily measured.
h) Effective Control: Ratio analysis discloses the liquidity, solvency and profitability of the
business enterprise. Such information enables management to assess the changes that
have taken place over a period of time in the financial activities of the business. It helps
them in discharging their managerial functions, e.g., planning, organizing, directing,
communicating and controlling more effectively.
i) Study of Financial Soundness. Ratio analysis discloses the position of business with
different view'-points. It discloses the-position of business with the liquidity point of
view, solvency point of view, profitability point of view etc. With the help of such a
study we can draw conclusions regarding the financial health of the business enterprise.

2.4.2 Limitations of Ratio Analysis

Following limitations should be kept in mind while making use of the ratio analysis:
a) False accounting Data Gives False Ratios: Accounting ratios are calculated on the basis
of data given in profit and loss account and balance sheet. Therefore, they will be only as
correct as the accounting data on which they are-based. For 'example, if the -closing
stock is overvalued, not only the profitability will be overstated but also the financial
position will appear to be better.
b) Comparison not possible if the different Firms Adopt Different Accounting Policies:
There may be different accounting policies adopted by different firms with regard to
providing depreciation, creation of provision for doubtful debts, method of valuation of
closing stock etc.
c) Ratio Analysis Becomes Less Effective Due to Price Level Changes: Price' level over
the years goes on changing; therefore, the ratios of various years cannot be compared. For

46

example, one firm sells 1,000 Machines for Rs. 10 Lakhs dunng2002, it again sells 1,500
Machines of the same type in 2003 but owing to rising prices the sale price was Rs. 15
Lakhs. On the basis of ratios it will be concluded that the sales have increased by 50%,
whereas in actual,-sales have not increased at all. Hence, the figures of the past years
must be adjusted in the light of price level changes before the ratios for these years are
compared. '
d) Ratios may be Misleading in the Absence of Absolute Data: For example, X company
produces 10 lakh meters of cloth in 2002 and 15 Lakh meters in 2003, the progress is
50%. Y Company raises its production from 10 thousand meters in 2002 to 20 thousand
meters in 2003, the progress is 100%. Comparison of these two firms made on the basis
of ratio will disclose that the second firm is more active than the first firm. Such
conclusion is quite misleading because of the difference in the size of the two firms. It is,
therefore, essential to study the ratios along with the absolute data on which they are
based.
e) Limited Use of a Single Ratio: The analyst should not merely rely on a single ratio. He
should study several connected ratio before reaching a conclusion. For example, the
Current Ratio of a firm may be quite satisfactory, whereas the Quick Ratio may be
unsatisfactory.
f) Window-Dressing: Some companies in order to cover up their bad financial position
resort to window dressing, i.e., showing a better position than the one which really exists.
g) Lack of Proper Standards: Circumstances differ fro firm to firm hence no standard
ratio can be fixed for all the firms. For ex if a firm has such type of relations with its
bankers that it can get necessary credit in case of need, the ideal current ratio for the firm
would be less than generally accepted current ideal ratio of 2:1.
h) Ration alone are not adequate for proper conclusions: They merely indicate the
probability of favorable or unfavorable position. The analyst has to use other tools and
techniques to further carry out the investigation and to arrive at a correct diagnosis.
i) Effect of personal ability and bias of the Analyst: Different person draw different
meaning of the different terms. For example one analyst may calculate ration on the basis
of profit after interest and tax while another may consider profits before interest and Tax.

2.4.3Classification of Ratios:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Liquidity Ratios
Leverage Ratios
Turnover or Activity Ratios
Profitability Ratios
Valuation Ratios

To facilitate the discussion of various ratios the financial statements of HORIZON limited,
given below will be used.

47

HORIZON Limited: Profit and loss account for the year ending 31st March 20X1
(Rs. In Million)
Particulars
20X1
Net Sales
701
Cost of goods sold
552
Stock
421
Wages and salaries
68
Other manufacturing
63
Gross profit
149
Operating expenses
60
Depreciation
30
General administration
12
Selling
18
Operating profit
89
Non operating surplus/ deficit
Profit before interest and tax
89
Interest
21
Profit before tax
68
Tax
34
Profit after Tax
34
Dividends
28
Retained Earnings
6
Per share data (in Rs.)
Earning per share
2.27
Dividend per share
1.80
Market price per share
21.0
Book value per share
17.47
HORIZON Limited: Balance sheet as on 31st March 20X1
(Rs. In Million)
20X1
262
1.Sources of Funds
a)Shareholders fund
150
Share capital
112
Reserves & Surplus
b)Loan Funds
143
(i)Secured loans
108
Due after 1 year
35
Due within 1 year
69
(ii)Unsecured loans
29
Due after 1 year
40
Due within 1 year
474
2.Application of Funds
a) Fixed Assets
330
48

20X0
623
475
370
55
50
148
49
26
11
12
99
6
105
22
83
41
42
27
15
2.80
1.80
20.0
17.07

20X0
256
150
106
131
29
40
25
10
15
412
322

b) Investments
Long term investments
Current investments
c) Current assets, loans and Advances
i)Inventories
(ii)Sundry debtors
(iii) Cash & bank balance
(iv)Loans & Advances
Less: Current liabilities & Provisions

15
12
3
234
105
114
10
5
105
129
474

Net current assets

15
12
3
156
72
68
6
10
81
75
412

A. Liquidity Ratios:
Liquidity refers to the ability of a firm to meet its obligations in the short run, usually one year.
Liquidity ratio is generally based on the relationship between current assets (the sources for
meeting short-term obligation) and current liabilities. The important liquidity ratios are Current
ratio, Acid test ratio and cash ratio
A.1 Current Ratio A very popular ratio, the current ratio is defined as:
Current Assets
Current liabilities
Current Assets include cash, current investments, debtors, inventories, loans and advances, and
prepaid expenses. Current liabilities represent liabilities that are expected to mature in next
twelve months. These comprise (i) Loans, secured or unsecured, that are due in next twelve
months and (ii) current liabilities and Provisions.
Horizon Ltds Current Ratio for 20X1 is 237/ 180 = 1.32
Normally, a high current ratio is considered to be a sign of financial strength. Bankers in India
have used a norm of 1.33. Internationally, the norm is 2.0. However, in the decade or so, a
number of firms have tried to achieve a zero or even a negative net working capital position by
managing their inventories tightly and obtaining longer credit from their suppliers. In
interpreting the current ratio, the composition of current assets must not be overlooked-perhaps
inventories may be slow-moving and a portion of loam advances may represent dues from
associate companies which may be sticky.
A.2 Acid-test Ratio also called the quick ratio; the acid-test ratio is defined as:
Quick assets
Current liabilities
Quick assets are defined as current assets excluding inventories.
Horizon's acid-test ratio for 20X1 is: (237 - 105)/180 = 0.73
This is a fairly stringent measure of liquidity as it excludes inventories, perhaps the least liquid
of current assets, from the numerator.

49

A.3 Cash Ratio Sometimes, financial analysts look at cash ratio, which is defined as:
Cash and bank balances + Current investments
Current liabilities
Horizon's cash ratio for 20X1 is: (10 + 3)/180 = 0.07
This is a very stringent measure of liquidity. Indeed lack of immediate cash may not matter if the
firm can stretch its payments or borrow money at short notice.
B. Leverage Ratios
Financial leverage refers to the use of debt finance. While debt capital is a cheaper source of
finance, it is also a riskier source of finance. Leverage ratios help in assessing the risk arising
from the use of debt capital. Two types of ratios are commonly used to analyze financial
leverage: structural ratios and coverage ratios. Structural ratios are based on the proportions of
debt and equity in the financial structure of the firm. The structural ratios are: debt-equity ratio
and debt-assets ratio. Coverage ratios show the relationship between debt servicing
commitments and the sources for meeting these burdens. The important coverage ratios are:
interest coverage ratio, fixed charges coverage ratio, and debt service coverage ratio.
B.1 Debt-equity Ratio The debt-equity ratio is defined as:
Debt
Equity
The numerator of this ratio consists of all debt, short- term as well as long-term, and the
denominator consists of net worth plus preference capital plus deferred tax liability.
Horizons debt-equity ratio for the 20X1 year-end is:
212 / 262 = 0.809
In general, the lower the debt-equity ratio, the higher the degree of protection enjoyed by
creditors. In using this ratio, however, the following points should be borne in mind:

The book value of equity may be an understatement of its true value in a period of rising
prices. This happens because assets are carried at their historical values less depreciation, not
at current values.
Some forms of debt (like term loans, secured debentures, and secured short-term bank
borrowing) are usually protected by charges on specific assets and hence enjoy superior
protection.
A Variant of this ratio is total outside liabilities to tangible net worth ratio, which is
considered very important by commercial banks. Total outside liabilities are equal to debt, as
defined above plus deferred tax liability. Tangible net worth is equal to: paid-up capital +
Reserves and surplus miscellaneous expenditure and losses.
B.2 Debt-asset Ratio The debt-asset ratio measures the extent to which borrowed funds support
the firm's assets. It is defined as:
Debt
Assets

50

The numerator of this ratio includes all debt, short-term as well as long-term, and the
denominator of this ratio is the total of all assets (the balance sheet total).
Horizons debt-asset ratio for 20X1 is:
212 / 474 = 0.45
B.3 Interest Coverage Ratio Also called the times interest earned, the interest coverage ratio is
defined as:
Profit before interest and taxes
Interest
Horizon's interest coverage ratio for 20X1 is:
89/21 = 4.23
Note that profit before interest and taxes are used in the numerator of this ratio because the
ability of a firm to pay interest is not affected by tax payment, as interest on debt funds is a taxdeductible expense. A high interest coverage ratio means that the firm can meet its interest
burden even if earnings before interest and taxes suffer a considerable decline. A low interest
coverage ratio may result in financial embarrassment when earnings before interest and taxes
decline. This ratio is widely used by lenders to assess a debt capacity.
B.4 Fixed Charges Coverage Ratio This ratio shows how many times the cash flow before
interest and taxes covers all fixed financing charges. It is defined as:
Profit before interest and taxes + Depreciation
Interest + Repayment of loan 1- Tax rate
In the denominator of this ratio only the repayment of loan is adjusted upwards for the tax factor
because the loan repayment amount, unlike interest, is not tax deductible. Horizon's tax rate has
been assumed to be 50 percent.
-- Horizon's fixed charges coverage ratio for 20X1 is:
= 0.70
119
21 + 75
0.50
This ratio measures debt servicing ability comprehensively because it considers both interest and
the principal repayment obligations. The ratio may be amplified to include other fixed charges
like lease payment and preference dividends.
The fixed charge coverage ratio has to be interpreted with care because short-term loan , funds
like working capital loans and commercial paper tend to be self-renewing in nature, hence do not
have to be ordinarily repaid from cash flows generated by operations. Hence, a fixed charge
coverage ratio of less 1 need not be viewed with much concern.
B.5 Debt Service Coverage Ratio Used by financial institutions in India, the debt service ratio
is defined as:
Profit after tax + Depreciation + Other non-cash charges + Interest on term loan + Lease rentals
Interest on term loan + Lease rentals + Repayment of term loan

51

Financial institutions calculate the average debt service coverage ratio for the period during
which the term loan for the project is repayable. Normally, financial institutions regard a debt
service coverage ratio of 1.5 to 2.0 as satisfactory.
C. Turnover Ratio
Turnover ratios, also referred to as activity ratios or asset management ratios, measure how
efficiently the assets are employed by a firm. These ratios are based on the relationship between
the level of activity, represented by sales or cost of goods sold, and levels of various assets. The
important turnover ratios are: inventory turnover, Average collection period, receivables
turnover, fixed assets turnover, and total assets turnover.
C.1 Inventory Turnover The inventory turnover, or stock turnover, measures how fast the
inventory is moving through the firm and generating sales. It is defined as:
Cost of goods sold
Average inventory
Where Average Inventory = (Opening Stock + Closing Stock) / 2
Horizons inventory turnover for 20Xl is:
552
= 6.24
(105 + 72)/2
The Inventory turnover reflects the efficiency of inventory management. The higher the ratio, the
more efficient the management of inventories and vice versa. However, a high inventory
turnover may be caused by a low level of inventory which may result in frequent stock outs and
loss of sales and customer goodwill.
C.2 Debtor Turnover This ratio shows how many times sundry debtors (accounts receivables)
turn over during the year. It is defined as:
Net credit sales
Average sundry debtors
If the figure for net credit sales is not available, one may have to make do with the net sales
figure.
Horizon's debtors' turnover for 20X1 is:
=
7.70
701
(114 +68)/2
Obviously, the higher the debtors' turnover the greater the efficiency of credit management.
C.3 Average Collection Period The average collection period represents the number of days
worth of credit sales that is locked in sundry debtors. It is defined as:
365

Debtors' turnover
The average collection period may be compared with the firm's credit terms to judge efficiency
of credit management. For example, if the credit terms are 2/10, net 45, an average collection
period of 85 days means that the collection is slow and an average collection period of 40 days
means that the collection is prompt.

52

C.4 Fixed Assets Turnover This ratio measures sales per rupee of investment in fixed assets. It
is defined as:
Net sales
Average net fixed assets
Horizon's fixed assets turnover ratio for 20X1 is:
701 / [(330 + 322)/2] = 2.15
This ratio is supposed to measure the efficiency with which fixed assets are employed. A high
ratio indicates a high degree of efficiency in asset utilization and a low ratio reflects inefficient
use of assets.
C.5 Total Assets Turnover the assets turnover is defined as:
Net sales
Average total assets
Horizon's total assets turnover ratio for 20X1 is:
701 [(474 + 412)/2] = 1.58
This ratio measures how efficiently assets are employed, overall.
D. Profitability Ratios
Profitability ratios reflect the final result of business operations. There are two types of
profitability ratios: profit margin ratios and rate of return ratios. Profit margin ratios show the
relationship between profit and sales. Since profit can be measured at different stages, there are
several measures of profit margin. The most popular profit margin ratios are: gross profit margin,
operating profit margin, and net profit margin. Rate of return ratios reflects the re1ationship
between profit and investment. The important rate of return measures are: return on assets,
earning power, return on capital employed, and return on equity.
D.1 Gross Profit Margin The gross profit margin ratio is defined as:
Gross profit
Net sales
Gross profit is defined as the difference between net sales and cost of goods sold. Gross profit
margin ratio for 20X1 is:
149/701 = 0.21 or 21 percent
This ratio shows the margin left after meeting manufacturing costs. It measures the efficiency of
production as well as pricing.
D.2 EBITDA Margin The EBITDA margin is defined as:
Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization
Net sales
Horizons EBITDA margin-for 20X1 is:
119/701 = 0.17 or 17 percent

53

This ratio shows the margin left after meeting manufacturing expenses, selling, general and
administration expenses (SG&A). It reflects the operating efficiency of the firm.
D.3 Net Profit Margin The net profit margin ratio is defined as:
Net profit
Net sales
Horizons net profit margin ratio for 20X1 is:
34/701 = 0.049 or 4.9 percent
This ratio shows the earnings left for shareholders (both-equity and preference) as a percentage
of net sales. It measures the overall efficiency of production, administration, selling, financing,
pricing and. tax management.
D.4 Return on Assets (ROA) The return on Assets is defined by:
Profit after tax
Average total assets
Horizons ROA for the year 20X1 is:
34 / [(412 + 474) / 2] = 7.7%
ROA is a odd measure because its numerator measures the return to shareholders but its
denominator represents the all investors.
D.5 Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) The return on capital employed is defined as:
Profit before interest and tax(1-tax rate)
Average Total Assets
89(1-0.5) [(412 + 474) / 2] = 0.201 or 20.1%
ROCE is the post tax version of earning power. It considers the effect of taxation, but not the
capital structure.
D.6 Return on Equity A measure of great interest to equity shareholders, the return on Equity
(ROE) is defined as:
Equity Earnings
Average Equity
The numerator of this ratio is equal to profit after tax less preference dividends.. The
denominator includes all contributions made by Equity shareholders ( paid up capital + reserves
and surplus).
Horizons ROE for the year 20X1 is:
34 [(262 + 256) / 2 = 0.131 or 13.1%
The return on equity is most important measure of performance in accounting sense. It is
influenced by several factors such as debt- Equity ratio, average cost of debt funds, and tax rate.
In judging all the profitability measures it should be born in mind that the historical valuation of
assets imparts an upward bias to profitability measures during an inflationary period. This

54

happens because numerator represents current values and denominator represents historical
values.
E. Valuation Ratios
Valuation ratios indicate how the equity stock of the company is assessed in the capital market.
Since the market value of the equity reflects the combined influence of risk and return, valuation
ratios are most comprehensive measure of a firms performance. The important valuation ratios
are; Price-earning ratio, EV-EBITDA ratio, and market value to book value ratio.
E.1 Price-earning ratio: The price earning ratio is defined as:
Market price per share
Earning per share
The market price per share may be the price prevailing on a certain day. The earning per share is
simply: profit after tax less preference dividend divided by number of out standing equity shares.
Horizons Price-earning ratio at the end of year 20X1 is:
21.0 / 2.27 = 9.25
This ratio primarily reflects growth prospects, risk, shareholders orientation, and degree of
liquidity.
E.2 EV-EBITDA The EV-EBITDA ratio is defined as:
Enterprises Value (EV)
Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (EBITDA)
EV is sum of market value of equity and market value of debt.
Horizons EV-EBITDA for the year 20X1 is:
4.43
15 x 21 + 212 =
119
EV-EBITDA I supposed to reflect the profitability, growth, risk, liquidity and corporate image
E.3 Market value to Book value Ratio The market value to book value ratio is defined as:
Market value per share
Book value per share
Horizons market value to book value ratio for the year 20X1 is:
21.00/ 17.47 = 1.20
Comparative Analysis: For judging whether the ratios are high or low, one has to make a
comparative analysis such as:
I. Cross section analysis( in which industry average may be used as benchmark)
II. Time series analysis (in which the ratios of the firm are compared over time.

55

I. Cross section analysis (in which industry average may be used as benchmark)
Following exhibit shows the ratios of Horizon limited with industry average
Comparison of ratios of Horizon limited with industry average
Ratio

Formula

Horizon Industry
ltd.
Average

Current assets
Current Liability
Quick assets
Current liabilities

1.32

1.26

.73

.69

Debt
Equity
Debt
Assets

.81

1.25

.45

.56

B.3 Interest coverage EBIT

ratio
Interest
C.Turnover
C.1 Inventory turnover
Net sales
Average Inventory

4.23

4.14

6.24

66.43

C.2 Accounts receivable Net credit sales

turnover
Average Accounts receivables
C.3 Fixed assets Turnover Net sales
Average net fixed assets

7.70

7.50

2.15

2.23

C.4 Total assets turnover

Net sales
Average Total assets

1.582

1.26

Gross profit
Net sales

21.0%

18.0%

Net profit
Net sales
Net profit
Average Total assets

4.9%

4.0%

7.7%

6.9%

D.4 ROCE

PBIT(1-T)
Average Total assets

10.1%

8.8%

D.5 ROE

Equity Earnings
Average net worth

13.1%

11.9%

A. Liquidity
A.1 Current ratio
A.2 Acid test ratio
B. Leverage
B.1 Debt-Equity Ratio
B.2 Debt- asset ratio

D. Profitability
D.1 gross profit margin
D.2 Net profit margin
D.3 Return on assets

E.Valuation

56

E.1Price-earning ratio

Market price per share

Earning per share

9.25

9.26

E.2 Market value to book Market price per share

value ratio
Book price per share

1.20

1.16

Comments:
1. It has favorable liquidity position. All the liquidity ratios are higher than the industry
average.
2. Leverage ratios are shade lower than the industry average.
3. Turnover ratios are more or less comparable with industry average.
4. Profit margin ratios are somewhat higher than the industry average. The rate of return
measures of Horizon ltd. are also higher than the industry average.
5. Valuation ratios are also slightly favorable than the industry average.
II. Time series analysis (in which the ratios of the firm are compared over time)
Following table shows the Time series of certain financial ratios for five years
Ratios
Debt equity Ratio
Total asset turnover ratio
Net profit margin (%)
Return on Equity (%)
Price- earning ratio

1
.91
1.51
8.8
25.4
18.6

2
.98
1.59
11.6
30.7
15.3

3
.65
1.58
9.8
24.5
10.3

4
.61
1.53
6.6
16.7
7.1

5
.81
1.58
4.9
13.1
9.3

Comments:
1. The debt equity ratio improved for three years in succession but deteriorated in last year.
2. Total assets turnover ratio remained more or less the same.
3. The net profit margin ratio And ROE improved impressively in the second year but than
decline over remaining three year.
4. Price earning ratio deteriorated steadily over time except in the last year.
Illustration 6: The financial statement of Matrix Limited is given below:
Profit and loss account for the year ending 31st march 2001
2001
1065
805
600
120
85
260
90

Net sales
Cost of goods sold
Stocks
Wages and Salaries
Other manufacturing expenses
Gross profit
Operating expenses
57

(Rs. in millions)
2000
950
720
520
110
90
230
75

depreciation
Selling and Administration expenses
Profit before interest and tax
Interest
Profit before tax
Tax
Profit after tax
Dividends
Retained earnings

50
40
170
35
135
50
85
35
50

40
35
155
30
125
40
80
30
50

Balance sheet as on 31st march 2001

(Rs. in millions)
2001
2000
1.Sources of Funds
a)Shareholders fund
Share capital
Reserves & Surplus
b)Loan Funds
(i)Secured loans
Due after 1 year
Due within 1 year
(ii)Unsecured loans
Due after 1 year
Due within 1 year
Total

505
125
380
280
180
130
50
100
60
40
785

455
125
330
260
160
135
255
100
70
30
715

Total

550
30
20
10
355
160
120
25
50
150
205
785

495
25
20
5
333
138
115
20
62
13
195
715

2.Application of Funds
a) Fixed Assets
b) Investments
Long term investments
Current investments
c) Current assets, loans and Advances
i)Inventories
(ii)Sundry debtors
(iii) Cash & bank balance
(iv)Loans & Advances
Less: Current liabilities & Provisions
Net current assets

Calculate the following ratios:

a) Current ratio b) Acid test ratio c)Cash ratio d)Debt-Equity ratio e) Interest coverage Ratio
f)Fixed charges coverage ratio g)Inventory turnover ratio h)Debtors turnover ratio i) Average
collection period j) Fixed asset turnover ratio k) Total asset turnover l)gross profit margin
m)net profit margin n)return on asset o)Return on equity

58

Solution:
a)Current ratio

Current assets,loans&advances+Current
investment
Current liabilities and provisions + short tern debt

355+10
150+90

1.52

Quick assets
Current liabilities

365-160
240

0.85

Cash & bank balance. + Current investments

Current liabilities

25+10
240

0.15

d)Debt-Equity
ratio

Debt
Equity

280
505

0.55

e)
Interest
coverage Ratio

PBIT
Interest

170
35

4.9

f)Fixed charges
coverage ratio

PBIT + Depreciation
Interest + Repayment of loan
1 Tax rate

170+50
35 + 90
1-.37

1.24

b) Acid test ratio

c)Cash ratio

g)Inventory
turnover ratio
h)Debtors
turnover ratio

Cost of goods sold

Average Inventory
Net credit sales
Average debtors

i)
Average
collection period
j) Fixed asset
turnover ratio
k) Total asset
turnover
l)Gross
profit
margin
m)Net
margin

profit

805
5.40
(160+138) /2
1065
9.06
(120+115)/2

365
Debtors Turnover
Net sales
Average net fixed assets
Net sales
Average total assets
Gross profit
Net sales

365
9.06
1065
(550+495)/2
1065
(785+715)/2
200
1065

Net profit
Net sales

85
1065

7.98%

40.3days
2.04
1.42
24.4%

n) Return
asset

on

Net profit
Average total assets

85
(785+715)/2

11.3%

o)Return
equity

on

Equity earnings
Average Equity

85
(505+455)/2

17.7%

59

Problem 1: From the financial statements of Sweety Ltd calculate accounting ratios.
Balance Sheet as on 31.03.94
Assets
Amount(Rs.)
Liabilities
Amount (Rs.)
Cash
65,000
Bills Payable
30,000
Book Debts
45,000
Provision for Dividend
25,000
Bank Overdraft
25,000
Inventory
60,000
Prepaid Expenses
10,000
Equity Capital
275,000
Share Premium
45,000
Plant & Machinery 210,000
Furniture & Fixtures 75,000
Profit & Loss
65,000
4,65,000
4,65,000

Sales
Cost of Sales:
Opening stock
Purchases
Closing stock

Revenue statement for the year 1993-94

Amount (Rs.)
560,000
66,000
310,000
(60,000)
316,000
244,000
158,400
85,600

Gross Profit
Operating Expenses
Net profit

Problem 2: The following is the summarized profit and loss account of Hindustan Products Ltd.
for the year ended 31st December, 1990 and the Balance Sheet of the company as on that date:
PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
For the year ended 31st December, 1990
Particulars
Rs. Particulars
Rs.
Opening Stock
99,500 Sales
8,50,000
Purchases
5,45,250 Closing Stock
1,49,000
Direct Expenses
14,250
Gross Profit
3,40,000
9,99,000
9,99,000
Administration Exp.
Selling expenses
Financial
Exp.
(Interest on loan)
Loss on sale of
Assets
Net Profit

1,50,000 Gross Profit

30,000 Interest on Investment
15,000 Profit on sale of shares

3,40,000
3,000
6,000

4,000
1,50,000
3,49,000

3,49,000

60

BALANCE SHEET
Liabilities
13,00 Equity shares of Rs.
100 each
Reserve
Profit & Loss Alc
.Loan
from
financial
institutions
Bank Overdraft
Sundry Creditors
Outstanding Expenses

Rs.
Assets
1,30,000 Land and Building
90,000 Plant

Rs.
1,50,000
80,000

60,000 Stock
70,000 Debtors
20,000 B/R
95,000 Cash and Bank Balance
15,000
4,80,000

1,49,000
60,000
11,000
30,000
4,80,000

Calculate the following ratios and give your comments:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Quick Ratio
Debt Equity Ratio
Proprietary Ratio
Stock Turnover Ratio
Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio
Net Profit Ratio
Return on Equity

Problem 3: Following information is given to you:

Annual Sales
Percentage of Gross Profit on Sales
Average Stock
Current Liabilities
Current Ratio
Closing Stock
Receivables at the end
You are required to calculate:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Stock Turnover
Current Ratio
Acid Test Ratio
Receivables Turnover
Average age of Receivables in months

61

Alpha Ltd.

Beta Ltd.

Rs.15,00,000
20%
Rs.80,000
Rs.1,00,000
3:1
Rs.82,000
Rs.2,00,000

10,00,000
22%
65,000
80,000
2.6:1
60,000
1,25,000

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.5 REVIEW QUESTIONS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is ratio analysis? Explain its objectives and limitations.
2. Explain the important ratios to measure the Liquidity and profitability of a company.
3. Explain the significance and method of calculation of following ratios: (i) Liquid ratio (ii)
Debt- Equity ratio (iii) Debtors turnover ratio
4. What do you mean by analysis of financial statements? What are the tools for analysis of
financial statements? Explain any two of them.
5. What do you mean by comparative financial statements? How are these prepared?
Explain their utility.
6. What do you mean by common size financial statements? How are these prepared?
Explain their utility.
7. What do you mean by Trend Percentages? How are these prepared? What are its
advantages and limitations?

62

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CASH FLOW
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
3.1 Fund Flow Statement
3.1.1 Objectives of Funds Flow Statement
3.1.2 Limitations of Funds Flow Statement
3.1.3 Preparation of Funds Flow Statement,
3.2 Cash Flow Statement
3.2.1 Direct and Indirect methods of cash flow.
3.3 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.1 FUND FLOW STATEMENT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Introduction: Fund flow statement is a statement which explains the change in the items of
balance sheet over the period of time. A fund flow statement examines the sources and uses of
funds of a firm between two points of time. The term Funds has been described in many ways.
Many interpret funds as cash only and fund flow statement prepared of this ratio is called a cash
flow statement. In this type of statement only inflow and outflow of cash flow obtain into
account. This narrow concept of cash flow often leads to omission of such items which do not
directly affect cash or working capital. Thus the term funds flow refers to change in working
capitals. The sources and the composition of working capital at the end of the period are
important factors in evaluating post activities and in judging a companys ability to prosper in
the future.
The funds flow statement is called by different names, viz sources and application of funds,
sources and uses of funds, movements of funds statement and where got and where gone
statement. This statement is prepared to indicate the increase in cash resources and utilization of
such resources of a business during a given period. The usefulness of a balance sheet is limited to
analysis and planning purpose. It does not serve the purpose. Fund Flow Statement discloses the
result or the policies followed by the financial management in a way which makes it more
understandable to observe than the other financial statement.

3.1.1Objectives / Uses/ Importance of Funds Flow Statement:

The utility of this statement can be measured on the basis of its contribution to the financial
management. It generally serves the following purpose:
1. Analysis of Financial Position: The basic purpose of preparing the statement is to have a
rich insight into where the funds were obtained and used in the past. In analyzing the
financial position of the firm the funds flow statement answers to such questions as:
Where were the net current assets of the firm down, though the net income was up or vice
versa? How was it possible to distribute dividends in absence of or in excess of current

63

income for the period? How was the expansion in plants and equipment financed? How
was the sale proceed of plant and machinery used? How were the debts retired? What
became to the proceeds of shares issues or debentures issued? How was the increase in
working capital financed? Where did the profits go?
2. Evaluation of the Financing Capacity: One important use of the statement is that it
evaluates the firms financing capacity. The analysis of sources of funds reveals how the
firm had financed its development project in the past, from internal sources or from
external sources. It also reveals the rate of growth of the firm.
3. Instrument for Allocation of Resources: In modern large scale business, available
funds are always short for expansion programs and there is always a problem of
allocation of resources. The amount of funds to be available for these projects shall be
estimated by the finance manager with the help of funds flow statement. This prevents
the business form coming a help less vision of unplanned action.
4. Tool of communication to outside world: Funds flow statement helps in gathering the
financial states of business. In the present world credit financing it provides useful
information to bankers, creditors, financial institution and governments regarding amount
of the loan required, its purpose, the terms of repayment and sources for repayment of
loan etc. It carries information regarding firms financial policies to the outside world.
5. Future guide: The management can formulate its financial policies based on information
gathered from the analysis of such statement. Financial manager can rearrange the firms
financing more affectivity on the expected changes in trade payables and the various
accruals. In this guide the management in arranging its financing more effectively.
Funds statement supplies valuable information to the management and aid material in
planning for expansion in dividend polices and other major programs. If handled
properly, it gives information which is not available elsewhere.

3.2.2 Limitations of Fund Flow Statement

1. It ignores certain non-fund transactions (such as issue of shares in consideration of
purchase of fixed assets) which have equal bearing on the financial position of the firm
just like other fund transactions.
2. It reveals only the changes in working capital and does not show the changes in cash
position. It is possible that there is sufficient working capital and yet the firm may be
unable to meet its current liabilities due to shortage of cash. It may be due to sizeable
piling up of inventories and an increase in debtors. Hence, a cash flow statement has to be
prepared.
3. It is historical in nature because it reports what has happened in the past. It is quite
difficult to predict the future operations on the basis of past records.
4. Since it is based on opening and closing balance sheets and the profit and loss account, it
is not a original statement which can provide an original evidence to the change in
financial position.

64

3.1.3 Preparation of Fund flow Statement

Before preparing a Fund Flow Statement, it is essential to understand the following:
1. Classification of Balance Sheet
2. Meaning of Fund
3. Meaning of Flow
Classification of Balance Sheet:
Liabilities
(A)Non-Current
Liabilities:
i. Share Capital:
Preference Share
Capital Equity
Share Capital
ii. Reserves and
Surplus:
Capital Reserve
Capital Redemption
Reserve Share
Premium
General Reserve
Sinking Fund
Other Reserves
Profit & Loss Alc
i. Debentures
ii.

Long-term
loans
(B) Current
Liabilities:
Bills Payable
Creditors
Short-term Loans
Bank overdraft
Outstanding Expenses
Amount received in
advance

Amount(Rs.)

Assets
(C )Non-Current Assets:
i. Fixed Assets :
Goodwill
Land &
Buildings
Plant &
Machinery
Furniture &
Fittings
Patents, Trade marks,
Copy rights Long-term
Investments
ii.

Miscellaneous
Expenditure:
Preliminary Expenses
Discount on Issue of
Shares and Debentures
Profit & Loss: Loss
(D) Current Assets:
Bills
Receivable
Debtors
Closing stock
Prepaid Expenses
Accrued income
Marketable
Securities Short
term investments
Cash at Bank
Cash in hand

Items mentioned in the Balance sheet have been explained below:

65

Amount(R
s.)

