Subject: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Credits: 4

SYLLABUS
Introduction to Financial Accounting
Introduction, Scope and Objectives, Branches of Accounting, Accounting Principles and Standards.
Financial Accounting Framework
Journalizing Transactions: Recording of Transaction, Advantages of Journal, Classification of Accounts and its
Rules, Compound Entries; Ledger: Introduction, Posting and its Rules; Trial Balances: Trial Balance
Preparation, Errors Disclosed by Trial Balance, Methods of Allocating Errors in Trial Balance.
Basic Principles of Preparing Final Account
Capital Expenditure; Revenue Expenditure; Deferred Revenue Expenditure; Capital Receipts; Income
Statements: Profit and Loss Statement; Balance Sheet; Final Accounts: Adjustments.
Concept of Management Accounting
Principles, Functions and Scope of Management Accounting; its Limitations; Management Accountant:
Functions; Basic Cost Concepts; Components of Total Cost; Elements of Cost and Cost Sheet; Methods,
Systems and Techniques of Costing.
Tools of Financial Analysis
Budgets: Introduction, Advantages and Disadvantages, Essentials of Budgetary Control, Budget Manual and its
Working, Budget Key Factor; Fixed and Flexible Budgets; Functional and Master Budgets: Sales and Cash
Budget; Zero Based and Incremental Budgets.
Suggested Reading:
1. Financial Accounting: A Managerial Perspective, HPH by Narayanswamy, Publisher: Prentice Hall of India
Private Limited
2. Financial Accounting for Business Managers, by Bhattacharyya, Ashish K Publisher: Prentice Hall of India
Private Limited
3. Financial Accounting for Management: Text & Cases by Subhash Sharma, Publisher: Macmillan India
Limited
4. Management Accounting - Concepts & Applications by Kothari G, Publisher: Macmillan India Limited.

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INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING
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Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Accounting
1.3 Accounting a Means and Not an End
1.3.1 Objectives and Functions
1.3.2 Branches of Accounting
1.3.3 Distinction between Book Keeping and Accounting
1.3.4 Users of Accounting Information
1.3.5 Advantages and Limitations of Accounting
1.3.6 Bases of Accounting
1.3.7 Basic Terms in Accounting
1.4 Accounting Principles and Standards
1.5 System of Book Keeping
1.6 Summary
1.7 Review Questions
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dear students, let me introduce to you this entire subject which is scoring and fruitful in
many ways. So lets start In this unit our objective is to get acquainted with the basic need,
development & definition of basic terms. The accounting records maintained help various
interested parties in variety of manner. For some persons, it will be informative whereas for
others it may take crucial investment decisions based on the accounting information.
Accounting is the language of the business, the basic function of which is to serve as a means
of communication. If you ask to whom does it communicate the results of business operations
then the various interested parties are owners, creditors, investors, governments and other
agencies. Any language has three important jobs to perform: To act as a medium of
communication; to help in understanding the existing literature; to make additions to the
already existing literature. Accounting has been performing all these roles. As a language it is
responsible for preparing financial statements with its own syntax. The syntax of the
accounting language comprises of the total system of recording and analyzing business
transaction called Double Entry System of Book-Keeping, the basic principles on which it is
based like Accounting Standards or Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).

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1.2 DEFINITION OF ACCOUNTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------To start with we can say that, accounting is concerned with the processes of recording,
sorting, and summarizing data resulting from business operations and events. The definition
is given by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants which clearly brings out
the meaning and function of accounting. According to it accounting is: The art of recording,
classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and
events which are, in part at least, of a financial character and interpreting the result thereof.
Now as you have read the aforesaid definition now lets perceive what it means to say:
Accounting is an art: Accounting classifies as an art, as it helps in attaining our aim of
ascertaining the financial results. Analysis & interpretation of financial data are the art of
accounting, requiring special knowledge, experience and judgment.
It involves recording, classifying and summarizing: recording means systematically writing
down the transactions and events in account books soon after their occurrences, classifying is
the process of grouping transactions or entries of one nature at one place. This is done by
opening accounts in a book call ledger. Summarizing involves the preparation of reports &
statements from the classified data (ledger) understandable and useful to management and
other interested parties. This involves preparation of final accounts. It records transaction in
the terms of money: This provides a common measure of recording and increases the
understanding of the state of affairs of the business.
Deals with financial transaction: It records only those transaction and events, which are of
financial character. If a transaction has no financial character then it will not be measured in
the terms of money and will not be recorded. Interpretation: It is the art of interpreting the
results of operations to determine the financial position of the enterprise, the progress it has
made and how well it is getting along. Accounting involves communication: The results of
analysis and interpretation are communicated to management and to other interested parties.
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1.3 ACCOUNTING A MEANS AND NOT AN END

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------After analyzing properly the information supplied by the accounting statements the users of
the same take decision for the future activities. Since accounting supplies the necessary
information, it performs, in fact, a service function and, at the same time, it is sued to
represent economic position of an entity. Therefore, it becomes clear that keeping of accounts
is not the primary objective of either a person or an entity. On the contrary, the primary
objective is to take decision on the basis of financial facts presented by accounting
statements. Thus, the understanding of accounts is not the basic objective; it only helps to
realize a specific objective. As such, accounting is not an end in itself but a means to an end.
It is essentially a service function designed to provide relevant information concerning an
entity for those who are interested in interpreting and using that information.

1.3.1 Objectives and Functions

As you have already seen above that, the primary or basic objective of accounting is to
supply the necessary information to the users and analysts for taking futuristic decisions, so
lets have a look at its other objects and functions, they are:

Providing necessary information about the financial activities to the interested parties
Providing necessary information about the efficiency, or otherwise, of the
management regarding the proper utilization of the scarce resource.
Providing necessary information for predictions (financial forecasting)
Facilitates to evaluate the earning capacity of the firm by supplying a statement of
financial position, a statement of periodical earning together with a statement of
financial activities to the various interested person.
Facilitates decisions regarding the changes in the manner of acquisition, utilizations,
preservation and distribution of the scarce resources.
Facilitates decisions regarding replacement of fixed assets and expansion of the firm
Provides necessary data to the government for taking proper decisions relating to
duties, taxes and price control etc.
Devices remedial measure for the deviations between the actual and budgeted
performance.
Provides necessary data and information to the managers for internal reporting and
formulation of overall policies.

1.3.2 Branches of Accounting

Financial Accounting: Accounting as discussed above, deals with recording,

classifying and summarizing business events, which have already occurred and is,
therefore, historical in nature. That's why it is called Historical Accounting or Postmortem Accounting or more popularly financial Accounting. Its aim is to develop
information about income and financial position on the basis of business events,
which have taken place during a period of time. Information provided by financial
accounting system about financial results and financial position on historical basis is
significant but not sufficient for smooth, orderly and efficient running of the business.
Management needs more information for planning and control of the business
activities. The answer lays in two more forms of accounting namely, Cost Accounting
and Management Accounting.

Cost Accounting: It deals with detailed study of cost with reference to cost
ascertainment, cost reduction and cost control. The emphasis is no historical costs as
well as future decision-making costs.

Management Accounting: It provides information to the management not only about

cost but also about revenue, profits, investments etc. to enable managers to discharge
their functions of managing the business more efficiently and effectively. Thus, it
provides required database to managers to plan and control the activities of business
enterprises.

Social Responsibility Accounting: It involves accounting of social costs incurred by

the enterprises and social benefits created by it reporting thereof.

1.3.3 Distinction between Book-Keeping and Accounting

Book-keeping differs from accounting in the following respects:

Basis of
Distinction
1. Scope

2. Stage
3. Basic

4. Who Performs
5. Knowledge
Level
6. Analytical
Skill
7. Nature of Job
8. Designing of
Accounting
System
9. Supervision
and Checking

Book-keeping

Accounting

Book-keeping involves:
(a) Identifying the
transactions;
(b) Measuring the identified
transaction;
(c) Recording the measured
classifying the recorded
transactions.

Accounting in addition to Bookkeeping involves:

(a) Summarizing the classified
transactions;
!b) Analyzing the summarized
results;
(c) Interpreting the analyzed results;
(d) Communicating the interpreted
information to the interested parties.
Accounting is the secondary stage.
It starts where Book-keeping ends.
The basic objective of accounting is
to ascertain net results of operations
and financial position and to
communicate information to the
interested parties.
Accounting work is performed by
senior staff.
The accountant is required to have
higher level of knowledge than that
of Book-keeper.

Book-keeping is primary
stage.
The basic objective of Bookkeeping is to maintain
systematic records of
financial transactions.
Book-keeping work is
performed by junior staff.
The Book-keeper is not
required to have higher level
of knowledge than that of an
accountant.
The Book-keeper may or may
not possess analytical skill.
The job of a book-keeper is
often routine and clerical in
nature.
It does not cover designing of
accounts system.
The Book-keeper does not
supervise and check the work
of an accountant.

The accountant is required to

possess analytical is nature.
The job of an accountant is
analytical is nature.
It covers designing of accounting
system.
An accountant supervises and
checks the work of a book-keeper.

1.3.4 Users of Accounting Information

1. Owners: Owner(s) refers to a person or group of persons who have supplied capital
for running the business. It refers to Individual in case proprietor partners in case of
partnership firm and shareholders in case of Joint Stock Company. Information needs
of shareholders have assumed great significance in the corporate business world
because of separation of ownership and management in case of joint stock companies.
Owners are interest in the financial information to know about safety of amount
invested and return on amount investment.
2. Managers: For managing business profitably, information about financial results and
financial position is needed by management. By providing this information,
accounting helps managers in efficient and smooth running of a business enterprise.

3. Investors: Prospective investors would like to know about the past performance of
the business enterprise before making investment in that concern. By analyzing
historical information provided by accounting records, they can arrive at a decision
about the expected return and the risk involved in investing in a particular business
enterprise.
4. Creditors and Financial Institutions: Whosoever is extending credit or loan to a
business enterprise, would like to have information about its repaying capacity,
credit worthiness etc. Analyzing and interpreting the financial statements of the
business enterprise can obtain the required information.
5. Employees: Employees are concerned about job security and future prospects. Both
of these are intimately related with the performance of the business enterprise. Thus
by analyzing financial statements they can draw conclusions about their job-security
and future prospects.
6. Government: Government policies relating to taxation, providing subsidies etc. are
guided by relevance of the industry in the economic development of the country and
the past performance of the industry. Information about past performance is provided
by the accounting system. Collection of taxes is also based on accounting records.
7. Researchers: Researchers need financial information for testing hypothesis and
development of theories and models. The required information is provided by
accounting system.
8. Customers: Customers who have developed loyalties to a business are certainly
interested in the continuance of the business. They certainly want to know about the
future directions of the enterprise with which they are associating themselves. The
way to information about the enterprise is through their financial statements.
9. Public: An enterprise affects the public at large in many ways such as a provider of
employment to a number of persons, being a customer to many suppliers, a provider
of amenities in the locality or a cause of concern to the public due to pollution etc.
Hence, public at large is interested in knowing the future directions of enterprise and
the only window to peep inside the enterprise is their financial statements.
Above-mentioned list of group of users of accounting information is not exhaustive. Anyone
having an interest in the business enterprise can use information for decision-making.

1.3.5 Advantages and Limitations of Accounting

The advantages of accounting are as follows:
1. Facilitates to Replace Memory: Accounting facilitates to replace human memory by
maintaining compete record of financial transactions. Human memory is limited by its
very nature. Accounting helps to overcome this limitation.
2. Facilitates to Comply with Legal Requirements: Accounting facilitates to comply
with legal require an enterprise to maintain books of accounts. For example, Sec. 209
of The Companies Act 1956, requires a company to maintain proper books of
accounts on accrual basis, Sec 44AA of The Income Tax 1961 requires certain
persons to maintain specified books of accounts.

3. Facilitates to Ascertain Net Result of Operations: Accounting facilitates to

ascertain net results of operations by preparing Income Statement.
4. Facilitates to Ascertain Financial Position: Accounting facilitates to ascertain
financial position by preparing Position Statement.
5. Facilitates the Users to Take Decisions: Accounting facilitates the users (i.e., Shortterm Creditors, Long-term Creditors, Present Investors, Potential Investors, Employee
groups, Management, General Public, Tax Authorities) to take decisions by
communicating accounting information to them.
6. Facilitates a Comparative Study: Accounting facilitates a comparative study in the
following four ways:

Comparison of actual figures with standard or budgeted figures for the same
period and the same firm;
Comparison of actual figures of one period with those of another period for the
same firm (i.e. Intra-firm Comparison);
Comparison of actual figures of one firm with those of another standard firm
belonging to the same industry (i.e. Inter-firm Comparison); and
Comparison of actual figures of one firm with those of industry to which the
firm belong (i.e. Pattern Comparison).

7. Assist the Management: Accounting assists the management in planning and

controlling business activities and in taking decisions. For example, Projected Cash
Flow Statement facilitates the management to know future receipts and payments and
to take decision regarding anticipated surplus or shortage of funds.
8. Facilitates Control over Assets: Accounting facilitates control over assets by
providing information regarding Cash Balance, Bank Balance, Debtors, Fixed Assets,
Stock etc.
9. Facilitates the Settlement of Tax Liability: Accounting facilitates the settlement of
tax liability with the authorities by maintaining proper books of accounts in
systematic manner.
10. Facilitates the Ascertainment of Value of Business: Accounting facilitates the
ascertainment of value of business in case of transfer of business to another entity.
11. Facilitates Raising Loans: Accounting facilitates raising loans from lenders by
proving them historical and projected financial statements.
12. Acts as Legal Evidence: Proper books of accounts maintained in systematic manner
act as legal evidence in case of disputes.
The Limitations are as follows: The financial accounting is mainly concerned with the
preparation of final accounts, i.e. Profit and Loss Account and Balance sheet. The business
has become so complex that mere final accounts information is not sufficient in meeting
information needs. The management needs information for planning; controlling and co-

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coordinating business activities. It is because of the limitations of financial accounting that

cost accounting and management accounting have developed. Some of the limitations of
financial accounting are discussed as follows:
1. Historical Nature: Financial accounting is historical in nature in the sense that it is a
record of all those transactions, which have taken place in the business during a
particular period of time. The impact of future uncertainties has no place in financial
accounting. As management needs information for future planning, financial
accounting can only give information about what has happened and not about what
will happen. It does not suggest what should be done to increase the efficiency of the
concern.
2. Provides Information About the Concern as a Whole: In financial accounting,
information is recorded for the whole concern. One can find information about total
expenses and total receipts only. The information is not recorded product-wise
process-wise, department-wise or any other line of activity. It is essential to record
information activity-wise so as to be helpful for cost determination and cost control
purposes.
3. Not Helpful in Price Fixation: Financial accounting is not helpful in fixing prices of
products. The cost of a product can be obtained only when all expenses have been
incurred. It is not possible to determine the price in advance. The concern may be
required to quote a price for the supply of goods in the near future (for submitting
tenders, etc.) Financial accounting cannot supply all these informations, so it is
helpful in price determination, Price fixation requires information about variable and
fixed costs, direct and indirect costs. Indirect expenses are estimated on the basis of
past records for price determination purposes.
4. Cost Control not Possible: Cost control is not possible in financial accounting. The
cost figures are known only at the end of a financial period. When the cost already
been incurred then nothing can be done to control it. There is no technique in financial
accounting, which can help to ascertain whether the cost is more or less while the
expenses are being incurred. There is no procedure to assign responsibility for higher
costs, if any. The costing process requires a constant review of actual costs from time
to time and this thing is not possible in financial accounting.
5. Appraisal of Policies not Possible: It is not possible to evaluate various policies and
programs in financial accounting. There is no technique for comparing actual
performance with budgeted targets. Whether the work is going on as per schedule or
not, cannot be determined. The only criterion for determining efficiency is to see
profits at the end of financial period. The profitability is the only yardstick for
evaluating managerial performance. Profits of an enterprise are influenced by a
number of outside factors also, so it is not a reliable test for ascertaining efficiency of
the management.
6. Only Actual Costs Recorded: Financial accounting records only actual cost figures.
The amount paid for purchasing materials, property or other assets is recorded in
account books. The prices of goods and assets go on varying from time to time. The
present prices of assets may be absolutely different from the recorded costs. Financial

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accounts do not record price level changes. The recorded costs cannot provide correct
information or exact values of assets.
7. Not Helpful in Taking Strategic Decisions: Management is to take strategic
decisions like replacement of labor by machinery, introduction of a new product,
discontinuation of an existing line of production, expansion of capacity, etc. The
impact of these decisions and cost involved will have to be ascertained in anticipation.
Various alternative suggestions are to be studied before taking a final decision.
Because information is recorded for the whole concern and it is available only when
the event has taken place.
8. Technical Subject: Financial accounting is a technical subject. The recording of
transactions and making their use requires knowledge of accounting principles and
conventions. A person who is not conversant with accounting subject has little utility
of financial accounts.
9. Quantitative Information: Financial accounting records only that information which
can be quantitatively measured. Anything which cannot be quantitatively measured
will not form a part of financial accounting even though it is important for the
business. The policies and plans of the government have a direct bearing on the
working of the working of the business. It is essential to determine the impact of
government decisions on the entrepreneurial policies. Financial accounts will avoid
qualitative factors because they cannot be quantitatively measured.
10. Lack of Unanimity about Accounting Principles: Accountants differ on the use of
accounting principles. In spite of the efforts of International Accounting Standards
Committee, there is a lack of unanimity on the use of accounting principles and
procedures. The methods of valuing inventory and methods of charging depreciation
are the most controversial issues on which unanimity has not been possible. The
preference for the use of different accounting principles brings in an element of
subjectivity and human biased ness. The use of different accounting methods reduces
the usefulness and reliability of accounts.
11. Chances of Manipulation: There are chances of using financial accounts to suit the
whims of management. The over-valuation or under-valuation of inventory may
change the figures of profits. More profits may be shown to get more remuneration,
issue more dividends or to raise the prices of companys shares. Less profit may be
shown to save taxes for not paying bonus to workers, etc. The possibility of
manipulating financial accounts reduces their reliability.

1.3.6 Bases of Accounting

The income of business belongs to owner and is a direct result of matching of revenues of a
period and expenses of the same period. It is always calculated at the end of the period and,
hence, is an ex-post or actual income. The matching of revenues and expenses of a period can
be done on the following three bases called Bases of Accounting:

Accrual Bases: Under this base, the incomes as well as expenses are considered on
the bases of their occurrence in an accounting period and not on the bases of their
actual receipts/ payments. Hence, revenues are recognized if they belong to the
period, irrespective of the fact whether received in cash or not expenses are

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recognized in an accounting period if (a) A cause-effect relationship can be

established with the revenues earned (for example, purchases, wages, salaries etc.);
(b) It amounts to some kind of a systematic allocation of an already incurred cost in
the past (for example, depreciation, writing off of deferred revenue expenditures); (c)
It amounts to expenses related with the period (for example, rent paid, salaries paid
etc.); or (d) The amount represents something which is permanently lost (for example,
loss of material by fire or theft etc.) It is not material whether expenses are paid in
cash or not. Hence, in accrual bases, we make a matching of the revenues earned and
expenses incurred during a particular period. This matching is in line with the GAAP
of Realization (or Revenue Recognition), Expense Recognition and Matching. In fact,
the Matching concept and Accrual concept are used interchangeably.

Pure Cash Bases: Under the method, the revenues are not recognized and recorded
unless they are received in cash. Similarly, expenses are recognized only when they
are paid in cash. Hence, income of a period is calculated by setting off expenses paid
in cash against revenues received during a period and is clearly violative of three
concepts mentioned above. The application of pure cash bases of accounting is
without sound logic. It would mean that inventories, when purchased and paid for in
cash, will be treated as expense. Logically, inventories should be treated as expense
when they are sold. The acquisition of fixed assets will have to be treated as expense
of the period in which they are paid instead of periods in which benefits are derived
from them. The practice of GAAP does not permit application of cash bases of
accounting for any kind business entity.
Modified Cash Bases or Hybrid System: The system is a mixture of both the bases
of accounting discussed above. In this, accrual bases are followed normally for
expenses and cash bases are followed normally for revenues. Professionals who term
their Income Statement as Receipt & Expenditure Account normally follow such
system. It must be understood very clearly that the most genuine and authentic
system, having widespread applicability, is accrual system and the other two systems
are quite infrequently used. The practical utility of these two systems is minimal.

Illustration1.1
A business generates sales of Rs. 2, 00,000 (including Rs. 40,000 as credit sales) and
expenses amount to Rs.1, 40,000 (including Rs.25, 000 still payable) during an accounting
period. Compute the profit of the business as per three bases of accounting for the accounting
period.
Under Accrual Bases:
Income = Revenue earned Expenses Incurred
= Rs. 2, 00,000 Rs. 1, 40,000
= Rs. 60,000
Under Pure Cash Bases:
Income = Revenue Received Expenses Paid
= Rs. 1, 60,000 Rs. 1, 15,000
= Rs. 20,000

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1.3.7 Basic Terms in Accounting

For proper understating of accounting system, it is necessary to understand important terms
that are used in the business world. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI)
has done an excellent compilation of the various terms used in the business under Guidance
Note on Terms Used in Financial Statements. Some important terms explained in the
guidance note are reproduced below:
1. Capital: Generally refers to the amount invested in an enterprise by its owners e.g.,
aid up share capital in a corporate enterprise. It is also used to refer to the interest of
owners in the assets of an enterprise.
2. Assets: Tangible objects or intangible rights owned by an enterprise and carrying
probable future benefits.
3. Liability: The financial obligation of an enterprise other than owners funds.
4. Revenue: The gross inflow of cash, receivables or other consideration arising in the
course of ordinary activities of an enterprise resources yielding interest, royalties and
dividends. Revenue is measured by the charge made to customers or clients for goods
supplied and services rendered to them and by the charges and rewards arising from
the use of resources by them. It excludes amounts collected on behalf of third parties
such as certain taxes. In an agency relationship, the revenue is the amount of
commission and not the gross inflows of cash, receivables or other consideration.
5. Cost of Goods Sold: The cost of goods sold during an accounting period. In
manufacturing operations, it includes (i) cost of materials; (ii) labor and factory
overheads; selling and administrative expenses are normally excluded.
6. Profit: A general term for the excess of revenue over related cost. When the result of
this computation is negative, it is referred to as loss.
7. Expenditure: Incurring a liability, disbursement of cash or transfer of property for
the purpose of obtaining assets, goods or services.
8. Expenses: The cost relating to the operation of an accounting period or the revenue
earned during the period or the benefit of which do not extend that period.
9. Deferred Expenditure: Expenditure for which payment has been made or a liability
incurred but which is carried forward on the presumption that it will benefit over a
subsequent period or periods. This is also referred to as deferred revenue expenditure.
10. Sales Turnover: The aggregate amount for which sales are affected or services
rendered by an enterprise. The terms gross turnover and net turnover (or gross sales
and net sales) are sometimes used to distinguish the sales aggregate before and after
deduction of returns and trade discounts.
11. Inventory: Tangible property held for sale in the ordinary course of business, or in
the process of the production for such sale, or the consumption in the production of
goods or services for sale, including maintenance supplies and consumables other
than machinery spares.

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12. Accumulated Depreciation: The total to date of the periodic depreciation charges on
depreciable assets.
13. Profit and Loss Statement: A financial statement which presents the revenue and
expenses of an enterprise for an accounting period and shows the excess of revenue
over expenses (or vice versa). It is also known as profit and loss account.
14. Appropriation Account: An account sometimes included as a separate section of the
profit and loss statement showing application of profits towards dividends, reserves,
etc.
15. Prior Period Item: A material change or credit which arises in the current period as
a result or errors or omissions in the preparation of the financial statements of one or
more prior periods.
16. Accounting Policies: The specific accounting principles and the methods of applying
those principles adopted by an enterprise in the preparation and presentation of
financial statements.
17. Cash Basis of Accounting: The method of recording transactions by which revenues
and costs and assets and liabilities are reflected in the accounts in the period in which
actual receipts or actual payments are made.
18. Accrual Basis of Accounting: The method of recording transactions by which
revenue, costs, assets and liabilities are reflected in the accounts in the period in
which they accrue. The accrual basis of accounting includes considerations relating
to deferrals, allocations, depreciation and amortization. This basis is also referred to
as mercantile basis of accounting.
19. Balance Sheet: A statement of the financial position of an enterprise as at a given
date, which exhibits its assets, liabilities, capital, reserves and other account balances
at their respective book value.
20. Book Value: The amount at which an item appears in the books of account or
financial statement. It does not refer to any particular basis on which the amount is
determined e.g., cost, replacement value, etc.
21. Goodwill: An intangible asset arising from business connection or trade name or
reputation of an enterprise.
22. Sundry Creditor: Amount owed by an enterprise on account of goods purchased or
services received or in respect of contractual obligations. Also, it is termed as trade
creditor or account payable.
23. Sundry Debtor: Persons from who amounts are due for goods sold or services
rendered or in respect of contractual obligations. Also, termed as debtor, trade debtor,
and account receivable.
24. Contingent Asset: An asset the existence, ownership or value of which may be
known or determined only on the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more
uncertain future events.

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25. Contingent Liability: An obligation relating to an existing condition or situation

which may arise in future depending on the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or
more uncertain future events.
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1.4 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------So students, as you were been introduced to this splendid concept of accounting previously,
so now lets understand its ground rules so as to play it successfully. Accounting aims to
provide financial information about a business enterprise to various interested groups for
decision-making. As accounting communicates financial information for decision-making to
many parties outside the reporting business entity, it is necessary that there is uniformity in
the preparation of financial statements of different business enterprises at a point of time. It
also requires consistency in the preparation of financial statements of a business enterprise
over a period of time. If every business could follow his own notion about the accounting
terms like revenue, expenses, assets, liabilities, income etc., there will be complete chaos. To
have uniformity and consistency in the preparation of financial statement, accounting
operates within a framework of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP),
follows a conceptual framework and adheres to the accounting standards (AS) issued by the
recognized regulatory body. This is referred to as the theory base of accounting.
The term GAAP is used to describe, rules or guidelines variously called concepts,
conventions, axioms, assumptions, postulated, principles, modifying principles etc.,
developed for the preparation of financial statement. Yorston, Smith and Brown define
accounting principles as the body of doctrines commonly associated with the theory and
procedure of accounting, serving as an explanation of current practices and as guide for the
selection of conventions and procedures where alternatives exist. Thus, it provides
explanation for accounting practices followed by a business enterprise at a point of time.
However, it must be clearly understood that accounting theory is not and probably will never
be in completely stable state. Accounting principles are constantly evolving and are
influenced by changes in the social, legal and economic environment; professional bodies
like the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, the American Institute of Certified Public
Accountants, International Accounting Standards Board, etc. and the needs of users of
financial information. Accounting, being a man-made system, must evolve and adjust itself to
the changes in needs of the man-kind. As a result, accounting principles are not as exact and
rigid as laws of natural sciences. Therefore emphasis is on general, instead of universal,
acceptability of accounting principles. The GAAP are the building blocks of the accounting
language. Rather, they are the pillars on which the structure of accounting is resting. If we
remove these principles, the entire structure of accounting will come down. The GAAP,
which the makers and users of accounting information should understand before analysis and
interpretation of financial statements, include the following concepts:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

Accounting Entity
Stable Money Measurement
Going Concern
Accounting Period
Cost
Revenue Recognitions (or Realization)
Expenses Recognition
Matching (or Accrual)
Full, Fair and Adequate Disclosure

16

(j) Dual Aspect (or Duality)

(k) Verifiable Objectivity (Neutrality and Reliability)
(l) Materiality
(m) Consistency
(n) Conservatism
(o) Timeliness
(p) Industry Practices
(q) Substance over Form
Of this, the first four concepts [from (a) to (d)] are the most basic assumption on which
accounting structure rests. The next six [from (e) to (k) are the basic accounting principles
which help us in ascertaining the result of a business entity. However, we are essentially
operating in a social system, which is bound to be inexact. Hence, we need to be flexible in
our approach. Hence the basic knowledge needs to modify due to changing
circumstances/situations to enhance the utility of the information generated by the accounting
system. The next six concepts [from (l) to (q)] serve the same purpose. Accounting standard
on' Disclosure of Accounting Policies (AS-1)
Issued by ICAI recognizes that the 'Fundamental Accounting Assumption while drafting
accounts of a business enterprise are Going Concern, Matching (or Accrual), and
Consistency. If these are followed, no disclosure is necessary. It further emphasizes that
enterprise should consider Prudence, Substance over Form and Materiality as considerations
in the selection of accounting policies where accounting policies are defined as "referring to
the specific accounting principles and the method of applying those principles adopted by the
enterprise in the preparation and presentation of financial statements". The end result of the
application of these accounting principles is the preparation of meaningful financial
statements. These statements should have some qualitative characteristics. The qualitative
characteristics are attributes that make the information provided in financial statements useful
to the users.
Now lets study it.
1. Accounting Entity: Accountants treat a business as distinct from the persons who own
it; then it becomes possible to record transactions of the business with that of proprietor
also. The concept of separate business entity is applicable for all types of organizations
like sole proprietorship, partnership etc., where the business affairs are free from the
private affairs of the proprietor or partner.
2.

Money Measurement: Accounting records normally those transactions, which are

being expressed in monetary terms. Measurement of business events in monetary terms
helps in understanding the state of affairs of the business in a much better way. For
example, if a business owns two factory buildings, five lathe machines and Rs.1, 00,000
as cash at bank, we cannot add these numbers so as to produce a meaningful result.
However, if we say the value of two factory buildings is Rs. 10,00,000, the value of five
lathe machines is Rs. 5,00,000 and cash of Rs. 1,00,000 then we can add these values
and say that the value of assets owned by the business is Rs. 16,00,000. This is
definitely informative and useful.

3.

Going Concern Concept: It is assumed that the business will exist for a long time and
transactions are recorded from this point of view. Based on this concept, accountants,
while valuing assets will not consider the forced sale value of assets (market value), but
the assets normally will be reflected at the cost of acquisition minus depreciation.

17

4.

Similarly depreciation is provided based on the expected life of the assets. The concept,
however, does not imply the permanent continuance of the business. The underlying
presumption is that the business will continue in operations long enough to charge
against income, the cost of fixed assets over their economic lives and to pay the
liabilities when they fall due. This concept is applicable to the business as a whole and
not for a particular division or branch. Merely closing of a branch or division, will not
and may adversely affect the ability of the business enterprise to continue other business
normally. Once the business enterprise goes in to liquidation or becomes insolvent, this
concept does not apply. In other words the going concern status of the concern will
stand terminated from the date of appointment of a receiver.
Accounting Period Concept: According to this concept, the life of the business is
divided into appropriate segments of time (say 12 months) for studying the results.
While the life of the business is considered to be indefinite (according to the going
concern concept), the measurement of income and studying the financial position of the
business after a very long time would not be helpful in taking corrective steps at the
appropriate time. Therefore it is necessary that after each segment of time interval, the
management should review the performance. The segment of time interval is called
accounting period, which is usually a year. At the end of each accounting period,
Income statement and a balance sheet is prepared. The income statement discloses the
profit or loss made by the business during an accounting period, and the balance sheet
discloses the state of affairs of the business as on the last date of the accounting period.
The term conventions includes those customs or traditions, which guide the
accountants while preparing the accounting statements. The following are the important
accounting conventions:

Accounting Conventions:
1.

Cost Concept: Transactions are entered in the books of account at the amounts actually
involved. As asset is ordinarily recorded at the price at which is has been acquired. For
example, a Plot of land purchased by a business firm for Rs. 5, 00,000, would be
recorded at this value irrespective of its current market price. Cost concept has the
advantage of bringing objectivity in the presentation of the financial statements. In
absence of these concepts the figures shown in the accounting records would have
depend on the subjective view of a person.

2.

Realization Concept: Accounting is a historical record of transactions; it only records,

what has happened. It does not anticipate events through anticipated adverse effects of
events that have already occurred are usually recorded. For example, A places an
order on B for supply of certain goods. Upon receipt of the order B, procures raw
material employs labor and produces and delivers the goods to A. In this case the sale
transaction will be recorded in the books of B, only when the goods are delivered and
not upon receipt of an enforceable purchase order from A.
There is certain exception to this concept.
i) In case of Hire Purchase transaction the ownership of the goods passes to the
buyer only when the last installments is paid, but sales are presumed to have
been made to the extent of installments received and installments outstanding.
(Installments due but not received)
ii) In case of contract accounts, though the contractor is liable to pay only when the
whole of contract is completed as per terms of the contract, the profit at the end

18

of accounting year is calculated on the basis of the work completed and certified
by a competent authority.
3.