Non-Current Liabilities: All liabilities payable over a period longer than one year are noncurrent liabilities. Non-current liabilities also include share capital, share premium, Loss Account
(Cr. balance), and all reserves.
Current Liabilities: All liabilities which are payable within one year are known as current
liabilities such as B/P, Creditors etc. long-term loans, if maturing with in one year, should also be
treated as current liabilities, but only if long-term funds are not raised to pay them off. Provision
against current assets like provision for doubtful debts is also treated as current liabilities.
Non-Current Assets: The assets which are put to use in the business for a long time are noncurrent assets. The object is not to resell them.
Current Assets: The assets which are reasonably expected to be realized in cash or sold or
consumed within one year are termed as current assets. These assets continue changing.
(2) Meaning of Funds: In a limited sense, the term 'fund' means 'cash'. But this is not the correct
meaning of the term 'fund' because there are many transactions in the business which do not
result in inflow or outflow of cash but certainly result in the inflow or outflow of funds. For
example, a machine is purchased on two months credit. Although cash is not immediately
affected by this transaction, it certainly results in an outflow of funds. As such, the term fund'
stands for 'Working Capital'. Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities.
(3) Meaning of Flow: The term 'flow' means change or movement. Therefore, the term 'Flow of
Funds' means 'change in funds' or 'change in Working Capital'. In other words, 'FLOW of Funds
means increase or decrease in working capital. Every Transaction will have one of the followings
effect:
a) If a transaction results in the increase of working capital, it is said to be a source of funds.
b) If the transaction results in the decrease of working capital, it is said to be an application
of funds.
c) If the transaction does not result in any change in the working capital, it is said that it
does not result in the flow of fund.
While preparing Fund Flow Statement Usually,
a) Schedule of Changes in working capital is prepared and
b) Fund From Operations is calculated
a) Preparation of Schedule of Changes in working capital: This schedule considers only
current assets and current liabilities, at the end of the year and at the beginning of the year. This
schedule shows either increase or decrease in working capital. Following rules are followed
while preparing a Schedule of Changes in working capital:
a) An increase in Current Assets ... results in increase in working capital
b) A decrease in Current Assets ... results in decrease in working capital
c) An increase in Current liabilities... results in decrease in working capital
d) A decrease in Current Assets ... results in increase in working capital

66

Note: Schedule of changes in working capital is prepared only from items given in balance
sheets. There will be no effect of the additional information given at the end of the question.
b) Calculation of Funds from Operations: In order to prepare funds flow-statement it is
necessary to ascertain the sources-and application of funds. Main source of fund in a business is
funds from Operations.
Funds from Operations: The figure of net profit shown by Profit & Loss Account is generally
affected by some items which do not affect flow of funds, but which have already been debited
or credited. Therefore, the funds from operations can be calculated by adding or deducting these
non-fund items from the net profit shown by Profit & Loss Account.
Items to be added back to Net Profit:
1. Non-Fund Items There are some items on the debit side of the Profit & Loss Account
which affect the net profit but do not result in application of funds In other words, these
items do not result in the increase or decrease in the Working Capital. Such items are
called as 'Non-Fund items'. These items should be added back to net profit. These items
are generally as follows: Depreciation: Depreciation is not paid in cash like other
expenses, therefore, it does not affect amount of current assets or current liabilities in any
way. Amortization of Fictitious or Intangible Assets: When these assets are written off,
they are debited to profit & loss account. But the writing off of these assets does not
involve any cash payment so this does not affect the working Capital in any way. These
assets include the following: Goodwill written off, Preliminary Expense, Patent
Rights, Trade Marks and Copy Rights, Discount on Issue" of Shares and Debentures.
Deferred Revenue Expenditure such as, Advertisement Suspense A/c.
2. Non-Trading Losses: There are some items of losses which are debited to profit and loss
account, but which are not related to general trading operations of the business. They
should also be added back to net profit. These are as follows: Loss on sale of fixed assets
: such as loss on sale of land, Building, Plant and Machinery, long-term investments is
not a trading loss, hence, it should also be added back to net profit.
3. Appropriation of Profits: These not trade expenses. Although net profit is reduced by
these appropriations, they have no impact on current assets or current Iiabi1ities, and
hence they should be added back to net profit. These appropriations are as follows:
Transfer to General Reserve, Transfer to Sinking Fund, Transfer to Dividend
Equalization Fund, Transfer to Debenture Redemption Fund, Transfer to Reserve for
Contingencies etc. Payable or proposed Dividend: Payable or proposed Dividend to
shareholders is not a trading charge. Hence, if must also be added back to net profit.
Provision for Taxation: This is not a trading charge; therefore, it should be added back
to net profit. -

67

Items to be deducted from Net Profit: There are some incomes which are shown on the
credit side of profit & loss account, but they are non-trading incomes. These items should
be deducted from net profits to compute funds from operations. Mainly these items are as
follows: Profit on Sale of Fixed Assets: Total amount of cash received from sale of fix assets is
shown separately in the funds flow statement as a source of funds, therefore if such profit is
already credited to profit find loss account, it should be deducted from profits. Receipt of
Dividend and Interest on Investments: It is not a trading income hence it should be deduced
from profits. Increase in the Value of Fixed Assets: If it appears on the credit side of profit&
loss account, it should also be deducted from profits because it is not a business income. ReTransfer of Excess Provisions: When provisions are made in excess business needs, they are
again transferred to the credit side of profit & loss-account. These should also be deducted from
profits because they are not business income.
Preparation of Fund Flow Statement Involves
1. Sources of Funds
2. Application of Funds
Sources of Funds:
1. Funds from Operations: Profits resulting from business operations is most important
source of funds. Computation of funds from operations has already been discussed.
2. Issue of Shares: When Shares are issued for cash they are source of funds. But when
bonus shares are issued or shares are issued for some other consideration like fixed asset
than it is not a source of funds.
3. Issue of Debenture and raising of loan etc: Issue of debentures or raising loans (long
term) results in to flow of funds. The inflow of funds is the actual proceeds from the issue
of such debentures or raising of loans, i.e. including the amount of premium or excluding
discount, if any. However, loans rose for consideration other than a current asset, such as
for purchase of building, will not constitute inflow of funds because in that case the
accounts involved are only fixed or non-current.
4. Sale of Fixed (non-current) Assets and Long-term or Trade investments. When any
fixed asset like land, building, plant and machinery etc. are sold it generates funds.
However, it must be remembered that if one fixed asset is exchanged for another fixed
asset, it does not constitute an inflow of funds because no current assets are involved.
5. Non- Trading Receipts. Any non-trading receipt like dividend received, refund of tax,
rent received, etc. also increases funds and is treated as a sources of funds because such
an income is not included in the funds from operations.
6. Decrease in Working Capital. If the working capital decreases during the current period
as compared to the previous period, it means that there has been a release of funds from
working capital and it constitutes a source of funds. .

68

Application or Uses of Funds

1. Funds lost in operations. Sometimes the result of trading in a certain year is a loss and some
funds are lost during that period in trading operations I Such loss of funds in trading amounts
to an outflow of funds and is treated as an application of funds.
2. Redemption of preference share capital. If during the year any preference shares are
redeemed, it will result in the outflow of funds and is taken as an application of funds. When
the shares are redeemed at premium or discount, it is the net amount paid. (Including
premium or excluding discount, as the case may be). However, if shares are redeemed in
exchanges of some other type of shares or debentures, it does not constitute an outflow of
funds as no current account is involved in that case.
3. Repayment of loans or redemption of debentures, etc. In the same way as redemption of
preference share capital, redemption of debentures or repayment of loans also constitutes an
application of funds.
4. Purchase of any non-current or fixed asset: When any fixed or non-current asset like land,
building, plant and machinery, furniture, long-term investments, etc. are purchased, 'funds
outflow from the business. However, if fixed assets are purchased for a consideration of issue
of shares or debentures or if some fixed asset is exchanged for another, it does not involve
any funds and hence not an application of funds.
5. Payments of dividends and tax. Payments of dividends and tax are also applications of
funds. It is the actual payment of dividend (may be interim dividend) and tax which should
be taken as an outflow of funds and not the mere declaration of dividend or creating of a
provision for taxation.
6. Any other non-trading payment. Any payment or expense not related to the trading
operations of the business amounts to outflow of funds and is taken as an application of
funds. The examples could be drawings in case of sole trader or partnership firms, loss of
cash, etc.
Some Typical Items Which Require Particular Care
1. Identifying hidden information: While preparing fund flow statement, one has to
analyze the given balance sheets. Items relating to current account i.e. current assets and
current liabilities are shown in Schedule of change in Working capital. But the non current
assets and non current liabilities have to be further analyzed to find out hidden information
regarding sale or purchase of fixed assets, issue or redemption of share capital or
debentures, rising or repayments of long term loans, transfers to reserves and provisions.
The hidden information can be found out by preparing concerned accounts of non-current
assets and non-current liabilities.
2. Investments: The treatment of investments while preparing funds flow statement depends
upon their nature, i.e., whether they are current assets or fixed (long-term) or non-current

69

assets. If the investments represent surplus funds temporarily invested in marketable or

short-term securities, they are to be treated as current assets. But if investments are longterm, permanent or trade investments, these should be treated as fixed assets.
Temporary Investments. When the surplus funds are temporarily invested in
marketable securities, they are treated as current assets and hence shown in the schedule
of changes in Working Capital. Temporary investments do not require any further
treatment while preparing funds flow statement like all other current assets. Long-term,
Permanent or Non-Current Investments. If the investments are of non-current nature,
these should not be shown in the schedule of changes in working capital. However, in this
case, an investment account should be prepared to find out the cost of investments
purchased or sold during the year and the profit or loss on sale of such investments, if any.
If there is a loss on sale of such investments and it has been debited to P/L A/c, it should
be added back while finding funds from operations and if profit on sale of such
investments has been credited to profit and loss account, it should be deducted while
finding funds from operations. The purchase of non-current or trade investments is an
application of funds while the proceeds from the sale of such investments are a source of
funds.
3. Provision for Taxation : There are two ways of dealing with provision for taxation : (i)
As a current liability : provision for taxation will appear in the schedule of changes in.
working and no further treatment is required while preparing the funds flow statement. In
this case, there is no need to prepare the provision for Taxation Account and the payment
of tax made during the year shall not be shown as an application of funds because both the
accounts involved for the payment of tax shall be current accounts and hence no
movement of funds is involved. (ii) As an appropriation of profits: Provision for
Taxation made during the year will be added back while finding funds from operation
being a non-fund item., and Taxes paid during the year shall be application of funds.
4. Proposed Dividends: There are two alternatives to deal with this item: (i) As a
current liability. When proposed dividend is treated as a current liability it represents an
obligation of the company which is payable in a short period. Hence, it is shown in the
schedule of changes in working capital as a current liability. (ii) As an appropriation of
profits. In this case dividends proposed during the year are added while finding funds
from operations. Thus, dividends paid during the year represent an application of funds
and have to be shown on the application side of funds flow statement. In the absence of
any information, proposed dividend for the previous year may be assumed to be paid
during the year and taken as an application of funds while the proposed dividend of the
current year may be added while finding funds from operations.
5. Interim Dividend: Interim dividend denotes a dividend paid to the members of the
company during a financial year, before the finalization of annual accounts. The dividend
paid or declared in between the two Annual General Meetings, i.e., interim dividend,
should be added back while calculating funds from operations. However, if the figure of
profit is taken prior to the debit of interim dividend this adjustment is not required. The
interim dividend is also an application of funds and has to appear on the application side
of funds flow statement.

70

6. Provision against current Assets: Provision against current assets, such as, provision for
bad and doubtful debts, provision for loss on stock, etc. may be treated by any of the
following methods: (i) The opening and closing balance of provision against current assets
should' be deducted from the respective opening and closing balance of the concerned
asset. The net amount of the current assets should then be shown in the schedule of
changes in working capital. (ii) The amount of the opening and closing balance of the
current assets may be taken as gross in the schedule of changes in working capital, i.e.,
without deducting the amount of provision. But, then, the opening and closing balance of
the provision against current assets shall have to be taken as a current liability in the
schedule of changes in working capital. (iii) If excess provision has been created, it may
be treated as an appropriation of profits and should be added while calculating funds from
operations. The amount of the excess provision will not be shown in the schedule of
changes in working capital.
Depreciation as a Source of Funds: Depreciation may be regarded as the capital cost of assets
allocated over the life of the asset. In simple language, it means the gradual decrease in the value
of an asset due to wear and tear, use and passage of time. In real sense, depreciation is simply a
book entry having the effect of reducing the book value of the asset and the profits of the current
year for the same amount. It does not affect current- assets or current liabilities and does not
result in the flow of funds or to say more precisely it is a non-fund item. Hence, although
depreciation is an operating cost there is no actual outflow of cash and so the amount of the
depreciation charged during the year is added back to profits while finding funds from
operations. But, then, is depreciation a source of funds? There can not be a definite yes or no
to this question as there are differences of opinion on this important point. But it can be said with
certainty that depreciation, directly at least does not amount to a source of funds. However, under
certain circumstances, depreciation helps a business concern to affect savings in payment of tax
and dividends and amounts to withholding a part of the funds generated through normal trading
operations. It is in this sense that depreciation can be regarded as an indirect source of funds.
However, it is not even an indirect source of funds under all circumstances. Say; for example, a
company is running into losses and there are no profits, then any amount of depreciation charged
to profit and loss account will neither affect tax liability nor any payment of dividends, as there
are no profits. In this case, depreciation does not amount to withholding of funds and hence is
not a source of funds at all. To conclude, it may be said that to the extent depreciation helps in
effecting savings in the payment of tax and dividends, it may be regarded as source of funds.
Illustration 1: From the following Balance Sheets of the Company for the ending 31st
December 2006 and 31st December 2007, prepare schedule of changes in working - capital and a
statement showing sources and application of funds.

71

Liabilities

2006(Rs.)

2007(Rs.)

Assets

2006(Rs.)

2007(Rs.)

Share Capital
Sundry
creditors
P&L A/c

3,00,000
1,00,000
15,000

4,00,000
70,000
30,000

50,000
10,000
85,000
1,60,000
1,10,000

60,000
15,000
1,05,000
1,50,000
1,70,000

4,15000

5,00,000

Plant
&
Machinery
Furniture
&
Fixtures
Stock in Trade
Debtors
cash

4,15,000

5,00,000

Solution:
Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
2006(Rs.)
2007(Rs.)
Effect on working capital
Increase(Rs.)
Decrease(Rs.)

Particulars
Current Assets
Cash
Debtors
Stock-in-trade
Current
Liabilities
Sundry Creditors
Working Capital
Net
Increase
Working Capital

in

1,10,000
1,60,000
85,000
3,55,000

1,70,000
1,50,000
1,05,000
4,25,000

60,000
20,000

1,00,000
1,00,000
2,55,000

70,000
70,000
3,55,000

30,000

1,00,000
3,55,000

10,000
-

1,00,000
3,55,000

1,10,000

1,10,000

Statement of Source and Application of Funds

For the year ended 31-12-2007
Sources
Rs.
Application
Purchase of Plant & Machinery (60,000
Issue of Share Capital 1,00,000
- 50,000)
Funds
from
Purchase of Furniture & Fixtures
15,000
Operations
(l5,000 - 10,000)
Net Increase in Working Capital
1,15,000
Working Notes:

72

Rs.
10,000
5,000
1,00,000
1,15,000

Calculation of Fund from Operation:

Balance of P&L A/c at the end of year

30,000

Less Balance of P&L A/c in the beginning

15,000

Funds from operation

15,000

Illustration 2: The following are the Balance Sheets of Eastern Corporation Ltd. as on 31st
December 2006 and 2007
Balance sheet of Eastern Corporation ltd.
Liabilities
2006(Rs.)
11 % Cumulative Preference Shares
Equity Shares
1,10,000
General Reserves
Profit and Loss Alc
9% Debentures
Provision
for
Taxation
Proposed Dividend
Current Liabilities

4,000
2,000
12,000
6,000

2007(Rs.) Assets
30,000
Land
and
Buildings
1,20,000 Plant
&Machinery
4,000
Sundry debtors
2,400
Stock
14,000
Bank
8,400
Cash

10,000
49,000
1,93,000

11,600
35,600
2,26,000

2006(Rs.)
60,000

2007(Rs.)
50,000

30,000

50,000

40,000
60,000
2,400
600

48,000
70,000
7,000
1,000

1,93,000

2,26,000

You are required to prepare a schedule of change sin Working Capital and statement of Flow of
Funds.
Solution:
Schedule of Changes in Working Capital

Current Assets:
Sundry Debtors
Stock
Bank
Cash

2006
Rs.

2007
Rs.

40,000
60,000
2,400
600
1,03,000

48,000
70,000
7,000
1,000
1,26,000

Current Liabilities:
73

Increa
se in
W.C.
Rs.
8,000
10,000
4,600
400

Decrease
in W.C
Rs.

Current Liabilities

49.000
49,000
54,000

35.600
35,600
90,400

Working Capital (CA - CL)

Net Increase in Working
36.400
Capital
.
90,400
90,400
Funds Flow Statement
Sources

Rs.

Issue of preference shares

30,000

Issue of Equity Shares

10,000

Issue of Debentures

2,000

Sale of Land & Buildings

10,000

Funds from Operations

20,400

13,400

36400
36,400

Applications
Purchase of Plant and Machinery

36,400
Rs.
20,000

Provision for taxation (for 2006

6,000
assumed to be paid
Proposed Dividend (for 2006
10,000
assumed to be paid)
Net Increase in working Capital
36,400

72.400

72,400

Working Notes:
As current liabilities are separately given, provision for taxation and proposed dividend have not
been taken as current liabilities.
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

As current liabilities are separately given, provision for taxation and proposed
dividend have not been taken as current liabilities
Calculation of Issue of Preference Shares:
Rs
Preference Share Capital in the beginning of 2007
Nil
Preference Share Capital at the end of 2007
30,000
Preference Share Capital raised during the year
30,000
Calculation of Issue of Equity Shares:
Equity Share Capital in the beginning of 2007
1,10,000
Equity Share Capital at the end of 2007
1.20,000
Equity Share Capital raised during the year
10,000
Issue of Debentures :
9% Debentures in the beginning of2007
12,000
9% Debentures at the end of 2007
14,000
2,000
Debentures Issued during the year
Provision for taxation and proposed dividend for 2006 have been presumed to be
paid in 2007
Calculation of Sale of Land and Buildings
Opening Balance of Land and Buildings in 2007
60,000
Closing Balance of Land and Buildings in 2007
50,000
74

7.

8.

Land & Buildings sold during the year

Purchase of Plant and Machinery:
Opening Balance in 2007
Closing Balance in 2007
Purchased during the year
Calculation of funds from Operations:
Closing Balance of P & L Account in 2007
Add: Non-fund and Non-operating items debited to P/L A/c:
Provision for taxation
Proposed Dividend

10,000
30,000
50,000
20,000
2,400
8,400
11,600
22,400
2,000
20,400

Less: Opening Balance of P/L A/c

Funds from Operations

Illustration 3: From the following Balance Sheets of S.M. Industries Prepare a Funds Flow
Statement showing your workings clearly:
Liabilities
Share capital
P&L A/C

2007(Rs.)
60,000
34,000

2008(Rs.)
65,000
26,000

Current
Liabilities

12,000

3,000

1,06,000

94,000

Assets
Goodwill
Plant
&
Machinery
Current Assets

2007(Rs.)
30,000
60,000

2008(Rs.)
25,000
50,000

16,000

19,000

1,06,000

94,000

Additional Information:
1. Depreciation of Rs.20, 000 on plant and machinery was charged to Profit and Loss
Account.
2. Dividends of Rs. 12,000 were paid during the year.
Solution:
Schedule of changes in Working Capital
2007(Rs.)
Current Assets
Current Liabilities
Working
Capital
(C.A-C.L)
Net Increase in W.C

2008(Rs.)

16,000
12,000
4,000

Increase in W.C
(Rs.)
19,000
3,000
3,000
9,000
16,000

12,000
16,000

16,000

75

12,000

Decrease in W.C
(Rs.)

12,000
12,000

Sources
Issue of shares
Funds from operation

Funds Flow statement

Rs.
Application
5,000
Purchase of Plant &
Machinery
29,000
Payment of dividend
Net increase in W.C
34,000

Rs.
10,000
12,000
12,000
34,000

Working notes:
1) Share capital A/C
To Balance c/d

Rs.
65,000

By balance b/d
By cash-issue (
Balancing figure)

65,000

Rs.
60,000
5,000
65,000

2) Plant & Machinery A/C

To Balance b/d
To cashpurchase(Balancing
figure)

Rs.
60,000
10,000

By balance b/d

70,000

Rs.
20,000
50,000
70,000

3) Goodwill A/c

To Balance b/d

Rs.
30,000

By balance c/d
By Adjusted P&L a/c
(Balancing Figure)

30,000

Rs.
25,000
5,000
30,000

4) Adjusted Profit & Loss A/C

To depreciation
To goodwill
To dividend
To Balance c/d

Rs.
20,000
5,000

By Balance b/d
By Funds from Operations
(Balancing figure)

Rs.
34,000
29,000

12,000
26,000
64,000

64,000

76

Illustration 4: From the following Balance Sheets of Shri Hari Synthetics Ltd. prepare a
statement of sources and application of funds and as schedule of changes in working capital for
2007.
Liabilities
Share capital
General Reserve
P & L A/C
Bank loan(short
term)
Creditors
Provision for
Taxation

2006(Rs.)
2,00,000
50,000
30,500
70,000

2007(Rs.)
2,50,000
60,000
30,600
-

1,50,000
30,000

1,35,200
35,000

5,30,500

5,10,800

Assets
Land& Building
Plant
Stock
Debtors

2006(Rs.)
2,00,000
1,50,000
1,00,000
80,000

2007(Rs.)
1,90,000
1,74,000
74,000
64,200

500

600
8,000

5,30,500

5,10,800

Cash
Bank

Additional information:
a) Depreciation was written off plant Rs. 14,000 in 2007
b) Dividend of Rs. 20,000 was paid during 2007.
c) Income Tax provision made during the year was Rs. 25,000
d) A piece of land has been sold during the year at cost.
Solution:
Schedule of changes in Working Capital

Current Assets:
Stock
Debtors
Cash
Bank
Current Liabilities:
Bank loan
Creditors
Working Capital
(C.A-C.L)
Net Increase in W.C

2006(Rs.)

2007(Rs.)

1,00,000
80,000
5,00
_
1,80,500

74,000
64,200
6,00
8,000
1,46,800

70,000
1,50,000
2,20,000
(-)39,500

1,35,200
1,35,200
11,600

51,100
11,600

11,600

77

Increase in W.C
(Rs.)

Decrease in W.C
(Rs.)
26,000
15,800

100
8,000

70,000
14,800

92,900

51,100
92,900

Sources
Issue of capital
Sales of Land &
Building
Funds from operation

Funds Flow statement

For the year ended 31st Dec, 2007
Rs.
Application
50,000
Purchase of Plant
10,000
Income Tax paid
during 2007
69,100
Payment of dividend
Net increase in W.C
1,29,100

Rs.
38,000
20,000
20,000
51,100
1,29,100

Working notes:
1) Plant l A/C
To Balance b/d
To cash-purchases(
Balancing. figure)

Rs.
1,50,000
38,000

By Depreciation
By balance c/d

1,88,000

To cash(Tax paid )
balancing figure
To balance c/d

Rs.
14,000
1,74,000
1,88,000

2) Provision for Taxation A/C

Rs.
20,000
By Balance b/d

Rs.
30,000

35,000

25,000

By Adjusted P&L a/c

55,000

55,000

3) Adjusted Profit & Loss A/C

To Depreciation
To transfer to
General reserve
To provision for
taxation
To dividend
To Balance c/d

Rs.
14,000
10,000

By Balance b/d
By Funds from Operations
(Balancing figure)

Rs.
30,500
69,100

25,000
20,000
30,600
64,000

64,000

Illustration 5: The following are the summarized balance sheets of X ltd., on 31st Dec.,2006 and
31st Dec.,2007

78

79

Problem1. Prepare a fund flow statement from the following Balance sheet:
(figures in thousands)

Liabilities
Share capital
Reserves
&
Surplus
Debentures
Discount
on
Debentures
Creditors
Provision for
Depreciation

2007(Rs.)
1,400
600

2008(Rs.)
1,740
780

880
(80)

880
(72)

1,200
200

1,280
112

4,200

Assets
Land
Plant
Patents
Closing Stock
Debtors
Cash

4,720

2007(Rs.)
960
600

2008(Rs.)
800
680

40
600

36
688

400
1,600

740
1,776

4,200

80

4,720

Additional information:
a) Net profit for the year Rs.4, 00,000.
b) Depreciation charged for the year Rs.4, 00,000.
c) Dividend Paid Rs. 80,000.
d) Shares issued for cash Rs.2, 00,000 and for bonus Rs. 1, 40,000.
e) A building was sold for Rs. 56,000 its cost and book-value being Rs. 1, 60,000 and Rs.
40,000.
Problem 2. From the following balance sheet of X Ltd. as on 31st Dec 1995and 1996, you are
required to prepare
Liabilities
Share Capital
General Reserve
P&L A/c
Creditors
Bills Payable
Provision
for
Taxation
Provision
for
doubtful

1995(Rs.)
1,00,000
14,000
16,000
8,000
1,200
16,000

1996(Rs.)
1,00,000
18,000
13,000
5,400
800
18,000

Assets
Goodwill
Building
Plant
Investments
Stock
Bills Receivable

1995(Rs.)
12,000
40,000
37,000
10,000
30,000
2,000

1996(Rs.)
12,000
36,000
36,000
11,000
23,000
3,000

400

600

Debtors

18,000

19,000

Cash at Bank

66,00

15,200

1,55,600

1,55,800

1,55,600

1,55,800

Additional Information
1. Depreciation charged on plant was Rs.4, 000 and on Building Rs. 4,000.
2. Provision for Tax of Rs.19, 000 was made during the year1996.
3. Interim dividend of Rs. 8,000 was paid during the year 1996
Problem 3. From the following Balance Sheet of A ltd., as on 31st March 1996and 1997 prepare
a Statement showing changes in working capital and Sources and Applications of funds.
Balance Sheet
As on 31st march
Liabilities
1996(Rs.) 1997(Rs.) Assets
1996(Rs.) 1997(Rs.)
Share Capital
900,000
900,000 Fixed Assets
800,000
640,000
General Reserve
600,000
620,000 Investments
100,000
120,000
P&L A/c
Mortgage Loan
Creditors
Provision
for
Taxation

112,000
336,000
150,000
2,098,000

136,000 Stock
540,000 Debtors
268,000 Cash & bank
20,000
2,484,000

81

480,000
420,000
298,000

420,000
910,000
394,000

2,098,000

2,484,000

Additional information:
a) The net profit for the year was Rs. 1, 24,000 after charging depreciation of fixed assets Rs.
1,40,000 and provision for tax Rs. 20,000.
b) During the year part of fixed assets costing Rs. 20,000 was disposed off for Rs. 24,000 and
the profit is included in the above profit.
c) Dividend paid during the year amounted to Rs. 80,000
d) Investment costing Rs. 16,000 were sold for Rs. 17,000 and further investment were acquired
for Rs. 36,000
Problem 4. The following are the summarized balance sheets of PQR Ltd., as at 31st December
1996 and 31st December 1997
Balance Sheet
Liabilities
1996
1997
Assets
1996
1997
Share Capital
500,000
500,000
Land/Bldg
200,000
250,000
Profit and loss a/c
150,000
252,000
P & M at cost 350,000
360,000
Debentures
200,000
200,000
S. Debtors
147,000
138,000
Prov for D. Debts
5,000
4,000
Stock
250,000
274,000
Prov for Dep
Cash
83,000
101,000
L&B
30,000
34,000
Preliminary Exp 5,000
4,000
P&M
30,000
32,000
S. Creditors
120,000
105,000
1,035,000
1,127,000
1,035,000 1,127,000
Additional information.
1) The net profit for the year ending 31st December 1997 was Rs.2,52,000 and is arrived at
after charging loss on sale of machinery and writing off preliminary expenses and
adjusting provision for doubtful debts
2) During the year a part of machinery costing Rs. 7000 accumulated depreciation thereon
being Rs. 1,000 was sold for Rs. 5,000
st
3) Dividend of Rs. 50,000 was paid during the year ended 31 December 1997.
Prepare statement showing changes in working capital and fund flow statement for 1997.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.2 CASH FLOW STATEMENT

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India has issued an accounting standard 3, Cash Flow
Statement. It clearly spells out all the requirements in relation to cash flow statement.
According to Accounting Standard 3,Cash Flow Statement there is two methods: (a) Direct
Method and (b) Indirect Method

3.2.1 Direct and Indirect method of cash flow

Appendix: The appendix is illustrative only and does not form part of the accounting standard.
The purpose of this appendix is to illustrate the application of the accounting standard.
1. The example shows only current period amounts.
2. Information from the statement of profit and loss and balance sheet is provided to show
how the statements of cash flows under the direct method and the indirect method have

82

been derived. Neither the statement of profit and loss nor the balance sheet is presented in
conformity with the disclosure and presentation requirements of applicable laws and
accounting standards. The working notes given towards the end of this appendix are
intended to assist in understanding the manner in which the various figures appearing in
the cash flow statement have been derived. These working notes do not form part of the
cash flow statement and, accordingly, need not be published.
3. The following additional information is also relevant for the preparation of the statement
of cash flows (figures are inRs.000). An amount of 250 was raised from the issue of
share capital and a further 250 was raised from long term borrowings. Interest expense
was 400 of which 170 was paid during the period. 100 relating to interest expense of the
prior period was also paid during the period. Dividends paid were 1,200. Tax deducted at
source on dividends received (included in the tax expense of 300 for the year) amounted
to 40. During the period, the enterprise acquired fixed assets for 350. The payment was
made in cash. Plant with original cost of 80 and accumulated depreciation of 60 was sold
for 20. Foreign exchange loss of 40 represents the reduction in the carrying amount of a
short-term investment in foreign-currency designated bonds arising out of a change in
exchange rate between the date of acquisition of the investment and the balance sheet
date. Sundry debtors and sundry creditors include amounts relating to credit sales and
credit purchases only.
Balance Sheet as at 31.12.1996
(Rs. 000)
1996
1995
Assets
Cash on hand and balances with banks
200
25
Short-term investments
670
135
Sundry debtors
1,700
1,200
Interest receivable
100
Inventories
900
1,950
Long-term investments
2,500
2,500
Fixed assets at cost
2,180
1,910
Accumulated depreciation
(1,450)
(1,060)
Fixed assets (net)
730
850
Total assets
6,800
6,660
Liabilities
Sundry creditors
Interest payable
Income taxes payable
Long-term debt
Total liabilities
Shareholders Funds
Share capital
Reserves
Total shareholders funds
Total liabilities and shareholders funds

150
230
400
1,110
1,890

1,890
100
1,000
1,040
4,030

1,500
3,410
4,910
6,800

1,250
1,380
2,630
6,660

83

Statement of Profit and Loss for the period ended 31.12.1996

Sales
Cost of sales
Gross profit
Depreciation
Dividend income
Foreign exchange loss
Net profit before taxation and extraordinary item
Extraordinary item - Insurance proceeds from
Earthquake disaster settlement
Net profit after extraordinary item
Income-tax
Net profit

(Rs. 000)
30,650
(26,000)
4,650
(450)
200
(40)
3,350
180
3,530
(300)
3,230

Solution:
Direct Method Cash Flow Statement [Paragraph 18(a)]
1996
Cash flows from operating activities
Cash receipts from customers
Cash paid to suppliers and employees
Cash generated from operations
Income taxes paid
Cash flow before extraordinary item
Proceeds from earthquake disaster settlement
Net cash from operating activities
Cash flows from investing activities
Purchase of fixed assets
Proceeds from sale of equipment
Interest received
Dividends received
Net cash from investing activities
Cash flows from financing activities
Proceeds from issuance of share capital
Proceeds from long-term borrowings
Repayment of long-term borrowings
Interest paid
Dividends paid
Net cash used in financing activities
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents
Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period
(see Note 1)
Cash and cash equivalents at end of period
(see Note 1)

84

(Rs. 000)
30,150
(27,600)
2,550
(860)
1,690
180
1,870
(350)
20
200
160
30
250
250
(180)
(270)
(1,200)
(1,150)
750
160
910

Indirect Method Cash Flow Statement [Paragraph 18(b)]

(Rs. 000)
1996
Cash flows from operating activities
Net profit before taxation, and extraordinary item
Adjustments for:
Depreciation
Foreign exchange loss
Interest income
Dividend income
Interest expense
Operating profit before working capital changes
Increase in sundry debtors
Decrease in inventories
Decrease in sundry creditors
Cash generated from operations
Income taxes paid
Cash flow before extraordinary item
Proceeds from earthquake disaster settlement
Net cash from operating activities
Cash flows from investing activities
Purchase of fixed assets
Proceeds from sale of equipment
Interest received
Dividends received
Net cash from investing activities
Cash flows from financing activities
Proceeds from issuance of share capital
Proceeds from long-term borrowings
Repayment of long-term borrowings
Interest paid
Dividends paid
Net cash used in financing activities
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents
Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period(see Note 1)
Cash and cash equivalents at end of period (see Note 1)

3,350
450
40
(300)
(200)
400
3,740
(500)
1,050
(1,740)
2,550
(860)
1,690
180
1,870
(350)
20
200
160
30
250
250
(180)
(270)
(1,200)
(1,150)
750
160
910

Notes to the cash flow statement (direct method and indirect method)
1. Cash and Cash Equivalents
Cash and cash equivalents consist of cash on hand and balance with banks, and investments in
money-market instruments. Cash and cash equivalents included in the cash flow statement
comprise the following balance sheet amounts:
1996
1995

85

Cash on hand and balances with banks

Short-term investments
Cash and cash equivalents
Effect of exchange rate changes
Cash and cash equivalents as restated