Expenses Recognition: Cost is the total outlay or expenditure on acquiring resources

required for production of goods or rendering of services. Cost of resources utilized and
lost during a particular period is termed as expired cost or expense and is charged to the
revenue of the period to obtain information about income. Costs of the resources
remaining unutilized or unexpired at the end of the period is carried forward to the next
accounting period and are termed as assets.

4.

Accrual Concept: The accrual system is a method whereby revenue and expenses are
identified with specific period of time like a month, half year or a year. It implies
recording of revenue and expenses of a particular accounting period, whether they are
received/ paid in cash or not. Under the cash system of accounting, the revenue and
expenses are recorded only if they are actually received/ paid in cash irrespective of the
accounting period to which they belong. But under accrual method, the revenue and
expenses relating to that particular accounting period only are considered.

5.

Disclosure: Apart from the statutory obligations, good accounting practice also
demands that all significant information should be disclosed fully and fairly. The
financial statements have to prepare honestly and should disclose the information,
which is of material interest to owners, present and potential creditors and investors.
Whether something should be disclosed or not will depend on whether it is material or
not. Materiality depends on the amounts involved in relations to the assets group
involved or profits. In case of Financial Statements of a Limited Company, the practice
followed is to append the notes to the accounts and disclose of significant accounting
policies. This is in pursuance of the convention of full disclosure.

6.

Dual Aspect Concept: Each transaction has two aspects. With every increase in the
money owned to others, there must be an increase in Assets or loss. Thus at any time
the accounting equations is:
Assets = Liabilities + Capital or alternatively;
Capital = Assets Liabilities.
For example, a proprietor brings in Rs. 1, 00,000 in cash as Capital to start a small
business. Rs. 1, 00,000 is the Capital and corresponding amount of Rs. 1, 00,000 will
appear as cash on hand (Assets).

7.

Verifiable Objectivity: According to this concept all accounting transactions should be

evidenced and supported by objective documents. These documents includes invoices,
contracts, correspondence, vouchers, bills, pass books, cheque books etc. such
supporting documents provides the basis for making accounting entries and for
verification by the auditors later on. This concept also has its limitations. For example,
it is difficult to verify internal allocation of costs to accounting periods.

8.

Materiality: According to this convention the accountant should attach importance to

material details and ignore insignificant details. This is because otherwise accounting
will be unnecessarily overburdened with minute details. The question what constitutes
material details are left to the discretion of the accountant? Moreover, an item may be
material for one purpose while immaterial for another. The term materiality is a
subjective term. The accountant should regard an item as material if there is reason to
believe that knowledge of it would influence decision of the informed investor.

19

According to Kohler Materiality means characteristic attaching to a statement, fact or

item whereby its disclosure or method of giving it expression would be likely to
influence the judgment of a reasonable person.
9.

Consistency: The accounting practices should remain the same from one year to
another. For example: Consistency in Valuation of Stock in Trade or Method of
Charging Depreciation. If the stock has been valued by adopting the principle of cost or
market value, whichever is less, the same principle has to be consistently followed year
after year. Similarly method of charging depreciation, either Straight Line or Written
down Value method, has to be consistently followed. This is necessary for comparison
of results. However, consistency does not mean inflexibility. In case due to change in
law. Or from the point of view of improved reporting, this convention is broken, and
then adequate disclosure as to the impact on the profit due to such change has to be
mentioned in the notes appended to the notes to accounts.

10. Conservatism: Financial Statements are usually drawn up rather on a conservative

basis. In the initial stages when the anticipated profits which were accounted did not
materialize. This resulted in less acceptability of accounting figures by the end-users.
Therefore accountants follow the rule anticipate no profits but provide for all possible
losses. Similarly, based on this convention, the inventory is valued at cost or market
price whichever less is. Necessary provision for bad and doubtful debts is made in the
books of account. Window-dressing, i.e. showing a position better than what it is, is not
permitted. It is also not proper to show a position substantially worse than what it is. In
other words, secret reserves are not permitted. Therefore this convention has to be
applied with reasonable caution and care.
11. Timeliness: Financial reports must be timely to have any usefulness for decision
makers. Timeliness in financial reporting requires estimation of depreciation, provision
for bad and doubtful debts, provision for discount etc. to prepare the financial
statements of different accounting periods. For detailed discussion refer to accounting
period assumption.
12. Industry Practice: Sometimes practice prevailing in a particular industry is given
precedence over generally accepted accounting principles. Examples are valuation of
gold on the basis of market price, agriculture products on the basis of minimum support
price determined by the government etc.
13. Substance over Form: The accounting treatment and presentation in financial
statements of transactions and the events should be governed by their substance and not
merely by their legal form. Hence, when goods are purchased on hire-purchase basis,
the property in goods is transferred to the buyer on the payment of the last installment
only. However, the buyer for all practical purpose uses the goods as if he is the owner
of the goods in question from the date of acquisition. This aspect is reflected in the
books of the buyer normally by recording the asset at its cash price at the time of
payment of initial amount (down payment). Hence, substance should always override
the legal form. To quote Shiv Khera, Attitude can make or break you. Success is vital
but not without a feeling of fulfillment, like good looks are wastes without goodness. So
always choose substance over form. Never the reverse

20

Accounting Standard: We have already seen that accounting communicates the financial
results of the business to various parties by means of financial statements, which have to
exhibit a true & fair view of state of affairs. Like any other language, accounting also has
complex set of rules. However, these rules have to be used with a reasonable degree of
flexibility in response to specific circumstances of the business and also in line with the
changes in the economic environment, social needs, legal requirement and technological
developments. Thus these rules, though not rigid, but cannot be applied arbitrarily. They
normally operate within the boundary of rationality.
Accounting Standards are defined as the policy documents issued by a recognized expert
accounting body relating to various aspects of measurement, treatment and disclosure of
accounting transactions and events.
In India Accounting Standards are prepared by the Accounting Standard Board constituted by
the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. The summery of various accounting
standards is as follows:
S. No

Accounting
Standard
No.
AS 1

01
02
03
04

AS 2
AS 3
AS 4
AS 5

05
06
07
08
09
10

AS 6
AS 7
AS 8
AS 9
AS 10
AS 11

11
12

AS 12

13
14
15

AS 13
AS 14
AS 15

16
17

AS 16
AS 17

Title of Accounting Standard

Mandatory
with effect
from
Disclosure of Accounting 1.4.1991 for
Policies
companies
1.4.1993 all
other
enterprises
Valuation of Inventories
1.4.1999
Cash Flow Statements
1.4.2001
Contingencies and Events 1.4.1995
occurring after the Balance
Net profit and Loss for the 1.4.1996
period, prior period items and
changes in accounting policies.
Depreciation Accounting
1.4.1995
Accounting for construction Like AS 1
Contracts
Accounting for research and
Like AS 1
development
Revenue Recognition
Like AS 1
Accounting for Fixed Assets
Like AS 1
Accounting for the effects of
1.4.1995
changes in Foreign Exchange
Rates
Accounting for Government
1.4.1994
Grants
Accounting for Investments
1.4.1995
Accounting for Amalgamation 1.4.1995
Accounting for retirement
1.4.1995
benefits in the financial
statements of employers
Borrowing Costs
1.4.1995
Segments Reporting
1.4.2000

21

Enterprises
to which
applicable
All

All
See Note 1
All
All
All
All
All
All
All
All
All
All
All
All
All
All

18
19
20
21

AS 18
AS 19
AS 20
AS 21

22

AS 22

Related Party disclosures

Leases
Earnings Per Share
Consolidated Financial
Statement
Accounting for Taxes on
Income

1.4.2001
1.4.2001
1.4.2001
1.4.2001

See note 1
All
All
See note 2

See note 4

See note 3

Notes:
1. AS 3 and AS 17 are mandatory for those enterprises whose equity or debt securities are
listed on a recognized stock exchange in India or enterprises who are in the process of
issuing equity or debts securities that will be listed on a recognized stock exchange in
India and all commercial, industrial businesses whose turnover for the accounting
period is more than Rs. 50 Crore.
2. AS 20 are mandatory for those enterprises whose equity shares or potential equity
shares are listed on a recognized stock exchange in India.
3. AS 21 is mandatory if an enterprise presents consolidated financial statements. This
accounting standard does not make it mandatory to consolidate the financial statement
for an enterprise. But the enterprises, which is presenting a consolidated financial
statement shall prepare in accordance with AS 21.
4. AS 22 comes into effect in respect of accounting periods commencing on or after
1.4.2001. It is mandatory in following cases:
(i)

All the enterprises whose equity or debt securities are listed on a recognized stock
exchange in India and enterprises which are in the process of issuing equity or
debt securities that will be listed on a recognized stock exchange in India.
(ii) All the enterprises of a group, if a parent presents consolidated financial
statements and Accounting Standard is mandatory in nature in respect of any of
the enterprises of that group in items of (i) above.
(iii) Al the accounting period commencing on or after 1.4.2002, in respect of
companies not covered by (i) or (ii) above;
(iv) All the accounting period commencing from 1.4.2003, in respect of all other
enterprises.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.5 SYSTEM OF BOOK - KEEPING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bookkeeping as explained earlier, is an art of recording pecuniary or business transactions in
a regular and systematic manner. The recording of transactions may be done according to any
of the following two systems:
1.

Single Entry System: This is an incomplete double entry system. According to Kohler,
It is system of Book-keeping in which as a rule only records of cash and personal
accounts are maintained, it is always incomplete double entry, varying with
circumstances. Since all records are not kept, it is not reliable and can only be suitable
for small business firms.

2.

Double Entry System: Every transaction in accounting is considered as having two

aspects. Double Entry System is the name given for recognizing both the aspect of any
business transaction as per prescribed set of rules. For example Rs. 1,000 in cash
received from Hemant. This is a transaction having the following two aspects.

22

a.
b.

Receiving Cash Rs. 1,000.

Hemant is the giver of Rs. 1,000.

As per the prescribed rules followed for accounting one aspect is given debit effect and other
aspect is given a credit effect of equivalent amount.
The above system of accounting is known as Double Entry System. The system does not
mean that a transaction is entered double i.e. twice; it only means that the two fold aspects of
transaction are accounted for under this system. Both the aspects are equal in monetary terms
in opposite directions. If one is debit, the other one will b credit. If the one is credit, then the
other second one will be debit. Both debit & credit aspect must be equal in monetary terms.
Thus Double Entry System is a system of accounting which gives to the two fold aspects of
any monetary business transaction according to certain prescribe rules.
Main Features of Double Entry System:
(i) Both the aspects of the transaction i.e. debit as well as the credit are to be recorded.
Recoding of one aspect of transaction is not recognized in the Double Entry System.
(ii) Both personal and impersonal aspects of a transaction are recorded in Double Entry
System. The aspects of any transaction may be personal or impersonal or one may be
personal and the other may be impersonal also.
(iii)Since one aspect is debited with equal amount and the other aspect is credited;
therefore the total of debit effects must agree with total of the credit effects. This is
done by preparing a trial balance to rest the arithmetical accuracy.
Stages of Double Entry System of Accounting:
1st Stage Recording Transaction in Journal & Subsidiary Books
2nd Stage Posting in Ledger (Classified group)
3rd Stage Preparation of Trial Balance
4th Stage Preparation of Final Accounts
5th Stage Management Accounting
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.6 SUMMARY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Accounting is the language of business through which the business house communicates with
the outside world. Over a period the nature of the accounting function has changed. Initially
more thrust was on book-keeping that is maintenance of records manually. However, today,
where computerized accounting soft wares are used, role of accountants is more towards
analysis and interpretation than the mere maintenance of the data. The accounting
information is useful not only for the owners and managements but also useful to creditors,
employees, government and prospective investors. The main objective of the accounting is to
reflect the true and fair picture of profitability and financial position, which helps
management to take corrective actions and future decisions.

23

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Define the term Accounting. State its functions. Explain the Accounting is different
from Book-keeping?
2. Who are interested persons in the Accounting Information?
3. Write short notes on:
a. Fundamental accounting assumptions.
b. Going Concern Concept.
c. Periodicity concept
4. Accounting period assumption is made to provide timely information to the user of
accounting information. Explain clearly stating the nature of information provided by
financial statements of an accounting period.
5. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a. Accounting entity is recognized by law;
b. Accounting records changes in the level of prices and non-monetary events;
c. Full disclosure requires disclosure of insignificant information;
d. Revenue increases capital;
e. Revenue is recognized when it is earned irrespective of cash inflow;
f. Assets are always equal to liabilities plus capital;
g. Purchasing power of money and level of prices are inversely related;
h. Income statement reports income on historical cost basis;
i. Cost of fixed assets becomes expense over the period of its use;
j. Income is excess of revenue over cost;
k. Cost and expense over the period of its use;
l. Income is excess of revenue over cost;
m. Cost and expense are same;
n. Recognition of an expense is related to outflow of cash.

24

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING FRAMEWORK

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
2.1 Journalizing Transactions
2.1.1 Journal
2.1.2 Rules of Debit and Credit
2.1.3 Classification of Accounts
2.1.4 Rules for Accounting
2.2 Compound Entries
2.3 Opening Entry
2.4 Ledger
2.4.1 Posting
2.4.2 Balancing of Ledger Account
2.5 Subsidiary Books of Accounts
2.5.1 Cash Book
2.5.2 Purchase Book
2.5.2 Journal Paper
2.6 Trial Balances
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1 JOURNALISING TRANSACTIONS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing the financial transactions and
interpreting the results thereof. Thus the accounting cycle involves following 4 major phases:
1. Recording of Transactions: This is done in the book called Journal;
2. Classifying the Transactions: This is done in a book called ledger;
3. Summarizing the Transactions: This includes preparation of Trial Balance, Profit
and Loss Account and Balance Sheet of the business;
4. Interpreting the Results: This involves computation of various accounting ratios
etc., to know about the liquidity, solvency and profitability of the business. The
recoding of the transactions in the Journal is explained in this chapter:

2.1.1 Journal
The Journal records all daily transactions of a business in the order in which they occur. A
Journal may therefore be defined as a book containing a chronological record of transactions.
It is the book in which the transactions are recorded first of all under the double entry system.
Thus Journal is a book of the original record. A Journal does not replace but precedes the
ledger. The process of recording transactions on the basis of rules of double entry system in a
journal is termed as Journalizing. The record of a business transaction in journal is called a
journal entry.

25

A Performa of journal is given below:

Date

Particulars

L.F.

Debit (Rs.)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Credit
(Rs.)
(5)

Lets see the advantages of Journal

Recording of business transaction in Journal Book on the basis of double entry system has
following advantages:
1. Complete Information about the business: The Journal gives complete information
about business transaction in chronological order. Accounts to be debited and credited
are recorded at one place.
2. Explanation of the Transaction: An entry in the journal book includes a brief
explanation of the transaction called narration.
3. Minimum Errors: Double entry system used for recording is clearly visible in journal
as both debit and credit aspects are recorded at one place. It also makes posting into
ledger accounts easier. This ultimately reduces possibility of errors.

2.1.2 Rules of Debit and Credit

All transactions in the Journal are recorded on the basis of the rules of debit and credit. For
this purpose transaction have been classified into three categories:
a) Transactions relating to persons.
b) Transactions relating to properties and assets.
c) Transactions relating to incomes and expenses.
On the basis of the above it is necessary to keep the accounts in respect:
a) Each person with whom it deals (Customer, Suppliers)
b) Each Property or asset, which it owns (Building, Machinery etc.)
c) Each item of Income and Expense (Commission, Rent, Salary etc.)

2.1.3 Classification of Accounts

Accounts can be classified into Personal, Real and Nominal accounts:
Personal Accounts: Personal accounts include the accounts of persons with whom the
business deals. These accounts can be further classified into three categories:
1. Natural Personal Account: The natural personal account means persons who are
creations of God. E.g. Vijays A/c, Shubhams A/c.
2. Artificial Person Accounts: These include accounts of corporate bodies or
institution, which are recognized as persons in business dealings e.g. Government,
Club, Limited Company, Co-operative Society etc.

26

3. Representative Personal Account: These are the accounts which represent a certain
person or group of persons. E.g. When the rent is due to landlord, an outstanding rent
account represents the account of a landlord to whom the rent is payable.
Real Accounts: Real Accounts may be of the following types:
1. Tangible Real Account: Tangible real accounts are those which relate to such things
which can be touched, felt and measured etc. e.g. Cash Account, Building A/c.
Furniture A/c etc.
2. Intangible Real Account: These accounts represent such things which cannot be
touched; however, they can be measured in terms of money. e.g. Patent A/c, Goodwill
A/c.
3. Nominal Accounts: These accounts are opened in the books of accounts to simply
explain the nature of the transactions. They do not really exist. E.g. Salary paid to
employee, rent paid to landlord. Nominal accounts mainly include accounts of
expense, losses, income and gains.

2.1.4 Rules for Accounting

Type of Account
Personal Account

Rules for Accounting

Debit the Receiver Credit the giver

Real Accounts

Debit what comes in Credit what goes out

Nominal Accounts

Debit all expenses (losses) and Credit all Incomes

(gains)

Examples of Journal Entries:

1. A commences business with a capital of Rs. 1, 00,000 on 1.1.2001. In this case two
accounts are involved, i.e. Account of A, who is a proprietor and Cash account. Account of A
is of personal nature and cash account is a tangible asset. Applying the above rules, A is giver
of cash, therefore As capital account shall be credited and Cash is coming in the business.
Cash being the real account, the account will be debited. The journal entry shall be passed as
follows:
Date
Particulars
1.1.2001 Cash Account
Dr
To Capital Account
(Being commencement of Business)

L.F.

Debit (Rs.)
1,00,000

Credit (Rs.)
1,00,000

The words in the bracket are called the narration, which describe the nature of the transaction.
2. A pays rent of Rs. 5,000 of premises to Landlord L on 01.01.2001
Date

Particulars

L.F.

1.1.2001 Real Account

Dr

27

Debit (Rs.)
5,000

Credit
(Rs.)

To Cash Account
(Being rent paid for January 2001)

5,000

In this case Real Account is a nominal account and being an expense for the business is
debited as per above rule. Since the rent is paid by way of cash, the cash balance shall go
down and hence the cash account is credited.
3. Goods purchased worth Rs. 20,000 on credit from S on 01.01.2001
Date
Particulars
1.1.2001 Goods Account
Dr
To S Account
(Being purchase of goods on credit)

L.F.

Debit (Rs.)
20,000

Credit (Rs.)
20,000

Goods account is a real account, being asset. Since goods are coming in, goods account is
debited. Account of S, who is supplier and giver of goods, his account, is credited, being
personal account.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.2 COMPOUND ENTRIES

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Earlier we learned the art of recording the simple entries now lets study the compound
journal entries. Sometimes there are number of transaction on the same date relating to one
particular account or of one particular nature. Such entries can be passed by way of a single
journal entry instead of passing an individual journal entry. It may be recorded in any of the
following three ways:
1. One particular account may be debited while several accounts may be credited.
2. One particular account may be credited while several accounts may be debited.
3. Several accounts may debit and several accounts may be credited.
For Example: Pass a compound journal entry in each of the following cases:
1. Payment made to S (Supplier) Rs. 10,000, and he allowed cash discount of Rs.1, 000.
2. Cash Received from C (Customer) Rs. 8, 0000 and cash discount allowed to him Rs. 800.
3. A going concern was purchased having following assets and liabilities: Cash Rs. 5,000,
Land Rs. 50,000, Furniture Rs. 10,000, and Stock Rs. 20,000, Trade Creditors Rs. 10,000,
and Bank overdraft Rs. 10,000.

28

Solution:
Date

Particulars

L.F.

Debit (Rs.)

1.1.2001 S Account
Dr
To Cash Account
To Discount received
(Being amount paid to S, in full
settlement of his bill, after receiving
cash discount)

10,000

1.1.2001 Cash Account

Dr
Discount Allowed A/c
Dr
To C Account
(Being cash received from C, in full
settlement of our bill, Cash discount
allowed Rs. 800)

7,200
800

1.1.2001 Cash Account

Land Account
Furniture Account
Stock Account
To Creditors
To Bank Overdraft
To Capital Account
(Being running business taken over)

5,000
50,000
10,000
20,000

Dr
Dr
Dr
Dr

Credit
(Rs.)
9,000
1,000

8,000

10,000
10,000
65,000

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.3 OPENING ENTRY

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In case of a running business, the assets and liabilities appearing in the pervious years
balance sheet will have to be brought forward to the next year. This is done by means of a
journal entry, which is known as Opening Entry. All assets are debited while all liabilities
are credited. The excess of assets over liabilities is the proprietors capital and is credited to
his capital account. For Example: Pass the Opening Entry on 1.1.2001 on the basis of the
following information taken from business of Mr. Shubham.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Cash in hand
Sundry Debtors
Stock in trade
Plant and Machinery
Land and building
Sundry Creditors

Rs. 20,000
Rs. 60,000
Rs. 40,000
Rs. 50,000
Rs. 1, 00,000
Rs. 1, 00,000

29

Solution
Date
1.1.2001

Particulars
Cash Account
Dr
Sundry Debtors Account
Dr
Stock in Trade
Dr
Plant and Machinery
Dr
Land and Building
Dr
To Sundry Creditors
To Capital Account
(Being the balances brought forward from
the last year)

L.F.

Debit (Rs.)
20,000
60,000
40,000
50,000
1,00,000

Credit (Rs.)

1,00,000
1,70,000

Some useful accounting fundamental equation of accounting and important terms is given
below:
1.Increase in Asset debit, decrease in Asset credit
2.Increase in Asset debit, decrease in liability credit
3.Decrease in Asset credit, Increase in Asset debit
4.Increase in Liability credit, decrease in liability debit
The basic accounting elements are assets, Liabilities, equity, expenses and income. These
terms are defined below:
Assets: An asset is a resource controlled by an enterprise as a result of past events and from
which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise.
Liability: A liability is a present obligation of the factors arising from past events the
settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the enterprise of resources
embodying economic benefits.
Equity: Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the enterprise after deducting its
liabilities
Income: Income is the increase in economic benefits during the accounting period in the
form of inflows of assets or decrease in liabilities that result in increase in equity, other than
those relating to contribution from equity participants.
Expenses: Expenses are decrease in benefits during the accounting period in the form of
outflows or depletion of assets or incurrence of liabilities that result in decrease in equity,
other than those relating to distributions to equity participants.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.4 LEDGER
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------As we have seen purpose of journal entry was to record the entries in the books of account.
And now to know the balance on each account at the end of the period, a summary of all
transaction relating to one account is necessary and this is done in the ledger. Thus the
activity of classifying, summarizing and grouping is done in the Ledger.
The ledger is the principal book of accounts, which contains the various accounts. A account
is summarized record of similar transactions during an accounting period relating a particular
person or thing. Therefore all the accounts whether real, nominal or personal are collected in
the ledger.
Ledger shows the net effect under one particular head relating to the similar transaction,
which has, take place in a particular period. For example, if a business person wants to know

30

the total sales for a particular period; he will have to do a great deal of searching to go
through all the transactions of cash sales and credit sales recorded in the journal; to find out
the total sales. This task is simplified; by sorting and accumulating all similar transactions
relating to one particular account head and consolidating them in one account maintained in
the ledger. This will help in knowing the effect of the relevant account at a glance. Hence it
becomes possible to find the figures of purchases, sales, net amount payable and receivable
from particular individuals during a period immediately by reference to the ledger.
In case of large organization where large numbers of accounts are required to be maintained;
three separate ledgers are maintained as follows:
a) Debtors ledger - Containing all the dealings with customers on credit.
b) Creditors ledger - Containing all the dealings with supplier on credit.
c) General ledger - All the remaining accounts i.e. real and nominal accounts.
The Account in the ledger is maintained in the following T Form, each account is divided
in to two sides the left hand side representing the debit side and the right hand side
representing the credit side. Each side of the ledger has column detailing, (a) Date (b)
Particulars (c) Folio and (d) Amount.
Dr.
Title of the Account
Cr.
Date Particulars

Folio

Rs.

Date Particulars

Folio

Rs.

Sometimes ledger is also maintained in running account form as shown below:

Date Particulars

Folio

Dr. Amt
Rs.

Cr. Amt.
Rs.

Balance
Rs.

2.4.1 Posting
Posting means the process of transferring all the debits and credit items from the journal onto
the accounts maintained in the ledger. Each amount entered in the debit column of the journal
is posted by entering it on the debit side of the account in the ledger with relevant details;
similarly, each amount entering it on the credit side of the account in the ledger with relevant
details.
The Procedure of Posting:
i) Enter the debit aspect of the transaction entered in journal on the debit side of the
account in the ledger with all the relevant details in the respective column.
ii) In the Folio column of the journal the page number of the ledger in which posting is
done is entered.
iii) Now enter the credit aspect of the transaction in journal on the credit side of the
account in the ledger with all the relevant details in the respective column.
iv) The entering of the folio number on the corresponding page as explained in item 2
above to be repeated in case of the credit item.
v) It is customary to prefix the name of the account credited and entered on the debit side
of the account in the ledger with word To.
vi) Similarly the name of the account debited and entered on the credit side of the
account in the ledger is prefixed with By.

31

It may be noted that the words to and by do not have any special meaning, hence the prefix
can be conveniently ignored as done by modern accountants.

2.4.2 Balancing of Ledger Account

The totals of the debit side and credit side of an account are taken to ascertain the difference
between the two sides. This difference is known as the balance on the account. The total of
the heavier side is entered on the lighter side for arriving at the balance. When the total of the
debit side exceeds the total of the credit side the balance is said to in debit, i.e. known debit
balance. When the total of the credit side exceeds the total of the debit side it means that the
account has a credit balance. The balancing of the account is necessary to ascertain the net
effect whether debit or credit on the account.
Problem
Journalize the following transaction, post them to ledger and balance the accounts:
Date, March 1998

Rs.

Santosh started his business with cash

10,000

Purchased furniture from Yadav on credit

Bought goods for cash from Manish

7,000

Sold goods on credit Amer

3,700

Sold goods for cash to Joshi

2,900

14

Paid cash to Yadav

18

Goods purchased on credit from Nahar

9,800

20

Sold goods on credit to Naidu

5,480

22

Received from cash due from him

3,700

24

Joshi returned goods sold on 7th in cash

2,900

28

Received cash from Naidu

4,480

30

Paid Office Salaries...

31

Rent

32

Received Commission

500

500

500
.250
100

32

Solution: Journal
Date
1993
Mar.1
Mar. 2

Mar. 4
Mar. 6
Mar. 7
Mar. 14
Mar. 18
Mar. 20
Mar. 22
Mar. 24

Mar. 28
Mar. 30

Mar. 31

Particular
L.F.
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Santosh Capital A/c
(Started business with cash)
Furniture A/c
Dr.
To Yadavs A/c
(Purchased furniture on credit from
Yadav)
Goods A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
(Cash purchases from Manish)
Amar A/c
Dr.
To Goods A/c
(Credit Sales to Amar)
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Goods A/c
(Cash sales to Joshi)
Yadav A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
(Paid to Yadav on A/c)
Goods A/c
Dr
To Nahar A/c
(Credit purchases from Nahar)
Naidu A/c
Dr.
To Goods A/c
(Credit Sales to Naidu)
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Amar A/c
(Received Cash from Amar on account)
Goods A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
(Refunded cash to Joshi on return of
goods by him.)
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Naidu A/c
(Received Cash from Naidu on account)
Salaries A/c
Dr.
Rent A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
(Paid salaries and rent for the month
of)
Cash A/c ...
Dr.
To Commission A/c
(Received cash for commission)
Total

Solution: Ledger:

33

Dr. Rs.
10,000

Cr. Rs.
10,000

500
500
7,000
7,000
3,700
3,700
2,900
2,900
500
500
9,800
9,800
5,480
5,480
3,700
3,700
2,900
2,900

4,480
4,480
500
250
750
100
100
51,710

51,710

Capital A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.31 To Balance c/d

Cash A/c
Date
1998
Mar.1
Mar.7
Mar.22
Mar.28
Mar.31

Particular

L.F.

10,000
10,000

L.F.

To Capital A/c
To Goods A/c
To Amar A/c
To Naidu A/c
To Commission
A/c

Furniture A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.2 To Yadav A/c

100
21,180
10,030
L.F.

L.F.

1998
Mar.1

To Goods A/c

Rs.

L.F.

L.F.

Date
Particular
1998
Mar.1 By Cash A/c
April.1
By Balance b/d

L.F. Rs.

Date
1998
Mar.4
Mar.14
Mar.24
Mar.30
Mar.30
Mar.31

L.F. Rs.

Date
1998
Mar.6
Mar.7
Mar.20

Particular
By Goods A/c
By Yadav A/c
By Goods A/c
By Salaries A/c
By Rent A/c
By Balance c/d

Particular
By Amar A/c
By Cash A/c
By Naidu A/c

10,000
10,000
10,000

7,000
500
2,900
500
250
10,030
10,000
10,000
L.F. Rs.
3,700
2,900
5,480

Date
Particular
1998
Mar.31 By Balance c/d

L.F. Rs.

Rs.

Date

Particular

L.F. Rs.

500

1998
Mar.2

By Furniture A/c

Rs.

Date

Particular

3,700

1998
Mar.22 By Cash A/c

500
500
500

1998
Mar.14 To Cash A/c
Amar A/c
Date
Particular

Rs.
7,000
9,800
2,900

April.1 To Balance b/d

Yadav A/c
Date
Particular

Rs.
10,000
2,900
3,700
4,480

April.1 To Balance b/d

Goods A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.4 To Cash A/c
Mar.18 To Nahar A/c
Mar.24 To Cash A/c

Rs.

34

10,000
10,000
10,000

500

L.F. Rs.
3,700

Nahar A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.31 To Balance c/d

Naidu A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.20 To Yadav A/c

L.F.

9,800
9,800

L.F.

L.F.

Rs.
500
500
500

L.F.

Rs.
250
250
250

April.1 To Balance b/d

Commission A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.31 To Balance c/d

Date
Particular
1998
Mar.18 By Goods A/c
April.1 By Balance b/d

L.F.

Rs.
100
100

L.F. Rs.
9,800
9,800
9,800

Date
Particular
1998
Mar.28 By Cash A/c
Mar.31 By Balance c/d

L.F. Rs.

Date
Particular
1998
Mar.31 By Balance c/d

L.F. Rs.

Date
Particular
1998
Mar.31 By Balance c/d

L.F. Rs.

Date
Particular
1998
Mar.31 By Cash A/c

L.F. Rs.

5,480
1,000

April.1 To Balance b/d

Rent A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.30 To Cash A/c

Rs.
5,480

April.1 To Balance b/d

Salaries A/c
Date
Particular
1998
Mar.30 To Cash A/c

Rs.

By Balance b/d

4,480
1,000
5,480

500
500

250
250

100
100
100

(Since goods are sold at profit, goods A/c cannot be closed unless we know profit or stock on
hand on the last date.) (C/D means carried down, and b/d means brought down.)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.5 SUBSIDARY BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------A Journal is divided into separate books for the sake of convenience and to enable handing of
numerous transaction of repetitive nature. This facilitates easy working and curtails down the
voluminous work involved in the posting and entering each transaction in Journal & Ledger.
All similar transaction pertaining to one particular class is recorded one particular book. For
example, all transaction relating to credit purchases of goods are recorded in one book known
as Purchase Day Book; similarly all transactions relating to credit sales of goods are recorded
in Sales Day Book.

35

The name subsidiary books are as follow:

(i)

Cash Book: To record all transactions in cash or by cheques. Cash-book may be

also of two columns.

(ii)

Petty Cash Book: To record all cash transactions of petty expenses.

(iii) Purchase Day Book: To record all transactions of goods purchased on credit.
(iv) Sales Day Book: To record all transactions of credit sales of goods.
(v)

Purchase return Book: To record all transactions relating to return of goods to

suppliers.