200
670
870
40
910

25
135
160
160

Cash and cash equivalents at the end of the period include deposits with banks of 100 held by a
branch which are not freely remissible to the company because of currency exchange restrictions.
The company has indrawn borrowing facilities of 2,000 of which 700 may be used only for
future expansion.
2. Total tax paid during the year (including tax deducted at source on dividends received)
amounted to 900.
Alternative Presentation (indirect method)
As an alternative, in an indirect method cash flow statement, operating profit before working
capital changes is sometimes presented as follows:
Revenues excluding investment income
30,650
Operating expense excluding depreciation
(26,910)
Operating profit before working capital changes

3,740

Working Notes
The working notes given below do not form part of the cash flow statement and, accordingly,
need not be published. The purpose of these working notes is merely to assist in understanding
the manner in which various figures in the cash flow statement have been derived. (Figures are in
Rs. 000.)
1. Cash receipts from customers
Sales
30,650
Add: Sundry debtors at the beginning of the year
1,200
31,850
Less: Sundry debtors at the end of the year
1,700
30,150
2. Cash paid to suppliers and employees
Cost of sales
26,000
Administrative and selling expenses
910
26,910
Add: Sundry creditors at the beginning of the year
1,890
Inventories at the end of the year
900
29,700
Less: Sundry creditors at the end of the year
150
Inventories at the beginning of the year
1,950
27,600
3. Income taxes paid (including tax deducted at source from dividends received)

86

Income tax expense for the year (including tax deducted at source from dividends
Received)
300
Add: Income tax liability at the beginning of the year
1,000
1,300
Out of 900, tax deducted at source on dividends received(amounting to 40) is included in cash
flows from investing activities and the balance of 860 is included in cash flows from operating
activities (see paragraph 34).
4. Repayment of long-term borrowings
Long-term debt at the beginning of the year
Add: Long-term borrowings made during the year
Less: Long-term borrowings at the end of the year
5. Interest paid
Interest expense for the year
Add: Interest payable at the beginning of the year
Less: Interest payable at the end of the year

1040
250
1290
1,110
180
400
100
500
230
270

Appendix II
Cash Flow Statement for a Financial Enterprise
The appendix is illustrative only and does not form part of the accounting standard. The purpose
of this appendix is to illustrate the application of the accounting standard.
1. The example shows only current period amounts.
2. The example is presented using the direct method.
(Rs. 000)
1996
Cash flows from operating activities
Interest and commission receipts
28,447
Interest payments
(23,463)
Recoveries on loans previously written off
237
Cash payments to employees and suppliers
(997)
Operating profit before changes in operating assets
4,224
(Increase) decrease in operating assets:
Short-term funds
(650)
Deposits held for regulatory or monetary control purposes
234
Funds advanced to customers
(288)
Net increase in credit card receivables
(360)
Other short-term securities
(120)
Increase (decrease) in operating liabilities:
Deposits from customers
600
Certificates of deposit
(200)
Net cash from operating activities before income tax
3,440
Income taxes paid
(100)
Net cash from operating activities
3,340

87

Cash flows from investing activities

Dividends received

250
(Rs. 000)

1996
Cash flows from operating activities
Interest and commission receipts
Interest payments
Recoveries on loans previously written off
Cash payments to employees and suppliers
Operating profit before changes in operating assets
(Increase) decrease in operating assets:
Short-term funds
Deposits held for regulatory or monetary control purposes
Funds advanced to customers
Net increase in credit card receivables
Other short -term securities
Increase (decrease) in operating liabilities:
Deposits from customers
Certificates of deposit
Net cash from operating activities before income tax
Income taxes paid
Net cash from operating activities

28,447
(23,463)
237
(997)
4,224
(650)
234
(288)
(360)
(120)
600
(200)
3,440
(100)
3,340

Cash flows from investing activities

Dividends received
Interest received
Proceeds from sales of permanent investments
Purchase of permanent investments
Purchase of fixed assets
Net cash from investing activities

250
300
1,200
(600)
(500)
650

Cash flows from financing activities

Issue of shares
Repayment of long-term borrowings
Net decrease in other borrowings
Dividends paid
Net cash from financing activities

1,800
(200)
(1,000)
(400)
200

Net increase in cash and cash equivalents

Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period
Cash and cash equivalents at end of period

4,190
4,650
8,840

88

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.3 REVIEW QUESTIONS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is fund flow statement? Explain its importance and limitations.
2. Distinguish between (i) Fund flow statement and schedule of changes in working capita
(ii) Net profit and fund from operation.
3. Distinguish between (i) Fund flow statement and cash flow statement. (ii) Cash flow
statement and cash budget

89

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FIXED CAPITAL ANALYSIS

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Structure
4.1 Capital Budgeting
4.1.1 Features of Capital Budgeting
4.1.2 Importance of Capital Budgeting
4.2 Evaluations Techniques of Projects:
4.2.1 Traditional Techniques - Pay Back Period, ARR,
4.2.2 Time adjusted techniques NPV, IRR, PI
4.2.3 Risk and uncertainty in capital budgeting
4.3 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.1 CAPITAL BUDGETING:

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Introduction: Capital Budgeting is the process of making investment decision in capital
expenditure. It involves the planning and control of capital expenditure. It is the process of
deciding whether or not to commit resources to particular long-term projects whose benefits are
to be realized over a period of time.
According To Charles T Horngreen: Capital Budgeting is the long term planning for making
and financing proposed capital outlays
According To Lynch: Capital Budgeting consists in planning development of available capital
for the purpose of maximizing the long term profitability of the concern
From the above definition, it may be concluded that it is the process by which the companies
allocate funds to various investment projects designs to ensure profitability and growth.
4.1.1 Features of Capital Budgeting
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Exchange of funds for future benefits:

The future benefits are expected to be realized over a period of time.
The funds are invested vested in long-term activities.
They have a long term and significant effect on the profitability of the concern,
They involve huge funds.

4.1.2 Importance of Capital Budgeting

1. Large Investment: Capital budgeting decision involves large investment of funds. But
the funds available with the firm are always limited and the demand for funds far exceeds
the resources. Hence it is very important for a firm to plan and control its capital
expenditure.
90

2. Long Term Commitment of Funds: capital expenditures involves not only large
amount of funds but also funds for long term or permanent basis. The long tern
commitments of funds increases, the financial risk involved in the investment decision.
Greater the risk involved, greater is need for careful planning of capital expenditure i.e.
Capital Budgeting.
3. Irreversible Nature: The Capital expenditure decision is of irreversible nature. Once the
decision for acquiring a permanent asset is taken, it becomes very difficult to dispose of
these assets without incurring heavy losses.
4. Long term Effect on profitability: Capital budgeting decisions have a long term and
significant effect on the profitability of a concern. Not only the present earnings of the
firm are effected by the investments in capital asserts but also the future growth and
profitability of the firm depends upon the investment decision taken today. An unwise
decision may prove disastrous and fatal to the very existence of the concern.
5. Difficulties of investment Decisions: The long tern investment decision are difficult to
be taken because decision extends to a series of years beyond the current accounting
period, uncertainties of future, higher degree of risk.
6. National Importance: Investment decision though taken by individual concern is of
national importance because it determines employment, economic activities and growth.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.2 EVALUATIONS TECHNIQUES OF PROJECTS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The commonly used methods are following:
1. Traditional Method
a. Pay backs period method or pay out or pay off method
b. Rate of return Method or Accounting Method
2. Time adjusted Method or discounted method
a. Net present value method
b. Internal rate of return method
c. Profitability Index

4.2.1 Traditional Method

Pay Back Period Method: It represents the period in which the total investments in permanent
assts pay backs itself. This method is based on the principal that every capital expenditures pays
itself back within a certain period out of the additional earnings generated from the capital assets
thus it measures the period of time for the original cost of a project to be recovered from the
additional earnings of the project itself.
In case of evaluation of a single project, it is adopted if it pays back itself within a period
specified by the management and if the project does not pay back itself within the period
specified by the management than it is rejected.
91

The payback period can be ascertained in the following manner: Calculate annual net
earning (profit) before depreciation and after taxes; these are called the annual cash flows.
Where the annual cash inflows are equal, Divide the initial outlay (cost) of the project by
annual cash flows, where the project generates constant annual cash inflows.
Where the annual cash inflows are unequal, the pat back period can be found by adding up the
cash inflows until the total is equal to the initial cash outlay of project or original cost of the
asset.
Payback period

Cash outlay of the project or original cost of the asset

Annual cash Inflows
Illustration 1. A project costs Rs1, 00,000 and yields annual cash inflow of Rs. 20,000 for 8
years. Calculate its pay back period.
Solution:
Pay back period

Cash outlay of the project or original cost of the asset

Annual cash Inflows

1, 00,000
20,000

5 years

Advantages of Pay Back Period

1. It is simple to understand and easy to calculate.
2. It saves in cost; it requires lesser time and labor as compared to other methods of
capital budgeting.
3. This method is particularly suited to firm, which has shortage of cash or whose
liquidity position is not particularly good.
Disadvantages of Pay Back Period
1. It does not take into account the cash inflows earned after the pay back period and
hence the true profitability of the project cannot be correctly assessed.
2. It ignores the time value of money and does not consider the magnitude and timing of
cash inflows. it treats all cash flows as equal though they occur in different time
periods.
3. It does not take into consideration the cost of capital, which is very important; factor
in making sound investment decision.
4. It treats each asset individually in isolation with other asset, which is not feasible in
real practice.
5. It does not measure the true profitability of the project, as the period considered under
this method is limited to a short period only and not the full life of the asset.
Rate of Return Method: This method take into account the earnings expected from the
investment over their whole life. It is known as accounting rate if Return method for the reasons

92

that under this method, the accounting Concept of profit is used rather than cash inflows.
According to this method, various projects are ranked in order of the rate of earnings or rate of
return. The project with the higher rate of return is selected as compared to the one with the
lower rate of return. This method can be used to make decisions as to accepting or rejecting a
proposal. The expected return is determined and the project with a higher rate of return than the
minimum rate specified by the firm called cut-off rate, is accepted and the one which gives a
lower expected rate of return than the minimum rate is rejected.
The return in investment can be used in several ways as follows:
Average rate of return method (ARR): Under this method average profit after tax and
deprecation is calculated and than it is divided by the total capital outlay or total investment in
the project.
Total Profits (after dep. & taxes)
Net Investment in project x No. Of years of profits

X 100

Or
Average annual profit
Net investment in the Project

X 100

Illustration 2. A project requires an investment of Rs.5, 00,000 and has a scrap value of Rs.20,
000 After 5 years. It is expected to yield profits after depreciation and taxes during the 5 years
amounting to Rs. 40,000. Rs. 60,000, Rs. 70,000, Rs. 50,000 and Rs.20, 000. Calculate the
average rate of return on the investment.
Solution:
Total profits = Rs. 40,000+60,000+70,000+50,000+20,000 = Rs. 2, 40,000
Average Profit = Rs. 2, 40,000 = Rs.48, 000
5
Net Investment in the project = Rs. 5, 00,000 20,000(scrap value)
= Rs 4, 80,000
Average annual profit
Net investment in the Project
48,000 X 100 = 10%
4, 80,000

X 100

Return per unit of investment method: This method is small variation of the average rate of
return method. In this method, the total profit after tax and depreciation is divided by the total
investment i.e.
Return per Unit of Investment = Total profit (after depreciation and tax) X 100
Net investment in the project

93

Illustration 3. Continuing above illustration, the return per unit of investment shall be:
2, 40,000 X 100 = 50%
4, 80,000
Return on average Investment method: In this method the return on average investment is
calculated. Using of average investment for the purpose of return in investment is referred
because the original investment is recovered over the life of the asset on account of depreciation
charges.
Return on Average Investment = Total profit (after depreciation and tax) X 100
Total Net investment/2
Advantages of Rate of Return Method
1. It is very simple to understand and easy to operate.
2. This method is based upon the accounting concept of profits; it can be readily
calculated from the financial data.
3. It uses the entire earnings of the projects in calculating rate of return.
Dis Advantages of Rate of Return Method
1. It does not take into consideration the cash flows, which are more important than the
accounting profits.
2. It ignores the time value of money as the profits earned at different points of time are
given the equal weighs.

4.2.2 Time Adjusted or Discounted Cash Flows Methods

The traditional methods of capital budgeting suffer from serious limitations that give the equal
weights to present and future flow of income. These do not take into accounts the time value of
money. Following are the discounted cash flow methods:
Net Present Value Method: This method is the modern method of evaluating the investment
proposals. This method takes into consideration the time value of money and attempts to
calculate the return in investments by introducing the factor of time element. It recognizes the
fact that a rupee earned today is more valuable earned tomorrow. The net present value of all
inflows and outflows of cash occurring during the entire life of the project is determined
separately for each year by discounting these flows by the firms cost of capital.
Following are the necessary steps for adopting the net present value method of evaluating
investment proposals.
1. Determine appropriate rate of interest that should be selected as the minimum
required rate of return called discount rate.
2. Compute the present value of total investment outlay.

94

3. Compute the present value of total investment proceeds.

4. Calculate the net present value of each project by subtracting the present value of
cash inflows from the present value of cash outflows for each project.
5. If the net present value is positive or zero, the proposal mat be accepted otherwise
rejected.
Advantages of Net Present Value
1. It recognizes the time value of money and is suitable to be applied in situations with
uniform cash outflows and cash flows at different period of time.
2. It takes into account the earnings over the entire life of the projects and the true
profitability of the investment proposal can be evaluated.
3. It takes into consideration the on\objective of maximum profitability.
Disadvantages of Net Present Value
1. This method is more difficult to understand and operate.
2. It is not easy to determine an appropriate discount rate.
3. It may not give good results while comparing projects with unequal lives and
investment of funds.
Internal Rate of Return Method: It is a modern technique of capital budgeting that takes into
account the time value of money. It is also known as time adjusted rate of return discounted
cash flows yield method trial and error yield method
Under this method, the cash flows of the project are discounted at a suitable rate by hit and trial
method, which equates the net present value so calculated to the amount of the investment.
Under this method, since the discount rate is determined internally, this method is called as the
internal rate of return method. It can be defined as the rate of discount at which the present value
of cash inflows is equal to the present value of cash outflows.
Steps required for calculating the internal rate of return.
1. Determine the future net cash flows during the entire economic life of the project.
The cash inflows are estimated for future profits before depreciation and after taxes.
2. Determine the rate of discount at which the value of cash inflows is equal to the
present value of cash outflows.
3. Accept the proposal if the internal rate of return is higher than or equal to the
minimum required rate of return.
4. In case of alternative proposals select the proposals with the highest rate of return as
long as the rates are higher than the cost of capital.
Determination of Internal Rate of Return:
1. When the annual net cash flows are equal over the life of the assets.
Present value Factor =

Initial Outlay
Annual cash Flows

95

2. When the annual net cash flows care Unequal over the life of the assets.
Following are the steps
i. Prepare the cash flow table using an arbitrary assumed discount rate to
discount the net cash flows to the present value.
ii. Find out the net present value by deducting from the present value of total
cash flows calculated in above the initial cost of the investment
iii. If the NPV is positive, apply higher rate of discount.
iv. If the higher discount rate still gives a positive NPV, increase the discount rate
further the NPV becomes become negative.
v.
If the NPV is negative at this higher rate, the internal rate of return must be
between these two rates.
Advantages of Internal Rate of Return Method
1. It takes into account the time value of money and can be usefully applied in situations
with even as well as uneven cash flows at different periods of time.
2. It considers the profitability of the project for its entire economic life.
3. It provides for uniform ranking of various proposals due to the % rate of return.
Disadvantages of Internal Rate of Return Method
1. It is difficult to understand.
2. This method is based upon the assumption that the earnings are reinvested at the
internal rate of return for the remaining life of the project, which is not a justified
assumption particularly when the rate of return earned by the firm is not close ton the
internal rate of return.
3. The result of NPV and IRR method may differ when the project under evaluation
differ their size.
Profitability Index or PI: This is also known as benefit cost ratio. This is similar to NPV
method. The major drawback of NPV method that not does not give satisfactory results while
evaluating the projects requiring different initial investments. PI method provides solution to
this. PI is calculated as:
PI

Present value of cash Inflows

Present value of cash outflows

If PI > 1project will be accepted, if PI<1

based on non-financial consideration.

then project is rejected and if PI= 1 then decision is

Advantages of PI method
1. It considers Time value of money
2. It considers all cash flow during life time of project.

96

3. More reliable than NPV method when evaluating the projects requiring different initial
investments.
Disadvantages of PI method
1. This method is difficult to understand.
2. Calculations under this method arte complex

4.2.3 Risk and Uncertainty in Capital Budgeting

All the techniques of capital budgeting require the estimation of future cash inflows and cash
outflows. But due to uncertainties about the future, the estimates if demand, production, sales
cannot be exact. All these elements of uncertainty have to be taken into account in the form of
forcible risk while taking a decision on investment proposals. The following two methods are
suggested for accounting for risk in capital budgeting.
1. Risk adjusted cut off rate or method of varying discount rate.
2. Certainty equivalent method.
Risk adjusted cut off rate or method of varying discount rate: The simplest method for
accounting for risk in capital budgeting is to increase the cut-off rate or the discount factor by
certain % on account of risk. The projects which are more risky and which have greater
variability in expected returns should discounted at higher rate as compared to the projects which
are less risky and are expected to have lesser variability in returns.
The greater drawback of this method is that it is not possible to determine the risk premium rate
appropriately and moreover it is the future cash flow, which is uncertain and requires the
adjustment and not the discount rate.
Illustration 4. The Beta Company Is considering the purchase of new investment. Two
alternatives investments are available (A and B) Rs.1, 00,000. Cash flows are expected to be as
follows:
YEAR
1
2
3
4

CASH FLOWS
INVESTMENT A (Rs)
INVESTMENT B(Rs)
40,000
50,000
35,000
40,000
25,000
30,000
20,000
30,000

The company has a target return on capital at 10%. Risk premium rates are 2% and 8%. For
investments A and B. which investments should be preferred?
Solution:
The profitability of the investments can be compared on the basis of net present values cash
inflows adjusted for risk premiums rate as follows:
97

Year

1
2
3
4

Investment
A

Investment
B

Discount
Factor@
10%+2%
= 12%

Cash
Inflows
Rs.

Present
Value
Rs.

Discount
Factor@
10%+8%
= 18%

Cash
Inflows
Rs.

Present
Value
Rs.

.893
.797
.712
.635

40,000
35,000
25,000
20,000

35,720
27,895
17,800
12,700

.847
.718
.609
.516

50,000
40,000
30,000
30,000

42,350
28,720
18,270
15,480

94,115

1,04,820

Investment A
Rs 94,115-1,00,000
1,00,000
Net Present Value

= Rs(-) 5,885

Investment B
Rs. 1,04,820= Rs. 4,820

As even at a higher discount rate investment B gives a higher present value, investment B
Should be preferred.
Certainty Equivalent Method: Another simple method of accounting foe risk n capital
budgeting is to reduce the expected cash flows by certain amounts. It can be employed by
multiplying the expected cash flows by certainty equivalent co-efficient as to convert the cash
floe to certain cash flows.
Illustration 5. There are two projects X and Y. each involves an investment of Rs40,000. The
expected cash flows and the certainty co-efficient are as under:

Year

Cash Inflows

Project X
Certainty
Coefficient
.8

Project Y
Cash Inflows
Certainty
Coefficient
20,000
.9

25,000

20,000

.7

30,000

.8

20,000

.9

20,000

.7

98

Risk free cut off rate is 10%. Suggest which of the two projects should be preferred?
Solution:
Calculation of cash inflows with certainty
Project X
Yea

Cash Inflows

Certainty
Coefficient

Project Y
Certain
Cash
Certainty
Certain
Cash Inflow Inflows
Coefficient
Cash

flow
1
2
3

25,000
20,000
20,000

.8
.7
.9

20,000
14,000
18,000

20,000
30,000
20,000

.9
.8
.7

18,000
24,000
14,000

Calculations of Present Values of cash Inflows

Project X

Project Y

Year

Discount Factor Cash inflows

@10%
Rs.

Present Values
Rs.

Cash inflows
Rs.

Present Value
Rs.

.909

20,000

18,180

18,000

16,362

.826

14,000

11,564

24,000

19,824

.751

18,000

13,518

14,000

10,514
46,700

Project X
Net Present Value

Rs 43,262-40,000
Rs. 3262

Project Y
Rs 46,700-40,000
Rs.6700

As the Net present value of project Y is more than that of Project X, Project Y should be
preferred.

99

Illustration 6.A Company is considering a new project for which the investment data are as
Follows:
Capital outlay Rs.2, 00,000
Depreciation 20% per annum
Forecasted annual income before charging depreciation, but after all other charges as follows:
Year
1
2
3
4
5

Rs.
100,000
100,000
80,000
80,000
40,000
400,000

On the basis of available data, set out calculations, illustrating and comparing the following
methods of evaluating the return of capital employed a. Pay back method b. Rate of return of
original investment. State clearly any assumption you make. Ignore taxation.
Solution:
Annual income before depreciation and after all other charges is equivalent to CFAT.
PB period is 2 years. Capital outlay of Rs.2, 00,000 is recovered in first two years:
[(Rs 1, 00,000 (year 1) + Rs 1, 00,000 (year 2)]
Rate of return on original investment
Year
1
2
3
4
5

CFAT
(Rs)
1, 00,000
1, 00,000
80,000
80,000
40,000

Rate of return

Depreciation
(Rs)
40,000
40,000
40,000
40,000
40,000
=

Where, Average Income

Rate of return

Net Income
(Rs)
60,000
60,000
40,000
40,000
--2, 00,000_

Average income
Original investment

100

Rs 2, 00,000 = Rs. 40,000

5
40,000
x
100
=
20%
2, 00,000
=

Illustration 7: A project of Rs. 20, 00,000 yielded annually a profit of Rs. 3, 00,000 after
depreciation @12.5% and is subject to income tax @ 50%. Calculate pay-back period

100

Solution: Calculation of Annual Cash Flow

Profit after Depreciation but before tax
Less: - Tax @ 50%
Profit after Tax
Add: - Depreciation
Cash Flow
Pay back period

=
=

Rs.
3, 00,000
1, 50,000
1, 50,000
2, 50,000
4, 00,000

Initial outlay/ Annual Cash Flow

20, 00,000/4, 00,000 = 5 Years

Illustration 8 The Alpha company ltd is considering the purchase of a new machine. Two
alternatives machines (A and B) have been suggested each costing Rs. 4, 00,000. Earnings after
taxation are expected to be as follows:
Year
1
2
3
4
5

Cash Flow (Rs.)

Machine A
Machine B
40,000
1, 20,000
1, 20,000
1, 60,000
1, 60,000
2, 00,000
2, 40,000
1, 20,000
1, 60,000
80,000

You are require to suggest which machine should be preferred based on

a) NPV Method
and
b) Profitability Index
Note: The present value of Rs. 1 @ 10 %
Due in 1 Year = 0.91
Due in 2 Years = 0.83
Due in 3 years = 0.75
Due in 4 years = 0.68
Due in 5 years = 0.62
Solution:
a) Computation of net present value
Machine A
Year PVIF
cash inflow
1
0.91
40000
2
0.83
120000
3
0.75
160000
4
0.68
240000
5
0.62
160000
Total Present value of Cash inflow
Less: Cash Outflow
Net present Value

Machine B
present value cash inflow
36400
120000
99600
160000
120000
200000
163200
120000
99200
80000
518400
4, 00,000
118400

101

present value
109200
132800
150000
81600
49600
5, 23,200
4, 00,000
1, 23,200

b) Computation of Profitability Index

Present value of cash inflow
Present value of cash outflow
Profitability index

5, 18,400
4, 00,000
1.3

5, 23,200
4, 00,000
1.31

Since net present value and profitability index of Machine B is higher. Machine B is therefore
recommended.
Illustration9.One of the two machines A and B is to be purchased. Form the following
information find out which of the two will be more profitable? The average rate of tax may be
taken at 50%.
Cost of machine
Machine Life
Earnings Before Tax
1st year
2nd year
3rd year
4th year
5th year
6th year

Machine A (Rs.)
50000
4 years

Machine B (Rs.)
80000
6 years

10000
15000
20000
15000

8000
14000
25000
30000
18000
13000

Solution:
Machine A
year

EBT

Tax@ 50%

EAT

Cash flows

1
2
3
4

10000
15000
20000
15000

5000
7500
10000
7500

5000
7500
10000
7500

17500
20000
22500
20000

a) Pay back period:

Investment = 50000
Recovery up to 2nd year is 37,500
Balance 12500 in 3rd year = 12500/22500 = 0.55 years i.e. 2.55 years
b) Average rate of returns:
(on original investment basis)
= Average earnings/net investment x 100
= 30000 x 4 / 50000 x 100 = 15%

102

Cumulative
cash flows
17500
37500
60000
80000

year

EBT

Machine B
Tax@ 50%
EAT

1
2
3
4
5
6

8000
14000
25000
30000
18000
13000

4000
7000
12500
15000
9000
6500

4000
7000
12500
15000
9000
6500

Cash flows
17333
20333
25833
28333
22333
19833

Cumulative
cash flows
17333
37666
63499
91832
141165
133498

(a) Pay back period

Investment = Rs. 80,000
Cumulative Cash Flows shows that the recovery up to 3rd year = 63499
therefore for the balance of Rs. 16501 will be recovered in 4th year.
i.e. 16501/28333 = 0.58 year
therefore payback period is 3.58 years
b) Average rate of return (based on original investment)
= Average Profits/net investment x 100
= 54000/6 x 100
= 11.25%
Machine A is profitable in both the cases
Note: - It has been assumed that Earnings Before tax in the problem is after considering
depreciation on straight line basis.
Illustration 10. No Project is acceptable unless the yield is 10%. Cash inflows of a certain
project along with cash outflows are given below:
Year
Outflow (Rs.)
Inflow(Rs.)
0
150000
1
30000
20000
2
30000
3
60000
4
80000
5
70000
Calculate net present value
Solution:
Calculation of Net Present Value
Year
PVIF
Outflows
Inflows
Amount (rs.) Present
Amount
Present
Value (Rs.)
(Rs.)
Value(Rs.)
0
1.000
150000
150000
1
0.909
30000
27270
20000
18180
2
0.826
30000
24780
3
0.751
60000
45060
4
0.683
80000
54640
103

0.621

70000
177270

43470
186130

Net present value = Present value of Inflows - Present value of Inflows

= Rs.186130 Rs. 177270
=Rs 8860
Problem1: 1 A Company whose cost of capital is 12% is considering two Machines A and B.
The following data are available:Cost of machine
Cash inflows
1st year
2nd year
3rd year
4th year
5th year

Machine A (Rs.)
1,40,000

Machine B (Rs.)
1,40,000

20,000
40,000
60,000
1,00,000
1,10,000
3,30,000

1,00,000
80,000
40,000
20,000
20,000
2,60,000

Recommended in which machine company should invest by using the following methods
a. Pay back method
b. Net present value
c. Profitability index
Problem2: X ltd is considering the purchase of a new machine. Two alternatives are available
having a cost price Rs. 200000 each. The following inflows are expected during the five years
life of both the machines are 5 years.
Year
Machine A
Machine B
1
15,000
5,000
2
20,000
15,000
3
25,000
20,000
4
15,000
30,000
5
10,000
20,000
The company is expecting 10 % returns on its capital.
The net present value of Rs. 1 @ 10 % are given as follows
1st year
0.909
2nd year
0.826
3rd year
0.751
4th year
0.683
5th year
0.620
You are required to appraise the proposals on the basis of
1. Pay back period method

104

1. Average rate of return method

2. Net present value method
Problem 4. Consider the following proposal investment with the indicated cash inflows
Investment
A
B
C
D
E
F

Initial outlay
200
200
200
200
200
200

Year1
200
100
20
200
140
160

Year end cash Inflows

Year2
Year3
Nil
Nil
100
100
100
300
20
20
60
100
160
80

Rank the investment using net present value (NPV) using a discount rate of 10% and state your
views.
Problem 5. After considering a survey that cost Rs. 300000 X Ltd., decided to undertake a
project putting a new product in the market. The companys cut off rate is 12%. It was estimated
that the project would have a life of 5 years. The project would cost Rs 60, 00,000 in p& M in
addition to working capital of Rs. 15, 00,000. The machine has no scrap value at the end of 5
years. After providing depreciation on straight line basis, profits after tax were estimated as
follows:
Year
1
2
3
4
5

Amount (Rs.)
600000
1000000
2600000
1000000
800000

The present value factors @ 12% per annum are given below
1st year
0.8729
2nd year
0.7972
3rd year
0.7118
4th year
0.6355
5th year
0.5674
Ascertain the net present value of the project.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.3 REVIEW QUESTIONS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is capital budgeting? What are the features and importance of capital budgeting
decisions?
2. What is capital budgeting? Explain briefly any two method of capital budgeting.
3. Give a comparative description of various methods of ranking investment proposals.

105

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CAPITAL STRUCTURE AND DIVIDEND POLICY

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
5.1 Leverage Analysis
5.1.1 Operating Leverage
5.1.2 Financial Leverage
5.1.3 Combined Leverage
5.2 Capital Structure
5.2.1 Factors determining the capital structure
5.2.2 Theories of Capital Structure
5.3 Cost of Capital
5.3.1 Significance of Cost of Capital
5.3.2 Computation of cost of capital
5.3.3 EPS, EBIT Analysis
5.4 Dividend Policy
5.4.1 Dividend decision and valuation of firm
5.4.2 Determinants of Dividend Policy
5.4.3 Types of Dividends
5.4.4 Forms of dividend
5.4.5 Bonus Issue
5.5 Review Questions
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5.1 LEVERAGE ANALYSIS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The term leverage refers to a relationship between two interrelated variables. With reference to a
business firm, these variables may be costs, output, sales, revenue, EBIT, Earning per share etc.
In financial analysis, the leverage reflects the responsiveness or influence of one variable over
some other financial variables. It helps in understanding the relationship between any two
variables. In he leverage analysis, the emphasis is on the measurement of the relationship of two
variables rather than on measuring these variables.
The leverage may be defined as the % change in one variable divided by the % change in some
other variable. Impliedly, the numerator is the dependent variable say X and the Y is the
independent variable. The leverage analysis reflects as to how responsiveness is the dependent
variable to a change in the independent variable.

106

Algebraically,
Leverage

% Change in the dependent variable

% Change in Independent variable

Illustration 1: A firm increased its sales promotion expenses from Rs 5,000 to Rs. 6,000 i.e. an
increase of 20%. This resulted in the increase in no. Of unit sold from 200 to 300 i.e. an increase
of 50%. The leverage may be defined as
Leverage

% Change in the dependent variable

% Change in Independent variable
.50
.20

=
2.5
This means that % increase in number of unit sold is 2.5 times that of % increase in sales
promotion expenses. The operating profit of a firm is a direct consequence of the sales revenue
of the firm and in turn operating profit determines the profit available to the equity shareholders.
The functional relationship between the sales revenue and the EPS can be established through
operating profit (EBIT) as follow:
Sales Revenue
-Variable costs

EBIT
- Interest

Contribution
-Fixed Costs

Profit before tax

- Tax

EBIT

Profit after Tax (EPS)

The left hand side sows that the level of EBIT depends upon the level of sales revenue and the
right hand side shoes that the level of profit after tax or EPS depends upon the level of EBIT.
The relationship between Sales revenue and EBIT is defined as operating leverage and the
relationship between EBIT and EPS is defined as financial leverage. The direct relationship
between sales revenue and EPS can also be established by combining the operating leverage and
financial leverage and is defined as the Composite leverage.

5.1.1 Operating Leverage

When the sale increases or decreases, the EBIT also changes. The operating leverage measures
the relationship between the sales revenue and the EBIT or in other words, it measures the effect
of change in sales revenue on the level of EBIT. The operating leverage is calculated by:-

107

Operating Leverage

% Change in EBIT
% Change in Sales Revenue

Illustration 2. ABC ltd. Sells 1000 unit @ Rs. 10 per unit. The cost of production is Rs. 7 per
unit and is of variable nature. The profit of the firm is 1000 x (Rs 10 7) = 3000. Suppose the
firm is able to increase the sales level by 40% resulting in total sales of 1400 unit. The profit of
the firm would now be 1400 x (Rs10 Rs7) = Rs 4200. The operating leverage of the firm is
Operating Leverage =
% Change in EBIT
% Change in Sales Revenue
=

Increase in EBIT / EBIT

Increase in Sales / Sales

=

Rs.1200 / Rs 3000
Rs. 4000 / Rs.10, 000
=

The operating leverage of 1 denotes that the EBIT level increase or decreases in direct proportion
to the increase or decrease in sales level. This is due to the fact that there is not any fixed cost
and total cost is variable in nature. Thus, impliedly, the profit level i.e. the EBIT varies in direct
proportion to the sales level. So EBIT varies in direct proportion to sales level.
Illustration 3. Suppose the firm has a fixed cost of Rs. 1000 in addition to the variable costs of
Rs 7 per unit.
Present
Expected
Sales @ Rs. 10 per unit
- Variable cists @ Rs. 7 per unit
Contribution
- Fixed Cost
EBIT
Operating Leverage

10,000
7000
3000
1000
2000

14,000
9800
4200
1000
3200

% Change in EBIT
% Change in Sales Revenue
=

Increase in EBIT / EBIT

Increase in Sales / Sales

=

Rs.1200 / Rs 2000
Rs. 4000 / Rs.10, 000

=
1.5
The OL of 1.5 means that the % increase in the level of EBIT is 1.5 times that of % increase in
sales level. In this case, the % increase in EBIT is 60% and % increase in sales is 40%. It means
that for every increase of 1% in sales level, the % increase in EBIT would be 1.5%. The above

108

figures of 1 time and 1.5 times are known as degree of operating leverage. Whenever the %
change in EBIT resulting from given % change in sales is greater then % change in sales, the OL
exists and the relationship is known as Degree of Operating leverage.
Degree of operating leverage

Contribution
EBIT

Illustration 4. Sales level is 1000 units and 1400 units. The per unit cost is Rs. 10. Variable cost
is Rs. 7 per unit. Fixed cist is Rs. 1000. Calculate DOL.
Sales Level
Sales @ Rs.10 per unit
- Variable Cost@ Rs.7 per unit
Contribution
-Fixed cost

1000 units
10,000
7000
3000
1000

EBIT

2000
3000/2000

1400 units
14,000
9800
4200
1000

3200
4200/3200

DOL
=

1.5

1.31

So this is clear that:

The OL is % change in EBIT as a result of 1% change in sales.

A positive DOL means r\that the firm is operating at a level higher than the break-even
level and both the EBIT and sales will vary in the same direction.
A negative DOL means that the firm is operating at a level lower than the break even
level.

Significance of Operating Leverage: Analysis of operating leverage of a firm is very useful to

the financial manger. It tells the impact of changes in sales on operating income. A firm having
higher D.O.L. (Degree of operating Leverage) can experience a magnified effect on E.B.I.T for
even a small change in sales level. Higher D.O.L can dramatically increase the operating profits.
But if there is decline in sales level, E.B.I.T. may be wiped-out and a loss may be operated. As
explained earlier, the operating leverage depends on fixed costs. If the fixed costs are higher, the
higher would be firms operating leverage and its operating risks. If operating leverage is high, it
automatically means that the break-even point would also be reached at a high level of sales.
Also, in the case of higher operating leverage, the margin of safety would be low. Therefore, it is
preferred to operate sufficiently above break-even point to avoid the danger of fluctuations in
sales and profits.

109

5.1.2 Financial Leverage

The financial leverage measures the relationship between the EBIT and the EPS and it reflects
the effect of change in EBIT on the level of EPS. The FL measures the responsiveness of the
EPS to a change in EBIT and is defined as % change in EPS divided by the % change in EBIT.
Financial leverage
Financial leverage

% Change in EPS
% Change in EBIT

EBIT
EBT (EBIT I)

Illustration 5. XYZ Company has currently and equity share capital of s 40 lakhs consisting of
40,000 equity shares of Rs. 100 each. The management is planning to raise another Rs. 30 lakhs
to finance a major programme of expansion through one of the four possible financing plans. The
options are:

Entirely through equity shares

Rs. 15 lakhs in equity shares of Rs. 100 each and the balance in 8% debentures.
Rs. 10 lakhs in equity shares of Rs. 100 each and the balance through long-term
borrowings at 9% interest p.a.
Rs. 15 lakhs in equity shares of Rs. 100 each and the balance through preference shares
with 5% dividend.

The companys EBIT will be Rs. 15 lakhs. Assuming corporate tax of 50%. Determine the EPS
and financial leverage.
Financial
Plan
I

Financial
Plan
II

Financial
Plan
III

Financial
Plan
IV

EBIT
- Interest on
debentures
- Interest on
long term
borrowings

Rs. 15,00,000
-

Rs. 15,00,000
1,20,000

Rs. 15,00,000
-

Rs. 15,00,000
-

1,80,000

EBT
- Tax @ 50%

Rs 15,00,000
7,50,000

13,80,000
6,90,000

13,20,000
6,60,000

15,00,000
7,50,000

7,50,000
-

6,90,000
-

6,60,000
-

7,50,000
75,000

7,50,000

6,90,000

6,60,000

6,75,000

EAT
- Pref
Dividend
Earning for
Equity

110

70,000

55,000

50,000

55,000

Rs. 10.71

12.55

13.20

12.27

1.00

1.087

1.136

1.00

No. of Equity
Shares
EPS
DFL
EBIT
EBIT - I
Significance of Financial Leverage
Planning of capital structure: the capital structure is concerned with the raising of long term
funds both from the shareholders and long term creditors. A financial manager has to decide
about the ratio between fixed cost funds and equity share capital. The effects of borrowing on
cost of capital and financial risk have to be discussed before selecting a final capital structure.
Profit planning: the EPS is affected by the degree of financial leverage. If the profitability of
the concern is increasing ten the fixed cost funds will help in increasing the availability of profits
for equity shareholders. Financial leverage is important for profit planning.
Composite Leverage: Both the financial and operating leverage magnify the revenue of the
firm. Operating leverage reflects the income which is the result of the production. On the other
hand, the financial leverage of the result of financial decisions. The composite leverage focuses
the attention on the entries income of the concern. The risk factor should be properly assessed by
the management before using the composite leverage. The high financial leverage may be offset
against low operating leverage vice versa.
The degree of composite leverage =

% Change in EPS
% Change in sales

Composite Leverage = Operating leverage x Financial leverage

Illustration6. a company has sales of Rs. 5,00,000, Variable cost of Rs. 3,00,000, fixed cost of
Rs. 1,00,000 and long term loans of Rs. 4,00,000 at 10% rate of interest. Calculate composite
leverage.

111

Solution:
Operating leverage =

=
Financial leverage

=
=

Contribution
EBIT

Rs 2, 00,000
Rs 1, 00,000
2

EBIT
EBT
=
1, 00,000
60,000
=
5
3
Composite leverage = Operating leverage
=
2
x

x financial leverage
5
3

10
3
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------5.2 CAPITAL STRUCTURE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In order to run and manage the company, funds are needed. Right from the promotional stage up
to end, finances play an important role in the companys life. If funds are inadequate, the
business suffers and if the funds are not properly managed. The entire organization suffers. It is
therefore; necessary that correct estimate of the current and future needs of the capital to be made
to have an optimum capital structure.
The capital structure is made up of debt and equity securities and refers to permanent financing
of a firm. It is composed of long-term debt, preference share capital and shareholders funds.
According to Gestenberg: Capital structure of a company refers to the composition or make up
of its capitalization and it includes all long-term capital resources viz: loans, reserves, shares and
bonds
Forms of capital structure
a)
b)
c)
d)

Equity shares only

Equity and preference Shares
Equity Shares and Debentures
Equity, preference and Debentures.

5.2.1 Factors Determining the Capital Structure

1. Financial Leverage: The use of long term fixed interest bearing debt and preference
share capital along with equity share capital is called financial leverage. The use of longterm debt magnifies the earning per share if the firm yields a return higher than the cost

112

of debt. The earning per share also increases with use of preference share capital but due
to the fact that interest is allowed to be deducted while computing tax, the leverage
impact of debt is more.
2. Growth and Stability of Sales: The capital structure of a firm is highly influenced by
the growth and stability of its sales. If the sales are expected to remain fairly stable, it can
raise a higher level of debt. Stability of sales ensures that the firm will not face any
difficulty in meeting its fixed commitments of interest payment and repayments of debts.
If sales are highly fluctuating, it should not employ debt financing in its capitals structure.
3. Cost of Capital: Cost of capital refers to the minimum rate of return expected by its
suppliers. The capital structure should also provide for the minimum cost of capital.
Usually, debt is cheaper source of finance compared to preference and equity. Preference
capital is cheaper then equity because of lesser risk involved.
4. Cash flow Ability to Service the Debt: A firm which shall be able to generate larger and
stable cash inflows can employ more debt in its capital structure as compared to the one
which has unstable and lesser ability to generate cash inflows. Whenever a firm wants to
raise additional funds, it should estimate, project its cash inflows to ensure the coverage
of fixed charges.
5. Nature and Size of Firm: Nature and size of firm also influences the capital structure. A
public utility concern has different capital structure as compared to manufacturing
concern. Public utility concern may employ more of debt because of stability and
regularity of their earnings. Small companies have to depend upon owned capital, as it is
very difficult for them to raise ling term loans on reasonable terms.
6. Control: whenever additional funds are required, the management of the firm wants to
raise the funds without any loss of control over the firm. In case funds are raised through
the issue of equity shares, the control of existing shares are diluted. Preference
shareholders and debenture holders de not have the voting right. From the point of view
of control, debt financing is recommended.
7. Flexibility: Capital structure of the firm should be flexible. I.e. it should be capable of
the being adjusted according top the needs of changing conditions. A firm should arrange
its capital structure in such a way that it can substitute one form of financing by other.
Redeemable preference share capital and convertible debentures may be preferred on
account of flexibility.
8. Requirement of Investors: It is necessary to meet the requirement of both institutional
as well as private investors when debt financing is used. Investors who are over cautious
prefer safety of investment, so debentures would satisfy such investors. Investors, who
are less cautious in approach, will prefer preference share capital.
9. Capital Market Conditions: The choice of securities is also influenced by the market
conditions. If share market is depressed the company should not issue equity share capital

113

as investors would prefer safety. In case of boom period, it would be advisable to issue
equity share capital.
10. Assets structure: If fixed assets constitute a major portion of the total assets of the
company, it may be possible for the company to raise more of long term debts.
11. Period of Financial: If finance is required for the limited period, 7 years, debentures
should be preferred. If funds are needed for permanent basis, equity share capital is more
appropriate.
12. Purpose of financing: If funds are required for the productive purpose, debt financing is
suitable as interest can be paid out of profits generated from the investment.
13. Costs of floatation: The cost of financing a debt is generally less than the cost of floating
equity and hence it may persuade the management to raise debt financing.
14. Personal Consideration: Management, which is experienced and very enterprising, does
not hesitate to use more of debts in their financing as compared to less experienced and
conservative management.
15. Corporate Tax Rule: High rate of corporate taxes on profits compels the companies to
prefer debt financing, because interest is allowed to deduct while computing taxable
profits.
5.2.1

Theories of Capital Structure

Different kinds of theories have been propounded by different authors to explain the relationship
between Capital structure and cost of capital and value of the firm. The important theories are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Net income approach

Net Operating Income approach
The Traditional approach
Modigliani and Miller approach

Assumptions: In discussing the theories of capital structure, the following assumptions have
been used:
1. There are only two sources of finance i.e. equity and debt
2. There would be no change in the investment decision.
3. That the firm has a policy of distributing the entire profits among the shareholders
implying that there is no retained earnings.
4. The operating profits of the firm are given and nor expected to grow.
5. The business risk complexion of the firm is given and is not affected by the financing
mix.
6. There is no corporate and personal tax.

114

In discussing the theories of capital structure, the following definitions and notations have been
used:
E
=
D
=
V
=
I
=
NOP =
NP
=
Do
=
D1
=
Po
=
P1
=
Kd
=
Ke
=
Ko
=

Total market value of the Equity

Total market value of the Debt
Total market value of the firm i.e., D + E
Total Interest Payment
Net operating profit i.e. EBIT
Net Profit or profit after Tax
Dividend paid by the company at Time o
Expected Dividend at the end of the year 1
Current market price of the Share
Expected Market Price of the share after 1 year.
After Tax Cost of Debt i.e. I/D
Cost of Equity i.e. D/Po
Overall Cost of Capital i.e. WACC
D
D+E
=

NOP
V

+
=

E
D+E
EBIT
V

1. Net Income Approach: According to Durand, this theory states that there is a relationship
between Capital structure and the value of the Firm and therefore the firm Can affects its value
by increasing or decreasing the Debt proportion in the overall financing mix. This approach is
based on the following assumptions.
1. The total Capital requirement of the firm is given and remains constant.
2. The cost of debt is less than cost of Equity.
3. Both Kd and Ke remain constant and increase in financial leverage i.e. use of more and
debt financing in the capital structure does not affect the risk perception of the investors.
The line of argument in favor of Net Income approach is that as the proportion of Debt financing
in capital structure increases, the proportion of an expensive source of fund increases. This
results in the decrease in overall cost of capital leading to an increase in the value of the firm.
The reason for assuming Kd less than Ke are that interest rates are usually lower than the
dividend rates due to the element of risk and the benefit of tax as the interest is a deductible
expense. The total market value of the firm on the basis of Net Income approach can be
ascertained as below:
V =E+D
Where V = Total market value of the firm
E = Total market value of the Equity
=
Earnings available to equity shareholder (NP)

115

Equity Capitalization rate (Ke)

D = Total market value of the Debt.
Overall cost of Capital can be calculated as below:
Ko

EBIT
V

Illustration 7: The expected EBIT of a firm is Rs. 80,000. It has Rs. 2, 00,000 8% debentures.
The equity capitalization rate of the company is 10%. Calculate the value of the firm and over all
Capitalization rate according to Net Income Approach.
Solution:
EBIT
Less: Interest
(8% on 2, 00,000)
Net profit

Rs.80, 000
16,000
64,000

Ke

10%

Value of Equity (E)

(64,000/.10)
Market Value of Debentures (D)

2, 00,000

Value of the Firm (V=E+D)

8, 40,000

Overall Cost of Capital, Ko =

=
=

6, 40,000

EBIT
V
80,000 * 100
8, 40,000
9.52%

a) Calculation of the Value of Firm if Debentures is raised to Rs. 3, 00,000

Solution:
EBIT
Less: Interest
(8% on 300,000
Net profit
Ke
Value of Equity (E)
(56,000/. 10)
Market Value of Debentures (D)
Value of the Firm (V=E +D)

Rs.80, 000
24,000
56,000
10%
5, 60,000
3, 00,000
8, 60,000

116

Overall Cost of Capital, Ko =

EBIT
V
80,000 * 100
8, 60,000
9.30%

=
=

Thus it is evident that with the increase in debt financing, the value of the firm has
increased and the overall cost of capital has decreased.
2. Net Operating Income Approach: The NOI approach is opposite to the NI approach.
According to NOI approach, the market value of the firm depends upon the net operating profit
or EBIT and the overall cost of Capital. The financing mix or the capital structure is irrelevant
and does not affect the value of the firm. The NOI approach makes the following assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The Kd is taken as constant.

The K0 of the firm is also taken as constant.
The firm capitalizes the total earnings of the firm to find the value of the firm as a whole.
The use of more and more debt in capital structure increase the risk of the shareholders
and thus results in the increase in cost of equity capital i.e. Ke. The increase in Ke is such
as to completely offset the benefits of employing cheaper debts.

The value of a firm on the basis of NOI approach can be determined as below:
V
=
EBIT
Ko
Where,

V
= Value of the firm
EBIT = Earning before interest and tax
Ko
= Overall cost of Capital

The market value of equity is residual value, calculated as

E
And the Cost of Equity is, Ke

=
=

VD
EBIT - Interest
V-D

Thus financing Mix is irrelevant and does not affects the value of the firm.. The value of the firm
remains for all types of debt equity mix. Since there will be change in the risk of the
shareholders as a result of change in Debt-Equity mix, therefore the Ke will be changing linearly
with change in debt proportion.
Illustration 8: A firm has an EBIT of Rs. 2, 00,000 and belongs to a risk class of 10%. What is
the value of equity capital if it employees 6% debt to the extent of 30%, 40%, 50% of the total
capital fund of Rs. 10, 00,000.

117

Solution:
The effect of changing debt proportion on the cost of equity capital can be analyzed as follows:
30% Debt
40% Debt
50% Debt
EBIT

Rs. 2, 00,000

Ko

10%

2, 00,000

2, 00,000

10%

10%

Value of the firm, V

Rs 20, 00,000

20, 00,000

20, 00,000

Value of 6% Debt, D

Rs. 3, 00,000

4, 00,000

5, 00,000

Value of Equity (E=V-D)

Rs. 17, 00,000

16, 00,000

15, 00,000

Net Profit(EBIT Interest)

Rs. 1,82,000

1,76,000

1,70,000

10.7%

11%

11.33%

Ke (NP/E)

The Ke of 10.7%, 11% and 11.33% can be verified for different proportion of debt by calculating
Ko as follows:
For 30% debt, Ko

=
=
=

For 40% debt, Ko

=
=

For 50% debt, Ko

=
=
=
=

EBIT
V
2, 00,000
20, 00,000
10%
EBIT
V
2, 00,000
20, 00,000
10%
EBIT
V
2, 00,000
20, 00,000
10%

*100

*100

*100

These calculations of cost of capital testify that the benefit of employment of more and more
debt in capital structure is off set by the increase in equity capitalization rate.
3. Traditional Approach: The traditional approach also known as Intermediate approach is a
compromise between the two extremes of Net income approach and Net operating income
approach. According to this theory, the value of the firm can be increased initially or the cost of
capital can be decreased by using more debt as the debt is the cheaper source if finance then

118

equity. Thus the optimum capital structure can be reached by a proper Debt Equity mix. Beyond
a particular point, the cost of equity increases because increased debt increases the financial risk
of the equity shareholders. The advantage of cheaper debt at this point of capital structure is
offset by increased cost of equity. After this there comes a stage, when the increased cost of
equity cannot be offset by the advantage of low cost debt. Thus the overall cost of debt decrease
up to a certain point, remains more or less unchanged for l\moderate increase in debt thereafter
and increases or rises beyond a certain point.
Thus as per the traditional approach, a firm can be benefited from a moderate level of leverage
when then advantages of using debt outweighed the disadvantages of increasing Ke. The overall
cost of capital is a function of financial leverage. The value of the firm can be affected, by the
judicious use of debt and equity in capital structure.
Illustration 9: Compute the market value of the firm, value of shares and average cost of capital
from the following information:
2,00,000
10,00,000

Net operating income

Total Investment
Equity Capitalization rate
If firm uses no Debt
If firm uses Rs.4,00,000 Debentures
If firm uses Rs. 6,00,000 Debentures

10%
11%
13%

Assume that Rs.4, 00,000 debentures can be raised at 5% rate of interest whereas Rs. 6, 00,000
Debentures can be raised at 6% rate of interest.
Solution:
Computation of market value of firm, value of shares & the average cost of capital.

119

No Debt

Rs. 4,00,000
5% Debentures

Rs.6,00,000
6%Debentures

Net Operating Income

Rs.2,00,000
Less: Interest i.e. Cost of
Debt

Rs.2,00,000
20,000

Rs.2,00,000
36,000

Earnings available to equity Rs.2,00,000

shareholders

Rs.1,80,000

Rs1,64,000

Cost of Equity, Ke

10%

Rs20,00,000
Market value of shares, E
Market
value
of
Debentures, D
Market value of the firm
(V = E+D)
Cost of Capital
(Ko = EBIT )
V

Rs20,00,000
10%

11%

13%

Rs. 16,36,363

Rs. 12,61,538

4,00,000

6,00,000

20,36,363

18,61,538

9.8%

10.7%

It is clear from the above that if Debt of Rs. 4,00,000 is used the value of the firm increases and
the overall cost of capital decreases, but if more debt is used to finance in place of equity i.e. Rs
6,00,000 debentures, the value of the firm decreases and the overall cost of capital increases.
4. Modigliani and Miller Approach: M&M Model, which was presented in 1958 on the
relationship between the leverage, cost of capital and the value of the firm. The model emphasis
that under a given set of assumptions the capital structure and its composition has no effect on
the value of the firm. There is nothing which may be called the optimal capital structure, the
model is based ob the following assumptions:
1. The capital markets are perfect and the complete information is available to all the
investors free of cost.
2. The securities are infinitely divisible.
3. Investors are rational and well informed about the risk return of all the securities.
4. The personal leverage and the corporate leverage are perfect substitute.

120

On the basis of the above assumptions, the M&M Model derived that:
1. The total value of the firm is equal to the capitalized value of the operating earnings of
the firm.
2. The total value of the firm is independent of the financial mix.
3. The cut off rate of the investment decision of the firm depends upon the risk class to
which the firm belongs, and thus is not affected by the financing pattern of this
investment.
The M&M model argues that if two firms are alike in all respects except that they differ in
respect of their financing patter and their market value, then the investors will develop a
tendency to sell the shares of the overvalued firm and to buy the shares of the undervalued firm.
This, buying and selling pressure will continue till the two firms have same market value
Suppose there are two firms, LEV & Co. and ULE & Co.. These are alike and identical in all
respect except that the LEV & Co. is a leveraged firm and has 10% debt of Rs. 30, 00,000 in its
capital structure. O the other hand, the ULE & Co. is an unleveled firm and has raised funds only
by the issue of the equity share capital. Both these firms have an EBIT of Rs. 10, 00,000 and the
equity capitalization rate, Ke of 20%. The total value and WACC of both the firms may be
ascertained as follows:
LEV & Co.
EBIT
- Interest
Net Profit
Equity Capitalization rate, Ke
Value of equity
Value of debt
Total value, V 65, 00,000
WACC, Ko= EBIT/V

Rs 10, 00,000
3, 00,000
7, 00,000
20%
35, 00,000
30, 00,000
50, 00,000
15.38%

ULE & Co.

Rs 10, 00,000
10, 00,000
20%
50, 00,000
20%

Though both the firm has same EBIT still the Levered firm has a lower Ko and higher value as
against the Unleveled firm. MM argues that this position cannot exist for a long and there will be
equality in the value of the two firms through the Arbitrage process.
The Arbitrage Process: The arbitrage process refers to undertaking by a person of two related
actions or steps simultaneously in order to derive the some benefits. E.g. buying by a speculator
in one market and selling the same at the same time in some other market. The benefit from the
arbitrage process may be in any form: increased income from the same level of investment or
same income from lesser investment.
For e.g. suppose an investor is an holder of 10% equity share capital of LEV & Co. the value of
his ownership right is Rs 3,50,000 i.e. 10% of Rs. 35,00,000. Further that out of the total net
profits of Rs. 7,00,000 of LEV & Co., he is entitled to n10% i.e. Rs &0,000 per annum and
getti8ng a return of 20%. In order to avail the opportunity of making a profit, he now decides to
convert his holdings from LEV & Co. to ULE & Co. he disposes off his holding in LEV & Co.

121

for Rs. 3,50,000, but in order to buy 10% holding of ULE & Co., he requires total funds of Rs.
5,00,000 whereas his proceeds are only Rs. 3,50,000. So he takes a loan @ 10 &% of an amount
equal to Rs. 3,00,000 and now he is having total funds of Rs. 6,50,000.
Out of the total funds of Rs. 6, 50,000 he invests Rs 5, 00,000 to buy 10% shares of ULE & Co.
still he has funds of Rs. 1, 50,000 available with him. Assum9ing that the ULE & Co. continues
to earn the same EBIT of Rs. 10, 00,000, the net returns available to the investors from the ULE
& Co. are:
Profits available from ULE & Co.
(Being 10% of net profits)
- Interest payable @ 10% on Rs 3, 00,000 Loan
Net Return

Rs. 10, 00,000

30,000
70,000

So the investor is able to get the same return of Rs. 70,000 from ULE & Co. also, which he was
receiving as an investor of LEV & Co., but he has funds of Rs. 1,50,000 left over for investment
elsewhere. Thus, his total income may now be more than Rs. 70,000. Moreover his risk is same
as before. Though his new outlet i.e. ULE & Co. is an unleveled firm but the position of the
investor is levered because he has created a homemade leverage by borrowing Rs. 3, 00,000
from the market. In fact, he has replaces the corporate leverage of LEV & C. by his personal
leverage.
The above example shows that the investor, who originally owns a part of the levered firm and
enters into the arbitrage process as above, will be better off selling the holding in levered firm
and buying the holding in unleveled firm using his home made leverage.
MM Model argues that this opportunity to earn the extra income through arbitrage process will
attract so many investors. The gradual increase in the sales of the shares of the levered firm, LEV
& Co. will push its price down and the tendency to purchase the shares of the unleveled firm,
ULE & Co. will drive its price up. The selling and purchasing pressures will continue until the
market value of the two firms is equal. At this stage, the value of the levered and the unleveled
firm and their cost of capital are same and thus the overall coat of capital is independent of the
financial leverage.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.3 COST OF CAPITAL

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The cost of capital of a firm is the minimum rate of return expected by its investors. It is the
weighted average cost of various sources of finance used by the firm. The capital used by the
firm may be in the form of debt, preference capital, retained earnings and equity shares. The
concept of cost of capital is very important in the financial management. Cost of capital for a
firm may be defined as the cost of obtaining funds i.e., the average rate of return that the
investors in a firm would expect for supplying funds to the firm.
According to Solomin Ezra: Cost of capital is the minimum required rate of earning or the cutoff rate of capital expenditure.
According to Jhon J: The rate of return the firm requires from investment in order to increase
the value of the firm in then market place.

122

Features of Cost of capital

1. Cost of capital is not a cost as such. In fact, it is the rate of return that a firm requires
earning from its projects.
2. It is the minimum rate of return. Cost of Capital of a firm is that minimum rate of return,
which will at least maintain the market value of the firm.
3. It comprises of three elements.
K=r+b+f+o
Where,
K= cost of capital
r = The expected normal rate of return at zero risk level
b= premium for business risk
f = premium for finance risk
o =other risk
COST OF CAPITAL

RISK FREE

FINANCIAL RISK

BUSINESS RISK

5.3.1 Significance of Cost of Capital

1. As Acceptance Criteria in Capital Budgeting: The concept of cost of capital has
assumed growing importance largely because of the needs to devise a rational mechanism
for making the investment decision of the firm. Considering the fosyof capital can make
capital budgeting decisions. According to the present value method of capital budgeting,
if the present value of expected returns from investment is greater than or equal to the
cost of investment, the project may be accepted, otherwise it may be rejected.
2. As a Determinant of Capital Mix in Capital Structure Decisions: Financing the firm
asset is the very crucial problem in every business and as a general rule there should be a
proper mix of debt and equity capital in financing the firms assets. While designing the
optimal capital structure, the management g\has to keep in mind the on\objective of
maximizing the value of the firm and min9imising the cost of capital.
3. As a Basis for Evaluating the Financial Performance: The concept of cost of capital
can be used to evaluate the financial performance of the top management. The actual
profitability of the project is compared the projected overall cost of capital and the actual
cost of capital of funds rise to finance the project if the actual profitability of the project
is mort than the projected.

123

4. As the Basis for taking other Financial decisions: The cost of capital is also used in
making other financial decisions such as dividend policy, capitalization of profits,
making the right issue and working capital.

5.3.2 Computation of Cost of Capital

Computation of overall cost of capital of a firm involves:
Computation of cost of Specific source of finance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Cost of Debt
Cost of Preference Capital
Cost of Equity Capital
Cost of Retained earnings
Weighted average cost of capital

Computation of cost of Specific source of finance

Cost of Debt: The cost of debt is the rate of interest payable on debt.
Cost of perpetual / Irredeemable Debt
Before tax cost of debt
Kdb

I
P

Where, Kdb = before tax cost of debt

I = Interest
P = Principal
In case if debt is raised at premium or discount, P would be considered as the amount of net
proceeds received from the issue and not the face value of the securities. The formula may
changed to
Kdb

I
NP

Where NP = Net proceeds

After Tax Cost of Debt

Kda

Kdb (1-t)

Where, Kda = after tax cost of debt

t
= Rate of tax

124

Cost of Redeemable Debt: Usually the debt is issued to be redeemed after a certain period
during the lifetime of the firm. Such a debt issue is known as Redeemable Debt. The cost of
Redeemable debt may be computed as:
Before Tax Cost of Debt
I+ 1
(RV-NP)
N
I (RVP + NP)
2

Kdb =
Where,

I = Interest
N = Number of years in which debt is to be redeemed
RV = Redeemable value of debt
NP = Net Proceeds

After Tax cost of debt, Kda = Kdb (1-t)

Kda
Where

(RV-NP)
I+ 1
N
1 (RV + NP)
2

(1 t)

T = Tax rate

Illustration 10: X Ltd. issues Rs. 50,000 8% debenture. The tax rate applicable is 50%.
Compute the cost of debt capital, if debentures are issued (i) at par (ii) at Premium of 10% (iii) at
discount of 10%
Solution:
Kda

=
=
=
=

(1 t)
I
NP
4,000 (1 - .50)
50,000
4,000
55,000
4,000
45, 00

4%

(1 - .50)

3.6%

(1 - .50)

4.4%

Illustration 11: A company issues Rs. 10, 00,000; 10% debentures at a discount of 5%. The cost
of floatation amounts to Rs. 30,000. The debentures are redeemable after 5 years. Calculate
before tax and after tax cost of debt assuming a tax rate of 50%.

125

Solution:
Before tax Cost of Redeemable debt
I+ 1
(RV-NP)
N
I (RVP + NP)
2

Kdb =

1, 00,000 + 1 (10, 00,000 9, 20,000)

5
1 (10, 00,000 + 9, 20,000)
2
12.08%

[NP = Rs. 10, 00,000 50,000(discount) 30,000(cost of floatation) = 9, 20,000]

After tax Cost of Redeemable debt
Kda

=
=
=

Kdb (1-t)
12.08 %( 1-.50)
6.875%

Illustration 12: A 5-uear Rs.100 debenture of a firm can be sold for a net price of Rs. 96.50. The
coupon rate of interest is 14% per annum, and the debenture will be redeemed at 5% premium on
maturity. The firms tax rate is 40%. Compute the after tax cost of debenture.
Solution:
I+ 1
(RV-NP)
Kda =
N
(1- t)
I (RVP + NP)
2
=

14 + 1(105-96.50)
5
1 (105 + 96.50)
2
10.025%

(1 - .40)

Cost of Preference Capital: A fixed rate of dividend is payable on preference shares. Though
dividend is payable at the discretion of the Board of Directors and there is no legal binding to
pay dividends yet it does not mean that preference capital is cost free. The cost of preference
capital is the function of the dividend expected by its investors.

126

Formula:
Kp =

I
P or NP

Where, Kp = Cost of preference Capital

D = Dividend
P = Preference Share Capital
NP = Net Proceedings
Cost of Redeemable Preference Capital:
Sometimes redeemable preference Capital Shares is issued which can be redeemed or cancelled
on maturity date. The cost of such capital can be computed as follows;D+ 1
(MV-NP)
N
I (MV + NP)
2
Where, Kpr = Cost of redeemable Preference Capital
D = Annual Preference Dividend
MV = Maturity value of preference shares
NP = Net proceeds Preference shares
Illustration13. A company issues 1,000 7% preference shares of Rs. 100 each at a premium of
10% redeemable after 5years at par. Compute the cost of preference Capital.
Solution:
D+ 1
(MV-NP)
Kdb =
N
I (MV + NP)
2
7,000 + 1 (1, 00,000 1, 10,000)
=
5
1 (1, 00,000 + 1, 10,000)
2
=
4.76%
Kdb =

Cost of Equity Share Capital: The cost of the equity is the maximum rate of return that
the company must earn on equity financed portion of its investments in order to leave unchanged
the market price of its stock. The cost of equity capital is a function of the expected return by its
investors. The cost of equity can be computed in the following ways:
Dividend Yield method or Dividend / Price Ratio method: According to this method the cost
of equity capital is the discount rate that equates the present value of expected future dividend
per share with the net proceeds of a share.

127

Ke = D
NP
OR
Ke = D
NP
Where, Ke = Cost of Equity Capital
D = Expected Dividend per share
NP = Net Proceeds per share
MP = Market Price per share
Dividend Yield plus growth in dividend method: When the dividends of the firm are expected
to grow at constant rate and the dividend pay out ratio is constant this method may be used to
compute the cost of equity capital.
Do

D1

Ke =

(1+g)

+ G =

NP
NP
Ke = Cost of Equity Capital
D1
= Expected Dividend Per Share at the end of the year
NP = Net Proceeds pert share
G
= Rate of Growth in dividends
Do = previous years dividend
Earning Yield Method:
According to this method, the cost of equity capital is the discount rate that equates the present
values of expected future earnings per share with the net proceeds of share.
EPS

Where:

Ke

=
NP or MP

Illustration 14: The shares of a company are selling at Rs. 40 per share and it had paid a
dividend of Rs. 4 per share last year. The investors market expects a growth rate of 5% per year.
a) Compute the companys equity cost of capital;
b) If the anticipated growth rate is 7% per annum, calculate the indicated market price per
share.
Solution: (a)
Do (1+g)
Ke =
+ g
MP
=
=

4(10.5)
40
15.5%

5%

(b)
Ke

D1
MP

128

15.5%

15.55 7%

MP

4 (1.07 ) + 7%
MP
4.28
MP
Rs. 50.35

Cost of Retained Earnings: The cost of retained earnings may be considered as the rate of
return which the existing shareholders can obtain by investing the after tax dividends in
alternatives opportunity of equal qualities. It is thus the opportunity cost of dividends foregone
by the shareholders.
Kr

Where, Kr

D
NP

+G

(1 t) (1 b)

= Ke (1-t) (1-b)
D
= Expected Dividends
G
= Growth Rate
NP = Net Proceeds of equity issue
t
= Tax rate
b
= Cost of purchasing new securities
Ke = Rate of return available to shareholders.

Computation of Weighted Average Cost of Capital: Weighted average cost of capital is the
average cost of various sources of financing. It is also known as Composite Cost of Capital,
Overall Cost of capital, average accost of capital. Once the cost of specific source of capital is
determined, weighted average cost of capital can be computed by putting weights to the specific
costs of capital in proportion of the various sources of funds to the total. The CIMA defines the
weighted average cost of capital as the average cost of companys finance (equity, debentures,
bank loans) weighted according to the proportion each elements bears to the total pool of capital,
weighting is usually based on market valuation current yields and costs after tax.
Weights can be given in the following way:
A. Historical or existing weights
i. Book value weights
ii. Market value weights
B. Marginal weights
Historical or existing weights: Historical or existing weights are the weights based on the actual
or existing proportions of different sources in the overall capital structure. Such weighing system
is based on the actual proportions at the time when the W ACC is being calculated. In other
words, the weighing system is the proportions in which the funds have already been raised by the
firm.