(vi) Sales Return Book: To record all transactions relating to return of goods by the
customers.
(vii) Bill Receivable Book: To record all transactions relating to Bill Receivables.
(viii) Bill Payable Book: All Transactions relating to acceptance of bills are recorded in
this book.
(ix) Journal Proper: In Journal proper are recorded all transactions other than those
recorded above.
In regard to entering the transactions in the above books, it necessary to note the following:
(i)

Goods mean only those items in which the business concerns in dealing in. It
means the stock in trade of the business which are purchase with intention of
resale after conversion or otherwise at a profit.
(ii) Purchases: goods for resale. It means all the goods purchased for the resale or for
the purpose of conversion into goods for resale. It does not include purchase of
assets or stationery. It is an error of principle to record purchase of assets or
stationery in the purchase day book.
(iii) Sales: It means the sale of goods forming stock in trade in which the business
concern is dealing in. It does not include sale of assets etc. It is an error of
principle to record sale of assets in the sales day book.

2.5.1 Cash Book

Cash Book is of various type; which are as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Simple cash Book

Cash Book with Book Column
Cash Book with Bank and Discount column.
Multi column Cash Book.

Simple Cash Book: Only Cash receipts and cash payments are recorded in this book. It is
just like a ledger; left side being debit side and right side being the credit side. Excess of debit
side over the credit side represents balance of cash in hand. Similarly the Cash Book opens
with opening cash on hand as the opening entry on the debit side.
Specimen of Simple Cash Book

36

Dr.
Date

Payments

L.F.

Amt. (Rs.)

Date

Receipt

L.F

Cr.
Amt. (Rs.)

Two Columnar Cash Book: This Cash Book contains an additional column for the
purpose of entering the transactions relating to bank. All banks transactions regarding
deposits of cash and cheques and payment by cheques and withdrawals in cash are
entered in the bank column.

Three Columnar Cash Book: This Cash book contains an additional column for
entering the discount amount paid and received on account of various transactions.
This column dispenses with the opening of discount column in the ledger.

Multi Columnar Cash Book: This Cash Book contains various columns for
recording the transactions of receipts and payments under various heads of accounts.
This Cash Book is more used in school, colleges, hospitals, government offices
etc.There is no need of opening cash account in the Ledger as the Cash Book serves
the purpose of cash account. However, the other accounts, which are affected by cash
receipts and payments, are posted in the concerned accounts in the Ledger.

Petty Cash Book: In any business, a number of transactions are of petty nature
involving petty payments. If the main cash book is used for this, the recording
becomes voluminous and heavy; involving considerable wastage of time. Hence a
petty cash Book is maintained in which all the petty expenses like postage,
refreshment, stationery, cartage, etc. are recorded. Petty Cash Book can also have
analytical columns for recording the expenses head-wise. This enables easy posting in
the ledger since the petty payments are grouped and recorded head-wise under
different columns.

2.5.2 Purchases Book

In this book, is recorded all the credit transactions only relating to the purchases of the goods
in which the business is dealing in. Therefore, purchase of furniture, machinery or other
assets purchased on credit are not recorded in this book.
Purchases Return Book: The goods which are purchased on credit may be returned by the
purchaser if he finds these are defective or if they are not as per specifications. Such returns
are entered in the returns outward book or purchases returns book. It may be noted that only
those transactions which relate to the goods in which the business in dealing in is recorded in
this book.

37

Sales Book: In this book is recorded all the credit sales transactions relating to the goods
dealt with by the business. If furniture, machinery or other assets are sold on credit then they
are not recorded in this book.
Sales Return Book: In this book is recorded the return of goods which have been earlier sold
on credit. This book is also known as returns outward book. Only the transactions relating to
the goods dealt with by the businessmen are recorded.
Bill Receivable Book: The bills which have been drawn by the businessman but accepted by
the other party are known as Bill Receivable and are entered in this book.

2.5.3 Journal Proper

If a transaction is such that it cannot be recorded in any of the books mentioned above, then it
is recorded in a book, which is called journal proper, If a transaction is not related with Cash
Book, Petty Cash Book, Purchases Book, Purchases Return Book, Sales Book, Sales Return
Book, Bill Receivable Book, or Bill Payable Book, then it is recorded in this book which is
known as Journal Proper. Such Transactions may be related to:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Opening entries;
Closing entries;
Transfer entries;
Rectification entries;
Adjusting entries; or
Miscellaneous entries.

Opening Entries: Every year new books of accounts are used. Old books are closed at the
end of the year. When balances of personal and real accounts of old books are recorded in the
new accounting year on the first day in new books, then these entries are called opening
entries.
Problem:
Following balances appeared in the books:
Umesh of Tirupati on December 31, 1998 passed the necessary opening entry on January 1,
1999.
Credit Balance: Capital Rs. 20,000; Bills payable: Rs. 15,000; Creditors: Rs. 10,000.
Debit balances: Furniture Rs. 4,000; Machinery Rs. 20,000; Debtors Rs. 5,000; Bill
Receivable Rs. 11,800; Cash Rs. 4,200.

38

Solution: Journal: In the Books of Mr. Umesh

Date
1999

Particulars

Jan.1

Furniture A/c
Dr.
Machinery A/c
Dr.
Debtors A/c
Dr.
Bill Receivable A/c
Dr.
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Capital A/c
To Bill Receivable A/c
To Creditors A/c
(Being record of last years balance
brought forward in new books.)

L.F. Dr.
Amount
(Rs.)
4,000
20,000
5,000
11,800
4,200

Cr.
Amount
(Rs.)

20,000
15,000
10,000

Closing Entries: While closing accounts at the end of the year balances of nominal accounts
are transferred to Trading and Profit & Loss account. All the balances, which are transferred
to Trading and Profit & Loss account at the end of the accounting period through accounting
entries, are recorded in journal proper. Such entries are called closing entries.
Following are the examples of closing entries:
(A) Closing entries in relation to trading account:
1. Trading A/c
Dr.
To Purchases A/c
To Wages A/c
To Carriage Inward A/c
To Fuel and Power A/c
To Direct or Manufacturing Expenses A/c
(Being transfer of the above mentioned balance to Trading A/c)
2. Sales A/c
To Trading A/c
(Being sales during the year)

Dr.

3. Closing Stock A/c

Dr.
To Trading A/c
(Being value of stock on hand in the closing date of the year)
4. Trading A/c
To Profit & Loss A/c
(Being transfer of Gross Profit)
Or

Dr.

5. Profit & Loss A/c

To Trading A/c
(Being transfer of Gross Loss)
Only one entry will be made out of above 4. And 5.

Dr.

(B) Closing entries about P. & L. A/c

39

1. Profit & Loss A/c

Dr.
To Salaries A/c
To Discount A/c
To Advertising A/c
To Rent and Rates A/c
To Printing and Stationery A/c
To Trade Expenses A/c
To Postage and Telegram A/c
To Insurance Charges A/c
To Carriage Outward A/c
To Other Indirect Expenses A/c
(Being transfer of the above mentioned expenses to Profit and Loss A/c.)
2. Discount Received A/c
Dr.
To Commission Received A/c
To Interest on Investment A/c
To Other revenue receipts and income A/c
(Being transfer of revenue income to Profit and Loss A/c.)
3. Profit and Loss A/c
To Capital A/c
(Being transfer of Net Profit to Capital A/c)
Or

Dr.

4. Capital A/c
Dr.
To Profit & Loss A/c
(Being transfer of Net Loss to Capital A/c)
Only one entry will be made out of above 3. And 4. If there is net profit, then third entry will
be made and if there is net loss then fourth entry will be passed.
Problem: Pass the closing entries in the books of Deepak from the following debit and credit
balances, which were taken out at December 1998.
Dr.
Cr.
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
Stock
1,000
Machinery
2,000
Purchases
18,000
Fuel
1,000
Wages
4,000
Factory Lighting
1,000
Discount
800
Salaries
6,000
Discount received
200
Office Expenses
3,000
Sales
30,000
Commission received
400

40

Dr.
(Rs.)
10,000
500
600
200
600
300
49,000

Debtors
Rates and taxes
Stationery
Trade Expenses
Carriage Outward
Carriage Inward
Capital

Cr.
(Rs.)

18,400
49,000

Closing Stock Rs. 10,000.

Solution: Journal: In the Books of Deepak
Date
Particulars
L.F.
1998
Dec.31 Trading A/c
Dr.
To Stock A/c
To Purchases A/c
To Fuel A/c
To Wages A/c
To Factory Lighting A/c
To Carriage Inwards A/c
(Being record of last years balance
brought forward in new books.)
Sales A/c
Dr.
To Trading A/c
(Being transfer of Sales to Trading
A/c)
Closing Stock A/c
Dr.
To Trading A/c
(Being value of Stock-in-hand on
the closing date of the year)
Trading A/c
Dr.
To Profit and Loss A/c
(Being transfer of Gross Profit)
Profit & Loss A/c
Dr.
To Salaries A/c
To Discount A/c
To Office Expenses A/c
To Rates and Taxes A/c
To Stationery A/c
To Trade Expenses A/c
To Carriage Outward A/c
(Being transfer of the above
mentioned expenses to profit and
Loss A/c.)
Discount A/c
Dr.
Commission A/c
Dr.
To Profit and Loss A/c

41

Dr.
Amount (Rs.)
4,000
20,000
5,000
11,800
4,200

Cr.
Amount (Rs.)

20,000
15,000
10,000
30,000
30,000
10,000
10,000
14,700
11,700
6,000
800
3,000
500
600
200
600

200
400
600

(Being transfer of revenue income to

Profit and Loss A/c)
Profit and Loss A/c
Dr.
To Capital A/c
(Being transfer of Net Profit to
Capital.)
1.
2.

3,600
3,600

Rs. (30,000 + 10,000) 25,300 = Rs. 14,700;

Rs. (14,700 + 600) 11,700 = Rs. 3,600

Problem: Enter the following transactions on the books of original records of Mr. Khan of
Mumbai: 1997:
January 1 - Opening balance: Furniture Rs. 800; Machinery Rs. 2,000; Debtors Rs. 1,200;
Creditors Rs. 3,000; Capital Rs. 3,500; Cash in hand Rs. 2,000; Cash at bank Rs.
500;
January 2 - Purchased goods from a on credit Rs. 1,000;
January 4 - Purchased 50 bags of sugar @ Rs. 45 per bag.
January 6 - Paid rent Rs. 50,
January 7 - Gave Rs. 100 as donation;
January 13 - Sold goods to E on credit Rs. 1,000;
January 17 - Returned goods to A Rs. 50;
January 18 - Returned goods to B Rs. 40; E returned goods Rs. 60;
January 19 - Paid Rs. 400 to B by cheque in full settlement of his accounts;
January 20 - Received Rs. 600 from E in cash; purchased furniture in cash Rs. 400;
January 21 - Purchased furniture on credit from Mohan Rs. 200;
January 23 - Sold old furniture on credit to R Rs. 40;
January 24 - Withdraw Rs. 100 for personal use;
January 31 - Outstanding wages are Rs. 50 and outstanding Salaries are Rs. 200.
Solution:
In the Books of Mr. Khan
Purchases Book:
Date
Particulars
1997
Jan.2
Jan.3
Jan.4

Ref.
No.

L.F.

A
B
C 50 Bags of Sugar @ Rs. 40 per bag
Total

Purchases Return Book

Date
Particulars
1997
Jan.17 A
Jan.18 B
Total

1,000
500
2,000
3,500

Ref.
No.

42

Amount
Rs.

L.F.

Amount
Rs.
50
40
90

Sales Book
Date
Particulars
1997
Jan.5
D 30 Bags of Sugar @ Rs. 45 per bag.
Jan.13 E
Total
Sales Return Book
Date
Particulars
1997
Jan.18 E
Total

Ref.
No.

L.F.

Amount
Rs.
1,350
1,000
2,350

Ref.
No.

L.F.

Amount
Rs.
60
60

Cash Book
Date
1997
Jan
1

Receipts

To Bal. b/d

20

To E

21

To Cash
A/c

22

To
Furnitur
e A/c

Total

L
F

Disc

Cash
Rs.

Payments L
F

Disc

Cash
Rs.

Bank
Rs.

Bank Date
Rs.
1997
Jan
2,000 500
6

By Rent A/c

50

600

By
Donations

100

300

19

By B A/c

60

400

80

20

By
Furniture

400

24

By
Drawings

100

31

By Bank
A/c
By Bal.
c/d

2680

800

300
1730
60

Rs. 500 Returns 40 = Rs. 460; Rs. 460 400 = Rs. 60.

43

2680

300

Journal Proper
Date
1998
Jan. 1

Jan.21
Jan.23
Jan.31

Particular

L.F.

Furniture A/c
Dr.
Machinery A/c
Dr.
Debtors A/c
Dr.
Cash A/c
Dr.
Bank A/c
Dr.
To Creditors A/c
To Capital A/c
(Opening entry for the balances in new books)
Furniture A/c.
Dr.
To Mohan
(Furniture purchased from Mohan)
R.
Dr.
To Furniture A/c
(Sales of old furniture to R)
Salaries A/c
Dr.
Wages A/c
Dr.
To Outstanding Salaries A/c
To Outstanding Wages A/c
(Salaries and Wages outstanding)

Total Rs.

Dr.
Amount
Rs.
800
2,000
1,200
2,000
500

Cr.
Amount
Rs.

3,000
3,500
200
200
40
40
200
50
200
50

6,990

6,990

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.6 TRIAL BALANCES

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Let us now understand Trial Balance. It is a list of debit and credit balances extracted from
the ledger as on a particular date. Since for every debit entry there is a corresponding credit
entry of equivalent amount; therefore the total of the debit and credit balances must agree in
equal amount. A trail Balance essentially proves the arithmetical accuracy of the entries
passed in the books of account and is derived from the ledger, where all the accounts find a
place. Trial Balance is prepared after striking the balance of the various accounts in the
ledger. A Trial Balance has four column; normally. Particulars, ledger folio, debit balances
and credit balances. It is prepared at certain intervals of period i.e. monthly quarterly, half
yearly and normally for the accounting year. Trail Balance is an essential mechanism for
ensuring the arithmetic accuracy of the accounts.
Objects of Preparing Trial Balance:
a) It forms the very basis on which final accounts are prepared.
b) It helps in knowing the balance on any particular account in the ledger.
c) It is a test of arithmetical accuracy.
A trial balance is not a conclusive proof of the absolute accuracy of the account. It does not
indicate the absence of an error. So also, a non-tailed trial balance indicates the presence of
book keeping error.
Errors Disclosed By the Trial Balance:
A Trail Balance will be in disagreement on account of the following errors.
a) Wrong posting of entries i.e. a debit entry of Rs. 500 for purchase of furniture
wrongly posted as Rs. 50 in the account.

44

b) Omission of posting e.g. when a debit entry of Rs. 500 for purchase of furniture has
been not posted at all.
c) Duplication of posting e.g. when a debit entry of Rs. 500 for purchase of furniture has
been posted twice to the account.
d) Wrong side of posting e.g. when debit entry is posted on the credit side or credit entry
is posted on the debit side. I.e. when debit entry of Rs. 500 is posted on the credit side
and vice versa.
e) Errors in casting the totals of debit or credit side of the Trail Balance.
f) Wrong Transfer of balances to the trial balance.
g) Omission of entering the balance of account in the trial balance.
h) Balance of cash book omitted to be recorded in the trial balance.
i) Wrong balancing of account.
j) Errors in the total or posting or entries of subsidiary book.
k) Wrong carry forward of balances in the various books, i.e. day books, cash book etc.
Errors Not Disclosed By Trial Balance:
a) The following error does not affect the agreement of the trial balance:
b) Errors of omission to record any transaction.
c) Posting of wrong amount both debit and credit side to the account.
d) Error made in posting of debit or credit entry is compensated by an identical error of
equal amount. There errors are known as errors of compensation.
e) Errors made in posting a transaction on the correct side of wrong account.
f) Erroneously recording a transaction twice. These are known as errors of duplication.
g) Errors of principle; when the accounting principle is disregarded; e.g. a capital item
treated as revenue item and vice versa, i.e. purchase of furniture posted to Purchase
A/c.
Methods of Locating Errors in Trial Balance: The following are the some of the ways of
detecting errors in trial balance.
a) When digits are wrongly interchanged; it causes the error to occur in multiples of 9.
Therefore, if the difference is a multiple of 9, there are good chances of error
occurring in transposition of digits, e.g. when 96 is recorded as 69.
b) When the difference is an even number divide by 2 and check whether such an
amount is wrongly entered on the wrong side of debit or credit.
c) If the difference is a multiple of 10 or 100 or 1000, then there are choices of the error
occurring in the totaling.
d) Ensure that all the balances of ledger accounts have been considered in the trial
balance.
e) Ensure that there is no omission of recording the balances from the subsidiary books
on cash book.
f) Check for all the postings and totals.
If the difference still persists, it can be transferred temporarily to Suspense A/c and on
locating the errors at a future date, the Suspense A/c can be closed.
Problem:
Journalize the following transactions and post them to Ledger and balance the accounts. Also
prepare a Trial Balance as on 31st April 1993.

45

April 1

April 1993
Ravi started business with Rs. 15,000 of
Rs. 4,000 were borrowed at 15% p.m. from
Shri Shashi

April 2

Purchased goods worth Rs. 4,000 from

Anant at 2% trade discount

April 3

Cash sales to Madan Rs. 1,200.

April 6

Credit sales to Salvi Rs. 2,000 less trade

discount 2%.

April 9

Paid cash Rs. 1,950 to Anant and received

discount of Rs. 10.

April 12

Received Rs. 1,950 from Salvi in full

settlement of his dues

April 14

Returned goods of the price of Rs. 100 to

Anant.

April 16

Paid into bank Rs. 5,000

April 18

Issued a cheque for Rs. 1,000 to Anant on

account

April 19

Purchased goods of Rs. 2,000 from Anant.

April 22

Sold goods costing Rs. 1,000 at 25% profit

to Ratan.

April 22

Received commission Rs. 800 from S &

Co.

April 24

Received a cheque for Rs. 395 from Ratan

& he was allowed discount Rs. 5.

April 25

Ratan returned goods of Rs. 50.

April 30

Paid Salaries Rs. 2,000 out of which Rs.

1,200 paid by cheque.
Paid into Bank Rs. 500.
Paid Office Rent by cheque Rs. 300.

April 30
April 30

46

Solution: Journal
Date
1993
Apr.1

Apr.2
Apr.3
Apr.6
Apr.9

Apr.12

Apr.14
Apr.16
Apr.18
Apr.19
Apr.22
Apr.22
Apr.24

Particulars
L.F.
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Capital A/c
To Shashis Loan A/c
(Being Cash brought into business and
loan taken from Shashi @ 15% to start
the business.)
Purchases A/c
Dr.
To Anants A/c
(Being Credit purchases from Anant.)
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Sales A/c
(Being Cash sales.)
Salvi A/c
Dr.
To Sales A/c
(Being Credit sales to Salvi)
Anants A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
To Discount A/c
(Being cash paid to & received discount
from Anant.)
Cash A/c
Dr.
Discount A/c
Dr.
To Salvis A/c
(Being cash received from & allowed
discount to Salvi.)
Anants A/c
Dr.
To Returns Outwards A/c
(Being returned goods to Anant.)
Bank A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
(Being Cash paid into Bank.)
Anants A/c

Dr.
To Bank A/c
(Being cheque issued to Anant.)
Purchase A/c
Dr.
To Anants A/c
(Being credit purchases from Anant.)
Ratens A/c
Dr.
To Sales A/c
(Being credit sales to return.)
Cash A/c
Dr.
To Commission A/c
(Being commission received.)
Cash A/c ...
Dr.
Discount A/c ...
Dr.
To Ratans A/c
(Being received a cheque from & allowed

47

Dr. (Rs.)
15,000

Cr. (Rs.)
11,000
4,000

3,920
3,920
1,200
1,200
1,960
1,960
1,960
1,950
10
1,950
10
1,960
98
98
5,000
5,000
1,000
1,000
2,000
2,000
1,250
1,250
800
800
395
5
400

Apr.25

Apr.30

Apr.30

Apr.30
Apr.30

discount to Ratan.)
Returns Inwards A/c
Dr.
To Ratans A/c
(Being Received goods returned by
Ratan.)
Interest A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
(Being paid interest for April93 to
Shashi on loan taken from him.)
Salaries A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
To Bank A/c
(Being paid salaries Rs. 800 in cash and
Rs. 1,200 by cheque.)
Bank A/c
Dr.
To Cash A/c
(Being Cash deposited in Bank.)
Rent A/c
Dr.
To Bank A/c
(Being issued cheque for office rent for
April93.)

Solution: Ledger
Cash A/c
Date
Particular

L.F.

1993
Apr. 1 To Capital A/c
3
To Shashis Loan
A/c
12
To Sales A/c
22
To Salvis A/c
24
To Commission
May 1 To Ratans A/c

11,000
4,300
1,200
1,950
800
395
19,345
11,045

To Balance b/d
Bank A/c
Date
Particular
1993
Apr.16 To Cash A/c
30
To Cash A/c

May 1 To Balance b/d

Salaries A/c
Date
Particular

Rs.

L.F.

Rs.
5,000
500

50
50
50
50
2,000
800
1,200
500
500
300
300

Particular

1993
April 9
16
30
30
30

By Anants A/c
By Bank A/c
By Interest A/c
By Salaries A/c
By Bank A/c

1,950
5,000
50
800
500

30

By Balance c/d

11,045
19,345

Date
1993
April18
30
30
30

Particular

Date

Particular

By Anants A/c
By Salaries A/c
By Rent A/c
By Balance c/d

5,500
3,000
L.F.

Rs.

48

( Rs.

Date

L.F.

Rs.
1,000
1,200
300
3,000
5,500

L.F. Rs.

1993
April30 To Cash A/c
30
To Bank A/c
May24
Rent A/c
Date

800
1,200
2,000
2,000

To Balance b/d

Particular

L.F.

1993
April30 To Bank A/c
May1

300
300
300

To Balance b/d

Commission A/c
Date
Particular

L.F.

1993
April30 To Balance c/d

Interest A/c
Date
Particular

L.F.

May 1

L.F.

L.F.

Date

Particular

1993
April30 By Balance c/d

Date

Particular

1993
April22 By Cash A/c
May 1

By Balance b/d

Date

Particular

1993
April30 By Balance c/d

Rs.

Rs.
11,000
11,000

Date
1993
April
9
30

Particular

Date
1993
April
1

Particular

By Anants A/c
By Balance c/d

By Cash A/c
By Balance b/d

May 1
Shashis Loan A/c
Date
Particular

L.F.

2,000
2,000

10
5
15
5

To Balance b/d

Capital A/c
Date
Particular
1993
April30 To Balance c/d

Rs.
50
50
50

To Balance b/d

Discount A/c
Date
Particular
1993
April12 To Salvis A/c
24
To Ratans A/c

Rs.
800
800

1993
April30 To Cash A/c
May 1

Rs.

1993
April30 By Balance c/d

Rs.

Date

49

Particular

L.F. Rs.
300
300

L.F. Rs.
800
800
800
L.F. Rs.
50
50

L.F. Rs.
10
5
15

L.F. Rs.
11,000
11,000
11,000
L.F. Rs.

1993
April30 To Balance c/d

1993
April
1

4,000
4,000

By Cash A/c
By Balance b/d

May 1
Salvis A/c
Date
Particular
1993
April
6

L.F.

To Sales A/c

Rs.

Date

Particular

1,960

1993
April12 By Cash A/c
12
By Discount A/c

1,960
Anants A/c
Date
Particular
1993
April
9
9
14
18
30

L.F.

To Cash A/c
To
Discount
A/c
To Return
outward A/c
To Bank A/c
To Balance c/d

Rs.

1,950
10

1993
April22 To Sales A/c

May 1

To Balance b/d

Rs.

12,50

1,950
10
1,960

Particular

1993
April
2
19

By Purchases A/c
By Purchases A/c

3,920
2,000

By Balance b/d

5,920
2,862

98
1,000
2,862
5,920

L.F.

L.F. Rs.

Date

May 1
Ratans A/c
Date
Particular

4,000
4,000
4,000

Date

Particular

1993
April24 By Cash A/c
24
By Discount A/c
25
By
Returns
Inwards A/c
30
By Balance c/d

1,250
800

50

L.F. Rs.

L.F. Rs.

395
5
50
800
1,250

Purchases A/c
Date
1993
Apr. 2
19

Particular

L.F.

To Anants A/c
To Anants A/c
To Balance b/d

Rs.

Date

Particular

3,920

1993
April30 By Balance c/d

2,000
5,920
5,920

May 1

L.F. Rs.

5,950
5,950

Sales A/c
Date

Particular

L.F.

1993
April30 To Balance c/d

Rs.

Date
1993
April
3
6
22
May 1

4,410
4,410

Particular

By Cash A/c
By Salviss A/c
By Ratans A/c
By Balance b/d

L.F. Rs.

1,200
1,960
1,250
4,410
4,410

Returns Outward A/c

Date

Particular

L.F.

1993
April30 To Balance c/d

Rs.

98
98

Date

Particular

1993
April14 By Anants A/c
May 1

By Balance b/d

Date

Particular

L.F. Rs.

98
98
98

Returns Inwards A/c

Date

Particular

1993
April25 To Ratans A/c
May 1

To Balance b/d

L.F.

Rs.

50
50
50

1993
April30 By Balance c/d

Trial Balance as on 30th April 1993

51

L.F. Rs.

50
50

Particular
Cash A/c
Bank A/c
Salaries A/c
Rent A/c
Commission A/c
Interest A/c
Discount A/c
Capital A/c
Shashis Loan A/c
Creditors (Anant) A/c
Debtor (Ratan)
Purchases A/c
Sales A/c
Returns Outwards A/c
Returns Inwards A/c

Dr.
(Rs.)
11,045
3,000
2,000
300
-50
5
---800
5,920
--50

Cr.
(Rs.)
----800
--11,000
4,000
2,862
--4,410
98
--

Total

23,170

23,170

Problem:
Enter the following transactions in the subsidiary books and post them into ledger and
prepare a Trial balance.
1998
1 Dec.
5 Dec.
7 Dec.
10 Dec.
12 Dec.
14 Dec.
15 Dec.
18 Dec.
20 Dec.
21 Dec.
22 Dec.
23 Dec.
23 Dec.
29 Dec.
30 Dec.

Mr. X started a business

Purchased furniture from Vikram Furniture for
Purchased goods for cash
Purchased goods from AB & Co. for Rs. 30,000. Trade
Discount 20%
Opened a bank account by depositing
Sold goods for cash
Purchased Stationery for Rs. 1,000 from Sayyed Stationery
Mart
Sold goods to Yusuf
Goods returned by Yusuf
Payment to AB & Co. by cheque
Purchased goods on credit from Ramesh & Co. for
Returned goods to Ramesh & Co. worth
Paid Electricity bill for
Cash sale for
Withdraw Rs. 2,000 for private use from bank.

52

1,00,000
20,000
15,000
25,000
15,000
5,000
400
5,000
20,000
2,000
400
5,000

Solution: Cash Book (With Bank Column)

Dr.
Date Particula L Cash
Bank
rs
F
1998
1Dec
12
14
29

To Capital
To Cash
(Opening
A/c)
To Sales
To Sales
To Bal. B/d

1999
1Jan

1,00,000
25,000
15,000
5,000
1,20,000

25,000

79,600

18,000

Dat
e

Particulars

L
F

Cash

1998
1Dec
12
21
23

By Purchase
By Bank
(Opening A/c)
By AB & Co.
By Electricity

15,000
25,000

30
31

By Drawing
A/c
By Bal. C/d

2,000
79,600
1,20,000

5,000
400

Purchase Day Book

Date
1998
10 Dec.
22 Dec.

Particulars

L.F.

AB & Co.
30,000
Less: Trade discount
6, 000
Ramesh & Co.
Purchases Account Dr.

Rs.
24,000
20,000
44,000

Sales Day Book

Date
1998
18 Dec.

Particulars

L.F.

Rs.
5,000
5,000

Yusuf
Sales Account Cr.

Purchase Return Book

Date
1998
23 Dec.

Particulars

L.F.

Ramesh & Co.

Purchases Return A/c

Rs.
2,000
2,000

Cr.

Sales Return Book

Date
1998
20 Dec.

Particulars
Yusuf
Sales Returns A/c

L.F.
Dr.

53

Cr.
Bank

Rs.
400
400

18,000
18,000

Journal Proper
Date
1998
5 Dec.
15 Dec.

Particulars

L.F.

Furniture A/c
Dr.
To Vikram Furniture A/c
(Being furniture purchased on credit)
Stationery A/c
To Sayyed Stationery Mart A/c
(Being purchase of Stationery)

Rs.

Rs.

20,000
20,000
1,000
1,000

Ledger of X
Capital Account
Date
1998
31 Dec

Particular
To Balance c/d

Rs.

Date
1998
1,00,000 1 Dec
1,00,000
1999
1 Jan

Particular

Rs.

By Cash A/c

1,00,000
1,00,000

By Balance b/d

1,00,000

Particular

Rs.

By Balance c/d

20,000

Furniture Account
Date
1998
5 Dec
1999
1 Jan

Particular
To Vikram
Furniture A/c
To Balance b/d

Rs.

Date
1998
31 Dec

20,000
20,000

20,000

20,000

Vikram Furniture Account

Date
1998
31 Dec

Particular

Rs.

To Balance c/d

20,000
20,000

Date
1998
5 Dec

Particular

Rs.

By Furniture A/c

1999
1 Jan

20,000
20,000

By Balance b/d

20,000

Date

Particular

Rs.

31 Dec

By Balance c/d

59,000
59,000

Purchases Account
Date
9 Dec
31 Dec
1999
1 Jan

Particular
Rs.
To Cash A/c
15,000
To Purchase day
book
44,000
59,000
To Balance b/d

59,000

54

Sales Account
Date
1998
31 Dec

Particular

To Balance c/d

Rs.

25,000
25,000

Date
1998
14 Dec
29 Dec
31 Dec

Particular

Rs.

By Cash A/c
By Cash A/c
By Sales Bay Book

1999
1 Jan

15,000
5,000
5,000
25,000

By Balance b/d

25,000

Date
1998

Particular

Rs.

31 Dec

By Balance c/d

1,000
1,000

Date
1998
15 Dec

Particular

Rs.

By Stationery A/c

1,000
1,000

1999
1 Jan

By Balance b/d

1,000

Particular

Rs.

By Balance c/d

400
400

Particular

Rs.

By Balance c/d

2,000
2,000

Stationary Account
Date
1998
15 Dec
1999
1 Jan

Particular

Rs.

To
Sayyed
Stationery Mart A/c 1,000
1,000
To Balance b/d

1,000

Sayyed Stationary Account

Date
1998
31 Dec

Particular

Rs.

To Balance c/d

1,000
1,000

Electricity Account
Date
1998
23 Dec

Particular

Rs.

To Cash

400
400

1999
1 Jan

To Balance b/d

400

Date
1998
31 Dec

Drawing Account
Date
1998
30 Dec

Particular

Rs.

To Bank

2,000
2,000

1999
1 Jan

To Balance b/d

2,000

Date
1998
31 Dec

Purchases Return Account

55

Date
1998

Particular

Rs.

31 Dec

To Balance c/d

2,000
2,000

Date
1998
31 Dec
1999
1 Jan

Particular

Rs.

By Purchase returns
books
2,000
2,000
To Balance b/d

2,000

Sales Return Account

Date
1998
31 Dec
1999
1 Jan

Particular
To Sales
Bank

Rs.

Date
1998

Particular

Rs.

400
400

31 Dec

By Balance c/d

400
400

Date
1998
10 Dec

Particular

Rs.

By Purchases A/c

24,000

Return

To Balance b/d

400

AB & Co. Account

Date
1998
21 Dec
31 Dec

Particular

Rs.

To Bank A/c
To Balance c/d

5,000
19,000
24,000

1999
1 Jan

24,000
By Balance b/d

19,000

Particular

Rs.

By Purchases A/c

20,000

Ramesh & Co. Account

Date
1998
23 Dec
31 Dec

Particular

Rs.