129

The use of historical weights is based on two important assumptions namely

a) That the firm would raise the additional resources required for financing the investment
proposals, in the same proportions in which they are appearing at present in the capital
structure, and
b) That the present capital structure is optimal and therefore the firm wants tocontinue with
the same pattern in future also. However, there may be some problems in applying the
historical weights. The firm may not be able to raise additional finance in the same
proportion as existing one because of prevailing economic and capital market conditions,
legal constraints or other factors.
Book Value Weights: The weights are said to be book value weights if the proportions of
different sources are ascertained on the basis of the face values i.e., the accounting values. The
book value weights can be easily calculated by taking the relevant information from the capital
structure as given in the balance sheet of the firm.
The book value weights are considered as a sound weighing system as it is operational in nature
and a firm may design its capital structure in terms of as it appears in the balance sheet.
However, the book value weights system does not truly reflect the economic values. In fact, the
weighing system should be market determined. The book value weights system is not consistent
with the definition of the overall cost of capital, which is defined as the minimum rate of return
needed to maintain the firms market value. The book value weights ignore the market values.
Market Value Weights: The weights may also be calculated on the basis of the market value of
different sources i.e., the proportion of each source at its market value. In order to calculate the
market value weights, the firm has to find out the current market price of the securities in each
category. However, a problem may arise if there is no market value available for a particular type
of security.
The advantages of using the market value weights may be
1. The market value weights are consistent with the concept of maintaining market value in
the definition of the overall cost of capital. The market value weights provide current
estimate of the investors required rate of return.
2. The market Value weights yield good estimate of the cost of capital that would be
incurred should the firm require additional funds from the market.
However, the market values weights suffer from some limitations, as follows:
1. Not only that the market values of all types of securities issue have to be obtained but
also that the market value of equity share is to be segregated into capital and retained
earnings.
2. The market values are subject to change from time to time and so the concept of optimal
capital structure in terms of market values does not remain relevant any longer. External

130

factors, which affect the market value, will affect the cost of capital also and therefore,
the investment decision process will be influenced by the external factors.
The WACC based on market value will generally be greater than the WACC based on book
values. The reason being that the equity capital having higher specific cost of capital usually has
market value above the book value. However, this is not the rule.
Marginal Weights: The other system of assigning weights is the marginal weights system. The
marginal weights refer to the proportions in which the firm wants or intends to raise funds from
different sources. In other words, the proportions in which additional funds required to finance
the investment proposals will be raised are known as marginal weights. So, in case of marginal
weights, the firm in fact, calculates the actual WACC of the incremental funds. Theoretically, the
system of marginal weights seems to be good enough as the return from investment will be
compared with the actual cost of funds. Moreover, if a particular source which has been used in
the past but is not being used now to raise additional funds, or cannot be used now for one or the
other reason then why should it be allowed to enter the decision process even through the
weighing system.
However, there are some shortcomings of the marginal weights system. In particular, the capital
budgeting decision process requires the long-term perspective whereas the marginal weights
ignore this. In the short run, the firm may be tempted to raise funds only from cheaper sources
and thereby accepting more & more proposals. However, later on when other sources will have
to be resorted to, some projects, which should have been accepted otherwise, will be rejected
because of higher cost of capital.
FORMULA
Kw = XW
W
Where,
Kw = weighted average cost of capital
X = Cost of specific source of finance
W = Weight, proportion of specific source of finance
Illustration 15: A firm has the following capital structure and after tax cost for the different
sources of funds used:
Source of funds
Debt
Preference capital
Equity Capital
Retained Earnings
Total

Amount(Rs.)

Proportion (%)

After tax cost (%)

15,00,000
12,00,000
18,00,000
15,00,000
60,00,000

25
20
30
25
100

5
10
12
11

You are required to compute the weighted average cost of capital.

131

Solution:
Computation of weighted average cost of capital (WACC)
Source of funds
Debt
Preference capital
Equity Capital
Retained Earnings
Weighted Average Cost
of Capital

Proportion %)
(W)
25
20
30
25

After tax cost (%)

(X)
5
10
12
11

Weighted cost %
(XW)%
1.25
2.00
3.60
2.75
9.60

Illustration 16.: A company has the following capital structure and after tax costs of different
sources of Capital used:
Type of
Book Value
Proportion (%)
After-tax cost (%)
Capital
Debt
Rs. 4, 50,000
30
7
Preference
3, 75,000
25
10
Equity
6, 75,000
45
15
15, 00,000
100
a) Determine the weighted average cost of capital using book Value weights
b) The firm wishes to raise further Rs. 6, 00,000 for the expansion of the project as below:
Debt
Preference Capital
Equity Capital

Rs. 3, 00,000
Rs. 1, 50,000
Rs. 1, 50,000

Assuming that specific costs do not change, compute the weighted marginal cost of capital.
Solution:
(a) Computation of weighted average cost of capital (WACC)
Source of funds
Proportion %) After tax cost (%)
Weighted cost %
(W)
(X)
(XW)%
Debt
30
7
2.10
Preference capital
25
10
2.50
Equity Capital
45
15
6.75
WACC
11.35%
(b) Computation of weighted Marginal cost of capital (WMCC)
Source of funds
Proportion %) After tax cost (%)
Weighted cost %
(W)
(X)
(XW)%
Debt
50
7
3.50
Preference capital
25
10
2.50
Equity Capital
25
15
3.75
WACC
9.75%

132

5.3.3 EBIT-EPS Analysis

It can be explained with the help of following example. In this case the financial plan under
option 4 seems to be the best as it is giving the highest EPS of RS 38. In this plan, the firm has
applied maximum financial leverage and the results are evident. The firm is expecting to earn an
EBIT of Rs. 1, 50,000 on the total investment of Rs. 5,00,000 resulting in 30% return .on an after
tax basis , this return comes to 15% i.e. 30% x (1 - .5) . However the after tax cost of 10%
debentures is 5% i.e. 10% (1 - .5) and the after tax cost of preference shares is only 12% only. In
the option 4, the firm has employed 50% debt,25% preference shares and 25 % equity share
capital , and the benefits of employing 50% debt ( which has after tax cost of 5% only) and 25%
preference shares (having cost of 12% only) are extended to the equity shareholders. Therefore
the firm is expecting an EPS of Rs 38.
In case, the company opts for all equity financing only, the EPS is Rs 15 which is just equal to
the after tax return on investment. However in option 2, where 50% funds are obtained by an
issue of 12% preference shares , the 3% extra is available to the equity shareholders resulting in
increase in of EPS fro m Rs 15 to Rs 18 and then to rs 21.50 . This gradual increase in EPS is
different plans from Rs 15 to Rs 18 and then to Rs 21.5 and ultimately to Rs 38 is not without
reasons. The company is expecting this increase in EPS when more and more preference shares
and debt financing is availed because the after tax cost of preference shares and debenture are
less than the after tax return on total investment. What happens if the return on investment (EBIT
as a% of funds employed) is reduced from 30% to 18%? The results are shown in the following
table.
Option 1

Option 2

EBIT
Rs 90,000
-interest
--Profit before tax
90,000
-tax @50%
45,000
Profit after tax
45,000
-Preference dividend
--Profit for equity share 45,000
No. of equity shares
(of Rs. 100 each)
5,000
EPS
9

Option 3

Option 4

Rs 90,000
------90,000
45,000
45,000
30,000
15,000

Rs 90,000
12,500
77,500
38,750
38,750
15,000
23,750

2500
6

2500
9.5

Rs 90,000
25,000
65,000
32,500
32,500
15,000
17,500
1250
14

In this case the EPS is under option 1 is Rs 9 and this is just equal to the after tax return on
investment of 9%.. This is because the firm is an all equity firm. However if the company opts
for 50% financing from preference shares, the EPS reduces to Rs 6.
The above example shows that the behavior of the EPS as result of change in financing pattern
depends upon the ROI of the firm. Whenever the ROI of the firm is more than the cost of debt,
the financial leverage is said to be favorable. Higher the degree of financial leverage factor, the
larger will be the earnings available to equity shareholders.

133

Varying EBIT with Different Patterns: The assumption of constant EBIT is unrealistic and
imaginary. In practice, a firm may not able to correctly estimate the EBIT level whatsoever
thorough analysis might have been made in this respect. The EBIT level may vary and the actual
EBIT may come out to be different than the expected one. Therefore the effect of financial
leverage on the EPS should be analyzed under the assumption of varying EBIT also. The
following example will illustrate this point.
Suppose, there are three firm X & co., Y Y & co.and Z & co. these firms are alike in all respect
except the leverage. The financial position of three firms is presented as follows:
Capital structure
Share capital (of RS. 100
Each)
6% debenture

X & Co.
2, 00,000

Total

Y & Co.
1, 00,000

Z & Co.
50,000

----

1, 00,000

1, 50, 000

2, 00,000

2, 00,000

2, 00,000

These firms are expected to earn a ROI at different levels depending upon the economic
conditions. In normal conditions, the ROI is expected to be 8% which may fluctuate by 3% on
either side on the occurrence on bad economic conditions or good economic conditions.
poor eco. Cond.
Total assets
ROI
EBIT

Normal eco. Cond

Rs 2,00,000
5%
Rs. 10,000

Rs. 2,00,000
8%
Rs. 16,000

Good eco. cond

Rs. 2,00,000
11%
Rs. 22,000

X & co.( no financial leverage)

EBIT
-Interest
Profit before tax
-Tax @ 50%
Profit after tax
Number of shares
EPS (Rs)

10,000
-------10,000
5,000
5,000
2,000
2.5

16,000
------16,000
8,000
8,000
2,000
4

22,000
------22,000
11,000
11,000
2,000
5.5

10,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
2,000
1,000
2

16,000
6,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
1,000
5

22,000
6,000
16,000
8,000
8,000
1,000
8

Y & Co.( 50% leverage)

EBIT
-Interest
Profit before tax
-Tax @ 50%
Profit after tax
Number of shares
EPS (Rs)

134

Z & Co. (75% leverage)

EBIT
-Interest
Profit before tax
-Tax @ 50%
Profit after tax
Number of shares
EPS (Rs)

10,000
9,000
1,000
500
500
500
1

16,000
9,000
7,000
3,500
3,500
500
7

22,000
9,000
13,000
6,500
6,500
500
13

On the basis of the figures given above, it may be analyzed as to how the financial leverage
affects the returns available to the shareholders under varying EBIT levels.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.4 DIVIDEND POLICY

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The term dividend refers to that part of profits of a company which is distributed by the company
among its shareholders. It is the reward of the shareholders for investments made by them in the
shares of the company. The investors are interested in earning the maximum return on their
investments and to maximize their wealth. A company, on the other hand, needs to provide funds
to finance its long-term growth. If a company pays out as dividend most of what it earns, then for
business requirements and further expansion it will have to depend upon outside resources such
as issue of debt or new shares. Dividend policy of a firm, thus affects both the long-term
financing and the wealth of shareholders.
Dividend Decision and Value of Firms: The value of the firm can be maximized if the
shareholders' wealth is maximized. There are conflicting views regarding the impact of dividend
decision on the valuation of the firm. According to one school of thought, dividend decision does
not affect the share-holders' wealth and hence the valuation of the firm. On the other hand,
according to the other school of thought, dividend decision materially affects the shareholders'
wealth and also the valuation of the firm. We will discuss below the views of the two schools of
thought under two groups:
1. The Irrelevance Concept of Dividend or the Theory of Irrelevance, and
2. The Relevance Concept of Dividend or the Theory of Relevance.
The Irrelevance Concept of Dividend or the Theory of Irrelevance:
Residual Approach: According to this theory, dividend decision has no effect on the wealth of
the shareholders or the prices of the shares, and hence it is irrelevant so far as the valuation of the
firm is concerned. This theory regards dividend decision merely as a part of financing decision
because the earnings available may be retained in the business for re-investment. But, if the
funds are not required in the business they may be distributed as dividends. This theory assumes
that investors do not differentiate between dividends and retentions by the firm. Their basic
desire is to earn higher return on their investment. In case the firm has profitable investment
opportunities giving a higher rate of return than the cost of retained earnings, the investors would
be content with the firm retaining the earnings to finance the same. However, if the firm is not in

135

a position to find profitable investment opportunities, the investors would prefer to receive the
earnings in the form of dividends. Thus, a firm should retain the earnings if it has profitable
investment opportunities otherwise it should pay them as dividends.
Modlgliani and Miller Approach (MM Model): Modigliani and Miller have expressed in the
most comprehensive manner in support of the theory of irrelevance. They maintain that dividend
policy has no effect on the market price of the shares and the value of the firm is determined by
the earning capacity of the firm or its investment policy. The splitting of earnings between
retentions and dividends, may be in any manner the firm likes, does not affect the value of the
firm. As observed by M.M. "Under conditions of perfect capital markets, rational investors,
absence of tax discrimination between dividend income and capital appreciation, given the firm's
investment policy, its dividend policy may have no influence on the market price of the shares.'"
Assumptions of MM Hypothesis
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

There are perfect capital markets.

Investors behave rationally.
Information about the company is available to all without any cost.
There are no floatation and transaction costs.
No investor is large enough to affect the market price of shares.
There are no taxes or there are no differences in the tax rates applicable to dividends and
capital gains.
g) The firm has a rigid investment policy.

The Argument of MM: The argument given by MM in support of their hypothesis is that
whatever increase in the value of the firm results from the payment of dividend, will be exactly
off set by the decline in the market price of shares because of external financing and there will be
no change in the total wealth of the shareholders. For example, if a company, having investment
opportunities, distributes all its earnings among the shareholders, it will have to raise additional
funds from external sources. This will result in the increase in number of shares or payment of
interest charges, resulting in fall in the earnings per share in the future. Thus whatever a
shareholder gains on account of dividend payment is neutralized completely by the fall in the
market price of shares due to decline in expected future earnings per share. To be more specific,
the market price of a share in the beginning of a period is equal to the present value of dividends
paid at the end of the period plus the market price of the shares at the end of the period. This can
be put in the form of the following formula:
P0

Where,

D1+P1
1+Ke
P0 = Market price per share at the beginning of the period, or prevailing market
price of a share.
D1 = Dividend to be received at the end of the period.
P 1 = Market price per share at the end of the period.
Ke = Cost of equity capital or rate of capitalization.

136

The value of P1 can be derived by the above equation as under:

P1
=
P0 (1 = Ke) D1
The MM hypothesis can be explained in another form also presuming that investment required
by the firm, on account of payment of dividends is financed out of the new issue of equity shares.
In such a case, the number of shares to be issued can be computed with the help of the following
equation:
m
=
I (E - n D1)
P1
Further, the value of the firm can be ascertained with the help of the following formula :
_(n + m) P1 - (I - E)
n P0 =
1+ke
Where, m = number of shares to be issued.
I = Investment required.
E = Total earnings of the firm during the period.
P1 = Market price per share at the end of the period.
Ke = Cost of equity capital.
n = number of shares outstanding at the beginning of the period.
.
D1 = Dividend to be paid at the end of the period.
n P0= Value of the firm
Let us take the following illustration to illustrate MM hypothesis of irrelevance of dividend to
the valuation of firm.
Illustration 17: ABC Ltd. belongs to a risk class for which the appropriate capitalization rate is
10%. It currently has outstanding 5,000 shares selling at Rs.100 each. The firm is contemplating
the declaration of dividend of Rs.6 per share at the end of the current financial year. The
company expects to have a net income of Rs.50, 000 and has a proposal for making new
investments of Rs.l,00,000. Show that under the MM hypothesis, the payment of dividend does
not affect the value of the firm.
Solution:
(A)
Value of the firm when dividends are paid:
(i)

Price of the share at the end of the current financial year

=
P0 (1 = Ke) D1
P1
=
100(1+.10)-6
=
Rs. 104
(i)
Numbers of shares to be issued
m

=
=

I (E - n D1)
P1
1, 00,000 - (50,000 5,000 x 6)
104

137

=
(ii)
n P0

80,000
104
Value of the firm
_(n + m) P1 - (I - E)
1+ke

=
=
(B)
(i)

(ii)

(1, 00,000 50,000)

1 + .10
6, 00,000 50,000
1.10
Rs.5, 00,000

Value of the firm when dividends are not paid:

Price per share at the end of the current financial year
=
P0 (1 = Ke) D1
P1
=
100 (1 + .10) 0
=
Rs.110
Numbers of shares to be issued
m

=
=
=

(iii)

5000 + 80,000 x 104

104

Value of the firm

n P0 =
=

=
=

I (E - n D1)
P1
1, 00,000 - (50,000 - 0)
110
50,000
110
_(n + m) P1 - (I - E)
1+ke
5000 + 50,000 x 1.10 (1, 00,000 50,000)
110
1 + .10
6, 00,000 50,000
1.10
Rs.5, 00,000

Hence, whether dividends are paid or not value of the remains same i.e Rs. 500,000
Criticism of MM Approach
1. Prefect capital market does not exist in reality
2. Information about the company is not available to .all the persons.

138

3. The firms have to incur flotation costs while issuing 'securities.

4. Taxes do exit and there is normally different tax treatment for dividends and capital
gains.
5. The firms do not follow a rigid investment policy.
6. The investors have to pay brokerage, fees, etc. while doing any transaction.
7. Shareholders may prefer current income as compared to further gains.
The Relevance Concept of Dividend Or The Theory Of Relevance: The other school of
thought on dividend decision holds that the dividend decisions considerably affect the value of
the firm. The advocates of this school of thought include Myron Gordon, James Walter and
Richardson. According to them dividends communicate information to the investors about the
firms' profitability and hence dividend decision becomes relevant Those firms which pay higher
dividends, will have greater value as compared to those which do not pay dividends or have a
lower dividend payout ratio. We have examined below two theories representing this notion:
(i) Walter's Approach, and (ii) Gordon's Approach
Walter's Approach: Prof. Walter's approach supports the doctrine that dividend decisions are
relevant and affect the value of the firm. Prof. Walter's model is based on the relationship
between the firmss (i) return on investment. i.e. r. and (ii) the cost of capital or the required rate
of return, i.e., k.
According to Prof. Walter, If r > k i.e., if the firm earns a higher rate of return on its investment
than the required rate of return, the firm should retain the earnings. Such 'firms are termed as
growth firm and the optimum pay-out would be zero in their case.
In case of declining firms which do not have profitable investments, i.e., where r < k, the
shareholders would stand to gain if the firm distributes its earnings. For such firms, the optimum
pay-out would be 100% and the firms should distribute the entire earnings as dividends.
In case of normal firms where r = k, the dividend policy will not affect the market value of
shares as the shareholders will get the same return from the firm as expected by them. For such
firms, there is no optimum dividend payout and the value of the firm would not change with the
change in dividend rate.
Assumption of Walter's Model
a) The investments of the firm are financed through retained earnings only and the firm does
not use external sources of funds.
b) The internal rate of return (r) and the cost of capital (k) of the firm are constant.
c) Earnings and dividends do not change while determining the value.
d) The firm has a very long life.

139

Walters formula for determining the value of a share:

P
=
D + r ( E + D)
Ke
Ke
Or

D + r(E-D) / Ke
Ke
Ke

Where,

P = Price of Equity Share

D = Initial dividend per share
Ke = Cost of Equity capital
r = Internal rate of return
E = Earning per share

Let us illustrate this with following :

Illustration 18: The following information is available in respect of a firm:
Capitalization Rate = 10%
Earning per share
= Rs.50
Assumed rate of return on investment:
i) 12%
ii) 8%
iii) 10%
Show the effect of dividend policy on market price of shares applying walters model when
dividend pay out ratio is
i) 0% ii) 40% iii) 100%
Solution:
p
=
D + r(E-D) / Ke
Ke
Ke
(i) = 12%

Effect of dividend policy on market price of shares

(ii) r = 8%
(iii)r = 10%

a) When dividend payout ratio is 0%.

P

=0
.10

+ .12(50 0) /.10
.10

= Rs.600

P = 0 + .08(50 0) /.10
.10
.10

P = 0 + .10(50 0) /.10
.10
.10

= Rs.400

= Rs.500

b) When dividend payout ratio is 40%.

P = 20
.10

+ .12(50 20) /.10

.10

P = 20 + .08(50 20) /.10

.10
.10

P = 20
.10

= Rs.560
= Rs.440
c) When dividend payout ratio is 100%
P = 50
.10

+ .12(50 50) /.10

.10

= Rs.500

P = 50 + .08(50 50) /.10

.10
.10

= Rs.500
140

+ .10(50 20) /.10

.10

= Rs.500
P = 50
.10

+ .10(50 50) /.10

.10

= Rs.500

Conclusion: when,
r > k, the company should retain the profits, i.e., when r= 12%, ke= I 0%;
r is 8%, i.e., r < k, the pay-out should be high; and
r is 10%; i.e. r = k; the dividend pay-out does not affect the price of the share.
Criticism of Walter's Model
The basic assumption that investments are financed through retained earnings only is seldom true
in real world. Firms do raise funds by external financing. The internal rate of return, i.e. r, also
does not, remain constant. As a matter of fact, with increased investment the rate of return also
changes. The assumption that cost of capital (k) will remain constant also does not hold good. As
a firm's risk pattern does not remain constant, it is not proper to assume that k will always remain
constant.
Gordon's Approach: Myron Gordon has also developed a model on the lines of Prof. Walter
suggesting that dividends are relevant and the dividend decision of the firm affects its value. His
basic valuation model is based on the following assumptions:
a) The firm is an all equity firm.
b) No external financing is available or used. Retained earnings are the only. Source of
finance.
c) The rate of return on the firm's investment r, is constant.
d) The retention ratio, b, is constant. Thus, the growth rate of the firm g = br, is also
constant.
e) The cost of capital for the firm remains constant and it is greater than the growth rate, i.e.
k > br.
f) The firm has perpetual life.
g) Corporate taxes do not exist.
According to Gordon, the market value of a share is equal to the present value of future stream of
dividends. Thus,
P

+
D1
(1 +k)

D2
+
(1 + K)2

------

Gordon's basic valuation formula can be simplified as under:

P

E ( 1- b)
Ke br

Or,

P0 =

D1
=
Ke - g

Where,

P = Price of shares

D0 ( 1+ g)
Ke - g

141

E = Earnings per share b = Retention ratio

Ke = Cost of equity capital
br = g = Growth rate in r,i.e. rate of return on investment
Do = Dividend per share
D1 = Expected dividend at the end of year 1.
The implications of Gordon's basic valuation model may be summarized as below:
1. When r > k, the price per share increases as the dividend payout ratio decreases. Thus,
growth firm should distribute smaller dividends and should retain maximum earnings.
2. When r = k, the price per share remains unchanged and is not affected by dividend policy.
Thus, for a normal firm there is no optimum dividend payout.
3. When r < k, the price per share increases as the dividend payout ratio increases. Thus, the
shareholders of declining firm stand to gain if the firm distributes its earnings. For such
firms, the optimum payout would be 100%.
Illustration 19: The following information is available in respect of the rate of return on
investment (r), the cost of capital (k) and earning per share (E) of ABC Ltd.
Rate of return on investment (r) = (i) 15% (ii) 12% and (iii) 10%
Cost of capital (K)
= 12%
Earning per share (E).
= Rs. 10
Determine the value of its shares using Gordon's Model assuming the following:
D/P ratio (1- b)
Retention ratio (b)
(a)
100
0
(b)
80
20
(c)
40
60
Solution:
P

(i) r = 15%
a) when D/P ratio is 100%
P

10(1 0)
0.12 (0)(.15)
= Rs.83.33

E ( 1- b)
Ke br
Dividend policy and value of shares
(ii) r = 12%
(iii) r = 10%
P

10(1 0)
0.12 (0)(.12)
= Rs.83.33

10(1 0)
0.12 (0)(.10)
= Rs.83.33

10(1 0.20)
0.12 (0.20)(.12)
= Rs.83.33

= 10(1 0.20)
0.12 0.20)(.12)
= Rs.80

= 10(1 0.60)
0.12 (0.60)(.10)
= Rs.66.67

b) when D/P ratio is 80%

P

=
=

10(1 0.20)
0.12 (0.20)(.15)
Rs.88.89

c) when D/P ratio is 40%

P
= 10(1 0.60)
0.12 (0.60)(.15)
= Rs.133.33

10(1 0.60)
0.12 (0.60)(.12)
= Rs.83.33

142

Gordon's Revised Model: The basic assumption in Gordon's Basic Valuation Model that cost of
capital (k) remains constant for a firm is not true in practice. Thus, Gordon revised his basic
model to consider risk and uncertainty. In the revised model, he suggested that even when r = k,
dividend policy affects the value of shares on account of uncertainty of future, shareholders
discount future dividends at a higher rate than they discount near dividends. That is there is a two
fold assumption, viz. (i) investors are risk averse, and (ii) they put a premium on a certain, return
and discount/penalize uncertain returns. Because the investors are rational and they want to avoid
risk, they prefer near dividends than future dividends. Stockholders often act on the principle that
a bird in hand is worth than two in the bushes and for this reason are willing to pay a premium
for the stock with the higher dividend rate, just as they discount the one with the lower rate.
Thus, if dividend policy is considered in the context of uncertainty, the cost of capital cannot be
assumed to be constant and so firm should set a high dividend payout ratio and offer a high
dividend yield in order to minimize its cost of capital.

5.4.2 Determinants of Dividend Policy

The payment of dividend involves some legal as well as financial considerations. The following
are the important factors which determine the dividend policy of a firm:
1. Legal Restrictions: Legal provisions relating to dividends in the Companies Act, 1956
lay down a framework within which dividend policy is formulated. These provisions
require that:

Dividend can be paid only out of current profits or past profits after providing for
depreciation or out of the moneys provided by Government for the payment of
dividends in pursuance of a guarantee given by the Government.
A company providing more than ten per cent dividend is required to transfer certain
percentage of the current year's profits to reserves.
The dividends cannot be paid out of capital, because it will amount to reduction of
capital adversely affecting the security of its creditors.

2. Magnitude and Trend of Earnings: As dividends can be paid only out of present or
past year's profits, earnings of a company fix the upper limits on dividends. The
dividends should, generally, be paid out of current year's earnings only as the retained
earnings of the previous years become more or less a part of permanent investment in the
business to earn current profits. The past trend of the company's earnings should also be
kept in consideration while making the dividend decision.
3. Desire and Type of Shareholders: Desires of shareholders for dividends depend upon
their economic status. Investors, such as retired persons, widows and other economically
weaker persons view dividends as a source of funds to meet their day-to-day living
expenses. To benefit such investors, the companies should pay regular dividends. On the
other hand, a wealthy investor in a high income tax bracket may not benefit by high
current dividend incomes. Such an investor may be interested in lower current dividends
and high capital gains.

143

4. Nature of Industry: Certain industries have a comparatively steady and stable demand
irrespective of the prevailing economic conditions. For instance, people used to drink
liquor both in boom as well as in recession. Such firms expect regular earnings and hence
can follow a consistent dividend policy. On the other hand. If the earnings are uncertain,
as in the case of luxury goods, conservative policy should be followed.
5. Age of the Company: The age of the company also influences the dividend decision of a
company. A newly established concern has to limit payment of dividend and retain
substantial part of earnings for financing its future growth and development, while older
companies which have established sufficient reserves can afford to pay liberal dividends.
6. Future Financial Requirements: The management of a concern has to reconcile the
conflicting interests of shareholders and those of the company's financial needs. If a
company has highly profitable investment opportunities it can convince the shareholders
of the need for limitation of dividend to increase the future earnings.
7. Economic Policy: The dividend policy of a firm has also to be adjusted to the economic
policy of the Government as was the case when the Temporary Restriction on Payment of
Dividend Ordinance was in force. In 1974 and 1975, companies were allowed to pay
dividends not more than 33 per cent of their profits or 12 per cent on the paid-up value of
the shares, whichever was lower.
8. Taxation Policy: The taxation policy of the Government also affects the dividend
decision of a firm. A high or low rate of business taxation affects the net earnings of
company (after tax) and thereby its dividend policy. Similarly, a firm's dividend policy
may be dictated by the income-tax status of its shareholders. If the dividend income of
shareholders is heavily taxed being in high income bracket, the shareholders may forego
cash dividend and prefer bonus shares and capital gains.
9. Inflation: Inflation acts as a constraint in the payment of dividends. when prices .rise,
funds generated by depreciation would not be adequate to replace fixed assets, and hence
to maintain the same assets and capital intact, substantial part of the current earnings
would be retained. Otherwise, imaginary and inflated book profits in the days of rising
prices would amount to payment of dividends much more than warranted by the real
profits, out of the equity capital resulting in erosion of capital.
10. Control Objectives: As in case of a high dividend pay-out ratio, the retained earnings are
insignificant and the company will have to issue new shares to raise funds to finance its
future requirements. The control of the existing shareholders will be diluted if they
cannot buy the additional shares issued by the company.
11. Requirements of Institutional Investors: Dividend policy of a company can be affected
by the requirements of institutional investors such as financial institutions, banks
insurance corporations, etc. These investors usually favor a policy of regular payment of
cash dividends and stipulate their own terms with regard to payment of dividend on
equity shares.

144

12. Stability of Dividends: Stability of dividend simply refers to the payment of dividend
regularly and shareholders, generally, prefer payment of such regular dividends. Some
companies follow a policy of constant dividend per share while others follow a policy of
constant payout ratio and while there are some other who follows a policy of constant
low dividend per share plus an extra dividend in the years of high profits.
13. Liquid Resources: The dividend policy of a firm is also influenced by the availability of
liquid resources. Although, a firm may have sufficient available profits to declare
dividends, yet it may not be desirable to pay dividends if it does not have sufficient liquid
resources. If a company does not have liquid resources, it is better to declare stockdividend i.e. issue of bonus shares to the existing shareholders. The issue of bonus shares
also amounts to distribution of firm's earnings among the existing shareholders without
affecting its cash position.

5.4.3 Types of Dividend Policy

The various types of dividend policies are discussed as follows:
1. Regular Dividend Policy: Payment of dividend at the usual rate is termed as regular
dividend. The investors such as retired persons, widows and other economically weaker
persons prefer to get regular dividends. Advantages of regular dividend policy: (i) It
establishes a profitable record of the company. (ii) It creates confidence amongst the
shareholders. (iii) It aids in long-term financing and renders financing easier. (iv) It
stabilizes the market value of shares. (v) The ordinary shareholders view dividends as a
source of funds to meet their day-to-day living expenses. (vi) If profits are not
distributed regularly and are retained, the shareholders may have to pay a higher rate of
tax in the year when accumulated profits are distributed. However, it must be
remembered that regular dividends can be maintained only by companies of long
standing and stable earnings.
2. Stable Dividend Policy: The term 'stability of dividends' means consistency in the
stream of dividend payments. In more precise terms, it means payment of certain
minimum amount of dividend regularly. A stable dividend policy may be established in
any of the following three forms: (i) Constant dividend per share. Policy of paying
fixed dividend per share irrespective of the level of earnings year after year. Such firms,
usually, create a 'Reserve for Dividend Equalization' to enable them pay the fixed
dividend even in the year when the earnings are not sufficient. (ii) Constant payout
ratio. Constant pay-out ratio means payment of a fixed percentage of net earnings as
dividends every year. The amount of dividend in such a policy fluctuates in direct
proportion to the earnings of the company. (iii) Stable rupee dividend plus extra
dividend. Some' companies follow a policy of paying constant low dividend per share
plus an extra dividend in the years of high profits. Such a policy is most suitable to the
firm having fluctuating earnings from year to year. Advantages of Stable Dividend
Policy: (i) It is sign of continued normal operations of the company. (ii) It stabilizes the
market value of shares (iii) It creates confidence among the investors, improves credit
standing and makes financing easier (iv) It provides a source of livelihood to those
investors who view dividends as a source of fund to meet day-to-day expenses (v) It

145

meets the requirements of institutional investors who prefer companies with stable
divide.
3. Irregular Dividend Policy: Some companies follow irregular dividend payments on
account of the following: (i) Uncertainty of earnings(ii) Unsuccessful business
operations(iii) Lack of liquid resources
4. No Dividend Policy: A company can follow a policy of paying no dividends presently
because of its unfavorable working capital position or on account of requirements of
funds for future expansion and growth.

5.4.4 Forms of Dividend

Dividends can be classified in various forms. Dividends paid in the ordinary course of bus in
known as Profit dividends, while dividends paid out of capital are known as Liquidation
dividends. A dividend which is declared between two annual general meetings is called interim
dividend, while the dividend recommended to the shareholders at the annual general meeting is
known as final dividend.
Classification on the basis of medium in which they are paid:
a) Cash Dividend: A cash dividend is a usual method of paying dividends. Payment of cash
results in outflow of funds and reduces the company's net worth, though the shareholders
get a opportunity to invest the cash in any manner they desire. This is why the ordinary
shareholders prefer to dividends in cash.
b) Scrip or Bond Dividend: A scrip dividend promises to pay the shareholders at a future
specific date. In case a company does not have sufficient funds to pay dividends in cash,
it may issue notes or bonds for amount due to the shareholders. The objective of scrip
dividend is to postpone the immediate Payment. A scrip dividend bears interest and is
accepted as a collateral security.
c) Property Dividend: Property dividends are paid in the form of some assets other than
cash are distributed under exceptional circumstances and are not popular in India.
d) Stock Dividend: Stock dividend means the issue of bonus shares to the existing
shareholders. If a company does not have liquid resources it is better to declare stock
dividend. Stock dividend amounts to capitalization of earnings and distribution of profits
among the existing shareholders without affecting the cash position of the firm. This has
been discussed in detail under "Bonus Issue".

5.4.5 Bonus Issue

A company can pay bonus to its shareholders either in cash or in the form of shares. Many a
times, a company is not in a position to pay bonus in cash in spite of sufficient profits because of
unsatisfactory cash position or because of its adverse effects on the working capital of the
company. In such cases, if the articles of association of the company provide, it can pay bonus to
its shareholder in the form of shares by making partly paid shares as fully paid or by the issue of

146

fully paid bonus shares. Issue of bonus shares in lieu of dividend is not allowed as according to
Section 205 of the Companies Act, 1956, no dividend can be paid except in cash. It cannot be
termed as a gift because it only represents the past sacrifice of the shareholders.
When a company accumulates huge profits and reserves, its balance sheet does not reveal a true
picture about the capital structure of the company and the shareholders do not get fair return on
their capital. Thus, if the Articles of Association of the company so permit, the excess amount
can be distributed among the existing shareholders of the company by way of issue of bonus
shares. The effect of bonus issue is two-fold:
(i) It amounts to reduction in the amount of accumulated profits and reserves. (ii) There is a corresponding increase in the paid up share capital of the company.
Objectives of Bonus Issue:
a) To bring the amount of issued and paid up capital in line with the capital employed so as
to depict more realistic earning capacity of the company. .
b) To bring down the abnormally high rate of dividend on its capital so as to avoid labour
problems such as demand for higher wages and to restrict the entry of new entrepreneurs
due to the attraction of abnormal profits.
c) To Pay bonus to the shareholders of the company without affecting its liquidity and the
earning capacity of the company.
d) To make the nominal value and the market value of the shares of the company
comparable.
e) To correct the balance sheet so as to give a realistic view of the capital structure of the
company.
Advantages of Issue of Bonus Shares
Advantages from the viewpoint of the company
1. It makes available capital to carry an a larger and more profitable business.
2. It is felt that financing helps the company to get rid of market influences.
3. When a company pays bonus to its shareholders in the value of shares and not in cash, its
liquid resources are maintained and the working capital of the company is not affected.
4. It enables a company to make use of its profits on a permanent basis and increases credit
worthiness of the company.
5. It is the cheapest method of raising additional capital for the expansion of the business.
6. Abnormally high rate of dividend can be reduced by issuing bonus shares which enables
a company to restrict entry of new entrepreneurs into the business and thereby reduces
competition.
7. The balance sheet of the company will reveal a more realistic picture of the capital
structure and the capacity of the company.
Advantages from the viewpoint of investors or shareholders.
The bonus shares are a permanent source of income to the investors.
1. Even if the rate of dividend falls, the total amount of dividend may increase as the
investor gets dividend on a larger number of shares.

147

2. The investors can easily sell these shares and get immediate cash, if they so desire.
Disadvantages of Bonus Shares
1. The issue of bonus shares leads to a drastic fall in the future rate of dividend as it is only
the capital that increases and not the actual resources of the company. The earnings do
not usually increase with the issue of bonus shares.
2. The fail in the future rate of dividend results in the fall of the market price of shares
considerably, this may cause unhappiness among the shareholders.
3. The reserves of the company after the bonus issue decline and leave lesser security to
investors.
Illustration 20: The Shrike Paper Mill Ltd. is contemplating to expand its business and
accordingly it desires to increase assets by 50% by the end of the year 1992. The existing capital
structure of the company is given as:
8 % debentures Rs 8, 00,000
9% preference share capital Rs. 2, 00,000
Equity shares Rs. 10, 00,000
New debentures can be sold at par at 10% interest rate. Preference shares will have a 12%
dividend rate and can be sold at par. Equity shares can be sold to net Rs. 90 per share. The
shareholder required rate of return is 8% which is expected to grow at the rate of 4 %. Retained
earnings for the year are estimated to be Rs. 1, 00,000.
You are required to determine the following:
1. What is the required amount of new capital expenditure.
2. What would be the optimal structure of new financing?
3. Calculate the cost of individual capital components. Assume average shareholders
marginal tax rate.
4. Calculate the weighted average cost of capital of the company.
Solution:Required amount of new capital expenditure: The Company desires to expand its assets by 50
percent. The present level of asset is Rs. 20, 00,000 which will increase to Rs. 30, 00,000. Hence,
the required amount of new capital expenditure will be Rs. 10, 00,000.
Optimal Capital Structure of new financing: The existing pattern of capital structure i.e. debt
40 percent, preference share 10 percent and equity shares 50 percent. The proposed capital
expenditure is expected to be financed with external as well as internal sources. Since retained
earnings available for the expansion purpose are expected to be Rs. 1, 00,000; the rest of Rs. 9,
00,000 will have to be raised by external sources in the above proportion. Thus the optimal
capital of new financing will be as under.

148

Source
Debentures
Preference shares
Equity Shares
Retained earnings

Rs.
3, 60,000
90,000
4, 50,000
1, 00,000
10, 00,000

Cost of individual capital components:

x
i. Cost of debentures =
I
P
=
10
x
100
=
5%
ii. Cost of Preference shares =
D
MP
=
12
100
=
12%
ii. Cost of equity shares

=
=

=
4. Cost of retained earnings =
=

Percentage
36.0
9.0
45.0
10.0
100.0

(IT)
(1-0.50)

D1
+g
MP
+ 0.04
8
90
12.9%
Ke (I-T) (1-b)
12.9%

Weighted average cost of capital (Ko)

Source
Debt
Preference share capital
Equity share capital
Retained Earnings

Percentage
share
36.0
9.0
45.0
10.0
10.0`

Specific
Cost
5%
12%
12.9%
12.9%

Total Cost
180.0
108.0
580.5
129.0
997.5

Ko = 997.5/100 = 9.98%
The weighted average cost of capital is 9.98%
Illustration 21: A company is planning to raise to Rs. 20, 00,000 additional long terms funds to
finance its additional capital budget of the current year. The debentures of the company to be
sold on a 14% net yield basis to the company, are alternatives being considering by the company.
The company expects to pay dividend of Rs. 5 percent at the end of coming year. The expansion

149

is expected to carry the company into a new, higher risk class. The required rate expected from
the point of the investors community is 16%. Determine:
i.
ii.

The growth rate of the company which the market is anticipating.

Management is anticipating an 8 % growth rate. On this basis, what price should the
equity share be sold by the company?

Solution:
i.
Ke = D1/MP + g
16% = Rs.5/50 + g
16% = 10 % +g
g = 16% - 10%
ii.

= 6%

MP = D1/Ke - g
= Rs. 5/16% - 8%
= Rs. 62.50

Problem 1: Supreme industries ltd. has assets of Rs. 1, 60,000 which have been financed with
Rs. 52,000 of debt and Rs. 90,000 of equity and a general reserve of Rs. 18,000. The firms total
profit after interest and taxes for the year ended 31st march 1998 were Rs.13500. It pays 8 %
interest on borrowed funds and is in the 50% tax bracket. It has 900 equity shares of Rs. 100
each selling at a market price of Rs. 120 per share. What is the weighted average cost of capital?
Problem 2.From the following capital structure of a company, calculate the overall cost of
capital using (a) book value weights and (b) market value weights:
Source

Book Value(Rs.)

Equity Share Capital (Rs. 10 per share)

Retained Earnings
Preference Share Capital
Debentures

45,000
15,000
10,000
30,000

The after tax cost of difference sources of finance is as follows:

Equity share capital:
14%
Retained Earnings:
13%
Preference Share capital:
10%
Debentures:
5%
Problem 3.The capital structure of Pune Co ltd., as follows
Source
Equity Share Capital (Rs. 10 per share)
Reserves
14% Debentures
18% Bank loan

Amount(Rs.)
3,00,000
10,00,000
6,00,000
8,00,000

150

Market
Value(Rs.)
90,000
10,000
30,000

Company pays dividend at an average rate of 20%. Average after tax earnings in the industry is
15%. Tax rate is 50%. Calculate the weighted average cost of capital.
Problem 4: The following information regarding the existing capital structure of a company is
available
Source
Amount(Rs.)
Before tax cost
Equity share capital
8,00,000
14%
Preference share capital
1,00,000
6%
Long Term debt
6,00,000
8%
The company wants to undertake an expansion project costing Rs. 5,00,000 which can be
arranged at 9% from a financial institution. The minimum acceptable rate of returns from the
new projects is based on the companys cost of capital. What is the minimum acceptable rate of
return of the company in case of the proposed expansion project. You may assume50 % tax rate
for the company.
Problem 5: A company has in its book the following amount and specific cost of each type of
capital
Source
Book
Market
Specific
Value(Rs.)
Value(Rs.)
Cost
Debt
4,00,000
3,80,000
5%
Preference share capital
1,00,000
1,10,000
8%
Equity share capital
6,00,000
12,00,000
12%
Retained Earnings
2,00,000
13,00,000
16,90,000
Determine the weighted average cost of capital using (a) book value weights and (b) market
value weights, how are they different?
Problem 6. The share of a Chemical Company is selling at Rs. 20 per share. The firm has paid
Rs. 2 per share dividend last year. The estimated growth of the company is approximately 5%
per year. Determine:
1. The cost of equity capital of the company.
2. The estimated market price of the equity shares if the anticipated growth rate of the firm
(a) rises to 8% and (b) falls to 3%

151

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.5 REVIEW QUESTIONS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is meant by capital structure? What are the major determinants if capital structure?
2. Give the critical appraisal of A) NI (Net income) B) NOI (Net Operating Income).
3. Give critical appraisal of Traditional approach and Modigliani and Millers approach to
the problem of capital structure.
4. What is meant by financial leverage? How it magnify the revenue available to equity
share holders?
5. What is meant by operating leverage? How it magnify the revenue of a concern?
6. What do you understand by dividend policy? What is the various factor affecting
dividend policies?
7. What arte the various form of dividend? Discuss Bonus shares id detail.

152

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WORKING CAPITAL ANALYSIS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
6.1 Working Capital
6.1.1 Operating cycle/Working Capital Cycle
6.1.2 Factors Effecting Working Capital,
6.1.3 Importance of Adequate working capital
6.1.4 Financing of Working Capital,
6.1.5 Determi9nig working capital financing mix
6.1.6 Working Capital Analysis
6.1.7 Estimation of Working Capital Requirements
6.2 Receivables Management
6.2.1 Costs of maintain Receivables,
6.2.2 Meaning and definition of Receivables Management
6.2.3 Dimensions of Receivables Management,
6.3 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.1 WORKING CAPITAL

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Meaning of Working Capital: Capital required for the business can be of two types:
1. Fixed Capital
2. Working Capital
Fixed capital is required to create the production facilities through purchase of fixed assets like
Land, Machinery, and Building etc. Investment in these assets represents that part of firms
capital, which is blocked on permanent or fixed basis and is called fixed capital. Funds are also
needed for short-term purpose for the purchase of Raw material, Payment of Wages etc. these
funds are known as Working Capital. In simple words, working capital refers to that part of
firms capital, which is required for financing short-term assets.
Definitions of Working Capital: According to Shubin: Working Capital is the amount of
funds necessary to cover the cost of operating the enterprises. According to Genestenberg:
Working Capital means current assets of a comp-any that are changed in the ordinary course of
business from one form to another as for e.g. Cash to inventories, inventories to receivables and
receivables to cash.

153

KINDS OF
WORKING
CAPITAL

ON THE BASIS
OF CONCEPT

GROSS WORKING
CAPITAL

NET WORKING
CAPITAL

ON THE BASIS
OF TIME

PERMANENT OR
FIXED WORKING
CAPITAL

TEMPORY AND
VARIABLE
WORKING

(A) On the basis of concept

(i) Gross working capital concept: According to this concept, working capital means total
of all current assets of business..
Gross working capital = Total current assets.
(ii) Net working capital concept: According to this concept, working capital means excess
of current assets over current liabilities.
Net Working capital = Current Assets current Liabilities
As per the general practice net working capital is referred to simply as working capital.
(B) On the basis of time
(i) Fixed or permanent working capital: There is always a minimum level of current assets
which is continuously required by the enterprise to carry out normal business operation.
For ex. Every firm has to maintain a minimum level of stock and cash balance. This
minimum level of current assets is called fixed working capital as this amount is
permanently blocked in currant assets
(ii) Temporary or variable working capital. It is that amount of working capital which is
required to meet the seasonal demand and some special needs. Any amount over and
above the permanent level of working capital is called as Temporary or variable working
capital.
6.1.1 Operating Cycle / Need for Working Capial
Every business needs some amount of working capital. The need for working capital arises due
to the time gap between the production and realization of cash from sales. Thus working capital
is needed for the following purposes:
1. For the purchase of raw material, components and spares parts.
2. To pay wages and salaries
3. To incur day-to-day expenses.
154

4. To meet the selling costs s packing, advertising.

5. To provide the credit facilities to the customers.
6. To maintain the inventories of Raw material, work in progress, finished stock
There is an operating cycle involved in the sales and realization of cash. The cycle starts with the
purchase of raw material and ends with the realization of cash from sales of finished foods. It
involves purchase of raw material and stores, it conversion in to stock of finished goods through
work-in- progress, conversion of finished stock in to sales, debtors and receivables and
ultimately in cash and this cycle continues again from cash to purchase of raw material and so
on.
The gross operating cycle of the firm = RMCP +WIPCP + FGCP+RCP
Where,

RMCP = Raw material conversion period

WIPCP = Work in progress conversion period
FGCP = Finished goods conversion period
RCP = Receivables conversion period
However a firm may acquire some resources of credit and thus defer payments fro certain period.
In this case
Net operating cycle period = Gross operating cycle period - Payable deferral period.
CASH
RECEIVABLES

RAW MATERIAL

CREDIT SALES

WORK IN PROCESS

STOCK OF FINISHED GOODS

Figure 6.1: Working capital / Operating Cycle of a manufacturing concern

6.1.2 Factors Determining Working Capital Requirements

The working capital requirement of a concern depends upon a large number of factors, which are
as follow:
1. Nature or Character of Business: Public utility undertakings like Electricity, Water
supply and Railways need very limited working capital because they offer cash sales only
and supply services not products. On the other hand, Trading and Financial firms require

155

less investment in fixed assets but have to investment large amount in current assets like
inventories, receivables etc.
2. Size of Business: Greater the size of business unit, generally larger will be the
requirement of working capital. In some case even a smaller concern need more working
capital due to high overhead charges, inefficient use of resources etc.
3. Production Policy: The production could be kept either steady by accumulating
inventories during slack periods with a view to meet high demand during the peak season
or the production could be curtailed during the slack season and increased during peak
season. If the policy is to keep the production steady by accumulating inventories it will
require higher working capital.
4. Seasonal Variations: In certain industries, raw material; is not available throughout year.
They have to buy raw material in bulk during the season to ensure an uninterrupted flow
and process them during the entire year. A huge amount is blocked in the form of
material inventories during such season, which give rise to more working capital.
5. Working Capital Cycle: In manufacturing concern, the working capital cycle starts with
the purchase of raw material and ends with the realization of cash from the sales of
finished products. This cycle involves purchase of raw material and starts, its conversion
into stock of finished goods through work in progress with progressive increment of labor
and service costs, conversion of finished stock into sales, Debtor and receivables and
ultimately realization of cash and this cycle continues again from cash to purchase of raw
material so on.
6. Rate of Stock Turnover: There is high degree of inverse co relationship between the
quantum of working capital and the velocity or speed with which the sales are affected. A
firm with having a high rate of stock turnover will need lower amount of working capital
as compared to the firm having a low rate of turnover.
7. Credit Policy: A concern that purchases its requirement on credits and sells its products /
services on cash require lesser amount of working capital. On the other hand, concern
buying its requirement for cash and allow credit to its customers, will need larger amount
of working capital as very huge amount of funds are bound to be tied up in debtors or
bills receivables.
8. Business Cycle: Business Cycle refers to alternate expansion and contraction in general
business activity. In period of boom i.e. when the business is prosperous, there is need for
larger amount of working capital due to increase in sales, rise in prices, and expansion of
business. On the contrary in the times of depression i.e., when there is down swing of
cycle, the business contracts, sales decline, difficulties are faced in collection from
debtors and firms may have a large amount of working capital lying idle.
9. Rate of Growth of Business: For the fast growing concern, larger amount of working
capital is required.

156

6.1.3 Importance or Advantages of Adequate Working Capital

Working capital is the lifeblood and nerve center of a business. No business can run successfully
without and adequate amount of working capital. The main advantage of maintaining adequate
amount of working capital is as follow:
1. Solvency of the business: Adequate amount of working capital helps in marinating
solvency of business by providing uninterrupted flow of production.
2. Goodwill: sufficient amount of working capital enables business concern to make the
prompt payment and helps in creating and marinating goodwill.
3. Easy Loans: a concern having adequate amount of working capital, high solvency and
credit standing can arranges loans from banks.
4. Cash Discounts: Adequate amount of working capital also enables a concern to avail
cash discounts on the purchases and hence it reduces the costs.
5. Exploitation of favorable market condition: Adequate amount of working capital
enables a concern to exploit favorable market conditions such as purchasing its requirement
in bulk when the prices are lower and by holding its inventories for higher prices.
6. Ability to face the crises: Adequate amount of working capital enables a concern to face
the business crises in emergencies such as depression because during such periods, generally
there is much pressure on working capital.
7. Quick and regular return on investments: Adequate amount of working capital
enables a concern pay quick and regular dividends to its investors as there may not be much
pressure to plough back profits.
8. Regular supply of raw material: Adequate amount of working capital ensures regular
supply of raw material and continuous production.

6.1.4 Financing of Working Capital

A) Financing of permanent/fixed/or Long term working capital
B) Financing of Temporary, variable or short term working capital
A) Financing of permanent/fixed/or Long term working capital: Permanent working capital
should be financed in such a manner that the enterprise may have its uninterrupted use for a
sufficient long period. There are five important sources of long term or permanent capital .
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Shares
Debentures / bonds
Public deposits
Plugging back of profits
Loans from financial institutions

157

These long term sources of finance have already been discussed in detail in the first unit of
the book.
B) Financing of Temporary, variable or short term working capital: The main sources
of short term working capital are as follows
1) Indigenous Bankers: Private money lenders used to be the only source of finance prior
to the establishment of commercial banks. They used to charge very high rates of interest.
2) Trade credit: Trade credit refers to the credit extended by suppliers of goods in the
normal course of business. The credit worthiness of a firm and the confidence of its
suppliers are the main basis of securing trade credit. The main advantages of trade credit
are:
It is easy and convenient method of finance.
It is flexible as the credit increases with the growth of firm
It is informal and spontaneous source of finance.
3) Installment credit: In this assets are purchased and possession of goods is taken
immediately but payment is made in installment over a predetermined period. Generally,
interest is charged on the unpaid price or it may be adjusted in the price.
4) Advances: Some business houses get advances from their customers and agents against
orders. Usually the manufacturing concerns having long production cycle prefer to take
advances from their customers.
5) Factoring or Accounts Receivable Credit: A commercial bank may provide finance by
discounting bills or invoices of its customers. Thus, a firm gets immediate payment for
sale made on credit. A factor is a financial institution which offers services related to
management and financing of debts arising out of credit sales.
6) Accrued expenses: Accrued expenses are the expenses which have been incurred but not
yet due and hence not yet paid also. For ex. Wages, salaries, rent, interest, taxes etc.
7) Deferred Incomes: Deferred incomes are incomes received in advance before supplying
goods or services. However, firms having great demand for its products and services, and
those having good reputation in the market can demand deferred incomes.
8) Commercial Paper: Commercial paper represents unsecured promissory notes issued by
firms to raise short-term funds. But only large companies enjoying high credit rating and
sound financial health can issue commercial paper to raise short-term funds. The Reserve
Bank of India has laid down a number of conditions to determine eligibility of a company
for the issue of commercial paper. Only a company which is listed on the. Stock
exchange has a net worth of at least Rs. 10 corers and a maximum permissible bank
finance of Rs. 25 crores can issue commercial paper not exceeding 30 per cent of its
working capital limit. The maturity period of commercial paper mostly ranges from 91 to
180 days. It is sold at a discount from its face value and redeemed at face value on its
maturity.

6.1.5 Determining the Working Capital Financing Mix

There are two sources of financing working capital requirements: (i) Long-term sources (ii)
short-term sources. Therefore, a question arises as to what portion of working capital (current
assets) should be financed by long-term sources and how much by short-term sources? There are
three basic approaches for determining an appropriate working capital financing mix.

158

The Hedging or Matching Approach: The term 'hedging' usually refers to two off-selling
transactions of a simultaneous but opposite nature which counterbalance the effect of each other.
With reference to financing mix, the term hedging refers to a process of matching maturities of
debt with the maturities of financial needs. According to this approach, the maturity of sources of
funds should match the nature of assets to be financed. This approach is, therefore, also known
as 'matching approach'. This approach classifies the requirements of total working capital into
two categories:
(i) Permanent or fixed working capital which is the minimum amount required to carry out the
normal business operations. It does not vary over time.
(ii) Temporary or seasonal working capital which is required to meet special exigencies. It
fluctuates over time.
The hedging approach suggests that the permanent working capital requirements should be
financed with funds from long-term sources while the temporary or seasonal working capital
requirements should be financed with short-term funds. The following example explains this
approach.
Estimated total investments in Current Assets of Company X for the year 2008

Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

Investments in
Current assets
(Rs.)

Permanent or Fixed
Investment
(Rs.)

Temporary or
Seasonal investment
(Rs.)

50,400
50,000
48,700
48,000
46,000
45,000
47,500
48,000
49,500
50,700
52,000
48,500

45,000
45,000
45,000
45.000
45,000
45.000
45,000
45,000
45,000
45,000
45.000
45.000
Total

5,400
5.000
3,700
3,000
1,000
2,500
3,000
4,500
5,700
7,000
3,500
44,300

According to hedging approach the permanent portion of current assets required (Rs. 45,000)
should be financed with long-term sources and temporary or seasonal requirements in different
months (Rs. 5,400 Rs. 5,000 and so on) should be financed from short-term sources.
The Conservative Approach: This approach suggests that the entire estimated investments in
current assets should be financed from long-term sources and the short-term sources should be
used only for emergency requirements. According to this approach, the entire estimated
requirements of Rs. 52,000 in the month of November (in the above given example) will be
financed from long-term sources. The short-term funds will be used only to meet emergencies.

159

The distinct features of this approach are: (i) Liquidity is severally greater (ii) Risk is minimized
(iii) The cost of financing is relatively more as interest has to be paid even on seasonal
requirements for the entire period
Trade off Between the Hedging and Conservative Approaches : The hedging approach
implies low cost, high profit and high risk while the conservative approach leads to high cost,
low profits and low risk. Both the approaches are the two extremes and neither of them serves'
the purpose of efficient working capital management. A trade off between the two will then be
an acceptable approach. The level of trade off may differ from case to case depending upon the
perception of risk by the persons involved in financial decision-making. However, one way of
determining the trade off is by finding the 'average of maximum and the minimum requirements
of current assets or working capital. The average requirements so calculated may be financed out
of long-term funds and the excess over the average from the short-term funds. Thus, in the above
given example the average requirements of Rs. 48.500.
45,000+52,000
.
2
may be financed from long-term while the excess capital required during various months from
short-term sources.
The Aggressive Approach: The aggressive approach suggests that the entire estimated
requirements of currents asset should be financed from .short-term sources and even a part of
fixed' assets investments be financed from short-term sources. This approach makes the financemix more risky, less costly and more profitable.

6.1.6 Working Capital Analysis

Working capital is very essential to maintain the smooth running of a business. No business can
run successfully without an adequate amount of working capital. The concept of working capital
has its own importance in a going concern. A going concern, usually, has a positive balance of
working capital, i.e., the excess of current assets over current liabilities, but sometimes the uses
of working capital may be more than the sources resulting into a negative value of working
capital. This negative balance is generally offset soon by gains in the following periods. A study
of changes in the uses and sources of working capital is necessary to evaluate the efficiency with
which the working capital is employed in a business. This involves the need of working capital
analysis. The analysis of working capital can be conducted through a number of devices, such as:
1. Ratio Analysis
2. Funds Flow Analysis
3. Budgeting
Ratio Analysis: A ratio is a simple arithmetical expression of the relationship of one number to
another. The technique of ratio analysis can be employed for measuring short-term 'liquidity or
working capital position of a firm. The following ratios may be calculated for this purpose:
i.
ii.
iii.

Current Ratio
Acid Test Ratio
Absolute Liquid Ratio
160

iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Receivables Turnover Ratio

Payables Turnover Ratio
Working Capital Turnover ratio
Ratio of Current Liabilities to Tangible Net Worth

Funds Flow Analysis: Funds flow analysis is a technical device designated to study the sources
from which additional funds were derived and the use to which these sources were put. It is an
effective management tool to study changes in the financial position (working capital) of a
business enterprise between beginning and ending financial statements dates. The funds flow
analysis consists of: (i) preparing schedule of changes in working capital, and (ii) statement of
sources and application of funds.
Working Capital Budget: A budget is a financial and/or quantitative expression of business
plans and policies to be pursued in the future period of time. Working capital budget, as a part of
total budgeting process of a business, is prepared estimating future long-term and short-term
working capital needs and the sources to finance them, and then comparing the budgeted figures
with the actual performance for calculating variances, if any, so that corrective actions may be
taken in the future. The objective of a working capital budget is to ensure availability of funds as
and when needed, and to ensure effective utilization of these resources. The successful
implementation of working capital budget involves the preparing of separate budgets for various
elements of working capital, such as, cash, inventories and receivables, etc.

6.1.7 Estimation of Working Capital Requirements

Factors requiring consideration while estimating working capital
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Total costs incurred on material, wages and overheads.

The length of the time for which materials are to remain in stores before they
are issued for production.
The length of the production cycle or work in progress.
The length of the sales cycle during which finished goods are to be kept
waiting for sales.
The average period of credit allowed to customers.
The amount of cash required to pay day to day expenses of the business.
The average amount of cash required to make the payments.
The average credit period expected to be allowed by suppliers.
Time lag in the payment of wages and other expenses.

Illustration 1: You are required to prepare a statement showing the working capital required to
finance the level of activity of 18,000 units per year from the following information:-

161

Particulars
Raw material Per Unit
Direct labor Per Unit
Overheads per Unit
Total cost Per Unit
Profit per Unit
Selling price Per Unit

Rs.
12
3
9
24
6
30

Additional Information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Raw material is in stock on an average for 2 months.

Materials are in process on an average for half-a- month.
Finished goods are in stock on an average for two months.
Credit allowed by creditors is two months in respect of raw materials supplied.
Credit allowed to debtors is three months.
Lag in payment of wages is half month. Cash on hand and at bank is expected to be Rs.
7,000.
7. You are informed that all activities are evenly spread out during the year.
Solution:
Current Assets:
1. Stock-in-Trade
a. Raw materials
b. Work in progress
c. Finished goods

Estimation of Working Capital:

Rs.
18,000 x 12 x 2
12
18000 x 18 x
12
18,000 x 24 x 2
12

36,000

13,500

72,000
1, 21,500

2. Sundry debtors

18,000 x 30 x 3
12
3. Cash on hand and at bank 18,000 x 30 x 3
12
Less: Current liabilities:
4. Sundry creditors
18,000 x 12 x 3
12
5. Wages
18,000 x 3 x
12
Estimated Working Capital Requirement

162

1, 35,000

7,000
2, 63,500

36,000

2250
2, 25,250

Working Notes:
(1) Cost of each unit of Work in process
Raw materials
Labour (50% of Rs. 3)
Overhead(50% of Rs. 9)
Total

Rs.
12
1.50
4.50
18

Illustration 2: Runwall Ltd. had annual sales of 50,000 units at Rs.100per unit. The company
works for 50 weeks in the year. Cost details of the Company are as given below:
Particulars
Rs.
Raw material Per Unit
30
Labour Per Unit
10
Overheads per Unit
20
Total cost Per Unit
60
Profit per Unit
40
Selling price Per Unit
100
Additional Information:
1. The Company has the practice of storing raw materials for 4weeks requirements.
2. The wages and other expenses are paid after a lag of 2 weeks.
3. Further the debtors enjoy a credit of 10 weeks and Company gets a credit of 4 weeks
from suppliers.
4. The processing time is 2 weeks and finished goods inventory is maintained for 4 weeks.
From the above information prepare a working capital estimate, allowing for a 15%
Contingency.
Solution:
Estimation working Capital:
Current Assets:
1. Stock-in-Trade
a. Raw materials
b. Work in progress
c. Finished goods

Rs.
50,000 x 30 x 4
50
50,000 x 45 x 2
50
50,000 x 60 x 4
50

1, 20,000

90,000

2, 40,000
4, 50,000

2. Sundry debtors

50,000 x 100 x 10
50

10, 00,000
14, 50,000

Less: Current liabilities:

3. Sundry creditors

50,000 x 30 x 4
50

163

1, 20,000

4. Wages
1. Overhead

50,000 x 10 x 2
50
50,000 x 20 x 2
50

20,000

40,000
12, 70,000
1, 27,000
13, 97,000

Add: 10 % for contingencies

Estimated Working Capital Requirement
Working Notes:
(1) Cost of each unit of Work in process
Raw materials
Labour (50% of Rs. 10)
Overhead (50% of Rs. 20)
Total

Rs.
30
5
10
45

Illustration3: From the following particulars, you are required to prepare a statement of working
capital requirements:
Estimates for the next year:
Rs.
Raw Material cost
31,20,000
Wages
18,72000
Overhead( including depreciation Rs. 1,20,000)
7,44,000
57,36,000
Profit
12,64,000
Selling Price
70,00,000
Additional Information:
1. Inventory norms:
a. Raw material
2months
b. Work in progress
3 weeks
c. Finished goods
1 month
2. 50% of the sales is on credit and 2 weeks credit is normal.
3. The company enjoys 4 weeks credit facilities on 30 % of the purchases.
4. Lag in payment of overheads is one month.
5. Wages are paid at the end of the month.
6. Cash is to be held to the extent of 50% of the current liabilities.
Solution:
Estimation working Capital:
Current Assets:
1. Stock-in-Trade
a. Raw materials
31, 20,000 x 2
12
b. Work in progress
43, 68,000 x 3
52

Rs.

164

5, 20,000

5, 52,000

c. Finished goods
(31, 20,000+18, 72000+7, 44,000)
-Depreciation 1, 20,000 =
56, 16,000 x 1
12
2. Sundry debtors
56, 16,000 x 50 x 2
100 52
3. Cash in hand

2, 02,000 x 50
100

4, 68,000

1, 08,000

1, and 01,000
14, 49,000

Less: Current liabilities:

4. Sundry creditors

31, 20,000 x 30 x 4 =
100 52
=
5. Wages
18, 72,000 x 1
24
6. Overhead
6, 24,000 x 1
=
12
Estimated working capital Requirement

72,000
20,000
52,000

2, 02,000
12, 47,000

Illustration4: From the following information, you are required to estimate the net working
capital.
Particulars
Raw material Per Unit
Labour Per Unit
Overheads per Unit
Total cost Per Unit

Rs.
400
150
300
850

Additional information:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Selling Price Rs. 1000 per unit

Output 52000 units per annum
Raw material in stock Average 4 weeks
Work in progress (Assume 50% of stage with full material consumption) Average
2weeks
5. Credit allowed by the Suppliers Average 4 weeks
6. Credit allowed to debtors Average 8 weeks
7. Cash at bank expected to be Rs. 50,000
Assume that production is sustained at an even pace during the 52 weeks of the year. All sales
are on credit basis. State any other assumptions that you might have make while computing.

165

Solution
Statement of Working Capital Estimation
Current Assets:
1. Stock-in-Trade
a. Raw materials
b. Work in progress
c. Finished goods
2. Sundry debtors

52,000 x 400 x 4
52
52,000 x 625 x 2
52
52,000 x 850 x 4
52
52,000 x 850 x 8
52

3. Cash at bank
Less: Current liabilities:
4. Sundry creditors

52,000 x 400 x 4
52

16,00,000

12,50,000

34, 00,000

68, 00,000

50,000
1, 31, 00,000

16, 00,000

Net working capital

1, 51, 00,000
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.2 RECEIVABLES MANAGEMENT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Receivables constitute a significant portion of the current assets of a firm. But, for investments in
the receivables, a firm has to incur certain costs. There is also a risk of bad debts also. It is
therefore very necessary to have a proper control and management of receivables.
Meaning of Receivables: Receivables represents amount owed to the firm as a result of sale of
goods or services in the ordinary course of business these are the claims of firm against its
customers and form a part of the current assets. Receivables are also known as accounts
Receivables; trade Receivables, customer Receivables, etc. the Receivables are carried for the
customers. The period of credit and extent of Receivables depend upon the credit policy
followed by the firm. The purpose of maintaining or investing in Receivables is to meet
competition, and to increase the sale and profits of the business.