To
Purchases 2,000
Return
To Balance c/d
18,000
20,000

Yusuf Account
Date
Particular
1998
18 Dec
To Sales A/c

Rs.
5,000

Date
1998
2 Dec

1999
1 Jan

Date
1998
20 Dec
31 Dec

20,000
By Balance b/d

18,000

Particular

Rs.

By Sales Returns
By Balance c/d

400
4,600
5,000

5,000
1999
1 Jan

To Balance b/d

4,600

Trial Balance as on 31-12-1998

Sr.

Particular

L.F.

56

Dr.

Cr.

No.

Rs.
Capital Account
Furniture Account
Vikram Furniture Account
Purchases Account
Sales Account
Stationery Account
Sayyed Stationery Mart
Electricity Account
Drawings Account
Purchases Returns A/c
Sales Returns A/c
AB & Co. Account
Ramesh & Co. Account
Yusuf Account
Cash Account
Bank Account
Total

Rs.
1,00,000

20,000
20,000
59,000
25,000
1,000
1,000
400
2,000
2,000
400
19,000
18,000
4,600
79,600
18,000
1,85,000

1,85,000

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Illustration 1. Show the classification of the following Accounts according to traditional
approach:
(a) Building;
(b) Purchases;
(c) Sales;
(d) Bank Deposits;
(e) Rent;
(f) Rent Outstanding;
(g) Cash
(h) Adjusted Purchases;
(i) Closing Stock;
(j) Investments;
(k) Debtors;
(l) Sales Tax Payable;
(m) Discount Allowed;
(n) Bad Debts;
(o) Capital;
(p) Drawings;
(q) Provision for Depreciation Account;
(r) Interest Receivable Account;
(s) Rent Received in Advance Account;
(t) Prepaid Salary Account;
(u) Provision for Bad and Doubtful debts account;
(v) Bad debts recovered account;
(w) Depreciation Account;
(x) Personal income tax Account;
(y) Stock reserve account;
(z) Provision for discount on creditors account.

57

Also classify the above-mentioned accounts according to accounting equation approach.

Nature of Account
Sr.
Title of Account
No.
Building
(a)
Purchases
(b)
Sales
(c)
Bank Deposits
(d)
Rent
(e)
Rent Outstanding
(f)
Cash
(g)
Adjusted Purchases
(h)
Closing Stock
Investments
(i)
Debtors
(j)
Sales Tax Payable
(k)
Discount Allowed
(l)
Bad Debts
(m)
Capital
(n)
Drawings
(o)
Provision
for
(p)
Depreciation
(q)
Interest Receivable
Rent Received in
(r)
Advance
(s)
Prepaid Salary
Provision for Bad
(t)
and Doubtful debts
(u)
Bad
debts
recovered
(v)
Depreciation
(w)
Personal
income
(x)
tax
(y)
Stock Reserve
(z)
Provision
for
discount
on
creditors
1.
2.
3.

Traditional Approach
Real
Real
Nominal (Revenue)
Personal
Nominal (Expense)
Personal
Real
Nominal (Expense)

Accounting Equation
Approach
Asset
Asset
Temporary Capital (Revenue)
Asset
Temporary Capital (Expense)
Liability
Asset
Temporary Capital (Expense)

Real
Real
Personal
Personal
Nominal (Expense)
Nominal (Expense)
Personal
Personal
Valuation (Real)

Asset
Asset
Asset
Liability
Temporary Capital (Expense)
Temporary Capital (Expense)
Capital
Temporary Capital (Drawings)
Asset

Personal
Personal

Asset
Liability

Personal
Valuation (Personal)

Valuation (Asset)
Valuation (Asset)

Nominal (Gain)
Nominal (Expense)
Personal (Drawing)
Valuation (Real)
Valuation (Personal)

Temporary Capital (Gain)

Temporary Capital (Expense)
Temporary Capital (Drawings)
Valuation (Asset)
Valuation (Liability)

Give an example of business transactions affecting only:

Assets, (ii) Liabilities, (iii) Capital
Differentiate between (i) Temporary capital accounts and nominal accounts; (ii) Trade
discount and cash discount.
Do you agree with the following statements? (i) Sales day book is a part of ledger. (ii)
Opening stock account is nominal account. (iii) Purchase day book records all credit
purchases of goods. (iv) Drawings account is a temporary capital account. (v) A
transaction can increase an asset and decrease a liability. (vi) Discount account
records trade discount. (vii) Patent rights is in the made for prompt payment is called
trade discount.(viii) The allowance made for prompt payment is called trade discount.

58

4.
5.
6.

(ix) Capital + Long term liabilities = Fixed Assets + Current Assets + Cash Current
Liabilities.
What are the rules of debit and credit for (i) Assets (ii) Liabilities (iii) Capital (iv)
Revenue (v) Expenses (vi) Valuation Accounts?
Explain the term journal and state its significance.
What the different categories in which the accounting transactions are classified. Also
state the rules of Debit and Credit in connection with classification of accounting
transaction.

59

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PREPARING FINAL ACCOUNT

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
3.1 Capital and Revenue Expenditure
3.1.1 Revenue and Deferred Revenue Expenditure
3.1.2 Capital and Revenue Receipts
3.1.3 Capital Profit and Loss
3.2 Income Statements
3.2.1 Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account
3.3 Balance Sheets
3.3.1 Form and Contents of Balance Sheet
3.3.2 Schedules
3.3.3 Balance Sheet Items
3.3.4 Assets and Liabilities Side
3.4 Final Accounts
3.5 Problems on Final accounts
3.6 Review Questions
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.1 CAPITAL AND REVENUE EXPENDITURE

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------It is that expenditure the benefit of which is not fully consumed in one year but spread over
several years. It is that expenditure which results in the purchase or acquisition of asset or
property. It is expenditure incurred in connection with the purchase of asset. It is expenditure
incurred to bring an old asset into working condition. It is expenditure incurred for extending
or improving an existing asset to increase its productivity or to increase the earning capacity
of business or to decrease working expenditure. It can be said that the capital expenditure
benefits not only the current accounting year but also many years in future. The expenditure
is generally non-recurring and the amount spent will be normally large. However, it should be
noted that all large expenditures need not be capital expenditure. Capital expenditures are
shown in Balance Sheet.

3.1.1 Revenue and Deferred Revenue Expenditure

Revenue Expenditure: It is that expenditure which benefits the current accounting year. It is
not carried forward to the next year or years. It is that expenditure which is incurred in the
normal course of business to run the business and to maintain the fixed assets of business. It
is that expenditure which is incurred to purchase goods meant for resale or to purchase
materials which will be used in converting it into final product. It can be therefore said that
revenue expenditure is a recurring expenditure made to maintain the business. The amount

60

spent is generally small and the benefit is for a short period, not more than one year. All
revenue expenditures are charged to Trading and Profit and Loss Account.
Deferred Revenue Expenditure: It is that expenditure which is originally revenue in nature
but the amount spent is so very large or abnormal that the benefit is received for not one year
for many years. A proportionate amount is charged to Profit and Loss Account of each year
and balance is carried forward to subsequent years as deferred revenue expenditure and is
shown as an asset in the Balance Sheet. e.g. Heavy advertisement expenditure.

3.1.2 Capital and Revenue Receipts:

Capital receipts are those receipts which are received not in ordinary course of business.
These are non-recurring receipts. Money obtained from sale of fixed assets or investments,
issue of shares or debentures, loans taken are some of the examples of capital receipts.
Capital receipts are shown as liability of reduced from assets appearing in the Balance Sheet.
Revenue receipts are receipts obtained in normal course of business. It is a receipt against
supply of goods or services. Money obtained from sales, interest, dividend, transfer fees,
etc., are examples of revenue receipt. Revenue receipts are credited to Profit and Loss
Account.

3.1.3 Capital Profit and Loss:

Those profits which are not earned during regular course of business and which are not
earned on account of the day to day trading activities of the business are capital profits.
Examples: Profit on sale of asset. Premium received on issue of shares. These types of profits
are normally not taken to Profit and Loss Account but are shown on the liabilities side of the
Balance Sheet. Those losses which are incurred not during regular course of business. e.g.,
Discount on issue of shares.
Illustration 3.1
An old machinery was purchased for Rs. 1, 00,000 on which Rs. 25,000 was spent to
bring it in working condition: Ans. Both the above expenses are capital expenditures
Rs. 1, 00,000 is spent to acquire the asset and Rs. 25,000 is spent to make the
machinery productive. The machinery will be now used for many years and its cost
will be Rs. 1, 25,000.
A building purchased for Rs. 10, 00,000 and Rs. 1, 00,000 was spent for expenses like
brokerage, stamp duty, registration charges, and other legal expenses: Ans. Both the
above expenditures are capital. Rs. 10,00,000 for purchase of asset and all the
incidental expenses for buying the asset amounting to Rs. 1,00,000. The cost of the
building will be now Rs. 11, 00,000.
Repairs to building: Ans. It is a revenue expenditure because it is incurred for
maintaining the building, the reason for repairs is not important, neither the amount.
Amount Spent for replacement of defective and worn out parts of an old plant: Ans. It
is revenue expenditure as it is incurred to keep the plant in normal working condition.
No new asset comes into existence.
Heavy expenditure incurred on advertisements: Ans. Normally advertisement is
revenue expenditure, but as heavy amount is spent it will be treated as deferred
revenue expenditure. The benefit of it will be received for many years. Proportionate
amount will be written off every year by debiting Profit and Loss Account and the
remaining amount will be shown in the Balance Sheet on asset side.
Illustration 3.2

61

A machinery costing Rs. 5, 00,000 was imported on which freight and insurance Rs.
7,000, custom duty Rs. 13,000 clearing charges Rs. 5,000, installation charges Rs.
10,000 were incurred: Ans. Rs. 5, 00,000 spent for purchase of asset as well as all
other expense incidental to purchase Rs. 35,000 until the machinery comes in working
condition should be considered as capital expenditure. The cost of machinery will be
Rs. 5, 35,000
On existing machinery new equipments were fixed costing Rs. 30,000 to increase the
production by 25%: Ans. The above expenditure is capital expenditure as it increases
the production capacity and thereby increases the earning capacity of the business. It
is a non-recurring expense and should be added to the value of asset.
Taxes paid: Ans. It is revenue expenditure as it is a regular expense of the business. It
is recurring expenses. The benefit is only for one year.
Expenditure for repainting the factory shed: Ans. As repainting is a normal
expenditure made for maintenance of the factory it will be revenue expenditure. It is a
recurring expense and no new asset comes into existence.
Traveling expenses of Directors for a trip abroad for purchasing imported machinery:
Ans. As the traveling expenses is incidental expenditure to purchase machinery. It
should be treated as capital expenditure and should be added to the cost of machinery.
In the case Directors fall to purchase the machinery, it should be treated as deferred
revenue expenditure and should be written off over a reasonable period of say 3 to 5
years.

Illustration 3.3
The following is the summarized Trading Account of Kinnar Co. Ltd. an iron manufacturing
Company for the year ended 31st March, 1980.
Dr.
Particulars
To Opening Stock
(500 tons)
To Materials Consumed
To Wages
To Other Mfg. Exp.
To Gross Profit c/d

Rs.
30,000

Particulars
By Sales (5,500 tons)
By Closing Stock
(400 tons.)

2,10,000
95,000
92,000
11,500
4,38,500

Cr.
Rs.
4,12,500
26,000

4,38,500

The total production during the year was 6,000 tons out of which certain quantity were used
for construction of the company's building. Wages include Rs. 5,000 and other manufacturing
expenses include Rs. 2,000 incurred directly for construction of the building. Recast the
Trading Account and ascertain the amount to be capitalized to the Building Account.

62

Solution:
Dr.
Trading Account for the year ended 31st March, 1980
Particulars
Rs.
Particulars
By Sales
To Opening Stock
30,000
(5,500 tons)
(500 tons)
By Building A/c
To
Materials
(Amount of cost of
Consumed
2,10,000
95,000
iron
to
be
To Wages
capitalized)
Less: For Building _5,000 90,000
By Closing Stock
To Other Mfg. 92,000
(400 tons.)
Exp.
_2,000 90,000
Less: For Building
57,500
To Gross Profit c/d
4,77,500

Cr.
Rs.
4,12,500
39,000

26,000
4,77,500

Working Notes:
Dr.
Particulars

Quantity
Tons
Particulars

To Opening Stock
To Production

500
6,000

Cr.
Rs.

By Sales
By Closing Stock
By Building (bal. Fig.)

6,500

5,500
400
600
6,500

To find cost of per ton:

Particulars

Rs.

Materials Consumed
Wages
Manufacturing expenses
Total Cost of Manufacture 6,000 tons.

2,10,000
90,000
90,000
3, 90,000

Cost per ton = 3, 90,000 = Rs. 65.

6,000
Cost of 600 tons of iron used for building = 600 X 65 = 39,000
To find amount capitalized to Building Account:
Particulars

Rs.

Wages
Manufacturing expenses
Iron
Total

5,000
2,000
39,000
46,000

Illustration 3.4

63

a) A cinema theatre incurred Rs. 10,000 for additional exists: The above expenditure
does not increase the earning capacity of business neither a new asset comes into
existence. Therefore, the above expense should be considered as revenue expenditure.
b) Cost of goodwill purchased: It is a capital expenditure. The amount spent will give
benefit for many years.
c) A petrol driven engine of a passenger bus replaced by a diesel engine: It is a
capital expenditure as it is non-recurring expense and it will improve the efficiency of
the bus. It will also increase the earning capacity of the bus as diesel will cost less
than petrol. It decreases the working expenditure.
d) Customs duty paid on import of raw materials: It is revenue expenditure as raw
materials are trading goods, and all expenses related to purchase of trading goods are
revenue. It is usual expenses.
e) Purchase of uniforms, umbrellas and raincoats for staff and employees: It is a
normal expenditure for staff welfare and should be considered as revenue expenditure.
Illustration 3.5
a) Legal expenses incurred in connection with the issue of share capital: Any
expenditure incurred at the time of formation of company is debited to Preliminary
Expense Account. Legal expenses are also debited to preliminary expenses. The term
of preliminary expenses is shown under the head Miscellaneous Expenses, on the
assets side of the Balance Sheet. It is an example of deferred revenue expenditure,
and is written off over a period of years.
b) Cost of Replacement of defective part of the machinery: When a machine is
purchased, the cost incurred is debited to the Machinery Account, but when any part
of the machine is replaced on subsequent occasion, the expenses incurred are debited
to Machinery Repairs Account. Such expenses are known as Revenue Expenditure. It
is incurred to maintain the asset.
c) Expenditure incurred in preparing a project Report: All the time when project
report is being prepared. Certain expenses are required to be incurred such as market
survey expenses. When expenses are incurred it is not certain as to whether the
project would materialize or not. If the project materializes and expenses incurred are
sizeable they are treated as capital expenditure. Whereas, in case of a project which
does not materialize, the project expenses are treated as revenue expenditure.
d) Expenditure incurred for training employees for better running of machinery:
Expenditure incurred for training employees for better running of machinery no doubt
results into greater efficiency and thereby increases profits of the business. However,
such expenses are treated as revenue expenditure as it does not result into acquisition
of any tangible assets.
e) Expenditure incurred for repairing cinema screen: When the cinema screen is first
constructed, the expense incurred is capitalized. On a subsequent date, when the
screen is repaired, expenditure incurred for repairs is treated as Revenue Expenditure.
The case would be different if the cinema screen is replaced by a wider screen. In
such a case, part of the expenses is treated as revenue expenditure and the balance
amount is treated as capital expenditure.

64

Illustration 3.6
a) Damages paid for Breach of Contract: It is a revenue expenses as such expenses are
ordinary and normal expenses and are incurred in the ordinary course of business.
b) Stock of Rs. 5,000 destroyed by fire and Rs. 3,500 received from Insurance
Company: The recovery of Rs. 3,500 from insurance Company is a revenue receipt
because it is on account of trading asset. The loss is a revenue loss as stock is a
trading asset, and this loss will be debited to Profit & Loss Account.
c) Profit on Sale of Investment: If the investments are trading assets then the profit on
sale will be treated as revenue receipt and shown on credit side of Profit and Loss
Account if investments are not trading assets then the profit will be treated as capital
gain.
d) Legal expenses incurred in an income tax appeal: Leal expenses incurred in
connection with income tax appeal are revenue expenses because they are normal
business expenses incurred, while doing business.
Illustration 3.7
a) Compensation for loss of goodwill: It is a capital receipt as Goodwill is an asset and
any amount received on loss of asset should be treated as capital receipt.
b) Dividend on Investment: As it is regular income it is a revenue receipt.
c) Sale of old machinery: Amount received on sale of old machinery should be
considered as capital receipt as it is not a receipt that arises in ordinary course of
business.
d) Wages Paid for extension of building: If wages are paid for construction of work
resulting in extension of building then it is treated as capital expenditure as it create
fixed assets. Such expenses will be capitalized.
e) Import duty on raw materials purchased: It is revenue expenditure. Raw materials
are trading assets. Import duty paid on materials purchased is an expenditure relating
to purchase of trading assets. It is an ordinary business expenditure and hence revenue
expenditure.
Illustration 3.8
Give example of any five expenditure which are of Revenue nature but can be treated as
capital expenditure in certain circumstances.
a) Carriage: Carriage inward on goods purchased is a revenue expenses. But carriage
inward paid on purchase of plant, furniture etc should be capitalized and treated as
part of the cost of the assets.
b) Repairs: Repairs to fixed assets which help to maintain them in a state of working
efficiency is revenue expenditure. However when the amounts are spent by way of

65

repairs to put second hand machinery in working orders then such repairs should be
capitals.
c) Wages: Wages paid to workers engaged in the production of goods is a revenue
expense. But where workers are engaged in extension of buildings or manufacture of
tools or errection of plant then wages paid to workers should be capitalized and
treated as a part of plant then wages paid to such workers should be capitalized and
treated as a part of the cost of the asset concerned.
d) Legal Charges: Legal charges paid in normal course of business is a revenue
expenses, however legal charges paid in connection with purchase of properties
should be added to the cost of property i.e. it should be capitalized.
e) Brokerage: Brokerage paid on purchase of properties, fixed assets or investments
should be capitalized.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.2 INCOME STATEMENTS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------After the agreement of the Trial Balance, the trader closes his ledger accounts with a view to
ascertain (1) the gross profit, (2) the net profit, and (3) the financial position of the form of a
Balance Sheet.
The gross profit on purchase and sale of goods is ascertained from the Goods Account. This
is because the goods account has on the debit side the stock of goods at commencement and
purchases during the period and on the credit side total sales and the stock goods at end. The
difference between the total of the two sides represents either gross profit or gross loss of the
trader during a given period.
In practice, however, an account under the heading of goods account is not opened. The
trader in order to give him more detailed information sub-divides the transactions relating to
the movements of his goods and maintains separate accounts of his:
(1) Cash and credit purchases under the heading of Purchases Account;
(2) Cash and credit sales under the heading of Sales Account and
(3) A separate stock account.
If there are returns of goods to and from the trader; separate ledger accounts are opened under
the headings of Returns Inwards Account and Returns Outwards Account. The balances of
these separate accounts at the end of the period appear in the trial balance (instead of the
balance of Goods Account). Thus the Goods Account is split up and separate accounts are
opened as follows:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Opening Stock Account, i.e. stock at commencement;

Purchases Account including both cash and credit purchases;
Sales Account including both cash and credit sales;
Returns Inwards Account, i.e. total goods returned by customers;
Returns Outwards Account, i.e. total goods returned to vendors; and
Closing Stock Account, i.e. stock of goods at end.

These separate accounts, in totals, are ultimately transferred to one common heading called
(instead of Goods Account) Trading Account.

66

3.2.1 Trading, Profit And Loss Account

Dr.

Trading Account
Rs.

To (Opening) Stock
To Purchases
Less: Return Outward
To Carriage/freight Inward
To Clearing charges
To Octroi charges
To Wages
To Direct Expenses
* To Gross Profit
(Balancing Figure)
Total

Cr.
Rs.

By Sales
Less: Returns Inwards
By (Closing) Stock

Total

In order to find out the gross profit or gross loss of the business a Trading Account is
prepared. This account gives the overall profit of the business relating to accounting period,
which is subject to deduction of general administrative, selling & other expenses. Gross
Profit is the difference between sale proceeds of a particular period and the cost of the goods
actually sold during that period.
Profit and Loss Account is prepared with a view to ascertain the profit or loss on account of
business activity during an accounting period. Profit and Loss account is also an account like
other accounts in the ledger which discloses the net effect in form of profit or loss resulting
from settling off the expenses incurred against the revenue earned during the accounting
period. The Profit and Loss A/c measures net income by matching revenues and expenses as
per the accepted accounting principles. The difference between total revenue and total
expenses represents net income or net loss according to whether the difference is positive or
negative. In this regard it is pertinent to note that all the expenses incurred for the period are
to be debited to this account whether paid or not; likewise all revenues earned whether
received or not are to be credited to this account.
The Balance of the Trading Account showing Gross Profit or Gross Loss becomes the
opening transfer entry of this account on the credit or debit side respectively. All the revenue
expenses appear on the debit side including those expenses which do not find a place in
Trading A/c as well as the losses on sale of capital asset ore any abnormal loss. The credit
side of the account shows the revenue earned including the non-trading income like interest
on bank deposit or securities, dividend on shares, rent of let-out property, profit arising from
sale of fixed assets etc. after transfer of all the nominal accounts from the Trial Balance to the
Profit & Loss A/c. the net result of the Profit & Loss Account is ascertained by balancing it.
If the credit side is more than the debit side, it indicates net profit for the period. Conversely,
if the debit side is more than credit-side, it indicates net loss for the period.
Profit & Loss Account
Dr.

For the year ended as on.....

67

Cr.

To Goss Loss
To Salaries
To Office Rent
To Office expenses/General
Expenses/Administrative
Expenses/Sundry expenses
To Telephone charges/Rent
To Rates & Taxes
To Insurance
To Printing & Stationery
To Audit fees
To Postage & Telegram
To Interest paid
To Bank charges
To Commission paid
To Discount allowed
To Advertisement
To Bad debts
To Carriage Outward
To Depreciation on
Building
Furniture
Equipment
* To Net Profit transferred to
Capital

By Gross Profit
By Interest Received
By Discount Received
By Commission Received
By Bad Debts Recovered
* By Net Loss Transferred to
Capital

Method of preparing the Profit & Loss Account

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Transfer the Gross Profit or Gross Loss from the Trading Account to the Profit &
Loss Account.
Transfer all debit balances of Nominal Accounts in the Trial Balance (not
counting those put in the Trading A/c) to the debit of Profit & Loss Account.
Transfer all credit balances of Nominal Accounts in the Trial Balance (not
counting those taken to Trading A/c) to the credit of Profit & Loss Account.
Transfer the balance in Profit & Loss Account (which represents net profit or net
loss) to the proprietors Capital Account.

Income or gains, under each appropriate heading earned during the period (whether actually
received or not) is credited. Any expense paid or incurred during the period, pertaining to a
subsequent period is excluded, and Any income received during the period not yet earned but
received in advance (expected to be earned during a subsequent period is excluded. In fact,
what is aimed at by the Profit and Loss Account of a given period that it should show the net
result of that period only and for that purpose it should be debited with expenses of the period
only, and credited with all incomes of the period only? If any account of expenses is debited
with an item of expense which properly belongs to a preceding period (paid in arrears) or
subsequent period (paid in advance) it is evident that such item must be transferred to some
other account so that the nominal account concerned may remain debited with the expense of
the current period only. In the same way if an income account is credited with an income of a
preceding period (received in arrears) or a subsequent period (received in advance) it must
also be excluded from the Income Account by a transfer entry to leave the income account

68

concerned with the income pertaining to the current period only. From a given Trial Balance,
all items of expenses and income which have not been transferred to the Trading Account
should be taken to the Profit and Loss Account. The items of Expenses stand debited in the
Ledger and should be transferred to the debit side of the Profit and Loss Account and those of
income (showing credit balances are credited to the Profit and Loss Account by passing the
necessary closing entries through the Journal. The net profit or net loss as shown by the Profit
and Loss Account is thereafter transferred to the Capital Account. The Profit and Loss
Account will thus close.
Illustration 3.9
Following are some of the items extracted from the books of Mr. Ambar as on December 31st
1998. Prepare Trading Account for the year ending December 31st 1998 and also pass
Closing and Adjustment entries.
Particulars
1. Stock as on 1.1.98
(a) Raw Materials
(b) Work in progress
(c) Finished Goods
3. Purchases of Raw
Materials
5. Lighting
7. Direct Wages
9. Rent

Rs.

Particulars

Rs.

2. Carriage on Purchases

1,050

4. Plant & Machinery

49,000

6. Sales
8. Repairs to Plant
10. Sale of Scrap

1,17,040
770
1,750

14,700
6,650
10,850
59,600
945
9,100
4,200

Adjustments:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Stock as on 31.12.98 is Raw Materials 11,340. Work-in-progress Rs. 5,460 and finished
goods Rs. 12,670.
Direct wages are outstanding Rs. 630.
Machinery is to be depreciated by 10%.
Office Premises occupied 1/5th of the total area.
Lighting is to be charged as to 2/3 for Factory and 1/3 for office.

69

Dr.

Trading Account
Rs.

To (Opening) Stock
(a) Raw Materials
(b) Work in progress
(c) Finished Goods

14,700
6,650
10,850

To Purchases

59,600

To Lighting
To Direct wages#
To Carriage on Purchases
To Rent
To Repairs to Plant
To Gross Profit

630
9,730
1,050
3360
770
40920

Cr.
Rs.

By Sales
By Sale of Scrap
By (Closing) Stock
Raw Materials
Work in progress
Finished Goods

1,17,040
1,750
11,340
5,460
12,670

Total

148260
Note: # direct wages
+outstanding
Direct wages

148260

9100
630
9730

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.3 BALANCES SHEET

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants defines Balance Sheet as A tabular
statement of summery of balances (debits and credits) carried forward after an actual and
constructive closing of books of account and kept according to principles of accounting. The
purpose of the balance sheet is to show the resources that the company has, i.e., its assets, and
from where those resources come from i.e. its liabilities and investments by owners and
outsiders. The balance sheet is one of the important statements depicting the financial
strength of the concern. It shows on the one hand the properties that it utilized and on other
hand the sources of those properties. The balance sheet shows all the assets owned by the
concern and all the liabilities and claims it owes to owners and outsiders. The balance sheet is
prepared on a particular date. The right hand side shows properties and assets. Normally there
is no particular sequence for showing various assets and liabilities. The Companies Act, 1956
has prescribed a particular form for showing assets and liabilities in the balance sheet for
companies registered under this act. These companies are also required to give figures for the
previous year along with the current years figures.

3.3.1 Form and Contents of Balance Sheet

There is no specific form for the preparation of Balance Sheet in the case of proprietary
concerns and partnership firms. The balance sheet is generally divided into parts, i.e. assets,

70

liabilities and capital. The balance sheet is usually prepared in horizontal form. The assets are
shown on the right hand side and capital and liabilities are shown on the left hand side. The
order of assets and liabilities is either (i) on liquidity basis or (ii) on permanency basis. When
balance sheet is prepared on liquidity basis then more liquid assets like cash in hand, cast at
bank, investments, etc., are shown first and the least liquid assets will be shown at last. On
liabilities side, the liabilities to be paid in the short period are shown first, long-term
liabilities next and capital on the last. The liquidity form is suitable for the banking and other
financial companies. When balance sheet is prepared on permanency basis, on assets side
fixed assets are shown first and liquid assets are shown at last. On liabilities side the capital is
shown first, long-term liabilities next, short term and current liabilities in the last. The
Companies Act has adopted permanency form for preparing balance sheet.
The Companies Act, 1956 has prescribed a form for the preparation of Balance Sheet. This
form is set out in Part I of Schedule VI or as near thereto as circumstances admit. Section 211
(i) states that every balance sheet of a company shall give a true and fair view of the state of
affairs of the company as at the end of the financial year and shall, subject to the provisions
of the sections, be in the form set out in Part I of Schedule VI, or as near thereto as
circumstances admit or in such other form as may be approved by the Central Government
either generally or in particular case; and in preparing the balance sheet due regard shall be
had, as far as may be to be general instructions for preparation of balance sheet under the
heading Notes at the end of that Part.

3.3.2 Schedules
The details of various items are shown separately in Schedules. The will incorporate all the
information required under Part I A of Schedule VI. The schedules, accounting policies and
other explanatory notes will form a part of the Balance Sheet. A number of schedules are
prepared to supplement the information supplied in the balance sheet. The Schedule of
Investments, Fixed Assets, Debtors, etc. are prepared to give details about these transactions.
A banking company may prepare a detailed schedule of Advances so as to supplement the
balance sheet information. All these schedule are used as part of financial statements.

3.3.3 Balance Sheet Items

1.

Share Capital: The share capital is shown as a first item on the liabilities side of the
balance sheet. Authorized and Issued Capital is shown giving the number of shares and
their amount. The number of shares for which public has applied (subscribed capital)
are mentioned along with the type of capital i.e., Preference Share Capital, Equity Share
Capital. If the capital is issued for other than cash. The amount of such capital is
mentioned. The fact of issue of bonus share is also mentioned. Any unpaid calls are
deducted from the called up capital. If forfeited shares are re-issued then this amount is
added to the paid-up capital.

2.

Reserves and Surplus: Under this heading all those reserves which have been created
out of undistributed profits are shown. Capital reserves are classified as capital reserves
and revenue reserves. Capital reserves are those reserves which are not free for
distribution as profits whereas revenue reserves are created out of appropriations of
profits. Various items included here are:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Capital Reserves;
Capital Redemption Reserve;
(c) Share Premium Account;

71

(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Other Reserves;
Surplus, i.e., profit and loss account;
Proposed additions to reserves and;
Sinking Fund. The additions and deductions since last balance sheet be shown
under each head. The word Fund in relation to any reserve should be used only
where such reserve is specifically represented by earmarked investments.

3.

Secured Loans: All those loans against which securities are given are shown under this
category. Debentures are shown under this heading. Loans and advances from bank;
subsidiary companies, etc. should be shown separately and the nature of securities
should also be mentioned.

4.

Unsecured Loans: These are the loans and advances against which the company has
not given any security. The items included here are deposits, loans and advances from
subsidiary companies, loans and advances from other sources. Short-term loans from
banks and other are also shown in this category. Short-term loans include those which
are due for not more than one year on the Balance Sheet. As regards loans from
directors, managers, etc., these should be shown separately under different subheadings.

5.

Current Liabilities and Provisions: These are divided into (A) Current Liabilities, and
(B) Provisions. In this category following items are included
(A) Current Liabilities: Following items are included under current Liabilities
(i) Acceptances
(ii) Sundry creditors
(iii) Subsidiary companies
(iv) Advance payments and unexpired discounts
(v) Unclaimed dividends
(vi) Other liabilities, if any
(vii) Interest accrued but not paid on loans.
(B) Provisions: Following items are included under provisions:
(viii) Provision for taxation
(ix) Proposed dividends
(x) Provision for contingencies
(xi) Provision for Provident Fund Scheme
(xii) Provision for insurance, pension and similar staff benefits schemes.
(xiii) Other provisions.

3.3.4 Assets and Liabilities Side

The assets are given under the following heads:
1.

Fixed Assets: Fixed assets are those which are purchased for use over a long period.
These assets are meant to increase production capacity of the business. They are not
acquired for sale but are used for a considerable period of time. The balance sheet is
prepared to show financial position of the concern. These assets should be shown in
such a way that balance sheet depicts true financial position of the business. Fixed
assets are shown distinctly from each other, e.g., goodwill, land building, leaseholds,
plant and machinery, furniture, railways sidings, patents, live stock, vehicles, etc. These
assets are shown at their original cost. Any additions and deductions during the year are

72

shown separately. The amount of depreciation up to the previous year and during the
current year is separately deducted from the assets.
2.

Investments: Investments are shown by giving their nature and mode of valuation.
Investments under various sub-heads such as investments in government or trust
securities, in shares, debentures, and bonds and in immovable properties are given
separately in the inner column of the balance sheet.

3.