6.2.1 Costs of maintaining Receivables

1. Cost of Financing Receivables. When a firm maintains receivables, some of the firms
resources remain blocked in them because there is a time lag between the credit sale to
customer and receipt of cash from them as payment. Whether this additional finances is
met from its own resources or from outside, it involves a cost to the firm in terms of
interest (if financed from outside) or opportunity costs (if internal resources are used).
2. Administrative costs. When a company maintains receivables, it has to incur additional
administrative expenses in the form of salaries to clerks who maintain records of debtors,
expenses on investigating the creditworthiness of debtors etc.

166

3. Collection costs. These are costs, which the firm has to incur for collection of the amount
at the appropriate time from he customers.
4. Defaulting cost: When customers make default in payment not only is the collection
effort to be increased but the firm may also have to incur losses from bad debts.

6.2.2 Meaning and Objectives of Receivables Management

Receivables management is the process of making decision relating to investment in trade
debtors. Certain investment in Receivables is necessary to increase the sales and profits of a firm.
But at the same time investment in this asset involves cost consideration also. Further there is
always risk of bad debts too. Thus the objective of Receivables management is to take a sound
decision as regards investment in debtors. In the word of Bolton, S.E. The objective of
Receivables Management is to promote the sales and profits until that point is reached where the
return on investment in further funding of Receivables is less than the cost of funds raised to
finance that additional credit.
6.2.3 Dimensions of Receivables Management
Receivables management involves the careful consideration of the following steps:
1. Forming of Credit Policy
2. Executing the Credit Policy
3. Formulating and Executing Collection policy
Forming of Credit Policy: A credit policy is related to decision such as Credit standards, length
of credit periods, cash discount and discount period.
1. Credit standards: The volume of sales will be influence by the credit policy of the
concern. By liberalizing the credit policy the volume of sales can be increased resulting
into increased profits. The increased volume of sales is associated with the certain risks
also. It will result in enhanced costs and risk of bad debts and delayed receipts. The
increase in number of customers will increase the clerical work of maintaining the
additional accounts and collecting of information about the credit worthiness of the
customers. On the other hand, extending the credit only to credit worthy customers will
save the cists like bad debts losses, collection costs, investigation costs etc. the restriction
of credit to such customers only will certainly reduce sales volume, thus resulting n
reduced profits. The credit should be liberalized only to the level where incremental
revenue matches the additional costs. This the optimum level of investment in receivables
is achieved at a point where there is a trade off between the cists, profitability and
liquidity
2. Length of Credit period: Length of Credit period means the period allowed to the
customers for making the payment. The customers paying well in time may also be
allowed certain cash discounts. There are no bindings on fixing the terms. The length of
credit period and quantum of discount allowed determine the magnitude of investment in
receivables. A firm may allow liberal credit terms to increase the volume of sales. The

167

lengthening of this period will mean blocking of more money in receivables, which could
have been, invested somewhere else to earn income. There may be an increase in debt
collection costs and bad debts losses too. If the earnings from additional sales by Length
of Credit period are more than the additional costs then the credit terms should le
liberalized. A finance manager should determine the period where additional revenues
equates the additional costs and should not extend credit beyond this period as the
increases in the cost will be more than the increase in revenue.
3. Cash discount: cash discount is allowed to expedite the collection of receivables. The
funds tied up in receivables are released. The concern will be able to use the additional
funds received from expedited collection due to cash discount. The discount allowed
involves cost. The finance manager should compare the earnings resulting from released
funds and the cist of the discount. The discount should be allowed only if its cost is less
than the earnings from additional funds. If the funds cannot be profitably employed then
discount should not be allowed.
4. Discount period: The collection of receivables is influenced by the period allowed for
availing the discount. The additional period allowed for this facility may prompt some
more customers to avail discount and make payments. For example, if the firm allowing
cash discount for payments within 7 days now extends it to payments within 15 days.
There may be more customers availing discount and paying early but there will be those
also who were paying earlier within 7 days will now pay in 15 days. It will increase the
collection period of the concern.
Executing the Credit Policy. The evaluation of credit applications and finding out the credit
worthiness of customers should be undertaken.
1. Collecting the Credit information: The first step in implementing the credit policy will
be to gather the information about the customers. The information should be adequate
enough so that the proper analysis about the financial position of the customers is
possible. The type of the information can be undertaken only up to a certain limit because
it will involve cost. The cost incurred on collecting this information and the benefit from
reduced bad debts losses will be compared. The credit information will certainly help in
improving the quality of receivables but the cost of collecting information should not
increase the reduction of bad debt losses. The information may be available from the
financial statements of the applicant, credit rating agencies; reports from the banks, firms
records etc. a proper analysis of financial statements will be helpful in determining the
creditworthiness of customers. Credit rating agencies supply information about various
concerns. These agencies regularly collect the information about the business units from
various sources and keeps the information up to date. Credit information may be
available with the banks also. The banks have their credit departments to analyze the
financial position of customers. In case of old customer, businesses own records may
help to know their credit worthiness. The frequency of payments, cash discount availed
may help to form an opinion about the quality of the credit.
2. Credit analysis: After gathering the required information, the finance manager should
analyze it to find out the credit worthiness of potential customers and also to see whether
they satisfy the standard of the concern or not. The credit analysis will determine the

168

degree if risk associated with the account, the capacity of the customers to borrow and his
ability and willingness to pay.
3. Credit Decision: The finance manager has to take the decision whether the credit is to be
extended and if yes up to which level. He will match the creditworthiness of the
customers with the credit standard of the company. If the customers creditworthiness is
above the credit standards then there is no problem in taking a decision. In case the
customers are below the companys standards then they should not be out rightly
refused. Therefore they should be offered some alternatives facilities. A customer may be
offered to pay on delivery on goods; invoices may be sent through bank and released
after collecting dues.
4. Financing Investments in receivables and Factoring: Receivables block a part of
working capital. Efforts should be made so that the funds are nit tied up in receivables for
longer periods. The finance manager should make the efforts to get the receivable
financed so that working capital needs are met in time. The banks allow the raising of
loans against security of receivables. Banks supply between 60-80% of the amount of
receivables of dependable parties only. Then quality will determine the amount of loan.
Beside banks, there may be other agencies, which can buy receivables and pay cash for
them known as factoring. The factor will purchase only the accounts acceptable to him.
The factoring may be with or without recourse. If it is without recourse then any bad
debts loss taken up by the factor but if it is with recourse then bad debts loss will be
recovered from the seller. The factor may suggest the customer for whom he will extend
this facility.
Formulating and executing Collection Policy. The collection of amount due to the customers is
very important. The concern should devise the procedures to be followed when accounts become
due after the expiry of credit period. The collection policy termed as strict and lenient. A strict
policy of collection will involve more efforts on collection. This policy will enable the early
collection of dues and will reduce bad debts losses. The money collects will be used for other
purpose and the profits of the concern will go up. A lenient policy increases the debt collection
period and more bad debts losses. The collection policy should weigh the various aspects
associated with it, the gains and looses of such policy and its effects on the finances of the
concerns. The collection policy should also devise the steps to be followed in collecting over due
amounts. The steps should be like
a)
b)
c)
d)

Personal request through telephone

Personal visit to customers
Taking help of collecting agencies
Taking legal action etc.

Problem 1: From the following information you are required to estimate the net working capital
Cost Per Unit (Rs.)
Raw material
40
Direct Labour
15
Overheads
30
85
Additional information:

169

Selling Price
Rs. 100 per unit
Output
52000 units per annum
Raw material in stock
Work in progress
Finished goods in stock
Credit allowed by suppliers
Credit allowed to debtors
Cash at bank is expected to be Rs. 10000. Assume that
during the 2 weeks of the year. All the sales are on credit
you might have made while computing.

Average 4 weeks
Average 2 weeks
Average 4 weeks
Average 4 weeks
Average 8 weeks
production in sustained at even pace
basis. State any other assumption that

Problem2. Estimate working capital required from the data of Delhi Ltd.,
Cost Per Unit
Raw Material
Rs. 40
Labor
Rs. 10
Overhead
Rs. 30
Projected sales 78000 units @ 100
Debtors pay after
10 weeks
Creditors per paid after
4 weeks
Finished stock
8 weeks
Raw material stock
6 weeks
Production and processing time
4 weeks
Wages are paid once in
4 weeks
Contingency 10% of working capital
Assume cash and bank balance Rs. 187500
Problem 3: XYZ Ltd sells its products at a gross profit of 20% on sales. The following
information is extracted from its annual accounts for the current year ended 31st December.
Sales at 3 months credit
Rs. 40, 00,000
Raw Material
Rs. 12, 00,000
Wages Paid - Average time lag 15 days
Rs. 9, 60,000
Manufacturing Expenses paid- one month in arrears
Rs.12, 00,000
Administrative expenses paid one month in arrear
Rs. 4, 80,000
Sales promotion expenses - payable half yearly in advance
Rs. 2, 00,000
The company enjoys one month credit from the suppliers of raw material and maintains a 2
months stock of raw materials and one-and- half months stock of finished goods. The cash
balance is maintained at Rs. 1, 00,000 as a precautionary measure. Assume a 10% margin; Find
out the working capital requirements of XYZ Ltd.
Problem 4: The board of directors of Jay Ltd requests you to prepare a statement showing the
working capital requirements for a level of activity at 1,56,000 units of production. The
following information is available for your calculation.
Per Unit (Rs)
Raw Materials
75
Direct Labour
90

170

Overheads
Total
Profit
Selling price per unit

40
205
60
265

Other information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Raw Material is in stock on average for one month

Materials are in process (50% complete) on average for 4 weeks
Finished goods are in stock, on average for one month
Credit allowed by supplier is one month
Time lag in payment from debtors is 2 months
Average lag in payments of wages is 1.5 weeks and of overheads is 1 month 20% of the
output is sold against cash. Cash in hand and in bank is expected to be Rs. 60,000. It is
assumed that production is carried on evenly throughout the year, wages and overheads
accrue similarly, and a time period of 4 weeks is equivalent to a month.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.3 REVIEW QUESTIONS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is meant by working capital management? What are the determinants of working
capital requirement of an enterprise?
2. What do you understand by working capital cycle? Discuss the various sources of
working capital funds.
3. Write a detailed note on analysis and control of working capital. What are the various
methods of working capital analysis?
4. Discuss the various approaches to determine the appropriate financing mix of working
capital.
5. What is receivables management? Discuss the factors which influence size of receivables.
6. What should be considerations in forming credit policy?
7. Discuss the various aspects or dimensions of Receivable management.

171

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
7.1 Inventory Management
7.1.1 Meaning of inventory
7.1.2 Purpose of holding inventory
7.1.3 Inventory Management
7.1.4 Objectives of Inventory Management;
7.2 Inventory Management Techniques
7.3 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.1 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Introduction: Every enterprise needs inventory for smooth running of its activities. It serves as a
link between production and distribution processes. There is generally a time lag between the
recognition of needed and its fulfillment. The greater the time, higher the requirement of
inventory. Thus it is very essential to have proper control and management of inventories.

7.1.1 Meaning of Inventory

The inventory means stock of goods, or a list of goods in manufacturing concern, it may include
raw material, work in progress and stores etc. it includes the following things:
1. Raw materials are those basic inputs that are converted into finished product through the
manufacturing process. Thus, raw materials inventories are those units, which have been
purchased and stored for future production.
2. Work-in-process inventories are semi-manufactured products. They represent products
that need more work before they become finished products for sale.
3. Finished goods inventories are those completely manufactured products, which are ready
for sale. Stocks of raw materials and work-in-process facilitate production, while stock of
finished goods is required for smooth marketing operations.
Thus, inventories serve as a link between the production and consumption of goods. The levels
of three kinds of inventories for a firm depend on the nature of its business. A manufacturing
firm will have substantially high levels of all three kinds of inventories, while a retail or
wholesale firm will have a very high level of finished goods inventories and no raw material and
work-in-process inventories. Within manufacturing firms, there will be differences. Large heavy
engineering companies produce long production cycle products. therefore, they carry large
inventories. On the other hand, inventories of a consumer product company will not be large
because of short production cycle and fast turnover. Supplies (or stores and spares) is a fourth
type of inventory is also maintained by firms. Supplies include office and plant cleaning

172

materials like soap, brooms, oil, fuel, light bulbs etc. These materials do not directly enter
production, but are necessary for production process. Usually, these supplies are small part of the
total inventory and do not involve significant investment. Therefore, a sophisticated system of
inventory control may not be maintained for them.
7.1.2 Purpose of Holding Inventories
There are three main purposes for holding the inventories:
1. The Transaction Motive: This facilitates the continuous production and timely
execution of sales orders.
2. The Precautionary Motive: This necessitates the holding of inventories for meeting the
unpredictable changes in demand and supply of material.
3. The Speculative Motive: This includes keeping inventories for taking the advantage of
price fluctuations, saving in reordering costs and quantity discounts.

7.1.3 Inventory Management

The investment in inventory is very high in most of the undertakings engaged in manufacturing,
wholesale and retail trade. The amount of investment is sometimes more in inventory than on
other assets. In India, a study of 29 major industries has revealed that the average cost of the
material is 64 paise and the cost of labor and overhead is 36 paise in a rupee. It is necessary for
every management to give proper attention inventory management.
A proper planning of purchasing, handling, storing, and accounting should form a proper
inventory management. An efficient system of inventory management will determine:1.
2.
3.
4.

What to purchase
How much to purchase
From where to purchase
Where to store

The purpose of inventory management is to keep the stocks in such a way that neither there is
over stocking nor under stocking. The over stocking will mean a reduction of liquidity and
starving for other production processes. On the other hand, under stockings, will result in
stoppage of work. The investment in inventory should be left in reasonable limits.

7.1.4 Objectives of Inventory Management

The main objectives of inventory management are operational and financial. The operational
objectives mean that the materials and spares should be available in sufficient quantity so that
work is not disrupted for want of inventory. The financial objective mean that investment in
inventories should not remain idle and minimum working capital should be locked in it. The
followi8ng are the objectives of inventory management:
1. To ensure the continuous supply of raw material, spare and finished goods so that the
production should not suffer at any time.
173

2. To avoid both over stocking and under stocking of inventory.

3. To maintain the investment in inventories at the optimum level as required the
operational and sales activities.
4. To keep material cost under control so that they contribute in reducing the cist of
production and overall costs.
5. To eliminate duplication in ordering stocks. This is possible with the help of centralized
purchase.
6. To minimize the losses through pilferages, wastages and damages.
7. To design the proper organization for inventory management.
8. To ensure the perpetual inventory control so that the material shown in the stock ledgers
should be actually lying in the stores.
9. To facilitate the furnishing of data for short term and long term planning and control of
inventory.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.2 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF INVENTORY MANAGEMNT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Effective inventory management requires an effective control, system for inventories. A proper
inventory control not only helps in solving the acute problem of liquidity but also increases the
profits and causes substantial reduction in the working capital of the concern. The following are
the important tools and techniques in inventory management and control:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Determination of stock level

Determination of safety stock
Determination of economic order quantity
A.B.C. analysis
V E D analysis
Inventory turnover ratio
JIT Control system

Determination of stock level: Carrying too much and too little inventories is detrimental to the
firm. If the inventory level is too little, the firm will face frequent stock outs involving heavy
ordering costs and if the inventory if too high it will be unnecessary tie up of capital. Therefore
an efficient inventory management requires that a firm should maintain an optimum level of
inventory where inventory costs are minimum. Various stock levels are as follow:
a) Minimum level: This represents the quantity, which must be maintained in hand at all,
times. If stocks are less than the minimum level than the work will stop due to shortage of
material. Following factors are undertaken while fixing minimum stock level.

174

b) Lead time: The time taken in processing the order and then executing is known as lead
time
c) Rate of consumption: It is the average consumption of material in the factory. Minimum
stock Level = Re order level (Normal consumption x Normal reorder period)
d) Reorder level: Re order level is fixed between minimum and maximum level. Reorder
level = Maximum Consumption x Maximum reorder period
e) Maximum Level: It is the quantity of the material beyond which a firm should not
exceeds its stocks. If the quantity exceed maximum level limit then it will be
overstocking. Maximum Level = Reorder level + reorder quantity (Minimum
Consumption x Minimum reorder period)
f) Average stock level: Average Stock level = Minimum stock level + of reorder
quantity
Determination of the safety stock: Safety stock is a buffer to meet some unanticipated increase
in usage. The usage of inventory cannot be perfectly forecasted. It fluctuates over a period of
time. Two costs are involved in the determination of this stock.

Opportunity cost of stock out

Carrying costs

The stock out of Raw Material would cause production disruption. The stock out of finished
goods result into the failure of the firm in competition as the form cannot provide proper
customer service.
Economic order of quantity: A decision about how much to order has a great gignifi8cance in
inventory management. The quantity to be purchased should be neither small nor big. EOQ is the
size of lot to be purchased which is economically viable. This is the quantity of the material,
which can be purchased at minimum cost. Cost of managing the inventory is made up of two
parts:Ordering Costs: This cost includes:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Cost of staff posted for ordering of goods

Expenses incurred on transportation of goods purchased.
Inspection costs of incoming material
Cost of stationery, postage, telephone charges.

Carrying costs: These are the costs for holding the inventories. It includes:
a) The cost of capital invested in inventories.
b) Cost of storage
c) Insurance cost

175

d) Cost of spoilage on handling of materials

e) The loss of material due to deterioration.
The ordering and carrying costs of material being high, an effort should be made to minimize
these costs. The quantity to be ordered should be large so that economy may be made in transport
cost and discounts may also be earned.
Assumptions of EOQ
a) The supply of goods is satisfactory.
b) The quantity to be purchased by the concern is certain
c) The prices of the goods are stable.
EOQ =

2AS
I

Where ,

A = Annual consumption in rupees

S = Cost of placing an order
I= Inventory carrying cost of one unit

Illustration 1: A firm buys casting equipment from outside suppliers@Rs.30/unit. Total annual
needs are 800 units. You have with you following further data:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Annual return on investment, 10%

Rent, insurance, taxes per unit per year, Re.1
Cost of placing an order, Rs.100
How will you determine the economic order quantity?

Solution:
Annual consumption (A) = 800 units
Ordering cost (S) = Rs.100.
Annual consumtion in Rs. = 800 unit x Rs. 30 per unit = Rs. 24,000
Total interest cost = 10% of 24000 = Rs.2400
Interest cost per unit = 2400 / 800 = Rs.3
Inventory Carrying cost (I) = Interest cost + Rent, insurance, Taxes cost = 3 + 1 = Rs.4 per unit
EOQ

2AS
I

2x800x100
4
= 200 units

176

Illustration 2: The annual demand for a product is 6,400 units. The unit cost is Rs.6 and
inventory carrying cost per unit per annum is 25% of the average inventory cost. If the cost of
procurement is Rs. 75, determine:
a) Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)
b) Number of orders per annum
c) Time between two consecutive orders
Solution:
a) Annual consumption (A) = 64,00 units
Ordering cost (S) = Rs.75
Inventory Carrying cost of one unit (I) = 6 x 25 = Rs.1.50 per unit
100
EOQ =
=

2AS
I
2x6400x75
1.50

=
800 units
b) Number of orders per annum = 6400 = 8 orders
800
c) Time between two consecutive orders = 12 months = 1.5 months
8 orders
A-B-C Analysis: The materials divided into a number of categories for adopting a selective
approach for material control. Under ABC analysis, the materials are divided into 3 categories
viz, a B and C. Past experience has shown that almost 10% of the items contribute to 70% of the
value of the consumption and this category is called a category. About 20% of the items
contribute 20% of the value of the consumption and is known as category B materials.
Category C covers about 70% of the items of the material, which contribute only 10% of the
value of the consumption.
Class
A
B
C

No. of items
%
10
20
70

Value of the Items

%
70
20
10

A B C ANALYSIS helps to concentrate more efforts on category A. since greatest monetary

advantage will come by controlling these items. An attention should be paid in estimating the
requirements, purchasing, maintaining the safety stocks and properly storing of A Category,
material. These items are kept under a constant review so that a substantial material cost may be
controlled. The control of C items may be relaxed and these stocks may be purchased for the

177

year. A little more attention should be given toward B category items and their purchase should
be undertaken at quarterly or half yearly intervals.
100

90

80
70

60
50
40
30
20
10
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

V E D Analysis: The VED analysis is generally used for spare parts. The requirement and
urgency of spares parts is different from that of the material. Spare parts are classified as Vital
(V), essential (E), and Desirable (D). The vital spares are must for running the concern smoothly
and these must be stored adequately. The non-availability of spare parts will cause havoc on the
concern. The E type of spares is also necessary but their stock may be kept at low figures. The
stocking of D type of spares may be avoided at times. If the lead time of these spares is less, then
stocking of these spares can be avoided. The classification of spares under these three categories
is an important decision. A wrong classification of any spare will create difficulties for
production department. The classification should be left to the technical staff because they know
the need urgency and use of these spares.
Inventory Turnover Ratio: This ratio is calculated to indicate whether the inventories have
been used efficiently or not. The purpose is to ensure the blocking of only required minimum
funds in inventory. This ratio is also known as Stock velocity.

178

Inventory Turnover Ratio

Inventory Conversion period

Cost of goods sold

Average inventory at cost
Days in Year
Inventory Turnover Ratio

Just In Time (JIT) Inventory Control System : Just in time philosophy, which aims at
eliminating waste from every aspect of manufacturing and its related activities, was first
developed in Japan. Toyota introduced this technique in 1950's in Japan, how U.S. companies
started using this technique in 1980's. The term JIT refers to a management tool that helps
produce only the needed quantities at the needed time.
Just in time inventory control system involves the purchase of materials in such a way that
delivery of purchased material is assured just before their use or demand. The philosophy of JlT
control system implies that the firm should maintain a minimum (zero level) of inventory and
rely on suppliers to provide materials just in time to meet the requirements.
Objectives of JIT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Minimum (zero) inventory and its associated costs.

Elimination of non-value added activities and all wastes.
Minimum batch/lot size.
Zero breakdowns and continuous flow of production.
Ensure timely delivery schedules both inside and outside the firm.
Manufacturing the right product at right time.
-

Features of JIT
1. It emphasises that firms following traditional inventory control system overestimate
ordering cost and underestimate carrying costs associated with holding of inventories.
2. It advocates maintaining good relations with suppliers so as to enable purchases of right
quantity of materials at right time.
3. It involves frequent production/order runs because of smaller batch/lot sizes.
4. It requires reduction in set up time as well as processing time.
5. The major focus of JlT approach is to purchase or produce in response to need rather than
as per the plans and forecasts.
Advantages of JIT Inventory Control System
1.
2.
3.
4.

The right quantities of materials are purchased or produced at the right time.
Investment in inventory is reduced.
Wastes are eliminated.
Carrying or holding cost of inventory is also reduced because of reduced inventory.

179

Reduction in costs of quality such as inspection, costs of delayed delivery, early delivery,
processing documents etc. resulting into overall reduction in cost.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.2 REVIEW QUESTIONS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is inventory management? Discuss in detail the objectives of inventory
management.
2. Explain various tools and techniques of inventory management.
3. Write short notes on a) ABC analysis b) EOQ c) JIT system.

180

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CASH MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
8.1 Cash Management
8.1.1 Motives for holding Cash,
8.1.2 Cash Management
8.1.3 Managing cash flows
8.2 Cash Management models
8.3 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.1 CASH MANAGEMENT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Introduction: Cash is the most liquid asset that a business owns. Cash in the business
enterprises may be compare s to the blood in the human body, which gives life and strength to
the human body and the cash imparts life and strength, profits and solvency to the business
organization.
What do you understand by Management of Cash? The modern day business comprises of
numerous units spread over vast geographical areas. It is the duty of the finance manager to
provide adequate cash to each of the units. For the survival of the business it is absolutely
necessary that there should be adequate cash. It is the duty of the finance manager to maintain
liquidity at all parts of the organization while managing cash. On the other hand, he has also to
ensure there are no funds blocked in idle cash. Idle cash resources entail a great deal of cost in
term of interest charges and in terms of opportunities costs. Hence the questions of cost of idle
cash must also be kept in mind by the finance manager. A cash management scheme therefore, is
a delicate balance between the twin objectives of liquidity and costs.
Why we need for cash: The following are the three basic considerations in determining the
amount of cash or liquidity as have been outlined by Lord Keynes:
1. Transaction needs: Cash facilitates the meeting of the day to day expenses and other
payments on the debts. Normally, inflows of cash from operation should be sufficient for
this purpose. But sometimes this inflow may be temporarily blocked. In such cases, it is
only the reserve cash balance that can enable the firm to make its payments in time
2. Speculative needs: Cash may be held in order to take advantage of profitable
opportunities that may present themselves and which may be lost for want of ready cash
settlement.
3. Precautionary needs: Cash may be held to act as for providing safety against
unexpected events. Safety as is typified by the saying that a man

181

8.1.1 Motives for Holding Cash

The firm with the following motives holds cash:
Transaction Motive

Motives of holding cash

Precautionary Motive

Speculative Motive
1. Transaction Motive: Transaction Motive requires a firm to hold cash to conduct its
business in the ordinary course. The firm needs cash to make payments for purchases,
wages, operating expenses and other payments. The need to hold cash arises because cash
receipts and cash payments are not perfectly synchronized. So firm should maintain cash
balance to make the required payment. If more cash is need for payments than receipts, it
may be raised through bank overdraft. On the other hand if there are more cash receipts
than payments, it may be spent on marketable securities.
2. Precautionary Motive: cash is also maintained by the firm to meet the unforeseen
expenses at a future date. Their are uncontrollable factors like government policies,
competition, natural calamities, labor unrest which have heavy impact on the business
operations. In such situations, the firm may require cash to meet additional obligations.
hence the firm should hold cash reserves to meet such contingencies. Such cash may be
invested in the short term marketable securities which may provide the cash s and when
necessary.
3. Speculative Motive: To take the advantage of unexpected opportunities, a firm holds
cash for investment in profit making opportunities. Such a motive is purely speculative in
nature.For e.g. holding cash to rake advantage of an opportunity to purchase raw material
at the reduced price on the payment of immediate cash or delay that purchase of material
in anticipation of declining prices. It may like to keep some cash balance to make profits
by buying securities at the time when their prices fall on account of tight money
conditions.
Cash Management: Cash management deals with the following:
1. Cash Planning
2. Managing Cash flows
3. Determining optimum cash balance

182

Following are some facets of cash management:

Cash planning: cash planning is a technique to plan and control the use of cash. A projected
cash flow statement may be prepared, based on the present business operations and anticipated
future activities.
Cash Budget / Cash Forecasts: cash budget is a summary statement of the firms expected cash
flows and cash balances over the projected period. This information helps the finance manager to
determine the future cash needs of the firm, plan for the financing of these needs and exercise
control over the cash and to reach liquidity of the firm. It is a forecast of expected cash intake
and outlays.
The short-term forecast can be made with the help of cash floe projections. The finance, manager
will make the estimate of likely receipts in the near future and the expected disbursement in that
period. The long-term cash forecast are also essential for proper cash planning. Long-term
forecast indicates companys future financial needs for working capital, capital projects etc. Both
short term and long-term forecasts may be made with the help of the following methods:
1. Receipts and disbursement methods
2. Adjusted net income methods
Receipts and Disbursement Methods: In this method the receipts made payments of cash are
estimated. The cash receipt may be from cash sales, collection from debtors, and sale of fixed
assets. Payment may be made for cash purchases, to creditors for goods, purchases of fixed
assets etc. the receipts and disbursement are to be equaled over a short as well as long periods.
Any shortfall in receipts will have to be met from banks or other sources. Similarly surpluses
cash may be invested in the risk free marketable securities.
Adjusted Net Income Method: This method also known as Sources and Uses approach. This
method helps in projecting the companys need for cash at some future date and to see whether
the company will be able to generate sufficient cash. If not, then it will have to decide about
borrowing.
In preparing the adjusted net income forecast, items such as net income. Depreciation, tax,
dividends can be easily determined from the companys annual operating budget. Difficulty is
faced in estimating the working capital changes because they are influenced by factors such as
fluctuation in raw material costs, changing demand for the companys products, for projecting
working capital ratios relating to receivables and inventories may be used.
Safety as is typified by the saying that a man has only three friends
an old wife, an old dog and money at bank.
Come on students we will start learning to prepare Cash Budget.

183

Illustration 1: Prepare a cash budget for the quarter ended 30th September, 1987 based on the
following information.
Cash at bank on 1st July 1987
Salaries and wages estimated

Rs.
Rs.

25,000
10,000

Interest payable August 1987

Rs.

5,000

Estimated Cash Sales

Credit sales
Purchases
Other expenses
Payable in month

June
Rs.
1,00,000
1,60,000
-

July
Rs.
1,40,000
80,000
1,70,000
20,000

August
Rs.
1,52,000
1,40,000
2,40,000
22,000

September
Rs.
1,21,000
1,20,000
1,80,000
21,000

Credit sales are collected 50% in the month of sales made 50% in the month following collection
from credit sales are to 5% discount if, payment is received in the month of sales 2.5% if,
payment is received in the following month. Creditors paid either on a prompt, or, 30 dayss
credit basis. It is estimated that, 10% of the creditors are in the proper prompt category.
Solution:
Cash Budget (For Quarter Ending September 1987).

(A) Cash inflows

Cash Sales
Collection from debtors
Last month
Current month
(B) Cash outflows
Sundry creditors
Prompt basis
Others
Salaries and wages
Other expenses
Interest
( C) Net cash inflow (A-B)
Opening balance
+ Surplus for the month
Closing balance

July
Rs.
1,40,000

August
Rs.
1,52,000

September
Rs.
1,21,000

48,750
38,000
2,26,750

39,000
66,500
2,57,500

68,250
57,000
2,46,250

17,000
1,44,000
10,000
20,000
1,91,000

24,000
1,53,000
10,000
22,000
5,000
2,14,0000

18,000
2,16,000
10,000
21,000
2,65,000

35,750
25,000
35,750
60,750

43,500
60,750
43,500
1,04,250

(18,750)
1,04,250
(18,750)
85,500

184

Illustration 2: A.B.C. Company Limited wishes to arrange overdraft facilities with its bankers
during the period April to June 1987 when it will be manufacturing mostly for stock. Prepare a
cash budget
for the above period from the following data, indicating the extent of the bank facility the
company will require at the end of each month.
Month
February
March
April
May
June

Sales
Rs.
1,80,000
1,92,000
1,08,000
1,74,000
1,26,000

Purchases
Rs.
1,24,800
1,44,000
2,43,000
2,46,000
2,68, 000

Wages
Rs.
12,000
14,000
11,000
10,000
15,000

Additional information:
1. All sales are credit sales. 505 of credit sales are realized in the month following the sales and
the remaining 50% in the second month following.
2. Creditors are paid in the month following the month of purchases.
3. Cash at bank of 1.4.87 (estimated) Rs. 25,000.
Solution:
Cash Budget of A.b.c. Company Limited Problems Solved.
(A)

(B)

Cash inflows
Sundry debtors
For first 50%
Second 50%

(C )

Cash outflows
Sundry creditors
Wages
Net cash inflows, or, outflows

(D)

Estimated cash surplus, or,

Opening cash balance
+ Surplus/ Deficit for the month
Closing cash balance

April 1987

May 1978 I

June 1987

96,000
90,000
1,86,000

54,000
96,000
1,50,000

87,000
54,000
1,41,000

1,44,000
1,55,000
31,000

243,000
2,53,000
(-) 1, 03,000

2,46,000
2,61,000
(-) 1,20,000

25,000
31,000
56,000

56,000
(-) 1,03,000
(-) 47,000

(-) 1,20, 000

(-) 1,20,000

Illustration 3: Shri Ramesh has given the sales forecast for January to July 1995 and actual sales
for November, December 1994 were as under. With the other particulars given, prepare cash
budget (cash flow statement) for five months January-May

185

Sales

November
December
January
February
March
April
May
June
July

Rs.
80,000
70,000
80,000
100,000
80,000
100,000
90,000
120,000
100,000

Additional information . Sales :- 20 percent cash 80 percent credit collection in the third month
(January sales in march). (b) Variable Expenses 5 percent on turnover time lag half month (c)
Commission 5 percent on credit sales payable i Purchases= 10.40. third month (d) purchase 60
percent of the sales of the third month payment 3rd month of purchases. (d) rent and other
expenses Rs. 3000 paid every month. (e) other payment:- Fixed Assets purchase March Rs.
50,000 (f) Taxes April Rs. 20000 (g) Opening Cash Balance Rs. 25,000
Solution:

CASH BUDGET OF 1995

Particulars

January

February

March

April

May

Opening Balance
Receipts:
Sales: Cash
Credit
Total Receipts (A)

25,000

47,050

52,750

24,050

32,550

16,000
64,000
105,000

20,000
56,000
123,050

16,000
64,000
132,750

20,000
80,000
124,050

18,000
64,000
114,550

3,750
3,200
48,000
3,000
57,950
47,050

4,500
2,800
60,000
3,000

4,500
3,200
48,000
3,000
50,000

4,500
4,000
60,000
3,000

4,750
3,200
54,000
3,000

70,300
52,750

108,700
24,050

20,000
91,500
32,550

64,950
49,600

Payment: Variable Expenses

Commission at 5% of credit sales
Purchases
Rent / Other expenses
Fixed assets purchases
Taxes
Total Payment (B)
Closing Balance (A-B)

186

Working Notes
Variable Expenses :
Particulars

January

February

March

April

May

2000
1750

2500
2000

2000
2500

2500
2000

2250
2500

3750

4500

4500

4500

4750

1/ 2 of current month (5%)

1/2 of Pr. Month

Illustration .4 A manufacturing company has prepared a budget for the year ended 31st
December 1997 using the relevant data given below, prepare cash budget for each of the month
of February, march and April 1997
Estimated cost per unit

Rs.