Current Assets: According to Alexander Wall, Current assets are such assets as in the
ordinary and natural course of business move onward through the various processes of
production, distribution and payment of goods, until they become cash or its equivalent
by which debts may be readily and immediately paid. Current assets are either cash in
hand and at bank or shortly convertible into cash. The assets like debtors and bills
receivables are one step away from cash. The stocks-in-trade is considered to be two
steps away from sales will be made then collections will be undertaken. The commonly
used method of valuation, i.e. cost price, is not strictly used while valuing stock. The
stock is used at cost or market price whichever is low. This done to avoid anticipating
profits during inflationary conditions and on the other hand taking into account losses,
if there is a fall in prices of stock. The debtors are shown after making a provision for
bad and doubtful debts. The debtors, if more than six months old, are separately given.
The amounts owned by directors, etc., if included in debtors, are also separately
mentioned.

4.

Miscellaneous Expenditures: We show deferred expenditures under this heading.

These are the expenses which are not debited fully to the profit and loss account of the
year in which they have been incurred. These expenses are spread over a number of
years and the years and unwritten balance is shown in the balance sheet. The items
under this heading are preliminary expenses, discount allowed on issue of shares or
debentures, interest paid out of capital during construction, etc.

73

Balance Sheet of . (Name of the company)

As on . (Date on which balance sheet is prepared
Liabilities
Rs.
Share Capital
Authorized:
Shares of Rseach
Issued:
Preference Shares of Rseach
Equity Shares of Rseach
Less Calls Unpaid
Reserves and Surplus:
Capital Reserve
Capital Redemption Reserve
Share premium
Other Reserves
Profit and Loss Account
Secured Loans
Debentures
Loan and Advances from
Banks
Loans and Advances from
Subsidiary
Other Loans and Advances
Unsecured Loans
Fixed Deposits
Short
term
Loans
and
Advances
Other Loans and Advances
Current
Liabilities
and
Provisions

Assets
Fixed Assets
Goodwill
Land
Building
Households
Railway Sidings
Plant and Machinery
Furniture
Patents & Trade Marks
Livestock
Vehicles
Investments
Govt. or Trust
Securities
Shares, Debentures, Bonds
A. Current Assets
Loans and Advances
A. Current Assets
Interest Accrued
Stores and Spare parts
Loose Tools
Stock in trade
Work in Progress
Sundry Debtors
Cash and Bank Balances
B. Loans and Advances
Advances
and
Loans
Subsidiary
Bills Receivables

A. Current Liabilities
Acceptances
Sundry Creditors
Outstanding Expenses
B. Provisions
Provision for Taxation
Proposed Dividends
For Contingencies
For Provident Funds Scheme
Article II.
For Insurances,
pension and other benefits

Advance Payments
Miscellaneous Expenditure
Preliminary Expenses
Discount on Issue of shares and
debentures
Other Deferred Expenses
Profit and Loss Account
(Debit Balance)

74

Rs.

to

Distinction between Profit & Loss and Balance Sheet

Profit & Loss A/c
Profit & Loss A/c is an Account

1.
2.

1.

Profit & Loss A/c shows the profit 2.

earned or losses incurred during the
accounting period.
It is prepared for the accounting 3.
period ended.
Accounts appearing in Profit & Loss 4.
A/c are completely closed.

3.
4.

Balance Sheet
Balance Sheet is a statement of
Assets and Liabilities.
The Balance Sheet shows the
financial position of the business.
It is prepared as on the last date of
the accounting period.
Accounts appearing in the Balance
Sheet are carrying forward balance,
which become the opening balances
for the next period.

Relationship of Profit and Loss Account with Balance Sheet: Profit and Loss Account
provides the vital link between the Balance Sheet at the beginning of a period and the
Balance Sheet at the end of that period. Profit & Loss A/c deals with the costs incurred during
the current period for the purpose of earning the related revenue and the impact of this in
disclosed by the Balance sheet. The Balance sheet exhibits expenditure which are either
outstanding or paid in advance i.e. the unexpired benefits. It also serves as a means of
carrying forward unexpired acquisition costs of assets. The amount of net profit or loss
reported by the Profit & Loss A/c is carried forward in the balance sheet; showing their
impact on various other terms disclosed in the Balance sheet. Profit & Loss A/c explains the
changes in the owners capital or equity between the opening and closing balance sheet of the
accounting period. Thus Balance sheet is but reflection of the transactions remaining for
execution as a result of the revenue transactions of the Profit & Loss A/c.
The preparation of Profit & Loss precedes the working of the Balance Sheet and the Balance
Sheet cannot be prepared without the preparation of Profit & Loss A/c. the Profit & Loss A/c
can be prepared without Balance Sheet; however absence of balance sheet will fail to disclose
the impact of the revenue terms on the balance sheet which is the final resulting financial
position of the business.
The balance of accounts given in the Trial Balance is obtained after the double effects of the
transactions concerned have been completed in the Ledger. Hence,
(a)

Nominal Account balances are transferred to and appear in either Trading

Account or Profit and Loss Account and
(b) Balance of other accounts is carried forward and appears in the Balance Sheet.
The same balance, from within the Trial Balance cannot therefore appear both in (1) the
Trading or Profit and Loss account, and also (2) the Balance Sheet.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.4 FINAL ACCOUNTS

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Adjustments: All such transactions, which are pertaining to the period of the final account
but are not considered while preparing the trial balance, are called adjustments. These
transactions have been recorded and appear in Trial Balance but do not pertain to the period
of final accounts.

75

Adjustments given outside the Trial Balance represents entries yet to be made in the Journal
and the Ledger, with the result that both the effects of each of the adjustments have to be
recorded. Hence,
(1)
(2)

The effect of Nominal Account appears in the trading or Profit and Loss Account,
and at the same time.
The effect concerning an asset or liability appears in the Balance Sheet.

In short, all the adjustments given outside the Trial Balance will appear both in (1) the
Trading or Profit and Loss Account as well as in (2) THE balance Sheet unless where an
adjustment is such that it affects two nominal accounts only, when both the effects of the
adjustment will have to be dealt with in the Trading and Profit & Loss Account.
The following chart gives the effects of adjustments in final accounts.
Common Adjustments
Sr. Adjustment Journal Entry
No. for
1.
Depreciation Depreciation A/c
To Asset A/c

Effect to be given in Final A/c.

Dr.

2.

Closing
Stock

Stock A/c
To Trading A/c

Dr.

3.

Bad debts to Bad Debts A/c

be written To Sundry Debtors
off

Dr.

4.

Reserve for Profit & Loss A/c

Doubtful
To R.D.D.
debts

Dr.

5.

Outstanding
Expenses

6.

Outstanding
income

7.

Pre-paid

(i) To be debited to profit and

Loss A/c
(ii) To be deducted from the
value of an asset in the
Balance Sheet.
(i) To be credited to Trading A/c
and
(ii) To be shown on the assets
side of B/s
(i) Amount of Bad Debts to be
debited to Profit & Loss A/c
and
(ii)
To be deducted from
Sundry Debtors in the Balance
Sheet.

(i) To be debited to Profit & Loss

A/c
(ii)
To be shown by way by
deduction
from
sundry
debtors in B/s.
Expenses (Name) A/c Dr. (i) Amount to be added to
To Outstanding creditors for
particular item in the Trading
expenses
Profit & Loss A/c.
(ii)
To be shown on the
Liabilities side of B/s.
Outstanding Income A/c Dr. (i) Amount to be deducted from
To Income (Name) A/c
particular item in the Trading/
Profit & Loss A/c.
(ii)
To be shown on asset
side of B/s.
Pre-paid Expenses
Dr. (i) Amount to be deducted from

76

Expenses

8.

Income
received in
advance or
Accrued
Interest on
Capital

To Expenses (Name) A/c

particular item in the Profit &

Loss A/c and
(ii)
To be shown on the
Liabilities side of B/s.
Income (Name) A/c Dr. (i) To be debited to Profit & Loss
and
To Income received in
(ii)
To be added to Capital in
advance A/c
or
To Accrued Income
the balance sheet.
Interest A/c
Dr. (i) To be debited to Profit & Loss
To Capital A/c
A/c and
(ii)
To be added to Capital in
the B/s.
Capital A/c
Dr. (i) To be credited to Profit &
To Interest on Drawings A/c
Loss A/c and
(ii)
To be deducted from
Capital in the B/s.
Profit & Loss A/c
Dr. To be deducted from Capital in
To Capital A/c
the Balance sheet.
Capital A/c
Dr. To be deducted from Capital in
To Profit & Loss A/c
the Balance Sheet.
Drawings A/c
Dr. (i) To
be
deducted
from
To Purchases A/c
Purchases and
(ii)
To be added to drawings.

10.

Interest on
Drawings

11.

Net Profit

12.

Net Loss

13.

Goods used
by
Proprietor
for Personal
use.
Reserve for Reserve doe Discount on (i) To be credited to Profit &
Discount on Creditors A/c
Dr.
Loss A/c and
creditors
To Profit & Loss A/c
(ii)
To be deducted from
Sundry Creditors in the
Balance Sheet.
Distribution Advertisement A/c
Dr. (i) To be debited to Profit & Loss
of Goods as To Purchases A/c
A/c as to Advertisement.
free samples
(ii)
To be deducted from
Purchases in Trading A/c.
Goods lost Goods lost by fire A/c Dr. (i) Trading A/c credit side (full
by fire
To Trading A/c
cost value)
(Total cost value)
(ii)
Profit & Loss Debit side
Insurance claim A/c
Dr.
the loss amount/or the amount
Profit & Loss A/c
Dr.
not
recovered
through
To Goods lost by fire
insurance claim.
(iii)
Balance
Asset
side
amount of insurance claim if
received.

14.

15.

16.

77

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.5 PROBLEMS ON FINAL ACCOUNTS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Problem:
Prepare Trading, Profit & Loss A/c and Balance Sheet from the following Trial Balance of
Mr. Kumar.
Debit
(Rs.)
60,000
22,000
1,350
11,200
840
600
800
12,000
10,000
2,060

Stock at Commencement
Kumars Drawings
Trade Expenses
Salaries
Advertising
Discount
Bad Debts
Business Premises
Furniture & Fixtures
Cash in hand
Kumars Capital
Purchase Returns
Purchases
Sales Returns
Wages
Conveyance Charges
Rent, rates taxes & Insurance
Interest
Plant and Machinery
Sundry Debtors
Sales
Sundry Creditors
Bank Overdraft
Total

Credit
(Rs.)

70,000
2,600
1,50,000
5,400
7,000
1,320
5,600
430
20,000
92,000

4,02,600

2,50,000
60,000
20,000
4,02,600

Adjustments:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

Stock at end was Rs. 90,000.

Outstanding rent was Rs. 500.
Outstanding wages Rs. 400.
Prepaid insurance Rs. 300 and prepaid salaries Rs. 700.
Write off Rs. 800 as further bad debts.
Provide for doubtful debts at 5% on Sundry Debtors.
Provide depreciation on Premises at 2%; Plant and Machinery at 7% and Furniture
at 10%.

78

Solution: Trading Account of Mr. Kumar

As on 31st March 1999.
Particulars

Rs.

Particulars

Rs.

To Opening Stock
To Purchases
1,50,000
Less: Returns
2,600
To Wages
7,000
Add: Outstanding
400
To Gross Profit transfer

60,000

By Sales
2,50,000
Less: Returns
5,400
By Closing Stock

2,44,600
90,000

1,47,400
7,400
1,19,800
3,34,600

3,34,600

Profit and Loss Account

For the year ended 31st March 1999.
Particulars

Rs.

Particulars

Rs.

To Trade Expenses
To Salaries
11,200
Less: Prepaid
700
To Conveyance Charges
To Advertising
To Rent, rates taxes & Insurance
5,600
Add: Rent outstanding 7,000
6,100
Less: Prepaid insurance 400
To Discount
To Interest
To Bad Debts
800
Add: Further
800
Add: New Bad Debts
Reserve
4,560
To Depreciation
Premises
300
Plant and Machinery 1,500
Furniture & Fixtures
1,000
To Net Profit

1,350

By Gross Profit

1,19,800

10,500
1,320
840

5,800
600
430

6,160

2,800
90,000
1,19,800

1,19,800

79

Note:
The Bad Debts Reserve (New) is calculated at 5% on Sundry Debtors (i.e. Rs. 92,000) after
deducting the bad debts of Rs. 800 written off this year (i.e. the adjustments) i.e. 5% of Rs.
92,000 800 = Rs. 91,200 (i.e. Rs. 4,560).
Balance Sheet of Mr. Kumar
As on 31st March 1999.
Liabilities

Capital
Less: Drawings
Add Net Profit
Outstanding:
Rent
Wages
Bank Overdraft
Sundry Creditors

Rs.

70,000
22,000
48,000
90,000
500
400

Assets

Plant & Machinery 20,000

Less: Depreciation 1,500
Business Premises 12,000
Less: Depreciation
300
Furniture & Fixtures 10,000
Less: Depreciation 1,000
Sundry Debtors
92,000
Less: Bad Debts
800
91,200
Less: Bad Debts R. 4,560
Cash in Hand
Stock at end
Prepaid:
Insurance
300
Salaries
700

1,38,000
900
20,000
60,000

3,34,600

80

Rs.

18,500
11,700
9,000

86,840
2,000
90,000
1,000
3,34,600

Problem:
From the following Trial Balance of Shri. Wani prepare final accounts for the year ended on
31st March 1999.
Trial Balance
Debit (Rs.)

Credit (Rs.)

30,000
75,000
11,000
2,700
675
3,500
5,600
660
420
2,800
400
300
215
6,000
10,000
5,000
46,000
1,030

Stock on 1.4.1999
Purchases
Investments
Returns Inwards
Trade Expenses
Wages
Salaries
Office expenses
Advertisement
Rent, Rates & Insurance
Bad Debts
Discount
Interest & Commission
Premises
Plant & Machinery
Fixtures & Fittings
Sundry Debtors
Cash in hand
Capital
Sales
Returns Outwards
Creditors
Bank Overdraft
Total

2,01,300

35,000
1,25,000
1,300
30,000
10,000
2,01,300

Adjustments:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Stock on 31st March 1999 was Rs. 45,000.

There were outstanding liabilities in respect of Rent Rs. 550, wages Rs. 200.
Insurance paid in advance amounted to Rs. 150. Salaries were unpaid to the extent Rs.
350
Write off Rs. 400 as further bad debts and provide for Doubtful Debts at 5% on
Debtors.
Depreciate Premises by 2 %; Machinery at 7 % and Fixture & fitting at 10%.
Accrued interest on investments Rs. 275.

81

Solution:
Shri. Wani
Trading and Profit & Loss Account of Shri. Wani
Dr.

For the year ended 31st March 1999.

Particulars
To Opening Stock
To Purchases
Less: Ret. Outwards
To Trade Expenses
To Wages
Add: Outstanding
To Gross Profit c/d

Rs.

(i) Particulars

30,000
75,000
_1,300 73,700
675
3,500
__200 3,700
59,225
1,67,300
5,600
__350 5,950

To Salaries
Add: Outstanding
To Rent, Rates,
Insurance
2,800
Add: Outstanding Rent __250
3,050
Less: Prepaid Insurance __150
To Office expenses
To Interest & Comm.
To Discount
To Bad Debts
400
Additional
__400
To Res. for Doubtful
Debts
To Advertisement
To Depreciation:
Premises
150
Machinery
750
Fittings
__500
To Net Profit
transferred to capital

Cr.

By Sales
Less: Ret.
Inwards
By Closing Stock

Rs.
1,25,000
__2,700

1,22,300
45,000

By Gross Profit b/d

By Accrued Interest
on Investments

1,67,300
59,225
275

2,900
660
215
300
800
2,280
420

1,400
44,575
59,500

59,500

82

Shri. Wani

Balance Sheet as on 31st March 1999.

Liabilities

Rs.

Assets

Rs.

Bank Overdraft
Creditors
Outstanding Expenses
Wages
Rent
Salaries
Capital
Add: Net Profit

10,000
30,000

Cash in Hand
Stock
Sundry Debtors
Less: Bad Debts
Written off

1,030
45,000

200
250
__350
35,000
44,575

Less: R.D.D.
Investments
Accrued Interest
Prepaid Insurance
Fixtures & Fittings
Less: Depreciation
Plant & Machinery
Less: Depreciation
Premises
Less: Depreciation

800
79,575

3,34,600

46,000
___400
45,600
_2,280 43,320
11,000
275
150
5,000
__500 4,500
10,000
__750 9,250
6,000
__150 5,850
3,34,600

Problem:
From the following Trial Balance of Shri. Dinesh, prepare Trading and Profit & Loss
Account for the year ended 31st Oct. 1998 and a Balance Sheet as on the date.
Trial Balance as on 31st Oct. 1998.
Debit
Rs.
90,000
40,000
20,200
1,10,800
17,000
3,000
35,000
9,100

Machinery
Buildings
Stock (1-11-1997)
Purchases
Wages & Salaries
Carriage Outward
Sundry Debtors
General Expenses

83

Credit
Rs.

Rent
Bad Debts
Income Tax
Legal Charges
Pre-paid Rent
Loan to Manish
Drawings
Cash in Hand
Cash at Bank
Dinesh Capital
Sundry Creditors
Bills Payable
Returns Outwards
Interest and Commission
Outstanding Expenses
Sales
Reserve for Bad and Doubtful Debts
Total

1,700
650
300
400
200
17,000
4,300
1,350
9,750

3,60,750

1,15,200
45,000
4,000
1,500
900
1,150
1,90,500
2,500
3,60,750

Adjustments:
The following adjustments should be taken into consideration.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Stock on 31st Oct. 1998 was valued at cost Rs. 20,900 Market Price was Rs. 24,000.
Depreciate Machinery at 10% and Building at 5%.
The Reserve for Bad and Doubtful Debts is to be maintained at Rs. 1,000.
Provide for Reserve for Discount on Sundry Creditors at 2%.
Calculate interest on capital at 5% per year. No interest is chargeable on Drawings.

Solution:
Shri. Dinesh
Trading and Profit & Loss Account
Dr.
Particulars
To Stock (Opening)
To Purchases
Less: Ret. Outwards
To Wages & Salaries
To Gross Profit c/d
To General Expenses

For the year ended 31st Oct., 1998.

Rs.
20,200

Particulars
By Sales
By Closing Stock

1,10,800
_1,500

1,09,300
17,000
64,900
1,67,300

84

Cr.
Rs.
1,90,500
20,900

1,67,300

To Rent
To Legal Charges
To Carriage Outward
To Interest on Capital
To Depreciation:
Plant & Machinery
Building
To Net Profit
transferred to
capital

By Gross Profit b/d

By Interest &
Commission
By Reserve for
Discount on
Creditors
By Res. for D.
Debts Balance
Less: Bad Debts
Less: New Reserve

9,100
1,700
400
3,000
5,760
9,000
_2,000

11,000

Liabilities
Sundry Creditors
Less: Res. for Dis.
Bills Payable
Outstanding Expenses
Capital Balance
Add: Interest
Add: Net Profit
Less: Drawings
Income Tax

900
900
2,500
650
850
59,500

1,000

36,590
59,500
Shri. Dinesh

64,900

Balance Sheet as on 31st Oct., 1998.

Rs.

Assets
45,000
Cash in Hand
____900 44,100
Cash at Bank
4,000
Stock
1,150
Sundry Debtors
Less: R.D.D.
1,15,200
Prepaid Rent
5,760
Loan
from
_36,590
Mukherjee
1,57,550
Machinery
4,300
____300 1,52,950 Less: Depreciation
Buildings
Less: Depreciation
2,02,200
(Closing Stock in value at cost as it is less than Market Price.)

Rs.
1,350
9,750
20,900
35,000
_1,000

34,00
200
17,000

90,000
_9,000
40,000
_2,000

81,000
38,000
2,02,200

Problem:
From the following Trial Balance of Shri. Satish, prepare a Trading and Profit & Loss
Account for the year ended on 31st March 1999 and a Balance Sheet as on Date:
Trial Balance
Debit
Rs.
Satish Capital
Satish Drawings
Purchases
Returns Inwards
Returns Outwards
Furniture
Buildings
Office expenses
Stock on 1-4-98

Credit
Rs.
36,000

3,000
20,000
500
800
6,000
8,000
1,200
7,000

85

Trade expenses
Rent & Taxes
Wages
Sales-Cash
Sales-Credit
Carriage Outward
Carriage Inward
Bills Receivable
Bills Payable
Salaries
Reserve for Doubtful debts as on 1-4-98
Bad Debts
Sundry Debtors
Insurance
Cash in Hand
Cash at Bank
Depreciation of furniture
Outstanding expenses
Sundry Creditors
Total

400
600
8,000
10,000
20,000
200
300
1,200
900
750
1,200
300
12,000
300
500
2,500
300
73,050

150
4,000
73,050

Adjustments:
The following adjustments should be taken into consideration.
1. Closing stock as on 31-3-99 amounted to Rs. 14,000
2. Depreciate Building at 5%.
3. Rent outstanding Rs. 300.
4. Insurance prepaid amounted to Rs. 100.
5. Write off Rs. 2,000 as bad debts and keep the Reserve for Doubtful Debts at 5% on
Sundry Debtors.
6. Commission accrued but not received up to 31st March, 1999 was Rs. 400.
7. Interest to be allowed on Capital at 5% p.a.
Solution:
Shri. Satish
Trading and Profit & Loss Account
Dr.
For the year ended 31st March 1999.
Particulars
Rs.
Particulars
By Sales
To Stock
7,000
Less: Ret.
To Purchases
20,000
Inwards
Less: Ret. Outwards
__800 19,200
By Closing Stock
To Wages
8,000
To Carriage Inward
200
To Trade Expenses
400
To Gross Profit c/d
8,700
43,500

86

Cr.
Rs.
30,000
__500

29,500
14,000

45,300

To Salaries
To Office expenses
To Rent & Taxes
Add: Outstanding
Rent
To Insurance
Less: Prepaid
To Carriage Outward
To Bad Debts
Addition
To Interest on Capital
To Depreciation:
Furniture
Building
To Net Profit
transferred to capital

750
1,200
600
__300
300
__100

8,700

By Gross Profit b/d

By Reserve for
Doubtful Debts
By Commission
(Outstanding)

900

700
400

200
300

300
_2,000 2,300
1,800
300
__400

700
1,650
9,800

9,800

Note: Since there are two separate items as Trade Expenses & Office expenses, Trade
Expenses are debited to Trading A/c & Office Expenses to Profit & Loss A/c.
Shri. Satish
Liabilities
Sundry Creditors
Bills Payable
Outstanding Expenses
Outstanding Rent
Capital Balance
Add: Interest
Add: Net Profit
Less: Drawing

Balance Sheet as on 31st March 1999.

Rs.
Assets
Cash in Hand
4,000
Cash in Bank
900
Stock in trade
150
Sundry Debtors
300
Less: Bad Debts
36,000
1,800
Less: R.D.D.
_1,680
Prepaid Insurance
39,450
Bills Receivable
36,450
_3,000
Outstanding
Commission
Furniture
Building
Less: Depreciation
41,800

Rs.
500
2,500
14,000
12,000
_2,000
10,000
__500

9,500
100
1,200
400
6,000

8,000
__400

7,600
41,800

Problem:
From the following Trial Balance extracted from the books of Shri. Mukund as on 31st
March, 1999 prepare final accounts as on 31-03-1999 after taking into consideration the
adjustments given below the Trial Balance.

87

Trial Balance
Debit
Rs.
Sundry Creditors
Rent
Cash at Bank
Cash in hand
Stock on 1-4-1998
Bad Debts
Discounts
Purchases & Sales
Carriage on Sale
Plant & Machinery
Sales Returns
Purchases Returns
Carriage on Purchases
Furniture & Fixtures
Insurance & Office expenses
Salaries
Bills Receivable
Drawings
Wages
Provision for Doubtful Debts
Capital
Sundry Debtors
Commission
Total

1,200
3,000
1,400
16,000
1,000
400
1,10,000
3,600
20,000
8,000

Credit
Rs.
46,000

1,000
1,68,000

4,000
1,000
12,000
3,000
6,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
2,000
50,000
40,000
8,400
2,71,000

2,71,000

Adjustments:
1. Depreciate Plant & Machinery at 10% and Furniture & Fixtures at 5%.
2. Insurance prepaid Rs. 200.
3. Outstanding Salary Rs. 1,000 and Outstanding Rent Rs. 200.
4. Maintain R.D.D. at 6% on Debtors.
5. Closing Stock on Rs. 20,000.
Solution:
Shri. Mukund
Trading and Profit & Loss Account
Dr.
For the year ended 31st March 1999.
Cr.
(ii) Particulars
Rs.
(iii) Particulars
Rs.
By Sales
1,68,000
To Stock
16,000
Less: R. I.
__8,000 1,60,000
To Purchases
1,10,000
Less: Return Outward
__4,000 1,06,000 By Closing Stock
To Carriage Inward
1,000
20,000
To Wages
12,000
To Gross Profit C/d
45,000
1,80,000
1,80,000

88

To Salaries
Add: Outstanding
To Insurance & Office
Less: Prepaid Ins.
To Rent
Add: Outstanding
To Commission
To Carriage Outwards
To R.D.D. (New)
Add: Bad Debts

6,000
__1,000
3,000
__200
1,200
__200
2,400
_1,000
3,400
_2,000

Less: R.D.D. (old)

To Discount
To Depreciation
Plant & Machinery 2,000
__600
Furniture
To
Net
Profit
transferred to Capital
Total
Shri. Mukund
Liabilities
Sundry Creditors
Outstanding Expenses
Salaries
Rent
Capital
Add: Net Profit
Less: Drawings

By Gross Profit b/d

By Discount

7,000

45,000
1,000

2,800
1,400
400

1,400

2,600
18,400
46,000

(iv) Total

46,000

Balance Sheet as on 31st March 1999.

Rs.
Assets
46,000
1,000
__200
50,000
18,400
68,400
12,000

Cash in Hand
Cash at Bank
Stock
Prepaid Insurance
Sundry Debtors
Less: R.D.D.
Bills Receivable
Fittings & Fixtures
Less: Depreciation
Plant & Machinery
Less: Depreciation

1,200

56,400

1,03,600

89

Rs.
1,400
3,000
20,000
200
40,000
_2,400
12,000
__600
20,000
__600

37,600
12,000
11,400
18,000
3,34,600

Problem:
From the following particulars prepare Trading and Profit and Loss A/c for the year ended
31st March 1999 and a Balance Sheet as on that date.
Particulars

Rs.
88,000
1,000
50,000
6,000
10,000
5,000
10,000
1,51,000
4,000
2,000
2,04,000
3,000
5,000
6,000
20,800
6,000
7,200
2,000
4,000
24,000
1,000
12,000
1,000
7,000
10,000

Sabhu Capital A/c

Sabhu Drawings A/c
Plant and Machinery
Furniture and Fixtures
Loose Tools
Motor Car (cost Rs. 15,000)
Stock (1-4-98)
Purchases
Returns Inwards
Returns Outwards
Sales
Discount Received
Wages
Carriage Outwards
Salaries
General Expenses and Insurance
Rent & Taxes
Postage and telegram
Packing and Selling Expenses
Sundry Debtors
Advertisement
Sundry Creditors
Reserve for Bad and Doubtful Debts
Cash in hand
Bank Overdraft

Adjustments:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Depreciate motor car at 15% on original cost. Loose Tools are valued at Rs. 8,000.
Stock on 31st March, 1999 was valued at Rs. 12,400.
Reserve for Bad & Doubtful debts is to be maintained at 5% on debtors, maintain
Reserve for Discounts on Creditors at 2%.
Unexpired Insurance Rs. 200.
Provide for interest on capital at 6%.

Solution:

90

Shri. Sabhu
Trading and Profit & Loss Account
Cr.
Dr.
For the year ended 31st March 1999.
Particulars
Rs.
(v) Particulars
Rs.
2,04,000
To Stock (Opening)
10,000
By Sales
1,51,000
__4,000 2,00,000
To Purchases
Less: R. I.
Less:
Return __2,000 1,49,000 By Stock (Closing
12,400
Outward
5,000
To Wages
48,400
To Gross Profit C/d
2,12,400
By Gross Profit b/d
To Salaries
2,12,400 By Reserve for
To Rent & Taxes
Discount
on
20,800
To
Postage
&
Creditors
48,400
7,200
Telegrams
By Discount
2,000
To
General 6,000
By Net Loss
Expenses
__200
240
& Insurance
3,000
Less: Prepaid
4,890
5,800
To
Carriage
6,000
Outwards
To Reserve for
200
Doubtful Debts
1,000
To Advertisement
4,000
To
Packing
& 2,250
5,280
Selling Exp
_2,000
To
Interest
on
Capital
4,250
To Depreciation
56,530
56,530
Motor Car
Loose Tools
Shri. Sabhu
Liabilities
Creditors
Less:
Reserve
Discount
Bank Overdraft
Capital
Add: Interest
Less: Net Loss
Less: Drawings

Balance Sheet as on 31st March 1999.

Rs.
Assets
12,000
Cash in Hand
for
Stock
__240
Sundry Debtors
11,760
Less: R.D.D.
10,000
Prepaid Insurance
88,000
Loose Tools
_5,280
Less: Depreciation
93,280
Furniture & Fixture
4,890
Motor Car
87,390
_1,000
Less: Depreciation
Plant & Machinery
1,09,150

91

Rs.
7,000
12,400
30,000
_1,200
10,000
_2,000
5,000
_2,250

22,800
200
8,000
6,000
2,750
50,000
1,09,150

Note: Depreciation of Loose Tools: Value given in Trial Balance Rs. 10,000 Less revalued
on 31-3 at 8,000 = 2,000.
Problem:
From the following Trial Balance of Shri Khanna prepare Trading and Profit and Loss
Account for the year ended 31st March 1998 and a Balance Sheet as on that date.
Debit
Rs.

Particulars

Credit
Rs.

1,20,000
12,000
5,000
1,20,000
1,200
7,500

Opening Stock
Salaries & Wages
Railway Freight
Purchases
Bills Receivable
Rent
Sales
Reserve for Bad Debts
Sundry Creditors
Returns Outwards
Bad Debts
Plant & Machinery
Traveling Expenses
Commission
Repairs to Plant
Cash at Bank
Buildings
Returns Inwards
Sundry Debtors
Office Expenses
Drawings
Capital
Maharashtra Bank Loan

2,53,000
1,000
32,600
1,500
300
20,000
6,000
1,000
1,200
2,400
50,000
1,000
35,000
5,000
6,500
3,93,100

50,000
54,000
3,93,100

Adjustments:
1. Closing Stock Rs. 35,000.
2. Unexpired insurance amounting to Rs. 500 is included in office expenses.
3. Office expenses due but not paid Rs. 300.
4. Make provision for unpaid salaries Rs. 1,200.
5. Commission received but not earned Rs. 400.
6. Provide for interest on capital @ 5%.
7. Depreciate Plant & Machinery @ 5% and Building @ 2% p.a.
8. Provide Reserve @ 5% for Bad Debts.

92

Solution:
Shri. Khanna
Trading and Profit & Loss Account
Dr.

For the year ended 31st March 1998.

Particulars

To Stock
To Purchases
Less: Return Outward
To Railway Freight
To Gross Profit C/d
To Salaries & Wages
Add: Outstanding
To Office expenses
Add: Outstanding
Less: Prepaid Ins.
To Rent
To Traveling Exp.
To (New) Reserve for
Doubtful Debts
Add: Bad Debts
Less: Old Reserve
To Repair to Plant
To Depreciation
Plant & Machinery
Building
To Interest on Capital
To N/P tr. to Capital

Rs.

(vi) Particulars

1,20,000
1,20,000
__1,500 1,18,500
5,000
43,500
2,87,000
12,000
_1,200
13,200
5,000
300
__500
4,800
7,500
6,000
1,750
__300
2,050
_1,000
1,000
_1,250

Cr.

By Sales
Less: R. I.
By Stock

Rs.

2,53,000
__1,000 2,52,000
35,000

By Gross Profit b/d

By Commission
Less: Received in 1,000
Advertisement
__400

2,87,000
43,500
600

1,050
1,200
2,250
2,500
5,600
44,100

93

44,100

Balance Sheet of Shri. Khanna

as on 31st March 1998.
Liabilities

Rs.

Assets

Sundry Creditors
Commission received
in advance
Outstanding Exp:
Salaries
Office expenses
Maharashtra
Bank
Loan
Capital Balance
Add: Interest
Net Profit

32,600

Cash at Bank
Sundry Debtors
Less: R.D.D.
Stock
Bills Receivable
Prepaid Insurance
Plant & Machinery
Less: Depreciation
Buildings
Less: Depreciation

Less: Drawings

400
1,200
__300

1,500
54,000

50,000
2,500
_5,600
58,100
_6,500

Rs.
2,400
35,000
_1,750

20,000
_1,000
50,000
_1,250

51,600
1,40,100

33,250
35,000
1,200
500
19,000
48,750

1,40,100

Problem:
From the following Trial Balance and additional information prepare Profit & Loss Account
for the ended 30th June 1997 and a Balance Sheet as on that date of Shri Vinod.
Particulars
Sundry Debtors
Salaries
Furniture (Bal.) on 1-7-96
6,750
Purchases on 30-6-97
_ 700
Machinery
Bad Debts
Advertisement for 3 years w.e.f. 31st December, 1997
Investments
Insurance
Drawings
Cash & Bank Balance
Closing Stock on 30-6-97
Capital
Commission
Creditors
Dividend on investments
Reserve for Bad & Doubtful Debts
Gross Profit

Debit
(Rs.)
52,200
13,677
7,450
7,500
315
3,000
9,500
320
4,500
27,981
15,000

1,39,443

94

Credit
(Rs.)

62,000
245
31,073
825
500
44,800
1,39,443

Adjustments:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Depreciate on Machinery at 5% and on furniture ar 10% p.a.

Deduct Rs. 200 for Bad Debts and provide 2% Reserve for Bad and Doubtful debts.
Interest on capital at 5% and on drawings Rs. 240.
Manager is to get 1% commission on Gross Profit.
Outstanding Salary Rs. 2,000.

Solution:
Shri. Vinod
Dr.

Profit & Loss Account

For the year ended 30th June, 1997.

Particulars

To Salaries
Add: Outstanding
To Commission to
Manager (Outstanding)
To Insurance
To Advertisement
Less: Prepaid
To Bad Debts
Additional
To Reserve for Bad &
Doubtful Debts
To Depreciation
Furniture
Machinery
To Interest on Capital
To
Net
Profit
transferred
to Capital

Rs.

13,677
__2,000

Particulars

By Gross Profit
By Commission
By Dividend
By Interest on
Drawings

15,677
448
320

3,000
_2,500
315
___200

Cr.
Rs.

44,800
245
825
240

500
515
500

675
___375

1,050
3,100
24,000

46,110

46,110

Shri. Vinod

95

Balance Sheet as on 30th June, 1997.

Liabilities
Rs.
Assets
31,073
Cash
at
Bank
Sundry Creditors
Balance
Outstanding
Sundry Debtors
Expenses
Less: Bad Debts
Salaries
2,000
Reserve
Manager
2,448
Stock
Commission
__448
Advertisement
Capital Balance
62,000
Prepaid
Add: Interest
3,100
Investments
Net Profit
24,000
Furniture
89,100
Less: Depreciation
Less: Drawings 4,500
84,360
Machinery
Int. on Drawing 240 _4,780
Less: Depreciation
1,17,881
Rs.
40,600
Salaries and Wages
6,725
Fright and Clearing charges
12,750
Commission
6,400
Printing and Stationery
12,000
Furniture and Fixtures
35,250
Rent, Rates and Taxes
3,715
Telephone Charge
6,280
Postage and Telegrams
9,655
Office Expenses
Shahs Capital Account
28,000
Shahs Drawings Account
1,200
Insurance Charges
7,92,000
Purchases
Sales
3,400
Returns Inwards
Returns Outwards
45,000
Stock on 1st April 1995
1,00,000
Sundry Debtors
Sundry Creditors
6,000
Bad Debts
Doubtful Debts Reserve (1st April 1995)
16,935
Cash at Bank
1,275
Cash in hand
7,675
Motor Car expenses
18,000
Motor Car
Total
11,52,860

96

Rs.
27,981
50,200
200
_1,000

49,000
15,000
2,500
9,500

7,450
__675
7,500
__375

6,775
7,125
1,17,881

Rs.

3,08,860

6,40,000
12,000
1,80,000
12,000

11,52,860

Adjustments:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Depreciation to be provided on furniture and Fixtures at 10% and Motor Car at

20%.
Insurance is paid for the year ended 30th June, 1996.
Rent outstanding was Rs. 750.
Commission due to Salesman was Rs. 3,250.
Closing Stock was valued at Rs. 3, 08,400.
It was decided to bring Doubtful Debts Reserve to Rs. 5,000.

(Ans.: Gross Profit: Rs. 1, 13,275; Net Loss: Rs. 17,000; Balance Sheet total Rs. 4,
47,110)
From the following Trial Balance of Shri Jain, prepare Trading and Profit and Loss Account
for the year ended 31st December 1995 and a Balance Sheet as on that date after making the
necessary adjustments.
Dr.
Rs.
Jain Capital Account
Jain Drawings
Purchases
Returns Inwards
Returns Outwards
Office Furniture
Buildings
Office Expenses
Stock on 1st January 1995
Sundry Expenses
Rent, Rates and taxes
Wages and Salaries
Sales Cash
Sales Credit
Carriage Inwards
Carriage Outwards
Bills Receivable
Bills Payable
Traveling and Conveyance
Reserve for Bad Debts as on 1st Jan, 1995
Bad Debts
Sundry Debtors
Insurance Premium
Cash in hand
Cash at Bank
Sundry Creditors
Total

Adjustments:

97

Cr.
Rs.

3,000
20,000
500
800
6,000
8,000
1,200
7,000
400
600
8,000
10,000
20,000
200
300
1,200
900
750
1,200
300
12,000
300
500
2,500
72,750

3,850
72,750

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Closing Stock as on 31st December 1995 amounted to Rs. 10,800.

Depreciation on office Furniture and Building at 10%.
Rent Outstanding Rs. 150.
Insurance Prepaid amounted to Rs. 100.
Maintain Reserve for Doubtful Debts at 5% on Sundry Debtors.

(Ans.: Gross Profit: Rs. 5,900; Net Profit: Rs. 1,200; Balance Sheet total Rs. 39,100)
The following Trial Balance of Mr. Shevade as at 31st December 1996.
Rs.
2,025

Trade expenses
Discount Received
Salaries
Traveling Expenses
Discount Allowed
Capital Account
Drawings
Leasehold Premises
Furniture
Stock on 1st January
Cash at Bank
Reserve for Doubtful Debts
Purchases
Sales
Carriage Inwards
Bad Debts written off
Sundry Debtors
Sundry Creditors
Bank Charges
Rent
Total

Rs.
1,370

9,287
1,430
400
60,100
6,500
40,000
5,000
15,000
4,650
720
66,235
94,000
2,100
1,350
16,000
15,421
134
1,500
1,71,611

1,71,611

Prepare Trading and Profit and Loss account for the year ended 31st December, 1995
and Balance Sheet as on that date.
The following matter is to be take into account:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Mr. Shevades wife works in the business and is allowed a salary of Rs. 2,400 per
annum. This amount has been included in Drawings account.
Write Rs. 2,000 off Premises and Rs. 500 off Furniture.
Of the Sundry Debtors due on 31st December 1995, 4% are irrecoverable and
should be written off. The Reserve for Doubtful Debts should be maintained at
5%.
Rent due but not paid is Rs. 500 and the Salaries include Rs. 250 paid as advance
to staff.
Stock as at 31st December, 1995 is valued at Rs. 15,500.

(Ans.: Gross Profit: Rs. 26,165; Net Profit: Rs. 5,481; Balance Sheet total Rs. 77,402)

98

Mr. Mohan carried on business under the name of Mohan & Co. From the following
information prepare the final accounts for the year ended 31st December 1992.
Dr.
Rs.
Mohans Capital Account
Mohans Drawings Account
Bills Receivable
Plant and Machinery
Sundry Debtors (including B for dishonored
bill of Rs. 1,000)
Loan Account at 6% (interest paid upto
October 1992)
Wages
Returns Inwards
Purchases
Sales
Commission received
Rent and Taxes
Stock
Salaries
Traveling Expenses
Insurance (including premium of Rs. 300
p.a.)
Cash
Bank
Repairs and Renewals
Interest and Discounts
Bad Debts
Sundry Creditors
Furniture and Fixtures
Total Rs.

Cr.
Rs.
1,19,400

10,550
9,500
28,800
62,000
20,000
40,970
2,780
2,56,590
3,56,430
5,640
5,620
89,680
11,000
1,880
400
530
18,970
3,370
5,870
3,620
59,630
8,970
5,61,100

5,61,100

Adjustments:
(1) Stock on hand 31st December 1992 was Rs. 1, 28,960.
(2) Write off half Bs dishonored Bill.
(3) Create a Reserve for doubtful debts at 5%.
(4) Allow 5% interest on capital.
(5) Wages include Rs. 1,200 for erection of Machinery purchased last year.
(6) Depreciate Plant and machinery by 10%.
(7) Furniture is revalued at the end of the year at Rs. 8,073.
(8) Provide for commission not received Rs. 600.
(Ans.: Gross Profit: Rs. 96,570; Net Profit: Rs. 59,118; Balance Sheet total Rs. 2, 53,768)
From the following Trail Balance of Mr. Bhagwandas as on 31st March 1990. Prepare a
Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st March 1990 and a Balance Sheet
as at that date after making the necessary adjustments.
Trial Balance

99

Cash at Bank
Cash in hand
Sundry expenses
Traveling expenses
Insurance charges
Interest on loan from Mehta
Conveyance expenses
Discount
Bad Debts
Rent, Rates & Taxes
Postage & Telegrams
Loan @ 6% p.a. taken from Mr. Mehta on 1st
October 1990
Returns Inward
Sundry Creditors
Sales
Sundry Debtors
Salaries
Returns Outward
Purchases
Stock on 1-4-89
Prepaid Insurance
Plant & Machinery
Furniture
Bhagwandass Drawings Account
Bhagwandass Capital Account
Total Rs.

Dr.
(Rs.)
8,800
2,930
300
500
800
150
200

Cr.
(Rs.)

600
400
3,620
1,500
10,000
5,000
12,000
1,30,000
21,900
22,400
2,000
80,000
20,000
100
30,000
4,000
12,000
2,14,600

60,000
2,14,600

Adjustment:
1.
Stock on 31st March 1990 was valued at Rs. 21,000.
2.
Goods worth Rs. 1,500 sold but returned on 28th March 1990 were taken in
closing stock but entry in the returns inwards book was make on 4th April 1990.
3.
Of the Sundry debtors Rs. 400 are bad and should be written off. Create a reserve
for Bad and Doubtful debts @ 5% on sundry debtors and a Reserve for discounts
on Debtors @ 2 %.
4.
Salaries Rs. 700 for March 1990 were not paid.
5.
Interest on Capital is to be calculated @ 6% per annum and on drawings Rs. 330.
6.
Depreciation furniture by 5% and plant and machinery by 10%.
(Ans.: Gross Profit Rs. 46,300; Net Profit Rs. 7,955; B/S Rs. 82,175)
From the following Trial Balance of Chandu Prepare the final accounts for the year
ended 31st March 1994 and the Balance Sheet as at that date.

100

Dr.
Rs.
50,000
1,10,000
40,000
1,500
10,000
9,000
2,400
1,200
2,000
750
1,200

Land and Buildings

Purchases
Stock
Returns
Wages
Salaries
Office Expenses
(vii) Carriage Expenses
Carriage Outwards
Discounts
Bad Debts
Sales
Capital A/c
Smt. Chandus Loan
Insurance
Commission
Plant and Machinery
Furniture & Fixtures
Bills Receivable
Sundry Debtors
Sundry Creditors
Cash in hand
Cash at Bank
Office Equipment
Bills payable

Cr.
Rs.

2,500

1,200
2,05,000
1,15,000
15,000

1,500
1,500
50,000
10,000
20,000
40,000
25,000
1,500
4,500
12,000
2,350

Total Rs.

3,67,550

3,67,550

The following adjustments are required:

(1) Closing Stock amounted to Rs. 60,000.
(2) Outstanding liabilities: Wages Rs. 2,000, Rent Rs. 3,000.
(3) Depreciate Land and Buildings at 5%, Plant and Machinery at 10%, Office
equipment and Furniture and Fixtures at 10%.
(4) Rs. 6,000 worth Office equipment was added on 1st October 1993.
(5) Provide a Bad and Doubtful Debts reserve at 2 % on Sundry Debtors.
(6) Insurance Premium prepaid Rs. 200.
(7) Provide interest on capital at 5% and interest on Smt. Chandu loan at 8% loan has
been taken from her on 1st January, 1994.
(Ans.: Gross Profit Rs. 1, 02,800; Net Profit Rs. 69,400; B/S Rs. 2, 37,800)

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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. What is Capital Expenditure?
2. What is Revenue Expenditure?
3. What is Deferred Revenue Expenditure?
4. What do you mean by Capital Receipts?
5. What do you mean by Revenue Receipts?
6. What is Capital Profit?
7. What is Capital Loss?
8. State with reasons whether following items are capital, revenue or deferred revenue:
(a) Expenditure incurred in overhauling machinery.
(b) Amount brought by proprietor as capital.
(c) Building costing Rs. 2, 00,000 sold for Rs. 1, 50,000
(d) White washing of office building.
(e) Expenditure incurred for training employees.
(f) Received a gift from parents introduced the amount in business.
(g) Insurance of godown.
(h) Renewal of license.
(i) Expenses incurred on research of a product not resulting in success.
(j) Bad Debts recovered.
(k) Depreciation on assets.
(l) Shares purchased and brokerage paid on purchase.
(m) Loss on sale of plant.
(n) Preliminary expenses.
(o) Cost of dismantling, removing and reinstalling the old plant.
(p) Machinery of value Rs. 10,000 sold for Rs. 10,500.
(q) Erection charges paid to workers for erecting new machinery.
(r) Rs. 2, 00,000 received from issue of shares, Rs. 10,000 being issue expenses.

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

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Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Functions of Management Accounting
4.1.2 Scope of Management Accounting
4.1.3 Utility of Management Accounting
4.1.4 Limitations of Management Accounting
4.2 Installation of Management Accounting System
4.2.1 Tools of Management Accounting
4.2.2 The Management Accountant
4.2.3 Functions of a Management Accountant
4.2.4 Requisites for a Successful Management Account
4.2.5 The Controller and Functions of Controllership
4.3 Management Accounting Principles
4.3.1 Management Accounting and Financial Accounting
4.3.2 Cost Accounting and Management Accounting
4.4 Basic Cost Concepts
4.4.1 Objectives of Cost Accounting
4.4.2 Concept of Cost
4.4.3 Elements of Cost and Cost Sheet
4.4.4 Cost Classification
4.4.5 Cost Unit and Cost Centre
4.4.6 Installation and Costing System
4.4.7 Methods, Techniques and Systems of Costing
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.1 INTRODUCTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dear students this subject is so young as a branch of knowledge that it is still growing. Who
knows, some day even someone among you might come up with some innovative idea which
will lead to the further growth of this specialized subject. The term management accounting
refers to accounting for the management, i.e., accounting which provides necessary
information to the management for discharging its functions. The functions of the
management are planning, organizing, directing and controlling. Thus, management
accounting provides information to management so that planning, organizing, directing and
controlling of business operations can be done in an orderly manner. However, the above is a
very general definition of management accounting. Most specific definitions have beer given
by different authorities. Some of the important definitions are given below:
The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London, defines Management
Accounting as follows: The application of professional knowledge and skill in the preparation
of accounting information in such a way as to assist management in the formation of policies
and in the planning and control of the operations of the undertaking. The definition given by

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the American Accounting Association is as follows: Management Accounting is the

application of appropriate techniques and concepts in processing historical and projected
economic data of an entity to assist management in establishing plans for reasonable
economic objectives in the making of rational decisions with a view towards achieving these
objectives. The definition given by the Management Accounting Team of the AngloAmerican Council of Productivity seems to be most precise. It reads, Management
Accounting is the presentation of accounting information in such a way as to assist
management in the creation of policy and in the day-to-day operations of an undertaking.
The above definitions clearly indicate that management accounting is concerned with
accounting information which is useful to the management. Efficiency of the various phases
of management is, as a matter of fact, the common thread, which underlies all these
definitions. However, it should be clearly understood that it does not supplant financial
accounting but rather it supplements it in order to serve the diverse requirements of modern
management. Management Accounting rearranges for management control to a great extent
the accounting information provided by the financial accounting. It, therefore, lies between
the following two activities:

Completing the accounting results on the one hand, and

Controlling the business by the management, on the other.

Management accounting, therefore, covers all rearrangement, combination or adjustment of

the orthodox accounting figures which may be required to provide the Chief Executive with
the information from which he can control the business. It comprises accounting methods,
systems and techniques which coupled with special knowledge and ability, assist
management in its task of maximizing profits or minimizing losses.

4.1.1 Functions of Management Accounting

The basic function of management accounting is to assist the management in performing its
function effectively. The functions of the management are planning, organizing, directing and
controlling. Management accounting helps in the performance of each of these functions in
the following ways:

Provides Data. Management accounting serves as a vital source of data for

management planning. The accounts and documents are a repository of a vast quantity
of data about the past progress of the enterprise, which are a must for making
forecasts for the future.

Modifies Data. The accounting data required for managerial decisions is properly
compiled and classified. For example, purchase figures for different months may be
classified to know total purchases made during each period product-wise, supplierwise and territory-wise.

Analyses and Interprets Data. The accounting data is analyzed meaningfully for
effective planning and decision-making. For this purpose, the data is presented in a
comparative form. Ratios are calculated and likely trends are projected.

Serves as a Means of Communicating. Management accounting provides a means of

communicating management plans upward, downward and outward through the
organization. Initially, it means identifying the feasibility and consistency of the

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various segments of the plan. At later stages; it keeps all parties informed about the
plans that have been agreed upon and their roles in these plans.

Facilitates Control. Management accounting helps in translating given objectives

and strategy into specified goals for attainment by a specified time and secures
effective accomplishment of these goals in an efficient manner. All this is made
possible through budgetary control and standard costing which is an integral part of
management accounting.

Uses also Qualitative Information. Management accounting does not restrict itself
to financial data for helping the management in decision-making but also uses such
information, which may not be capable of being measured in monetary terms. Such
information may be collected from special surveys, statistical compilations,
engineering records, etc.

4.1.2 Scope of Management Accounting

Management accounting is concerned with presentation of accounting information in the
most useful way for the management. Its scope is, therefore, quite vast. It includes within its
fold almost all aspects of business operations. However, the following areas can rightly be
identified as falling within the ambit of management accounting:

Financial Accounting: Management accounting is mainly concerned with the

rearrangement of the information provided by financial accounting. Hence,
management cannot obtain full control and coordination of operations without a
properly designed financial accounting system.

Cost Accounting: Standard costing, marginal costing, opportunity cost analysis,

differential costing and other cost techniques plays useful role in operation and
control of the business undertaking.

Revaluation Accounting: This is concerned with ensuring that capital is maintained

intact in real terms and profit is calculated with this fact in mind.

Budgetary Control: This includes framing of budgets, comparison of actual

performance with the budgeted performance, computation of variances, finding of
their causes, etc.

Inventory Control: It includes control over inventory from the time it is acquired till
its final disposal.

Statistical Methods: Graphs, charts, pictorial presentation, index numbers and other
statistical methods make the information more impressive and intelligible.

Interim Reporting: This includes preparation of monthly, quarterly, half-yearly

income statements and other related reports, cash flow and funds flow statements,
scrap reports, etc

Taxation: This includes computation of income in accordance with the tax laws,
filing of returns and making tax payments.

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Office Services: This includes maintenance of proper data processing and other office
management services, reporting on best use of mechanical and electronic devices.

Internal Audit: Development of a suitable internal audit system for internal control.

4.1.3 Utility of Management Accounting

Management accounting provides invaluable services to management in all of its functions.
The basic functions of management are: (i) Planning, (ii) Controlling, (iii) Coordinating, (iv)
Organizing, (v) Motivating, and (vi) Communicating. Management accounting helps in
performance of each of these functions effectively as explained below:

Planning: It involves formulation of policies, setting up of goals and initiating

necessary programmes for achievement of the goals. Management accounting makes
an important contribution in performance of this function. It makes available the
relevant data after pruning and analyzing them suitably for effective planning and
decision-making.

Controlling: It involves evaluation of performance keeping in view that the actual

performance coincides with the planned one, and remedial measures are taken in the
event of variation between the two. The techniques of budgetary control, standard
costing and departmental operating statements greatly help in performing this
function. As a matter of fact, the entire system of control is designed and operated by
the management accountant designated as Controller.

Coordinating: It involves interlinking of different divisions of the business enterprise

in a way so as to achieve the objectives of the organization as a whole. Thus, perfect
coordination is required among production, purchase, finance, personnel, sales,
departments, etc. Effective coordination is achieved through departmental budgets
and reports, which form the nucleus of management accounting.

Organizing: It involves grouping of operative action in a way as to identify the

authority and responsibility within the organization. Management accounting here
also plays a prominent role. The whole organization is divided into suitable profit or
cost centers. A sound system of internal control and internal audit for each of the cost
or profit centers helps in organizing and establishing a sound business structure.

Motivating: It involves maintenance of a high degree of morale in the organization.

Conditions should be such that each person gives his best to realize the goals of the
enterprise. The superiors should be in a position to find out whom to demote or
promote and to reward or penalize. Periodical departmental profit and loss accounts,
budgets and reports go a long way in achieving this objective.

Communicating: It involves transmission of data, results, etc. both to the insiders as

well as outsider. The orders of the superiors should be communicated to the
subordinates while the results achieved by the subordinates should be reported to the
superiors. Moreover, the management owes a duty to the creditors, prospective
investors, shareholders, etc., to communicate to them about the progress, financial
position, etc., of the enterprise. Management accounting helps the management in
performance of this function by developing a suitable system of reporting which
emphasizes and highlights the relevant facts. Management accounting is thus helpful

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to the management in every field of activity. This is the reason why management
accountant is considered not only a service arm to management but also a part of
management.

4.1.4 Limitations of Management Accounting

Management accounting being comparatively a new discipline, it suffers from certain
limitations which limit its effectiveness. These limitations are as follows:

Limitations of Basic Records: Management accounting derives its information from

financial accounting and other records. The strength and weakness of the management
accounting, therefore, depends upon the strength and weakness of these basic records.
In other words, their limitations are also the limitations of management accounting.

Persistent Efforts: The conclusions drawn by the management accountant are not
executed automatically. He has to convince people at all levels. In other words, he
must be an efficient salesman in selling his ideas.

Management Accounting is only a Tool: Management accounting cannot replace

the management. Management accountant is only an adviser to the management. The
decision regarding implementing his advice is to be taken by the management. There
is always a temptation to take an easy course of arriving at decision by intuition rather
than going by the advice of the management accountant.

Wide Scope: Management accounting has a very wide scope incorporating many
disciplines. It considers both monetary as well as non-monetary factors. This all
brings inexactness and subjectivity in the conclusions obtained through it.

Top-heavy Structure: The installation of management accounting system requires

heavy costs on account of an elaborate organization and numerous rules and
regulations. It can, therefore, be adopted only by big concerns.

Opposition to Change: Management accounting demands a breakaway from

traditional accounting practices. It calls for a rearrangement of the personnel and their
activities, which is generally not liked by the people involved.

Evolutionary Stage: Management accounting is still in its initial stage. It has,

therefore, the same impediments as a new discipline will have, e.g., fluidity of
concepts, raw techniques and imperfect analyzing tools. This all creates doubt about
the very utility of management accounting.

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4.2 INSTALLATION OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING SYSTEM

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The following steps will have to be taken for installation of an efficient and effective
management accounting system:

An appropriate Organizational Manual should be prepared and adopted. The Manual

defines and confines explicitly the scope of authority of each executive in the
organization. This prevents overlapping of functions, powers and responsibilities. It
also depicts the line of communication.
The requisite staff will have to be recruited, trained and developed.
Appropriate forms, returns, etc., should be designed, prepared and made available.
Classification and codification of accounts.
Developing a suitable system for the integration of cost and financial data.
Setting up a suitable system of budgetary control.
Setting up of standards, introducing standard costing techniques.
Setting up of cost, budget and profit centers and introduction of operational research
techniques.

4.2.1 Tools of Management Accounting

Management accounting uses the following tools or techniques to faithfully discharge its duty
towards management:

Financial Statement Analysis.

Funds Flow Analysis.
Cash Flow Analysis.
Costing techniques including Marginal, Differential, Standard and Opportunity
Costing.
Budgetary Control.
Management Reporting.

4.2.2 The Management Accountant

Management accounting provides significant economic and financial data to the management
and the Management Accountant is the channel through which this information efficiently
and effectively flows to the Management. The Management Accountant has a very significant
role to perform in the installation, development and functioning of an efficient and effective
management accounting system. He designs the framework of the financial and cost control
reports that provide each managerial, level with the most useful data at the most appropriate
time. He educates executives in the need for control information and ways of using it. This is
because his position is unique with respect to information about the organization. Apart from
top management no one in the organization perhaps knows more about the various functions
of the organization than him. He is, therefore, sometimes described as the Chief Intelligence
Officer of the management. He gathers information, breaks it down, sifts it out and organizes
it into meaningful categories. He separates relevant and irrelevant information and then ranks
relevant information according to degree of importance to management. He reports relevant
information in an intelligible form to the management and sometimes also to those who are
interested in the information outside the company. He also compares the actual performance
with the planned one and reports and interprets the results of operations to all levels of

108

management and to the owners of the business. Thus, in brief, management accountant or
controller is the person who designs the management information system for the
organization, operates it by means of interlocked budgets, computes variances and exhorts
others to institute corrective measures.
Mr. P.L. Tandon has explained beautifully the position of the management accountant in the
following words: "The management accountant is exactly like the spokes in a wheel,
connecting the rim of the wheel and the hub receiving the information. He processes the
information and then returns the processed information back to where it came from. Dr. Don
Barker sees a very bright future for the management accountants. According to him
Management Accountants will be presented with many opportunities for innovative actions in
the global economic environment. In addition to their role of providing accurate, timely and
relevant information, management accountants will be expected to participate as business
consultants and partners with management in the strategic planning process. Thus, there are
tremendous possibilities for management accountants to shine as a professional group in the
years to come. To fit in this role, it is necessary that the management accountants develop
effective communication abilities, adopt a structured approach, a flexible accommodation and
keep themselves aware with the latest evolving technologies in the profession.

4.2.3 Functions of the Management Accountant

It is the duty of the management accountant to keep all levels of management informed of
their real position. He has, therefore, varied functions to perform. His important functions can
be summarized as follows:

Planning: He has to establish, coordinate and administer as an integral part of

management, an adequate plan for the control of the operations. Such a plan would
include profit planning, programmes of capital investment and financing, sales
forecasts, expense budgets and cost standards.

Controlling: He has to compare actual performance with operating plans and

standards and to report and interpret the results of operations to all levels of
management and the owners of the business. This is done through the compilation of
appropriate accounting and statistical records and reports.

Coordinating: He consults all segments of management responsible for policy or

action. Such consultation might concern any phase of the operation of the business
having to do with attainment of objectives and the effectiveness of the organization
structures and policies.

Other Functions: He administers tax policies and procedures. He supervises and

coordinates the preparation of reports to government agencies. He ensures fiscal
protection for the assets of the business through adequate internal control and proper
insurance coverage. He carries out continuous appraisal of economic and social
forces, and the government influences, and interprets their effect on the business.

It should be noted that the functions of a Management Accountant are more of those of a
'staff official'. He, in addition to processing of historical data, supplies a good deal of
information concerning the future operations in line with the management's needs. Besides
serving top management with information concerning the company as a whole, he supplies
detailed information to the line officers regarding alternative plans and their profitability,

109

which help them in decision-making. As a matter of fact, the Management Accountant should
not bother himself regarding the decision taken by the line officials after tendering advice
unless he has reasonable grounds to believe that such a decision is going to affect the interests
of the corporation adversely. In such an event' also, he should report it to the concerned level
of management with tact, patience, firmness combined with politeness.

4.2.4 Requisites for a Successful Management Accountant

The following are the basic requisites for a Management Accountant to be successful in his
job:

Direct Contact with the Top Management: The goal of the management accountant
is to channel for use in the processing of data that will have a vital influence on
company policy. Technicalities and red-tape cause delay which may prove very costly
to the business. He should, therefore, report directly to the President or the Chief
Executive of the company.

Freedom from Detail: The most likely title of the Management Accountant is that of
the controller. He is the principal officer in charge of accounts and performs such
additional duties which the Board of Directors, the executive committee or the
President of the company may assign to him from time to time. He cannot possibly
measure up to this status if he is immersed in accounting routine or is a 'slave' to the
operation of balancing.

Personal Qualities: The Management Accountant has perhaps the maximum chances
of going up high in the management hierarchy. He can make best use of the
opportunities if he possesses the following personal qualities: A personality
acceptable to all types of individuals that may make up the management group in a
company. The ability to receive the views of management with comprehension and to
appreciate the type of information management requires. An understanding of how to
fill the role of specialist and adviser. A know ledge of theory as well as practice of
management. A balanced outlook on functioning of the business. The capacity to
think and confer with top management about matters central to the profitability and
progress of the company.

4.2.5 The Controller and the Functions of Controllership

The term 'Controller' or 'Comptroller' is used in the United States of America for the top
management accountant executive in a firm. He is considered to be the figure partner in the
management team since he has the responsibility for collection of figures (statistical
information) both from within and outside the company. He has also to safeguard the
accuracy of such figures and also develop devices needed for their meaningful presentation
and interpretation. The general functions and duties of the controller have been laid down by
the Controllers Institute of America, as follows:

To establish, coordinate, and maintain through authorized management an integrated

plan for the control of operations. Such a plan would provide to the extent required in
the business cost standards, expense budgets, sales forecasts, profit planning, and
programme for capital investment and financing together with the necessary
procedures to effectuate the plan.
To measure performance against approved operating plans and standards, and to
report and interpret the results of operations to all levels of management. This

110

function includes the design, installation and maintenance of accounting and cost
systems and records, the determination of accounting policy, and the compilation of
statistical records as required.
To measure and report on the validity of the objectives of the business and on the
effectiveness of its policies, organization structure, and procedures in attaining those
objectives. This includes consulting with segments of management responsible for
policy or action concerning any phase of the operation of the business as it relates to
the performance of this function.
To report to government agencies, as required, and to supervise all matters relating to
taxes.
To interpret and report on the effect of external influences on the attainment of the
objectives of the business. This function includes the continuous appraisal of
economic and social forces and of governmental influence as they affect the
operations of the business.
To provide protection for the assets of the business. This function includes
establishing and maintaining adequate internal control and auditing, and assuring
proper insurance coverage.

As defined by the Controllers Institute of America the duties of Controller are as follows:

The installation and supervision of all accounting records of the corporation.

The preparation and interpretation of the financial statements and reports of the
corporation.
The continuous audit of all accounts and records of the corporation wherever located.
The compilation of costs of distribution.
The compilation of production costs.
The taking and costing of all physical inventories.
The preparation and filing of tax returns and the supervision of all matters relating to
taxes.
The preparation and interpretation of all statistical records and reports of the
corporation.
The preparation as budget director, in conjunction with other officers and
departmental heads, of an annual budget covering all activities of the corporation for
submission to the Board of Directors prior to the beginning of the fiscal year. The
authority of the controller with respect to the veto of commitments of expenditures
not authorized by the budget, shall, from time to time, be fixed by the Board of
Directors.
The ascertainment currently that the properties of the corporation are properly and
adequately insured.
The initiation, preparation and issuance of standard practices relating to all accounting
matters and procedures and the coordination of system throughout the corporation
including clerical and office methods, records, and procedures.
The maintenance of adequate records of authorized appropriations and the
determination that all sums expended pursuant thereto are properly accounted for.
The ascertainment currently that financial transactions covered by minutes of the
Board of Directors and/or the Executive Committee are properly executed and
recorded.
The maintenance of adequate records of all contracts and leases.
The approval for payment (and / or countersigning) of all cheques, promissory notes
and other negotiable instruments of the corporation which have been signed by the

111

Treasurer or such other officers as shall have been authorized by the by-laws of the
corporation or from time to time designated by the Board of Directors.
The examination of all warrants for the withdrawal of securities from the values of the
corporation and the determination that such withdrawals are made in conformity with
the by-laws and/or regulations established from time to time by the Board of
Directors.
The preparation or approval of the regulations or standard practices, required to assure
compliance with order or regulations issued by duly constituted governmental
agencies.