Direct Material

Direct Wages

Production overhead

Total

Fixed overhead are estimated at Rs. 48000 per annum. These are expected to be increased in
equal amounts each month during the budget period. Estimated sales at Rs. 11 per unit for the
first five month are given below:10% of sales will be made on cash; balance will be made one
months credit the flowing information is available
a

Finished goods Stock: 75% of each months invoiced sales units to be produced in the
month of sale and 25% of each months involved in sales unit to be produced in the
previous month.
Stocks, direct material:- 50% of direct material required for each months production to be
purchases in the previous month
i
Direct Material: to be paid in the month following the month of purchase.
j
Direct Wages: 50% in the month used and the balance in the following month
k Expenses: 1 months lag
Estimated cash balance as on 1st February 1997 Rs. 5000

187

Solution;
CASH BUDGET
Particulars
Opening Balance
Collection:
Cash Sales
Credit Sales
Total Receipts (A)

February

March

April

5,000

12,360

26,720

7,480
61,380
73,860

5,940
67,320
85,620

6,600
53,460
86,780

Payment :Fixed Overheads

Creditors for Materials
Wages
(1/2 Current months)
1/2 Next Month
Overheads
Total Payment (B)
Closing Balance (A-B)

4,000
19,200

4,000
18,000

4,000
17,325

12,900
12,700
12,700
61,500
12,360

11,100
12,900
12,900
58,900
26,720

12,000
11,100
11,100
55,525
31,255

Working Notes
Cash Sales
Particulars

February

6800x11x10%
5400x11x10%
6000x11x10%

March

April

7480
5940
7480

5940

6600
6600

Credit sales collection

Feb 97
Mar 97
Apr 97

Jans Sales 6200 x 11x 90 % =

61,380
Febs Sales 6800 x 11 x 90 % =
67320
Marchs sales 5400 x 11x 90 % =

8.1.3 Managing Cash Flows

After estimating the cash flows, efforts should be made to adhere to the estimates of receipts and
payment of cash. Cash management will be successful only if cash collections are accelerated
and ash disbursement is delayed. The following method of cash management will help:

188

Prompt payment by customers: In order to accelerate cash inflows, the collections from the
customers should be prompt. The customers should be promptly informed about the amount
payable and the time by which it should be paid. One method is to avail cash discounts.
Quick conversion of payment into cash: improving the cash collection process can accelerate
Cash flows. Once the customer writes a cheque in favor of the concern the collection can be
quickened by its earlier collection. There is the time gap between the cheque sent by the
customers and the amount collected against it. This is due to may factors:
a) Mailing time
b) Postal float i.e. time taken by the post office for transferring the Cheque from customers
to the firm.
c) Bank floats i.e. collection time within the bank.
All these are known as Deposit float
An efficient cash management will be possible only if time taken in deposit float vis reduced
which can be done only by decentralizing collections.
Decentralized Collections: A big firm operating over wide geographical area can accelerate
collections by using the system of decentralized collections. A number of collection centers are
opened in different area. To reduce the mailing time.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.2 CASH MANAGEMENT MODELS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Determining Optimum Cash Balance: There are basically two approaches to determine an
optimum cash balance
1. Minimizing Cost models
2. Preparing cash Budget
Cash Budget: cash budget is a summary statement of the firms expected cash flows and cash
balances over the projected period. This information helps the finance, manager to determine the
future cash needs of the firm, plan for the financing of these needs and exercise control over the
cash and to reach liquidity of the firm. It is a forecast of expected cash intake and outlays.
The cash budget should be coordinated with the other activities of the business. The functional
budgets may be adjusted according to the cash budgets. The available funds should be fruitfully
used and the concern should not suffer for the wants of funds,
Cash Management Models: There are two models:
a. William J. Baumols Model
b. Miller and Orr model

189

William J. Baumols Model: Acc to this model the optimum cash balance is the trade off
between the opportunity cost and the transaction cost. The optimum cash balance is reached at a
point where the total cost is minimum. The Baumols Model is based on the following
assumptions:
a) The cash needs of the firm are known with certainty.
b) The opportunity cast of holding cash is known and it remains constants.
c) The transaction cist of converting securities into cash is known and remains constant.
The Baumols Model can be represented algebraically.
2A x F
C

=
O

Where, C = optimum balance

A = Annual cash Disbursements
F = Fixed cost per transaction
O = opportunity cost of holding cash
Miller and Orr Model: The Miller and Orr Model provides two control limits
a) The upper control limit
b) Lower control limit
When the cash balance touches the upper control limit, marketable securities are purchased to the
extent of hz to return back to normal cash balance of z. in the same manner when the cash
balance touches the lower control point the firm will sell the marketable securities to the extent
of oz to again to return to the normal cash balance. The spread between the upper and lower cash
balance limits can be computed using miller and orr Model as follow:
1
3
3
Z =

3
4

Transaction Cost x Variance of Cash Flows

x
Interest Rate
Z (Spread)

Return Point =

Lower Limit

+
3
2

Variance of Cash flows = (Standard deviation)

190

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.3 REVIEW QUESTIONS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Efficient cash management will aim at maximizing the cash inflows and slowing cash
outflows. Discuss.
2. Explain the a) William J. Baumols Model b) Miller and Orr model of cash management.
3. What do you mean by cash management? What are the motives of holding cash?

191

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FOREIGN EXCHANGE ORIENTATION

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
9.1 International Finance
9.1.1 Exchange rate
9.1.2 Arbitrage Process as a means of Attaining Equilibrium on Spot Markets
9.1.3 Arbitrage in Forward Market
9.2 Managing of Foreign Exchange Risk
9.2.1 Foreign Exchange risk management
9.2.2 Management of Economic exposure
9.2.3 Management of Operating Exposure
9.3Raising foreign currency finance
9.4 Review Questions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.1 INTERNATIONAL FINANCE

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------International Financial management is concerned with decisions related to multinational capital
budgeting, cost of capital, working capital and sources of international finance. Different
countries have different currencies and the settlement of all business transactions within a
country is required in local currency. The foreign exchange (FE) market provides a forum where
the currency of one country is traded for the currency of another country.
The FE market deals with a large volume of funds as well as large number of currencies of
various countries. The major FE markets are London, New York and Tokyo and the major
currencies traded are the US Dollar, British Pound Sterling, Euro, French Franc, Japanese Yen,
Deutsche mark, and Swiss franc.

9.1.1 Exchange Rates

An exchange rate is the price of one country's currency expressed in terms of the currency of
another country. For instance, a rate of Rs 48 per US $ implies that one US dollar costs Rs 48.
Direct quotation and Indirect quotation: Direct quotation or European quotation is
expressed in a manner that reflects the exchange of a specified number of domestic currencies
for one unit of foreign currency. For example, Indian Rs 48 = US $1. Indirect quotation or
American quotation is expressed in a manner that reflects the exchange of a specified number
of foreign currencies for one unit of local currency. For example, US $0.02083 = Indian Re 1.
Both quotations reflect the same exchange/conversion rate and are reciprocal to each other.
Direct quotations are easier to comprehend and are, hence, followed by a large number of
countries, including India.
Two-way Quotations/Rates. The FE rates explained above are single quote/rate. In practice,
dealers quote two-way rates, one for buying the foreign currency (known as bid price/rate)
192

and another for selling the foreign currency (referred to as ask price/rate). Since dealers
expect profit in foreign exchange operations, the two prices obviously cannot be the same.
Evidently, the dealer will buy the foreign currency at a lower rate and sell the foreign currency at
a higher rate. For this reason, the 'bid' quote is at a lower rate and the 'ask' quote is a higher rate.
The quotations are always with respect to the dealer. For example, when a dealer in Bombay
quotes pound sterling 1 = Rs 78.0 - Rs 78.15, it implies that the dealer is prepared to buy British
pound sterling at Rs 78 and sell it at Rs 78.15.
Spread. Spread is the difference between the ask price (sale Price) and the bid price(Purchase
price). Spread to the dealer is like the gross profit for a business firm, out of which he is to meet
its establishment expenses.
In percentage terms, spread can be expressed as:

Spread (per cent) = [(Ask price - Bid price)/ Ask price] x 100
Spread (per cent) = [(Ask price - Bid price)/Bid price] x 100

In the above example of the , the spread per cent is 0.19193, that is [(Rs 78.15 - Rs - Rs 78.15]
x 100, when it is determined with reference to the ask price.
Spot Rates and Forward Rates: In discussing exchange rates, it is important to between spot
exchange rates and forward exchange rates. Spot exchange rates are applicable to the purchase
and sale of foreign exchange on an immediate delivery basis. Though the 'immediate' gives an
impression of instantaneous delivery, in practice, it actually takes place two days later. Suppose
Air India has bought aircrafts from US. It is to convert Indian Rupees into US $ In case the terms
of payment are immediate, Air India to arrange the spontaneous purchase of the required sum of
US /Ff at the Spot rate from the spot market.
Forward exchange rates are applicable for the delivery of foreign exchange at a future date. If
Air India is to make payment after 90 days, as per credit terms from the US firm, and it may wish
to avoid the uncertainty of the exchange rate three months now. In that case, Air India is to
purchase the required US $ in the forward market at a forward exchange rate that is decided at
the time of the agreement. The agreed forward rate is valid for settlement irrespective of the
actual spot rate on the date the maturity of the forward contract (that is, 90 days from today in the
case of Air India). The delivery of US $ and the payment of Indian rupees takes place 90 days
later, on the dare settlement.
Cross Rates. When a direct quote of the home currency or any other currencies is not available
in forex market, it is computed with the help pf exchange quotes of other pairs of currencies.
Known as Cross Rates. For example lets assume that the direct quote of Indian rupee and New
Zealand dollars is not available. Then we can use the other two relevant quote as
New Zealand $ / US $: 1.7908 1.8510
Rupee / US $
: 48.0465 48.2111
Then, we can calculate cross rate of Indian rupee and New Zealand dollars as
Rupee per New Zealand $: 25.9571 26.9215

193

In case the actual exchange rates are not in tune with cross rates, firms as well as deal bankers
would like to switch over to markets offering them more favorable rates. Trading firms will
benefit in terms of receiving more or paying less. On the other hand, non-equivalence of two
rates would provide a risk less arbitrage opportunity to dealers, bankers and arbitrageurs in the
forex markets. Eventually, the arbitrage process is likely to align actual and cross rates.

1.1.2 Arbitrage Process as a means of Attaining Equilibrium on Spot Markets

The term arbitrage in the context of forex markets refers to an act of buying currency in one
market (at lower price) and selling it in another (at higher price). Thus, the difference in
exchange rates (in a specified pair of currencies) in markets provides an opportunity to the
operators/arbitrageurs in the market to profit without risk. As a result, equilibrium is restored in
the exchange rates currencies in different forex markets. The essence of the arbitrage process is
to buy currencies from markets where prices are lower and sell in markets where prices are
higher. In operational terms, the arbitrage process is essentially a balancing operation that does
not allow the same currency to have varying rates in different forex markets on a sustainable
basis.
In the context of spot markets, two types of arbitrages are possible:
1. Geographical arbitrage and
2. Triangular arbitrage
Geographical Arbitrage: As the name suggests, geographical arbitrage consists of buying
currency from a forex market (say, London) where it is cheaper and sell in another forex market
(say, Tokyo) where it is costly. Since geographical distance does not have much relevance in
view of the fact that forex transactions primarily take place through telephone and fax messages,
arbitrageurs will gain in buying at London and selling at Tokyo.
Illustration 1: At two forex centers, the following Re-US $ rates are quoted:
London
: Rs 47.5730 - 47.6100
Tokyo
: Rs 47.6350 - 47.6675
Find out arbitrage possibilities for an arbitrageur who has Rs 100 million.
Solution: The following modus operandi will be deployed by the arbitrageur:
(i)
He will buy US $ from the London forex market at the rate of Rs 47.6100, as it is
cheaper there compared to the Tokyo market (Rs 47.6350). He will obtain (Rs 100
million/Rs 47.6100) US $2,100,399.075 on conversion.
(ii)
He will sell US $2,100,399.075 at the rate of Rs 47.6350 per US $ and will obtain Rs
100,052,509.90.
(iii) As a result of arbitrage, he will earn a profit of Rs 52,059.90 (Rs 100,052,059.90 - Rs
100 million) without any risk.
Triangular Arbitrage As the name suggests, triangular arbitrage takes place when there are
three currencies involving three markets. For this reason, triangular arbitrage is also known as a
three-point arbitrage. Following illustration illustrates the concept of such an arbitrage.

194

Illustration 2.The following are three quotes in three forex markets:

$1 = Rs 48.3011 in Mumbai
1 = Rs 77.1125 in London
$1 US = $1.6231 in New York
Are any arbitrage gains possible? Assume there are no transaction costs and the arbitrageur has
US $1,000,000.
Solution: Arbitrage gains are possible since the cross rate between US $/British by using the
rates at London and at Mumbai is different (Rs 77.1125/Rs 48.3011 = US $1.5965/1) from that
of New York ($1.6231). The arbitrageur can adopt the following steps to realize arbitrage gain.
(i)
The arbitrageur will buy Indian rupees with US $1 million. The total proceeds he
obtains is (Rs 48.3011 x $1 million US $) Rs 48,301,100.
(ii)
He converts Indian rupees in British at the London forex market. He receives (Rs
48,301,100/ Rs 77.1125) 626,371.8592.
(iii) He then converts 626,371.8592 at the New York forex market. He obtains
(626,371.8592 x $1.6231) US $1,016,664.164
(iv)
Thus, he has net gain of (US $1,016,664.164 - $1,000,000) US $16,664.164
To sum up the discussion, it can be said that the arbitrage process will set in whenever there are
significant differences between cross rates and quoted rates and this process continues till there is
realignment between these rates.

9.1.3 Arbitrage in Forward Market

Arbitrage gain possibilities exist in forward markets also, in case the difference between the
forward rate and the spot rate (in terms of premium or discount) is not matched by the interest
rate differentials of the two currencies. Conceptually, interest rate differentials of the two
currencies should be equal to the forward premium or discount on their exchange rates. Since the
comparison is to be made with interest rate differentials, this kind of arbitrage is also
appropriately referred to as covered interest arbitrage. For example there is a arbitrage gain
possible from the following data:
Spot Rate
:
Rs.78.10/
3 months forward rate :
Rs 78.60/
3 months interest rates:
Rupees: 9% and British : 5%
Because 3 month forward rate of is higher (at Rs 78.60) than the spot rate (Rs 78.10).
(Rs.78.60 Rs 78.10) x 12 x 100
Rs.78.10
3
= 2.56%
Interest rate differential = 9% - 5% = 4%
Since interest rate differential and premium percentage is different, there is a arbitrage gain
possibilities.
Premium (percentage) =

195

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.2 MANAGING OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What Does Foreign-Exchange Risk Mean?
The risk of an investment's value changing due to changes in currency exchange rates; The risk
that an investor will have to close out a long or short position in a foreign currency at a loss due
to an adverse movement in exchange rates. Also known as "currency risk" or "exchange-rate
risk"

9.2.1 Foreign Exchange Risk Management (FERM)

For the multinational and other business firms having global business operations it is imperative
to know of various types of foreign exchange risks they are exposed to as well as are fully
conversant with the various important FERM techniques to deal with such risks.
Types of Exposure: Foreign exchange exposure can be classified into three broad categories:
1. Transaction exposure
2. Translation exposure
3. Operating exposure
Transaction an Operating Exposure both together are also Known as Economic Exposure and
Translation exposure is referred to as Accounting Exposure or Balance sheet Exposure
Transaction Exposure: Transaction exposure stems from transactions that give rise to known
contractually determined future foreign-currency denominated cash inflows or outflows. Cross
border trade, borrowings and lendings in foreign currencies, and the local purchases and sales of
foreign subsidiaries are examples of such transactions. If exchange rates change between now
and when these transactions settle, the value of the associated foreign currency cash flows
changes, resulting in currency gains and losses. For example, if an Indian exporter has a
receivable of $100,000 due three months hence and if in the meanwhile the dollar depreciates
relative to the rupee a cash loss occurs. Conversely, if the dollar appreciates relative to the rupee,
a cash gain occurs. In the case of a payable, the outcome is of an opposite kind: a depreciation of
the dollar relative to the rupee results in a gain, whereas an appreciation of the dollar relative to
the rupee results in a loss.
In the books of accounts, the foreign currency amount is expressed in the reporting currency by
applying the exchange rate prevailing on the transaction date. If an item is settled during the
current account period, it is revalued at the rate prevailing on the settlement day. This may result
in loss or gain. At each balance sheet date, foreign currency monetary items are reported using
the exchange rate on the balance sheet date, non-monetary items carried at historical cost are
reported using the exchange rate on the transaction date, and non-monetary items carried at fair
value are reported using the exchange rate that existed when the fair values were determined.
Exchange differences arising from either settlement or restatement of monetary items on the
balance sheet date should be recognized as income or expense in the period in which they arise.
When a forward exchange contract is entered into as a hedge, the premium or discount arising at
the inception of the contract should be amortized as expense or income over the Life of the
contract.

196

Translation Exposure: Translation exposure, also called accounting exposure, stems from the
need to convert the financial statements of foreign operations from foreign currencies to
domestic currency for purposes of reporting and consolidation. If there is a change in exchange
rates since the previous reporting period, the translation or restatement of foreign-currency
denominated assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses will result in foreign exchange gains or
losses. Translation gains/losses do not involve cash flows as they are purely paper gains/losses,
except when they have some tax implications.
Indian accounting standards require consolidation of the accounts of foreign subsidiaries or
branches with those of the parent firm in India. The method used for translating foreign currency
statements depends on the nature of relationship between the parent and the foreign operations.
From this point of view, foreign operations can be classified in to two categories.
1. Integral Foreign Operations: An integral operation carries out business as if it is an
extension of the operations of the parent. For example, the foreign operation may just sell
goods imported from the parent and remit the proceeds of the same to its parent.
2. Independent Foreign Operations: An independent or non-integral foreign operation is
run independently, as if it is a separate enterprise. It is also referred to as a foreign entity.
The financial statements of an integral foreign operation are translated using the rules we
discussed under transaction exposure. The assets and liabilities, both monetary and nonmonetary,
of the non-integral foreign operation are translated at the rates prevailing on the balance sheet
date. The profit and loss items of such operations are translated at the exchange rates prevailing
on the date of the transactions. All the resulting exchange differences are accumulated in a
foreign currency translation reserve until the disposal of the foreign operations.
Operating Exposure: The exchange rate changes significantly alter the costs of a firms inputs
and the prices of its output and thereby influence its competitive position substantially. We can
explain this by following examples:
Volkswagen had a highly successful export market for its 'Beetle' model in the US before 1970.
With the breakdown of the Bretton Wood system of fixed exchange rates, the Deutschemark
appreciated significantly against the dollar. This created problems for Volkswagen as its
expenses were mainly in Deutschemark but its revenues in dollars. However, in a highly pricesensitive US market, such an action caused a sharp decrease in sales volume-from 600,000
vehicles in 1968 to 200,000 in 1976. (Incidentally, Volkswagen's 1973 losses were the highest as
of that year, suffered by any company anywhere in the world.) In wake of East Asian crisis in
1997, currencies of several East Asian countries fell sharply. This made exports from these
countries very competitive in advanced markets. As a consequence, gems and jewellery exports
from India suffered competitive disadvantage as compared to their rivals from South East Asia.
Management of Transaction Exposure: Transaction exposure arises on account of imports,
exports, and foreign currency borrowings. To cope with such exposure the followings may be
used:

197

Forward Market Hedge: In a forward market hedge, a net liability (asset) position is covered
by an asset (liability) position in the forward market. For example a consider the case of a Indian
firm which has a liability of $1,00,000 payable in 60 days to an American supplier on account of
credit purchases. The firm can follow these steps:
Step 1 Enter in to a forward contract to purchase $1, 00,000in 60 days from a foreign exchange
dealer. The 60 day forward contract rate is, say, Rs. 46.90 per dollar.
Step 2 On sixtieth day pay the dealer Rs. 4,690,000 ($1, 00,000 x Rs. 46.90). By following this
mechanism the firm can eliminate the exchange risk in dollars. To cover a net asset position in
the foreign currency a reverse process has to be followed.
To illustrate this process, consider, Indian firm which is expecting a payment of $100,000 due in
60 days, on account of a credit sale, from an American customer. The firm can take the following
steps to cover its t position.
Step1 Enter into a forward contract with a foreign exchange dealer to sell $100,000 in 60 days.
The 60 day forward rate is, say, Rs. 46.85.
Step2 On the sixtieth day collect $100,000 from the American customer, deliver the same to the
dealer, and collect Rs. 4,685,000. The forward market hedge is a relatively simple and
convenient arrangement. It involves getting a forward quotation from a foreign exchange dealer
and advising do the needful. Of course, the dealer will charge a commission for performing
transaction.
Option Forwards A variant of the forward contract is an option forward in which exchange rate
between the currencies is fixed when the contract is entered into but delivery date is not fixed. In
this contract, one of the parties (typically the corporate customer) enjoys the option to give or
take delivery on any day between two fixed dates. For example, Alpha Corporation enters into an
option forward with National Bank under which it agrees to sell forward $1 million at Rs. 46.50
per dollar, to be delivered on any day between the 91st day and the 120th day from the time the
contract is entered into. In case, the period 91-120 days is the option period during which Alpha
Corporation give delivery. Option forwards make sense when the exact timing of a foreign c
inflow or outflow is not known, though the amount is known.
Money Market Hedge In a money market hedge, the exposed position in a foreign currency is
covered through borrowing or lending in the money market. To illustrate how the money market
hedge may be employed, consider the case of a British firm which has a liability of $100,000 on
account of purchases from a US supplier, which is payable after 30 days. Today's spot rate is
$1.692 per . The 30-day money market rates in the US are 1 percent for lending and 1.5 percent
for borrowing. In order to hedge, the British firm can take the following steps:
Step 1 Determine the present value of the foreign currency liability ($100,000) by using the
money market rate applicable to the foreign country. This works out to: $100,000/1.01 =
$99,010.

198

Step 2 Obtain $99,010 on today's spot market in exchange for 58,516 pounds. Today's spot rate
is $1.692 per pound.
Step 3 Invest $99,010 in the US money market. (This investment will compound to exactly
$100,000 the known future dollar liability after 30 days.)
To cover a net asset position in the foreign currency, a reverse process has to be followed. To
illustrate this process, consider the case of a British firm which has a receivable of $100,000, on
account of sales, that is due in..30 days. The British firm can take the following steps:
Step 1 Determine the present value of the foreign currency asset ($100,000) by using the
borrowing rate of 1.5 percent per month. This works out to: $98,552.
Step 2 Borrow $98,522 in the US money market in dollars and convert them to pounds in the
spot market.
Step 3 Repay the borrowing of $98,522 after 30 days from the collection of the receivable which
is due in 30 days. (The borrowed amount of $98,522 will compound to $100,000 which will be
repaid from the collection of the receivable)
Financial Swaps A financial swap basically involves an exchange of one set of financial
obligations with another. The two most important financial swaps are the interest rate swap and
the currency swap. Interest rate swaps involve exchange of interest rate obligation between two
parties. Currency swaps involve two parties who agree to pay each others debt obligation
denominated in different currencies.
Currency Options currency option is a financial instrument that provides its holder the right but
no obligation to buy/sell a specified amount of foreign currency at a specified rate up to a
specified period. After a decade of hedging currency risk mainly through forward contracts, the
RBI allowed currency options from July 2003. The salient features of the present guidelines are
as follows: (a) Corporates can only buy currency options, but not write them. (b) Only banks can
write currency options, that too only plain vanilla European options. (c) Corporates can buy
currency options only for hedging underlying exposures. (d) Corporates can buy cross-currency
options.
Leading and. Lagging Sometimes, exposures can be managed by altering the timing of foreign
currency flows through leading and lagging. Leading involves advancing and lagging involves
delaying. The general rule is to lead payables and lag receivables in "strong" currencies. By the
same token, lead receivables and lag payables in "weak currencies."
Netting and Offsetting If a firm has receivables and payables in different currencies, it can net
out its exposure in each currency. Suppose an Indian firm has exports of $100,000 to the US and
imports of $120,000 from the US. It can use its receivables of $100,000 and hedge only the net
US dollars payable. Even if the timings of the flows are not matched, it can lead or lag one or
both of them to achieve a match.

199

Management of Operating Exposure: Transaction exposure is short-term in nature and wellidentified. Operating exposure, on the other-hand, is long-term in nature and can scarcely be
identified with precision. So, the instruments of financial hedging (forwards, options, and so on)
which are helpful in hedging short-term well-identified transaction exposure are not of much
help in hedging operating exposure.
Managing operating exposure calls for designing the firm's marketing, production, and financing
strategy to protect the firm's earning power in the wake of exchange rate fluctuations. The
important levers for managing operating exposure are briefly described below as :
1. Product Strategy A firm may introduce new products and expand its product line after
home currency depreciates. Conversely, after its home currency appreciates, a firm may
re-orient its product line so that it caters to market segments which are more qualityconscious and less price-sensitive.
2. Pricing Strategy When faced with currency volatility, should a firm emphasize market
are or profit margin? Economies of scale and price elasticity of demand are the key
factors that drive the pricing strategy. If significant economies of. Scale exists or price
elasticity of demand is high, it makes sense to hold prices down, expand demand, and
lower unit cost of production. If economies of scale are insignificant or if price elasticity
of demand is low, it may be profitable to charge higher prices.
3. Plant Location A firm may locate its production to countries whose currencies have
depreciated in real terms to lessen the adverse impact of exchange rate variation.
4. Sourcing A firm may source its inputs in countries where it sells its products to achieve a
better match between currency footprints of revenues and costs. Multinational giants such
Toyota, Honda, GM, and IBM manage their operating exposure through a better
matching of currency footprints.
5. Product Cycle In a world of volatile exchange rates, a firm can get a competitive edge
by reducing the time it takes to bring new products to market. A shorter product cycle
compresses the adjustment period following a significant exchange rate change.
6. Liability Structure Suppose an Indian firm derives a good portion of its revenues from
exports to the US. It would do well to hold a portion of its liabilities denominated in the
US dollar. This way it can achieve a certain match between its earnings and debt
servicing burden.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.3 RAISING FIREIGN CURRENCY FINANCE

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The major sources available to an Indian Firm for raising foreign currency finance are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Foreign currency term loans from financial Institution

Export credit schemes
External Commercial Borrowings
Euro issues

200

5. Issue in Foreign domestic markets

We will discuss only few sources over here
ECB (External Commercial Borrowings) : External Commercial Borrowings subject to certain
terms and conditions, the government of India permits Indian firms to resort to external
commercial borrowings for the import of plant and machinery. Corporates are allowed to raise
up to a specified amount from the global markets through the automatic route. Companies
wanting to raise more than the specified amount have to get an approval of the MOF. The key
steps involved in such borrowings are as follows:
1. Secure the permission of the Capital Goods Committee/Projects Approval Board
2. Obtain an offer from a bank
3. Get the approval of the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) , Ministry of Finance, for
the offer
4. Arrange for the documentation of the loan
5. Secure the approval of the Reserve Bank of India
6. Deposit the loan document with the DEA
7. Draw the loan.
Euro Currency Loans A eurocurrency is simply a deposit of a currency in a bank outside
country of the currency. For example, a eurodollar is a dollar deposit in a bank outside the
United States. Likewise, a euroyen is a yen deposit in a bank outside Japan. How do
eurocurrency deposits arise? This may be explained with an example. Suppose an American
company buys oil from a sheik in the middle east and pays $10 million drawn on the Chase
Manhattan bank and the sheik deposits the cheque in his account with a Swiss bank. The dollar
deposit, placed outside the United States, the country of the dollar currency, is a eurodollar
deposit. The Swiss bank can use this deposit for granting eurodollar loans. The main features of
Eurocurrency loans, which represent' the principal form of external borrowings, are as follows:
a) Syndication Eurocurrency loans are often syndicated loans, wherein a group of lenders
particularly banks; participate jointly in the process of lending under a single loan
agreement. The syndicate of lenders is represented by the lead bank. The borrower
required to pay a syndication fee, which is a front-end payment usually ranging between
1/2 percent and 2 percent to the lead bank. This represents the management fees payable
to the lead bank, participation fee to the other banks, and other charges.
b) Floating Rate The rate of interest on eurocurrency loans is a floating rate. It is linked to
LIBOR (London Inter Bank Offer Rate) or SIBOR (Singapore Inter Bank Offer Rate).
The spread over the LIBOR or SIBOR rate is mainly a function of the credit worthiness
of the borrower, the size of the loan, and the prevailing market conditions For example, in
May 2003, Indian Railway Finance Corporation raised $75 million through a 5-year
bullet maturity syndicated term loan facility at a coupon of 70 basis point over LIBOR.
While the rate is determined at the beginning of each interest period, the interest is
payable at the end of each period.
c) Interest Period The interest period may be 3, 6, 9, or 12 months in duration. It is largely
left to the option of the borrower.

201

d) Currency Option The borrower often enjoys the multi-currency option which enables it
to denominate the interest and principal in the new currency opted for. This option is
exercisable at the end of each interest period.
e) Repayment and Prepayment The eurocurrency loans are repayable in instalments,
which are typically equal, or in the form of balloon repayment, as agreed to by the
partiies. The borrower may prepay the loan after giving due notice to the lead bank.
When prepayment is done, some premium is payable. The lender may also reserve the
right to recall the outstanding loan under certain circumstances.
In recent years, the government has adopted a very cautious approach to external commercial
borrowings. Borrowings of maturities less than three years are more or less ruled out and the
government controls the access to syndicated loan markets by a queue system within the overall
annual ceiling on total borrowing specified by the government. Certain sectors such as power
projects are given preference over others in accessing the loan markets.
Euroissues: Following the economic liberalization, Indian companies started exploring the
market again. Unlike the earlier period when syndicated credit was the predominant form of
raising external finance, companies began looking at bonds and euro equities collectively
referred to as "Euroissues". The following are the primary instruments used by Indian companies
in international markets:
(i) Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds (FCCBs)
(ii) Global Depository Receipts (GDRs)
(iii)American Depository Receipts (ADRs)
Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds (FCCB): FCCBs are bonds issued to and subscribed by
a non-resident in foreign currency which are convertible into certain number of ordinary shares
at a pre-fixed price. They are like convertible debentures, have a fixed interest rate and a definite
maturity period. These bonds are listed on one or more overseas stock exchanges. Euro
convertible bonds are listed on a European Stock Exchange. The issuer company has to pay
interest on FCCBs in foreign currency till the conversion takes place and if the conversion option
is not exercised by the investor; the redemption of bond is also to be made in foreign currency.
Essar Gujarat, Reliance Industries, ICICI, TISCO and Jindal Strips are some of the Indian
companies which have successfully issued such bonds.
Global Depository Receipts (GDR): GDR is an instrument, denominated in dollar or some
other freely convertible foreign currency, which is traded in Stock Exchanges in Europe or the
US or both. When company issues equity outside its domestic market and the equity are
subsequently traded in the foreign market, it is usually in the form of a Global Depository
Receipt. Through the system of GDRs, the shares of a foreign company are indirectly traded. The
issuing company works with a bank to offer to its shares in a foreign country via the sale of
GDRs. What happens under this system is that a bank holds the shares of a foreign firm and it
further issues claims against the shares it holds. The bank issues GDRs as an evidence of
ownership. Thus foreign company/corporation instead of directly making the issue to the public
in the foreign market deals through the bank called Overseas Depository Bank. The equity shares
or bonds representing the GDRs are registered in the name of the overseas depository bank and

202

the share/bond certificates are delivered to another intermediary called the 'Domestic Custodian
Bank'. A holder of a GDR is given an option to convert it into equity shares or bonds. However,
till conversion, the GDR does not carry any voting rights. The biggest advantage of issuing GDR
is that the issuing companies are relieved from the burden of complying with various legal
formalities imposed by the regulatory authorities of that country in which they are making issues
through GDRs. It also gives them the benefit of reducing license fees and exempt them from
reporting various information regarding issue of securities required by the regulatory authorities.
Further, the GDR issue does not involve any foreign exchange risk to the issuing Indian
companies as the shares represented by GDR are expressed in rupees. The listing of GDRs on
Overseas Stock Exchange provides liquidity and makes the-company's securities more attractive.
American Depository Receipts (ADRs): ADRs are the US version of GDRs. American
Depository Receipts has almost the same features as of GDRs with a special feature that ADRs
are necessarily denominated in US dollars and pay dividend in US dollars.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.4 REVIEW QUESTIONS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Explain the principle features of euro currency loans.
2. Write short notes on the following
3. Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds (FCCBs)
4. Global Depository Receipts (GDRs)
5. What are spot and forward exchange rates? How do they differ from each other?
6. Distinguish between geographical arbitrage and triangular arbitrage.
7. What types of exchange exposures do international companies) MNCs) face?
8. What are the various techniques to hedge against the foreign exchange risk?

203