The Treasurer: Many people confuse the offices of controller or management accountant
and treasurer. As a matter of fact, both these officers generally work under the direct control
and supervision of Finance Manager who is the overall in charge of both finance and
accounting activities. The controller or the management accountant is the chief accountant
officer. His functions have already been explained in the preceding pages. The treasurer is the
person who has to manage the funds of the firm. His duties include forecasting and planning
the firm's financial needs, managing credit, raising funds by floating securities, administering
the flow of cash and safeguarding securities and funds etc., the functions and status of the
Controller and the Treasurer can be shown by means of the following organization chart.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.3 MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Besides the basic accounting principles which are accepted generally throughout the
accounting profession, the following are the additional conventions/principles which are now
generally regarded as essential part of management accounting:

Designing and Compiling: Accounting information, records, reports, statements, and

other evidence of past, present, or future results should be designed and compiled to
meet the needs of the particular business and/ or specific problem. This implies a
certain flexibility of system. When a particular problem is to be solved the system
should be capable of producing the relevant data. If necessary, there must be
departure from double-entry principles. Accounting and operational research
principles should be linked together. Information should be accumulated and then
presented to solve problems. The accounting information should be modified and
adapted to meet each need whenever possible. However, it is important to remember
that if this principle is carried too far, the cost of the management accountancy system
may become excessive. It is partly for this reason that a systematic rather than an ad
hoc method is used for accumulating costing data.

Management by Exception: The "principle of management by exception" is

followed when presenting information to management. This assumes that plans are
predetermined and then actual results are compared with expected results. If there are
no deviations there is no necessity to report. When there are variations from
predetermined plans, management is informed precisely of what is going wrong. In
this way, the information presented to management is kept to the minimum, yet at the
same time all-important facts are being revealed. What is more, management has less
to read and study and, therefore, should have more time to take action.

Control at Source Accounting: Costs are best controlled at the points at which they
are incurred-"Control-at-source accounting. Recognition of this convention is

112

acknowledged through the preparation of departmental operating statements and the

design of costing system, which control individual workers, material issues, and the
usage of services. The inculcation of cost consciousness is also an essential part of
this convention.

Accounting for Inflation: A profit cannot be said to be earned unless capital is

maintained intact in real terms. This convention recognizes that the monetary unit is
not stable. Attempts to overcome the effects of changes in the value of money have
been made via revaluation accounting, but as yet there is no general acceptance of the
theory. However, there is strong evidence that more and more accountants are
modifying their views to meet the dynamic state of business and the economy.

Use of ROI: Return on capital employed is used as the criterion for measuring the
efficiency of the business. For this purpose, the capital employed should be calculated
by reference to current replacement values.

Utility: Management accounting systems and related forms should be used only as
long as they serve a useful purpose.

Integration: There should be integration of all management information so that

fullest use is made of the facts available and at the same time, the accounting service
should be provided at minimum cost.

Absorption of Overhead Costs: Overhead cost should be apportioned to cost centers

and absorbed to products on the basis of benefits received for fixed costs or
responsibilities incurred for variable costs. The method or methods selected should
bring about the desired results of recovering the overheads in the most equitable
manner. However, this is subject to what is stated on this matter later in the chapter on
"Marginal Costing and Profit Planning".

Utilization of Resources: Management accountancy should endeavor to show

whether or not the resources of the business are being utilized in the most effective
manner.

Controllable and Uncontrollable Cost: When tracing responsibility a clear

distinction should be made between those costs, which are controllable, and those,
which are uncontrollable, by the management of the business or department
concerned.

Forward-Looking Approach: Management accountant should seek to anticipate

problems and prevent them. There should be a forward-looking approach, and actual
costs should be employed only as measures of achievements realized. This principle
recognizes the importance of budgetary control and standard costing.

Appropriate Means: The most appropriate means of accumulating, recording and

presenting the accountancy information should be selected. This normally implies that
mechanization should be adopted as much as possible. It does not mean that every
business should employ a computer. The machines selected should be of a size and
type that can economically be employed by the particular concern to deal with its own

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problems. If there is insufficient work for a computer, then clearly this should not be
acquired.

Personal Contact: Personal contact with departmental managers, foremen, and others
cannot be replaced entirely by reports and statements. The above list of conventions is
fairly long. However, it is not exhaustive on account of the subject of management
accounting being growing one. It may be possible that in the times to come many
more suitable conventions may be developed by the management accountants all over
the world which may take the form of universally acceptable management accounting
principles.

4.3.1 Management Accounting and Financial Accounting

Financial accounting and management accounting are closely interrelated since management
accounting is to a large extent rearrangement of the data provided by financial accounting.
Moreover, all accounting is financial in the sense that all accounting systems are in monetary
terms and management is responsible for the contents of the financial accounting statements.
In spite of such a close relationship between the two, there are certain fundamental
differences. These differences can be laid down as follows:

Objectives: Financial accounting is designed to supply information in the form of

Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet to external parties like shareholders,
creditors, banks, investors and Government. Information is supplied periodically and
is usually of such type in which management is not much interested. Management
accounting is designed principally for providing accounting information for internal
use by the management. Thus, financial accounting is primarily an external reporting
process while management accounting is primarily an internal reporting process.

Analyzing Performance: Financial accounting portrays the position of business as a

whole. The financial statements like income statement and balance sheet report on
overall performance or status of the business. On the other hand, management
accounting directs its attention to the various divisions, departments of the business
and reports about the profitability, performance, etc., of each of them. Financial
accounting deals with the aggregates and, therefore, cannot reveal what part of the
management action is going wrong and why. Management accounting provides
detailed analytical data for these purposes.

Data Used: Financial accounting is concerned with the monetary record of past
events. It is a post-mortem analysis of past activity and, therefore, out of date for
management action. Management accounting is accounting for future and therefore it
supplies data both for present and future duly analyzed and in detail in the
'management' language so that it becomes a base for management action.

Monetary Management: In financial accounting only such economic events find

place which can be described in money. However, the management is equally
interested in non-monetary economic events, viz., technical innovations, personnel in
the organization, changes in the value of money, etc. These events affect
management's decisions and therefore management accounting cannot afford to
ignore them. For example, change in the value of money may not find a place in
financial accounting on account of "going concern concept". But, while affecting an

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insurance policy on an asset or providing for replacement of an asset, the management

will have to take into account this factor.

Periodicity of Reporting: The period of reporting is much longer in financial

accounting as compared to management accounting. The Income Statement and the
Balance Sheet are usually prepared yearly or in some cases half-yearly. Management
requires information at frequent intervals and therefore financial accounting fails to
cater to the needs of the management. In management accounting there is more
emphasis on furnishing information quickly and at comparatively short intervals as
per the requirements of the management.

Precision: There is less emphasis on precision in case of management accounting as

compared to financial accounting since the information is meant for internal
consumption.

Nature: Financial accounting is more objective while management accounting is

more subjective. This is because management accounting is fundamentally based on
judgment rather than on measurement.

Legal Compulsion: Financial accounting has more or less become compulsory for
every business on account of the legal provisions of one or the other Act. However, a
business is free to install, or not to install, a system of management accounting. The
above points of difference between Financial Accounting and Management
Accounting prove that Management Accounting has flexible approach as compared to
rigid approach in the case of Financial Accounting. In brief, Financial Accounting
simply shows how the business has moved in the past while management accounting
shows how the business has to move in the future.

4.3.2 Cost Accounting and Management Accounting

Cost Accounting is the process of accounting for costs. It embraces the accounting
procedures relating to recording of all income and expenditure and the preparation of
periodical statements and reports with the object of ascertaining and controlling costs. It is,
thus, the formal mechanism by means of which the costs of products or services are
ascertained and controlled. On the other hand, management accounting involves collecting,
analyzing, interpreting and presenting all accounting information, which is useful to the
management. It is closely associated with management control which comprises planning,
executing, measuring and evaluating the performance of an organization. Thus, management
accounting draws heavily on cost data and other information derived from cost accounting.
Today cost accounting is generally indistinguishable from the so-called management
accounting or internal accounting because it serves multiple purposes. However, management
accounting can be distinguished from cost accounting in one important respect.
Management accounting has a wider scope as compared to cost accounting. Cost accounting
deals primarily with cost data while management accounting involves the considerations of
both cost and revenue. Management accounting is an all-inclusive accounting information
system, which covers financial accounting, cost accounting and all aspects of financial
management. But it is not a substitute for other accounting functions. It involves a continuous
process of reporting cost, financial and other relevant data in an analytical and informative
way to management. We should not be very much concerned with the boundaries of cost
accounting and management accounting since they are complementary in nature. In the

115

absence of a suitable system of cost accounting, management will not be in a position to have
detailed cost information and their function is bound to lose significance. On the other hand,
the management cannot effectively use the cost data unless it has been reported to them in a
meaningful and informative form.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.4 BASIC COST CONCEPTS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------You have seen how Management Accounting is different from other branches of accounting
.Now you will be introduced to some of the important terms and concepts of Cost
Accounting. We would be using these terms throughout the session. So, please study this
with utmost care. You should also know that Management Accounting as a subject stands on
Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting. So a sound basic knowledge of the same will
help you to Understand Management Accounting better.
In order to determine and take a dispassionate view about what lies beneath the surface of
accounting figures, a financial analyst has to make use of different management accounting
techniques. Cost techniques have a precedence over the other techniques since accounting
treatment of cost is often both complex and financially significant. For example, if a firm
proposes to increase its output by 10%, is it reasonable to expect total cost to increase by less
than 10%, exactly 10% or more than 10%? Such questions are concerned with the cost
behavior, i.e., the way costs change with the levels of activity. Answers to these questions are
very much pertinent for the management accountant or financial analyst since they are basic
for the firm's projections and profits which ultimately become the basis of all financial
decisions. It is, therefore, necessary for a financial analyst to have a reasonably good working
knowledge about basic cost concepts and patterns of cost behavior. All these come within the
ambit of cost accounting.

4.4.1 Objectives of Cost Accounting

In the initial stages cost accounting was merely considered to be a technique for
ascertainment of costs of products or services on the basis of historical data. In course of time
due to competitive nature of the market it was realized that ascertaining of cost is not as
important as controlling costs. Hence, cost accounting started to be considered more as a
technique for cost control as compared to cost ascertainment. Due to technological
developments in all fields, now cost reduction has also come within the ambit of cost
accounting. Cost accounting is, thus, concerned with recording, c1assifying and summarizing
costs for determination of costs of products or services, planning, controlling and reducing
such costs and furnishing of information to management for decision making.
According to Charles T. Horngren cost accounting is "a quantitative method that
accumulates, classifies, summarizes, and interprets information for three major purposes:

Operational planning and control

Special decisions,
Product decisions.

According to the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London, cost accounting is

the process of accounting for costs from the point at which its expenditure is incurred or
committed to the establishment of the ultimate relationship with cost units. In its widest
sense, it embraces the preparation of statistical data, the application of cost control methods

116

and the ascertainment of the profitability of the activities carried out or planned. Cost
accounting, thus, provides information to the management for decisions of all sorts. It serves
multiple purposes on account of which it is generally indistinguishable from management
accounting or so-called internal accounting. Wilmot has summarized the nature of cost
accounting as "the analyzing, recording, standardizing, forecasting, comparing, reporting and
recommending", and the role of a cost accountant as that of "a historian, news agent and
prophet." As a historian he must be meticulously accurate and sedulously impartial. As a
news agent he must be up to date, selective and pithy. As a prophet he must combine
"knowledge and experience with foresight and courage.
The main objectives of cost accounting can be summarized as follows:

Determining Selling Price: Business enterprises are run on a profit-making basis. 'It
is thus necessary that the revenue should be greater than the cost incurred in
producing goods and services from which the revenue is to be derived. Cost
accounting provides information regarding the cost to make and sell such products or
services. Of course, many other factors, such as the condition of the market, the area
of distribution, the quantity which can be supplied, etc., are also given due
consideration by the management before deciding upon the price, but the cost plays a
dominating role.

Determining and Controlling Efficiency: Cost accounting involves a study of the

various operations used in manufacturing a product or providing a service. The study
facilitates measuring of the efficiency of the organization as a whole or
departmentally as well as devising means of increasing the efficiency. Cost
accounting also uses a number of methods, e.g., budgetary control, standard costing
etc., for controlling costs. Each item of cost (viz., materials, labor and expenses) is
budgeted at the beginning of the period and actual expenses incurred are compared
with the budget. This greatly increases the operating efficiency of the enterprise.

Facilitating Preparation of Financial and Other Statements: The third objective of

cost accounting is to produce statements at such short intervals as the management
may require. The financial statements, prepared under financial accounting generally
once a year or half-year, are spaced too far apart in time to meet the needs of the
management. In order to operate the business at a high level of efficiency, it is
essential for the management to have a frequent review of production, sales and
operating results. Cost accounting provides daily, weekly or monthly volumes of units
produced, accumulated costs together with appropriate analysis. A developed cost
accounting system provides immediate information regarding stock of raw materials,
work-in-progress and finished goods. This helps in speedy preparation of financial
statements.

Providing Basis for Operating Policy: Cost accounting helps the management in
formulating operating policies. These policies may relate to any of the following
matters: Determination of cost-volume-profit relationship; Shutting down or operating
at a loss; Making or buying from outside suppliers; Continuing with the existing plant
and. machinery or replacing them by improved and economic ones.

117

4.4.2 Concept of Cost

Cost Accounting is concerned with cost and, therefore, it is but appropriate to understand the
meaning of the term cost in a proper perspective. In general, "cost" means "the amount of
expenditure (actual or notional) incurred on or attributable to a given thing However, the term
cost cannot be exactly defined. Its interpretation depends upon:

The nature of the business, or industry, and

The context in which it is used.

In a business where selling and distribution expenses are quite nominal, the cost of the article
may be calculated without considering the selling and distribution overheads. While in a
business where the nature of the product requires heavy selling and distribution expenses
calculation of cost without taking into account selling and distribution expenses may prove
very costly to the business. Then cost may be factory cost, office cost, cost of sales and even
an item of expense is also termed as cost. For example, prime cost includes expenditure on
direct materials, direct labor and direct expenses. Money spent on materials is termed as cost
of materials that spent on labor as cost of labor and so on. Thus, the use of term 'cost' without
qualification is also quite misleading. Again different costs are found out for different
purposes. The work-in-progress is valued at factory cost while stock of finished goods is
valued at office cost. Numerous other examples can be given to show that the term 'cost' does
not mean the same thing under all circumstances and for all purposes. Many items of cost of
production are handled in an optional manner which may give different costs for the same
product or job without in any way going against the accepted principles of cost accounting.
Depreciation is one of such items. Its amount varies in accordance with the method of
depreciation being used. However, endeavor should be to obtain as far as possible accurate
cost of a product or service.

4.4.3 Elements of Cost and Cost Sheet

There are three broad elements of cost:

Material: The substance from which the product is made is known as material. It may
be in a raw or a manufactured state. It can be direct as well as indirect.
Direct Material: All material which becomes an integral part of the finished product
and which can be conveniently assigned to specific physical units is termed as Threat
Material. Following are some of the examples of direct material: All material or
components specifically purchased, produced or requisitioned from stores. Primary
packing material (e.g., carton, wrapping, cardboard, boxes, etc.) Purchased or partly
produced components. Direct material is also described as process material, prime
cost material, production material, stores material, constructional material, etc.
Indirect Material: All material which is used for purposes ancillary to the business
and which cannot be conveniently assigned to specific physical units is termed as
"Indirect Material". Consumable stores, oil and waste, printing and stationery
material, etc., are a few examples of indirect material. Indirect material may be used
in the factory, the office or the selling and distribution divisions.

Labour: For conversion of materials into finished goods, human effort is needed;
such human effort is called labour. Labor can be direct as well as indirect.

118

Direct Labour: Labour which plays an active and direct part in the production of a
particular commodity is called direct labour. Direct labour costs are, therefore,
specifically and conveniently traceable to specific products. Direct labour is also
described as process labour, productive labour, operating labour, etc.
Indirect Labour: Labour employed for the purpose of carrying out tasks incidental to
goods produced or services provided, is indirect labour. Such labour does not alter the
construction, composition or condition of the product. It cannot be practically traced
to specific units of output. Wages of store-keepers, foremen, time-keepers, directors
fees, salaries of salesmen etc. are all examples of indirect labour costs. Indirect labour
may relate to the factory, the office or the selling and distribution divisions.

Expenses: Expenses may be direct or indirect.

Direct Expenses: These are expenses which can be directly, conveniently and wholly
allocated to specific cost centers or cost units. Examples of such expenses are: hire of
some special machinery required for a particular contract, cost of defective work
incurred in connection with a particular job or contract, etc. Direct expenses are
sometimes also described as "chargeable expenses.
Indirect Expenses: These are expenses which cannot be directly, conveniently and
wholly allocated to cost centers or cost units. Examples of such expenses are rent,
lighting, insurance charges, etc.

Overhead: The term overhead includes indirect material, indirect labour and indirect
expenses. Thus, all indirect costs are overheads. A manufacturing organization can
broadly be divided into three divisions: (i) Factory or Works where production is
done; Factory Overheads. They include: Indirect material used in the factory such as
lubricants, oil, consumable stores, etc. Indirect labour such as gate-keeper's salary,
time-keeper's salary, works managers salary, etc. Indirect expenses such as factory
rent, factory insurance, factory lighting, etc. (ii) Office and Administration, where
routine as well as policy matters are decided; Office and Administration Overheads.
They include: Indirect material used in the office such as printing and stationery
material, brooms and dusters, etc. Indirect labour such as salaries payable to office
manager, office accountant, clerks, etc. Indirect expenses such as rent, insurance,
lighting of the office. (iii) Selling and Distribution where products are sold and finally
dispatched to the customer. Overheads may be incurred in the factory or office or
selling and distribution divisions. Thus, overheads may be of three types: Selling and
Distribution Overheads. They include: Indirect material used such as packing
material, printing and stationery material, etc. Indirect labour such as salaries of
salesmen and sales manager etc. Indirect expenses such as rent, insurance, advertising
expenses, etc.

Cost Sheet: It is a document which provides for the assembly of the estimated detailed cost
in respect of cost centers and cost units. It analyses and classifies in a tabular form the
expenses on different items for a particular period. Additional columns may also be provided
to show the cost of a particular unit pertaining to each item of expenditure and the total per
unit cost. Cost Sheet may be prepared on the basis of actual data (Historical Cost Sheet), on
the basis of estimated data (Estimated Cost Sheet) depending on the technique employed and
the purpose to be achieved. The techniques of preparing cost sheet can be understood with the
help of the following illustrations mentioned below:

119

Illustration 4.1: The following information has been obtained from the records of left center
corporation for the period form June 1 to June 30 1998.
Cost of raw materials on June 1.1998
Purchase of raw materials during the month
Wages paid
Factory overheads
Cost of work in progress on June 1. 1998
Cost of raw materials on June 30, 1998
Cost of stock of finished goods on June 1, 1998
Cost of stock of finished goods on June 30 1998
Selling and distribution overheads
Sales
Administration overheads

Rs. 30000
Rs.450000
Rs.230000
Rs.92000
Rs.12000
Rs.15000
Rs.60000
Rs.55000
Rs.20000
Rs.900000
Rs.30000

Solution:
Statement of Cost of Production of Goods Manufactured
For the period ending on June 30, 1998
Opening stock of raw materials
Add: purchase

Rs. 30000
450000
--------------480000
15000

Rs.

465000
230000
659000
92000
787000
12000
799000
--799000
30000
829000
60000
889000
55000
834000
20000
854000
46000
900000

Less: closing stock of raw material

Value of raw materials consumed
Wages
Prime cost
Factory overheads
Add: opening stock of work in progress
Less: closing stock of work in progress
Factory Cost
Add: Administration overhead
Cost of production of goods manufactured
Add: opening stock of finished goods
Less: closing stock of finished goods
Cost of production of goods sold
Add; selling and distribution overheads
Cost of sales
Profit
sales

Illustration 4.2:

120

From the following particulars prepare a cost sheet showing the total cost per tone for the
period ended 31st December 1998
Raw materials

Rs.33000

Rent and taxes

(office)

Rs.500

Productive wages

Rs.35000

Water supply

Rs.1200

Direct expenses

Rs.3000

Factory insurance

Rs.1100

Unproductive wages

Rs.10500

Office insurance

Rs.500

Factory rent and

taxes

Rs.2200

Legal expenses

Rs.400

Factory lighting

Rs.1500

Rent of warehouse

Rs.300

Factory heating

Rs.4400

Depreciation:

Motive power

Rs.3000

Plant and machinery

Rs.2000

Haulage

Rs.1000

Office building

Rs.1000

Delivery vans

Rs.200

Rs.500

Bad debt

Rs.100

Rs.200

Advertising

Rs.300

Sundry office
expenses

Rs.800

Sales department
salaries

Rs.1500

Expenses

Rs.750

Up keeping of
delivery vans

Rs.700

Factory stationery

Rs.900

Bank charges

Rs.50

Rs.600

Commission on
sales

Directorys fees
(works)
Directors
fees(office)
Factory cleaning

Office stationery
Loose tools written
off

Rs.2000

The total output for the period has been 10000 tones.

Solution:
Cost sheet
For the period ended 31st December 1998

121

Rs.1500

Raw materials
Production wages
Direct expenses
Prime cost
Add: works overheads:
Unproductive wages
Factory rent and taxes
Factory lighting
Factory heating
Motive power
Haulage
Directory fees(works)
Factory cleaning
Estimating expenses
Factory stationery
Loses tools written off
Water supply
Factory insurance
Depreciation of plant and machinery
Works cost
Add: office overhead: Directors fees)office)
Sundry office expenses
Office stationery
Rent and taxes (office)
Office insurance
Legal expenses
Depreciation of office building
Bank charges
Office cost
Add: selling and distribution overheads:
Rent of warehouse
Depreciation on delivery vans
Bad debts
Advertising
Sales department salaries
Commission on sales
Upkeep of delivery vans
Total cost
Cost per tone Rs. 118200/10000= Rs. 11.82

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Rs.
33000
35000
3000
71000
10500
7500
2200
1500
4400
3000
1000
500
800
750
600
1200
1100
2000
2000
200
900
500
500
400
1000
50
300
200
100
300
1500
1500
700

37050
108050

5550
113600

4600
118200

4.4.4 Classification of Cost

Cost may be classified into different categories depending upon the purpose of classification.
Some of the important categories in which the costs are classified are as follows:
Fixed, Variable and Semi-variable Costs: The cost which varies directly in proportion to
every increase or decrease in the volume of output or production is known as variable cost.
The cost which does not vary but remains constant within a given period of time and range of
activity in spite of the fluctuations in production, is known as fixed cost. The cost which does
not vary proportionately but simultaneously cannot remain stationary at all times is known as
semi-variable cost. It can also be named as semi-fixed cost. Example: - Fixed Costs: Rent or
rates, Insurance charges; Management salary, etc. Variable Cost: Wages of laborers Cost of
direct material, power, etc. Semi-variable Costs: Depreciation, repairs, etc. Fixed costs are
sometimes referred to as "period costs" and variable costs as "direct costs" in system of direct
costing. Fixed costs can be further basified into committed fixed costs and Discretionary
fixed costs. Committed; Fixed Costs consist largely of those fixed costs that arise from the
possession of plant, equipment and a basic organization structure. For example, once building
is erected and plant is installed, nothing much can be done to reduce the costs such as of
depreciation, property taxes, insurance and salaries of the key personnel, etc., without
impairing the organizations competence to meet the long-term goals. Discretionary Fixed
Costs are those which are set at fixed amount for specific time periods by the management in
the budgeting process. These costs directly reflect top management policies and have no
particular relationship with volume of output. These costs can therefore be reduced or entirely
eliminated, if the circumstances so require. Examples of such costs are research and
development costs, advertising and sales promotion costs, donations, management consulting
fees, etc. These costs are also termed as managed or programmed costs. In rare
circumstances, the variable costs are classified into discretionary and engineered costs the
term discretionary costs is generally linked with a class of fixed costs. However, in those
circumstances where the management has predetermined that the organization would spend a
certain percentage of its sales for the items like research, donations, sales promotion, etc.,
discretionary costs will be of a variable character. Engineered variable costs are those
variable costs which are directly related to the production or sales level. These costs exist in
those circumstances where specific relationship exists between input and output. For
example, in an automobile industry there may be exact specifications: one radiator, two fan
belts, one battery etc., would be required for one car. In case more than one car is to" be
produced, the various inputs will have to be increased in the direct proportion of the output.
Thus, an increase in discretionary variable costs is due to management's authorization while
'increase in engineered variable costs is due to volume of output or sales.
Product Costs and Period Costs: Costs which become parts of the cost of the product rather
than an expense of the period in which they are incurred are called as "Product costs." They
are included in inventory values. In financial statements such costs are treated as assets until
the goods they are assigned to, are sold. They become an expense at that time. These costs
may be fixed as well as variable, e.g., cost of raw materials and direct wages, depreciation on
plant and equipment, etc. Costs which are not associated with production are called "Period
Costs". They are treated as an expense of the period in which they are interred. They may
also be fixed as well as variable. Such costs include general administration costs, salesmen
salaries and commission, depreciation on office facilities, etc. They are charged against the
revenue of the relevant period. Differences of opinion exist regarding whether certain costs
should be considered as product or period costs. Some accountants are of the opinion that

123

fixed manufacturing costs are more closely related to the passage of time than to the
manufacturing of the product. Thus, according to them variable manufacturing costs are
product costs, while fixed manufacturing and other costs are period costs. However, their
view does not seem to have been yet widely accepted.
Direct and Indirect Costs: The expenses on material and labour economically and easily
traceable to a product, service or job are considered as direct costs. In the process of
manufacture of production of articles, materials are purchased, laborers are employed and the
wages are paid to them, certain other expenses are also incurred directly. All of these take an
active and direct part in the manufacture of a particular commodity, hence are called direct
costs. The expenses incurred on those items which are not directly- chargeable to production
are known as indirect costs. For example, in production, salaries of timekeepers,
storekeepers, foremen are paid; certain expenses for running the administration are incurred.
All, of these cannot be conveniently allocated to production and hence are called 'indirect
costs.
Decision-making Costs and Accounting Costs: Decision-making costs are special purpose
costs that are applicable only in the situation in which they are compiled. They have no
universal application. "They need not tie into routine- financial accounts. They do not and
should not conform to the accounting rules accounting costs are compiled primarily from
financial statements. They have to be altered before they can be used for decision-making.
Moreover, they are historical costs and show what has happened under an existing set of
circumstances. While decision-making costs are future costs, they represent what is expected
to happen under an assumed set of conditions. For example, accounting costs may show the
cost of the product when the operations are manual, while decision-making cost might be
calculated to show the costs when the operations are mechanized.
Relevant and Irrelevant Costs: Relevant costs are those, which would be changed by the
managerial decision. While irrelevant costs are those, which would not be affected by the
decision. For example, if a manufacturer is considering closing down of an unprofitable retail
sales shop, wages payable to the workers -of the shop are relevant in this connection since
they will disappear on closing down of the shop. But prepaid rent for the shop or un
recovered costs of any equipment which will have to be scrapped will be irrelevant costs
which must be ignored.
Shutdown and Sunk Costs: A manufacturer or an organization rendering service may have
to suspend its operations for a period on account of some temporary difficulties, e.g., shortage
of raw material, non-availability of requisite labour etc. During this period though no work is
done yet certain fixed costs, such as, rent and insurance of buildings, depreciation,
maintenance, etc., for the entire plant will have to be incurred. Such costs of the idle plant are
known as shutdown costs. Sunk costs are historical or past costs. These are costs which have
been created by a decision that was made in the past that cannot be changed by any decision
that will be made in the future. Investments in plant and machinery, buildings, etc., are prime
examples of such costs. Since sunk costs cannot be altered by later decisions, they are
irrelevant for decision-making. An individual may regret having made a purchase or
constructing an asset but having purchased or constructed it, cannot avoid it by taking any
subsequent action. Of course, the asset can be sold, in which case the cost of the asset will be
matched against the proceeds from sale of the asset for the purpose of determining gain or
loss. The person may decide to continue to own the asset in which case the cost of the asset
will be matched against the revenue realized over its effective life. However, he cannot avoid
that cost which has already been incurred by him for the acquisition of the asset. It is, as a

124

matter of fact, the sunk cost for all present and future decisions. Example Jolly Ltd.
purchased a machine for Rs. 30,000. The machine has an operating life of five years without
any scrap value. Soon after making the purchase, the management of Jolly Ltd., feels that the
machine should not have been purchased since it cannot yield the operating advantage
originally contemplated. Of course, it is expected to result in savings in operating costs of Rs.
18,000 over a period of five years. The machine can be sold immediately for a sum of Rs.
22,000. In taking the decision whether the machine should be sold or be used, the relevant
amounts to be compared are Rs. 18,000 in cost savings over five years and Rs.22.1000 that
can be realized in case it is immediately disposed of. Rs. 30,000 invested in the asset is not
relevant since it is the same in both cases. The amount is the sunk cost. Jolly Ltd., shuttled,
therefore, sell the machinery for Rs. 22,000 since it will result in an extra profit of Rs. 4,000
as compared to keeping "and using it.
Controllable and Uncontrollable Costs: Controllable costs are those costs which can be
influenced by the ratio or a specified member of the undertaking. Costs which cannot be so
influenced are termed as uncontrollable costs. A factory is usually divided into a number of
responsibility centers, each of which is in charge of a specified level of management. The
officer-in-charge of a particular department or cost centre can control costs only of those
matters which come directly under his control, but not of other matters. For example the
expenditure incurred by the Tool Room is controllable by the foreman-in-charge of that
section but the share of the tool room expenditure which is apportioned to a machine shop
cannot be controlled by a machine' shop foreman. Thus, the difference between controllable
and uncontrollable costs is only in relation to a particular individual or level of management.
An expenditure which is controllable by one individual may be uncontrollable so far as
another individual is concerned.
Avoidable or Escapable Costs and Unavoidable or Inescapable Costs: Avoidable costs
are those which will be eliminated, if a segment of the business (e.g., a product or
department) with which they are directly related is discontinued. Unavoidable costs are those
which will not be eliminated with the segment. Such costs are merely reallocated if the
segment is discontinued. For example, in case a product is discontinued, the salary of the
factory manager or factory rent cannot be eliminated. It will simply mean that certain other
products will have to absorb a large amount of such overheads. However, salary of colorless
attached to the product or bad debts traceable to the product would be eliminated. Certain
costs are partly avoidable and partly unavoidable, e.g., closing- of one department of a store
might result in decrease in delivery expenses but not in their altogether elimination. It is to be
noted that only avoidable costs are relevant for deciding whether to continue or eliminate a
segment of the business.
Imputed or Hypothetical Costs: These are costs which do not involve cash outlay. They are
not included in cost accounts but are important for taking into consideration while making
management decisions. For example, interest on capital is ignored in cost accounts though it
is considered in financial accounts. In case two projects require unequal outlays of cash, the
management must take into consideration interact on capital to judge the relative profitability
of the projects.
Differentials, Incremental or Decrement Cost: The difference in total cost between two
alternatives is termed as differential cost. In case the choice of an alternative results in
increase in total cost, such increased costs are' known as incremental costs. While assessing
the profitability of a proposed change, the incremental costs are matched with incremental
revenue. This is illustrated with the following illustration.

125

Illustration 4.3
A company is manufacturing 1,000 units of -a product. The present costs and sales data are as
follows: Selling price per unit Rs.10; Variable cost per unit Rs.5; Fixed costs Rs. 4,000. The
management is considering the following two alternatives. To accept an export order for
another 200 units at Rs. 8 per unit the expenditure of the export order will increase the fixed
costs by Rs. 500. To reduce the production from present 1,000 units to 600 units and buy
another 400 units from the market at Rs. 6 per unit. This will result in reducing the present
fixed costs from Rs. 4,000 to Rs. 3,000. Which alternative the management should accept?
Advice.
Solution:
Statement Showing Profitability under Different Alternatives
Particulars Present Situation
Rs.
Rs.
10,000
Sales
Less:
Variable
purchase
costs
5,000
Less Fixed cost 4000
9000
Profit

Proposed Situations (Rs.)

Rs.
11600

6000
4500

1000

10000

5400
3000
10500

8400

1100

1600

Observations: In the present situation, the company is making a profit of Rs. 1,000.
In the proposed situation I, the company makes a profit of Rs. 1,100.
The incremental costs are Rs. 1,500 (e.g. Rs. 10,500 - Rs. 9,000) while the
incremental revenue (sales) amounts to Rs. 1,600. Hence, there is net gain of Rs. 100
under the proposed situation compared to the existing situation.
In the proposed situation II, as the detrimental costs are Rs. 600 (i.e. Rs. 9,000 Rs.
8,400) while there is no decrease in sales revenue as compared to the present
situation. Hence, there is a net gain of Rs. 600 as compared to the present situation.
Thus, under proposal II, the company makes the maximum profit and therefore it may
adopt alternative II. The technique of differential costing, which is based on differential
cost, is useful in planning and decision-making and helps in selecting the best alternative.
This aspect has been discussed in detail later in a separate chapter. In case the choice
results in decrease in total costs, such decreased costs are termed as detrimental costs.
Out-of-Pocket Costs: Out-of-pocket cost means the present or future cash expenditure
regarding a certain decision, which will vary depending upon the nature of the decision made.
For example, a company has its own trucks for transporting raw materials and finished
products from one place to another. It seeks to replace these trucks by employment of public
carriers of goods. In making this decision, of course, the depreciation of the trucks is not to be

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considered, but the management must take into account the present expenditure on fuel,
salary to drivers and maintenance. Such costs are termed as out-of-pocket costs.
Opportunity Cost: Opportunity cost refers to the advantage, in measurable terms, which has
been foregone on account of not using the facilities in the manner originally planned. For
example, if an owned building is proposed to be utilized for housing a new project plant, the
likely revenue which the building could fetch if rented out, is the opportunity cost which
should be taken into account while evaluating the profitability of the project. Similarly, if a
manufacturer is confronted with the problem of selecting anyone of the following
alternatives: (a) selling a semi-finished product at Rs. 2 per unit, and (b) introducing it into a
further process to make it more refined and valuable Alternative (b) will prove to be
remunerative only when after paying the cost of further processing the amount realized by the
sale of the product is more than Rs. 2 per unit-their revenue which could have been otherwise
realized. The revenue of Rs. 2 per unit is foregone in case alternative (b) is adopted. The term'
opportunity cost' refers to this alternative revenue foregone.
Traceable, Untraceable or Common Costs: Costs which can be easily identified with a
department, process or product are termed as traceable costs, e.g., the cost of direct material,
direct labour, etc. Costs which cannot be so identified are termed as untraceable or common
costs. In other words, common costs are costs incurred collectively for a number of cost
centers and are to be suitably apportioned for determining the cost of individual cost centers,
e.g., overheads incurred for a factory as a whole, combined purchase cost for purchasing
several materials in one consignment, etc. Joint costs are a sort of common costs. When two
or mote products are produced out of one and the same material or process, the costs of such
material or process are called that costs. For example when cotton seed and cotton fiber are
produced from the same materials the cost incurred till the split-off or separation point will be
"joint costs".
Production, Administration and Selling and Distribution Costs A business organization
performs a number of functions, e.g., production, illustration, selling and distribution,
research and development. Costs are to be curtained for each of these functions. The
Chartered Institute of Management accountants, London, have defined each of the above
costs as follows: (i) Production Cost: The cost of the sequence of operations which begin
with supplying materials, labour and services and ends with the primary packing of the
product. Thus, it includes the cost of direct material, direct labour, direct expenses and
factory overheads. (ii) Administration Cost: The cost of formulating the policy, directing
the organization and controlling the operations of an undertaking, which is not related
directly to a production, selling, distribution, research or development activity or function.
(iii) Selling Cost: The cost of seeking to create and stimulate demand (sometimes termed as
marketing) and of securing orders. (iv) Distribution Cost: The cost of sequence of
operations which begins with making the packed product available for dispatch and ends with
making the reconditioned returned empty package; if any, available for re-use. (v) Research
Cost: The cost of searching for new or improved products, new application of materials, or
new or improved methods. (vi) Development Cost: The cost of the process which begins
with the implementation of the decision to produce a new or improved product or employ a
new or improved method and ends with the commencement of formal production of that
product or by the method. (vii) Pre-production Cost: That part of development cost incurred
in making a trial production run preliminary to formal production.

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Conversion Cost: The cost of transforming direct materials into finished products, exclusive
of direct material cost, is known as the conversion cost. It is usually taken as the aggregate of
tile cost of direct labour, direct expenses and factory overheads.
Illustration 4.4
ZED Ltd. operates two shops. Product A is manufactured in Shop 1 and customer's job
against specific orders are, being carried out in Shop 2. Its annual statement of come is:
Particulars

Shop 1
(Product A) Rs.
1,25,000
40,000
45,000
18,000
2,000
5,000
500
4,500
1,15,000
10,000

Sales/Income
Material
Wages
Depreciation
Power
Rent
Heat and Light
Other Expenses
Total Costs
Net Income

Shop 2
(Job Works) Rs.
2,50,000
50,000
1,00,000
31,500
3,500
30,000
3,000
2,000
2,20,000
30,000

Total Rs.
3,75,000
90,000
1,45,000
49,500
5,500
35,000
3,500
6,500
3,35,000
40,000'

The depreciation charges are for machines used in the shops. The rent and heat and light are
apportioned between the shops on the basis of floor area occupied. All other costs are current
expenses identified with the output in a particular shop.
A valued customer has given a job to manufacture 5,000 units of X for shop 2. As the
company is already working at its full capacity, it will have to reduce the output of product A
by 50%, to accept the said job. The customer is wining to pay Rs. 35 per unit of X. The
material and labour will cost Rs. 10 and Rs. 18 respectively per unit. Power will be consumed
on the job just equal to the power saved on account of- reduction of output 6f A. In addition
the company will have to incur additional overheads of Rs. 10,000.
You are required to compute the following in respect of this job:
(a) Differential cost; (b) Full Cost; (c) Opportunity Cost; and (d) Sunk Cost. Advise whether
the company should accept the job.
Solution
Particulars

Computation of Differential Cost of the Job

Increase Rs.

Material Cost
Labour Cost
Additional Overheads
Other Expenses
Total

50,000
90,000
10,000
-------50,000

Decrease Rs.
20000
22500
---------2250
44,750

Net differential cost of tee jobs: (Rs. 1, 50,00o-Rs. 44,750) = Rs. 1, 05,250
Note: Depreciation, rent, heat and light and power are not going to affect the costs.

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Computation of Full Cost of the Job

Cost calculated as above under (a) (i.e., increased costs)
Depreciation
Power
Rent
Heat & Light
Total

Rs.1, 50,000
9,000
1,000
2,500
250
1,62,750

Computation of Opportunity Cost of Taking the Order

Sales of Product A
Rs.
Rs.
Less:
62,500
Material
20,000
Labour
22,500
Power
1,000
Other Expenses
2,250
-----------45,750
Total

16,750
Computation of Sunk Cost of the Job
Rs.
9,000
1,000
2,500
250
12,750

Depreciation
Power*
Rent
Heat & light
Total
Advice: ZED Ltd. should not accept the job since
computed below:
Incremental Revenue 5,000 units @ Rs. 25
LESS: Sale of product A
Differential Cost as computed under (A) above
Cash Loss

there will be a cash loss of Rs. 42,750 as

1, 25,000
62,500 62,500
1, 05,250
42,750

4.4.5 Cost Unit and Cost Centre

The technique of costing involves: (i) collection and classification of expenditure according
to cost elements and (ii) allocation and apportionment of the expenditure to the cost centers
or cost units, or both. The elements of costs have already been discussed in the previous
pages. The meaning of the terms' cost unit' and' cost center are as follows:
Cost Unit: In preparing cost accounts it becomes necessary to select a unit with which
expenditure may be identified. The quantity upon which cost can be conveniently allocated is
known as a unit of cost or cost unit. The Chartered Institute of management Accountants,
London, defines a unit, of cost as a unit of quantity of product, service or time in relation to
which costs may be ascertained or expressed.

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Unit selected should be unambiguous, simple and commonly used. Following are examples
of units of cost:
Brick Works
Collieries
Textile Mills
Electricity companies
Transport companies
Steel mills

per 1000 bricks made

pwr tonne of coal raised
per yard or per lb. of cloth manufactured
per unit of electricity generated
per passenger km. per tonne km.
per tonne of steel made.

Cost Centre: According to the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London,

cost centre means "a location, person or item of equipment (or group of these) for which costs
may be ascertained and used for the purpose of cost control". Thus, cost centre refers to one
of the convenient units into which the whole factory/organization has been appropriately
divided for costing purposes. Each such unit consists of a department or a sub-department or
item or equipment or machinery or a person or a group of persons. Sometimes, closely
associated departments are combined together and considered as one unit for costing
purposes. For example, in a laundry, activities such as collecting, sorting, marking and
washing of clothes are performed. Each activity may be considered as a. separate cost centre
and all costs relating to a particular cost centre may be found out separately. Cost centers may
be classified as follows:

Productive, unproductive and mixed cost centers.

Personal and impersonal cost centers.
Operation and process cost centers.

Productive cost centres are those, which are actually engaged in making the products. Service
or unproductive cost centres do not make the products but are essential aids to the productive
centres. Examples of such service centres are those of administration, repairs and
maintenance, stores and drawing office departments. Mixed costs centres are those, which are
engaged sometimes on productive and other times on service works. For example, a tool shop
serves as a productive cost centre when it manufactures dies and jigs to be charged to specific
jobs or orders but serves as servicing cost centre when it does repairs for the factory.
Impersonal cost centre is one, which consists of a department, plant or item of equipment.
While a personal cost centre is one, which consists of a person or group of persons. In case a
cost centre consists of those machines and/or persons which carry out the same operation it is
termed as operation cost centre. If a cost centre consists of a continuous sequence of
operations, it is called process cost centre.
In case of an operation cost centre all machines or operators performing the same operation
are brought together tinder one centre. The objective of such an analysis is to ascertain the
cost of each operation irrespective of its location inside the factory. In the process type cost
centre the cost is analyzed and related to a series of operations in sequence, such as in
chemical industries, oil refineries and other process industries.
Cost Estimation and Cost Ascertainment: Cost estimation is the process of predetermining the costs of a certain product job or order. Such pre-determination may be
required for several purposes such as budgeting, measurement of performance efficiency,
preparation of financial statements (valuation of stocks, etc.), make or buy decisions, fixation
of the sale prices of the products etc. Cost ascertainment is the process of determining costs
on the basis of actual data. Hence, computation of historical costs is cost ascertainment while
computation of future costs is cost estimation. Cost estimation as well cost ascertainment

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both are interrelated and are of immense use to the management. In case a concern has a
sound costing system, the ascertained costs will greatly help the management in. the process
of estimation of rational accurate costs which are so necessary for a variety of purposes stated
above. Moreover, the ascertained cost may be compared with the pre-determined costs on a
continuing basis and proper and timely steps be taken for controlling costs and maximizing
profits.
Cost Allocation and Cost Apportionment: Cost allocation and cost apportionment are the
two procedures which describe the identification and allotment of costs to cost centres or cost
units. Cost allocation refers to the allotment of whole items of cost to cost centres or cost
units while cost apportionment refers to the allotment of proportions of items of cost to cost
centres or cost units Thus, the former involves the process of charging direct expenditure to
Cost centres or cost units while the latter involves the process of charging indirect
expenditure to cost centres or cost units. For example, the cost of labour engaged in a service
department can be charged wholly and directly to it but the canteen expenses of the factory
cannot be charged directly and wholly to it. Its proportionate share will have to be found out.
Charging of costs in the former case will be termed as "allocation of costs" while in the latter
as "apportionment of costs"
Cost Reduction and Cost Control: Cost reduction and cost control are two different
concepts. Cost control is achieving the cost target as its objective while cost reduction is
directed to explore the possibilities of improving the targets themselves. Thus, cost control
ends when targets are achieved while cost reduction has no visible end. It is a continuous
process. The difference between the two can be summarized as follows: (i) Cost control aims
at maintaining the costs in accordance with established standards, while cost reduction is
concerned with reducing costs. It changes all standards and endeavors to better them
continuously. (ii) Cost control seeks to attain lowest possible cost under existing conditions.
While cost reduction recognizes no condition as permanent, since a change will result in
lower cost (iii) In case of cost control, emphasis is on past and present, while in case of cost
reduction. It is on the present and future. (iv) Cost control is a preventive function, while cost
reduction is a correlative function. It operates even when an efficient cost control system
exists.

4.4.6 Installation of Costing System

The installation of a costing system requires careful consideration of the following two
interrelated aspects:

Overcoming of the practical difficulties, in introducing the system.

Main considerations that should govern the installation of such a system.

Practical Difficulties: The important difficulties in the installation of a costing system and
the suggestions to overcome them are listed below:

Lack of Support from Top Management: Many a time the costing system is
introduced at the behest of the managing director or the other director without first
preparing the other members of the top management team. This results in opposition
from the various managers as they consider it an interference as well as an uncalled
for check on their activities. They therefore, resist the additional work involved in the
cost accounting system. This difficulty can be overcome by taking the top

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management into confidence before installing the system. A sense of cost

consciousness has to be instilled in their minds.

Resistance from the Existing Staff: The existing financial accounting staff may
offer resistance to the system because of a feeling of their being declared redundant
under the new system. This fear can be done away with by explaining to the staff that
the costing system would not replace but strengthen the existing system. It shall open
for them new areas for development.

Non-co-operation at Other Levels: The foreman and other supervisory staff may
resent the additional paper work and may not co-operate in providing the basic data
which is so essential for the success of the system. This needs re-orientation and
education of employees. They have to be told of the advantages that will accrue to
them and to the organization as a whole on account of efficient working of the system.

Shortage of Trained Staff: Costing is a specialized job in itself. In the beginning,

therefore, qualified staff may not be available. However, this difficulty can be
overcome by giving the existing staff requisite training and. recruiting additional staff,
if required.

Heavy Costs: The costing system will involve heavy costs unless it has been suitably
designed to suit specific requirements. Unnecessary sophistication and formalities
should be avoided. The costing office should serve as a useful service department.

Main Considerations: In view of the above difficulties and suggestions to overcome them,
the following should be the main considerations to be kept in mind while introducing a
costing system in a manufacturing organization:

The Product: The nature of the product determines to a great extent the type of
costing system to be adopted. A product requiring high value of material content
requires an elaborate system of materials control. Similarly, a product requiring high
value of labour content requires an efficient time-keeping and wage systems. The
same is true in case of overheads.

The Organization: The existing organization should be disturbed as little as possible

it becomes, therefore, necessary to ascertain the size and type of organization before
introducing the costing system. The scope of authority of each executive the sources
from which the cost accountant has to derive information and reports to be submitted
at various managerial levels should be carefully gone through.

The Objective. The objectives and information which the management wants to
achieve and acquire are also to be cared for. For example, if the concern wants to
expand its operations, the system of costing should be designed in a way so as to give
maximum attention to production aspect. On the other hand, in case of a concern,
which is not in a position to sell its products, the selling aspect would require greater
attention.

The Technical Details: The system should be introduced after a detailed study of the
technical aspects of the business. Efforts should be made to secure the sympathetic

132

assistance and support of the principal members of the supervisory staff and
workmen.

Informative and Simple: The system should be informative and simple. In this
connection the following points may be noted: (i) it should be capable of furnishing
fullest information required regularly and systematically, so that continuous study
check-up of the progress of business is possible. (ii) Standard printed forms can be
used so as to make the information detailed, clear and intelligible. Over-elaboration,
which will only complicate matters, should be avoided. (iii) Full information about
departmental outputs, processes and operations must be clearly presented and every
item of expenditure must be properly classified. (iv) Data, complete and reliable in all
respects, should be provided in a lucid form so that measurement of the variations
between actual and standard costs is possible.

Method of Maintenance of Cost Records: A choice has to be made between integral

and non-integral accounting systems. In case of integral accounting system no
separate set of books are maintained for costing transactions but they are interlocked
with financial transactions into one set of books. In case of non-integral system
separate books are maintained for cost and financial transactions. At the end of the
accounting period the results shown by the two sets of books are reconciled. In case of
a big business it will be appropriate to maintain a separate set of books for cost
transactions.

Elasticity: The costing system should be elastic and capable of adapting to the
changing requirements of the business. It may, therefore, be concluded from the
above discussion that costing system introduced in any business will not be a success
if it is unduly complicated and expensive; if cost accountant does not get the cooperation of the staff; if cost statements cannot be reconciled with financial
statements; and if the results actually achieved are not compared with the expected
ones.

4.4.7 Methods, Techniques and Systems of Costing

Costing has been defined as "the technique and process of ascertaining costs. The principles
in every method of costing are the same but the methods of analyzing and presenting the
costs differ with the nature of business.

Job Costing: Where production is not highly repetitive and, in addition, consists of
distinct jobs or lots so that material and labour costs can be identified by order
number, the system of job costing is used. This method of costing is very common in
commercial foundries and drop forging shops and in plants making specialized
industrial equipments. In all these cases an account is opened for each job and all
appropriate expenditure is charged thereto.

Contract Costing: Contract costing does not in principle differ from job costing. A
contract is a big job while a job is a small contract. The term is usually applied where
at different sites large-scale contracts are carried out. In case of ship-builders, printers,
building contractors etc., this system of costing is used. Job or contract is also termed
as 'Terminal Costing'.

133

Cost plus Costing: In contracts where besides' cost' an agreed sum or percentage to
cover overheads and fit is paid to the contractor, the system is termed as cost plus
costing. The term cost here includes materials, labour, and expenses incurred directly
in the process of production. The system is used generally in cases where Government
happens to be the contracted.

Batch Costing: Where orders or jobs are arranged in different batches after taking
into account the convenience of producing articles, batch costing is employed. The
unit of cost is a batch or group of identical products, instead of a single job order or
contract. The method is particularly suitable for general engineering factories, which
produce components in convenient economic batches and pharmaceutical industries.

Process Costing: If a product passes through different stages, each distinct and well
defined, it is desired to know the cost of production at each stage. In order to ascertain
the same, process costing is employed under which separate account is opened for
each process. This system of costing is suitable for the extractive industries, e.g.,
chemical manufacture, paints, foods, explosives, soap making, etc.

Operation Costing: Operation costing is a further refinement of process costing. The

system is employed in industries where mass or repetitive production is carried out or
where articles or components have to be stocked in semi-finished stage, to facilitate
the execution of special orders, or for convenience of issue for later operations. The
procedure of costing is broadly the same as for process costing except that cost unit is
an operation instead of a process. For example, the manufacturing of handles for
bicycles involves a number of operations such as those of cutting steel sheets into
proper strips molding, machining and finally polishing. The cost of enact of these
operations, may be found out separately.

Unit Costing (Output Costing or Single Costing): In this method, cost per unit of
output or production is ascertained and the amount of each element constituting such
cost is determined. Where the products can be expressed in identical quantitative units
and where manufacture is continuous, this type of costing is applied. Cost statements
or cost sheets are prepared under which the various items of expense are classified
and the total expenditure is divided by total quantity produced in order to arrive at per
unit cost of production. The method is suitable in industries, such as brick-making,
collieries, flour mills, paper mills, cement manufacturing, etc.

Operating Costing: This system is employed where expenses are incurred for
provision of services such as those rendered by bus companies, electricity companies,
or railway companies. The total expenses regarding operation are divided by the units
as may be appropriate (e.g., in case of bus company, total number of passenger-kms)
and cost per unit of service is calculated.

Departmental Costing: Ascertainment of the cost of output of each department

separately is the objective 9f departmental costing. Where a factory is divided into a
number of departments, this method is adopted.

Multiple Costing (Composite Costing): Under this system the costs of different
sections of production are combined after finding out the cost of each and every part
manufactured. The system of ascertaining cost in this way is applicable where a

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product comprises many assailable parts, e.g., motor cars, engines/machine tools,
typewriters, radios, cycles, etc. As various components differ from each other in a
variety of ways such as price, materials used and manufacturing processes, a separate
method of costing is employed in respect of each component. It is multiple costing in
the sense that more than one method of costing is employed. It is to be noted that
basically there are only two methods of costing, viz., Job costing and Process costing.
Job costing is employed in cases where expenses are traceable to specific jobs or
orders, e.g., house building, ship-building, etc. But where it is impossible to trace the
items of prime cost to a particular order because their identity is lost in manufacturing
operations, process costing is used. For example, in a refinery where several tones of
oil are being produced at the same time, the prime cost of a specific order of 10 tones
cannot be traced. The cost can be found out only by finding out the cost per tonne of
total oil produced then multiplying it by ten. It may therefore be concluded that the
methods of batch contract and cost plus costing are only the variants of 'job costing',
while the methods of unit, operation and operating costing are only the variants of
'process costing,
Techniques of Costing: Besides the above methods of costing, the following types of costing
techniques are used by management only for controlling costs and making some important
managerial decisions. As a matter of fact, they are not independent methods of cost finding
such as job or process costing but are basically costing techniques which can be used with
advantage with any of the methods discussed above.

Marginal Costing: It is a technique of costing in which allocation of expenditure to

production is restricted to those expenses which arise as a result of production, i.e.,
materials, labour, and direct expenses and variable overheads. Fixed overheads are
excluded on the ground that in cases where production varies, the inclusion of fixed
overheads may give misleading results. The technique is useful in manufacturing
industries with varying levels of output.

Direct Costing: The practice of charging all direct costs to operations, processes or
products, leaving all indirect costs to be written off against profits in the period in
which they arise, is termed as direct costing. The technique differs from marginal
costing because some fixed costs can be considered as direct costs in appropriate
circumstances.

Absorption or Full Costing: The practice of charging all costs both variable and
fixed to operations, products or processes, is termed as absorption costing.

Uniform Costing: A technique, where standardized principles and methods of cost

accounting are employed by a number of different companies and firms, is termed as
uniform costing. Standardization may extend to methods of costing, accounting
classification including codes, methods of defining costs and charging depreciation,
methods of allocating or apportioning overheads to cost centres or cost units. The
system thus facilitates inter-firm comparisons, establishment of realistic pricing
policies, etc.

135

Systems of Costing: It has already been stated that there are two main methods used to
determine costs:

The Job Cost Method,

The Process Cost Method.

It is possible to ascertain the costs under each of the above methods by two different ways:

Historical Costing: Historical costing (conventional or orthodox costing) is the

determination of cost by actual It may be in the nature of (i) Post costing or (ii)
Continuous costing. (i) Post Costing: It means ascertainment of cost after the
production is completed. This is done by analyzing the financial accounts at the end
of the period in such a way so as to disclose the cost of the units, which have been
produced. For instance if the cost of product A is to be calculated on this basis then
one must wait till the materials are actually purchased and used, labour actually paid
and overhead expenditure actually incurred. This system is used only for ascertaining.
The costs but not useful for exercising any control over costs, as one comes to know
of things after they had taken place. It can serve as guidance for future production
only when conditions in future continue to be the same. (ii) Continuous Costing: In
case of this method, cost is ascertained as soon as the job is completed or even when
the job is in progress. This is done" usually by coming to the job or product actual
expenditure on materials and wages and estimated. Share of overheads. Hence, the
figure of cost ascertained in this case is not exact. But it has an advantage of
providing cost information to the management promptly thereby enabling it to take
the necessary corrective action in time. However, it neither provides any standard for
judging current efficiency nor does it disclose what the cost of the job ought to have
been.

Standard Costing: Standard costing is a system under which the cost of the product
is determined in advance on certain pre-determined standards. Taking the above
example, the cost of product A can be calculated in advance if one is in a position to
estimate in advance the material labour and overheads that should be incurred over
the product. All this requires an efficient system of cost accounting. However, this
system will not be useful if a vigorous system of controlling costs and keeping it up to
standard cost is not in force. Standard costing is becoming more and more popular
now-a-days.

136

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ACCOUNTING
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
5.1 Marginal Accounting
5.1.1 Theory of Marginal Costing
5.1.2 Features of Marginal Costing
5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Marginal Costing Technique
5.1.4 Presentation of Cost Data
5.1.5 Marginal versus Absorption Costing
5.2 Break Even Analysis
5.2.1 Cost Volume profit (CVP) Relationship
5.2.2 Assumptions and Terminology
5.2.3 Limitations of Cost Volume Profit Analysis
5.2.4 Sensitivity Analysis
5.2.5 Marginal Cost Equations and Break Even Analysis
5.2.6 Break Even Analysis
5.2.7 Limitations and Uses of Break Even Charts
5.3 Numerical on BEP and CVP
5.4.Decision Making using Marginal Costing
5.5 Decision Making Using Limiting Factors
5.6 Decision Making and Pricing
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.1 MARGINAL ACCOUNTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Please cast your mind back to the earlier units .You will surely recall that we concluded that
only costs which vary with the decision should be included in the decision analysis. For many
decisions which involve relatively small variations from existing practice and/or are for
relatively limited periods of time, fixed costs are not relevant to the decision. This is because
either: Fixed costs tend to be impossible to alter in the short term; or Managers are reluctant
to alter them in the short term. Suppose that a business occupies premises which it owns to
carry out its activities there is a downturn in demand for the service which the business
provides and it would be possible to carry on the business from smaller, cheaper premises.
Does this mean that the business will sell its old premises and move to new ones overnight?
Clearly it cannot mean this. This is partly because it is not usually possible to find a buyer for
premises at very short notice and it may be difficult to move premises quickly where there is,
say, delicate equipment to be moved . Apart from external constraints on the speed of the
move, management many feel that the downturn might not be permanent and would thus be
reluctant to take such a dramatic step as to deny itself the opportunity to benefit from a
possible revival of trade. The businesss premises may provide an example of an area of one
of the more inflexible types of cost, but most fixed costs tend to be broadly similar in this
context. So, what we really see is that, more than the fixed cost, what really influences

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decision making in the short-run is the variable cost which is actually synonymous with
marginal cost. In this lesson, we shall study marginal costing, as a technique quite distinct
from Absorption costing. We shall look upon marginal costing as an important aid to decision
making.

5.1.1 Theory of Marginal Costing

The theory of marginal costing as set out in A report on Marginal Costing published by
CIMA, London is that in relation to a given volume of output, additional output can normally
be obtained at less than proportionate cost because within limits the aggregate of certain
items of cost will tend to remain fixed and only the aggregate of the remainder will tend to
rise proportionately with the increase in output. Conversely, a decrease in the volume of
output will normally be accompanied by less than proportionate fall in the aggregate cost.
The theory of marginal costing may therefore be understood by you in three steps:

If the volume of output increases, the cost per unit will, in the normal circumstances,
be reduced. Conversely, if the output is reduced the cost per unit will go up. If the
factory produces 1,000 units at a total cost of Rs.3, 000 and if by increasing the output
by one unit, the cost goes upto Rs.3, 002, the marginal cost of the additional output is
Rs.2.
If the increase in output is more than one, the total increase in cost divided by the total
increase in output will give the average marginal cost per unit. If, for example, the
output is increased to 1,020 units from 1,000 units and the total cost to produce these
units is Rs.1, 045 the average marginal cost per unit is Rs.2.25 as under:
Additional cost
Additional units

Rs.45
20

Rs.2.25

The ascertainment of marginal cost is based on the classification and segregation of cost into
fixed and variable cost. In order to understand the Marginal costing technique, it is essential
for you to clearly understand the meaning of marginal cost. Marginal cost means the cost of
the marginal or last unit produced. It is also defined as the cost of one more or one less unit
produced besides existing level of production. In this connection, a unit may mean a single
commodity, one dozen, a gross or any other measure of goods. Let us take an example to
understand this better if a manufacturing firm produces X unit at a cost of Rs 300 and the
production of X+1 units cost Rs 320 then the cost of the additional one unit is Rs 20 which is
the marginal cost. Similarly if the production of X-1 units comes down to Rs 280, then cost
of the marginal unit which was being produced is Rs 20 (300 280).
You may observe that marginal cost varies directly with the volume of production and
marginal cost per unit remains the same. Marginal cost consists of prime cost i.e. cost of
direct materials, direct labor and all variable overheads. It does not contain any element of
fixed cost which is kept separate under marginal cost technique. Marginal costing may be
defined as the technique of presenting cost data wherein variable costs and fixed costs are
shown separately for managerial decision-making. It should be clearly understood that
marginal costing is not a method of costing like process costing or job costing but it is simply
a method or technique of the analysis of cost information for the guidance of the management
which try to find out the effect on profit due to changes in the volume of output.
In this connection let me give a simile that the management accountant is the navigator and
the chief executive officer (CEO) is the captain of the ship. Management accountant provides

138

necessary relevant information through various periodical reports to the management from
which management is able to feel the financial and operational rules of the organization. You
should be aware that there are different phrases being used for this technique of costing. In
U.K Marginal costing is a popular phrase, in U.S.A this is known as Direct Costing and is
used in place of marginal costing. Variable costing is another name of marginal costing.
Marginal costing technique has given the birth to a very useful concept of Contribution.
You are being introduced to new term which is Contribution, which represents the difference
between sales and marginal cost. Contribution may be defined as the profit before the
recovery of fixed costs. Thus contribution goes towards the recovery of fixed cost and profit
and is equal to fixed cost plus profit (C = F + P). In case a firm neither make nor suffer loss,
the Contribution will be just equal to fixed cost (C = F). The concept of Contribution is very
useful in marginal costing. It has a fixed relation with sales. The proportion of contribution to
sales known as P/V ratio remains the same under given conditions of production and sales.

5.1.2 Features of Marginal Costing:

We are now in a position to bring out the distinctive features of marginal costing. The main
features of marginal costing are as follows:

Cost Classification: The marginal costing technique makes a sharp distinction

between variable costs and fixed costs. It is the variable cost on the basis of which
production and sales policies are designed by the firms following the marginal costing
technique.

Inventory Valuation: Under marginal costing, inventory for profit measurement is

valued at marginal cost in sharp contrast to total unit cost under absorption costing
method.

Marginal Contribution: Marginal costing techniques make use of marginal

contribution for marking various decisions. Marginal contribution which is the
difference between sales and marginal cost forms the basis for judging the
profitability of different products or departments.

5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Marginal Costing Technique

After knowing the concepts and objectives of marginal costing lets also go through
advantages and disadvantages of marginal costing technique.
Advantages:
Marginal costing is simple to understand.
By not charging fixed overhead to cost of production, the effect of varying charges
per unit is avoided.
It prevents the illogical carry forward in stock valuation of some proportion of current
years fixed overhead.
The effects of alternative sales or production policies can be more readily available
and assessed, and decisions taken would yield the maximum return to the business.
It eliminates large balances left in overhead control accounts, which indicates the
difficulty of ascertaining an accurate overhead recovery rate.
Practical cost control is greatly facilitated. By avoiding arbitrary allocation of fixed
overhead, efforts can be concentrated on maintaining a uniform and consistent
marginal cost useful to various level s of management.

139

It helps in short term profit planning by break even and profitability analysis both in
terms of quantity and graphs. Comparative profitability and performance between two
or more products and divisions can easily be assessed and brought to the notice of
management for decision making.

Disadvantages:
The separation of costs into fixed and variable is difficult and some times gives
misleading results
Normal costing systems also apply overhead under normal operating volume and this
shows that no advantage is gained by marginal costing. Under Marginal costing
stocks and work in progress are understated.
(iii) The exclusion of fixed costs from inventories affect profit and true and fair view
of the financial affairs of organization may not be clearly transparent.
Volume variance in standard costing also discloses the effect of fluctuating output on
fixed overhead. Marginal cost data becomes unrealistic in case of highly fluctuating
levels of production e.g. in case of seasonal factories.
Application of fixed overhead depends on estimates and not on actual, as such there
may be under or over absorption of the same. Control affected by means of budgetary
control is also accepted by many. In order to know the net profit we must not be
satisfied with contribution and hence fixed overhead is also a valuable item.
A system which ignores fixed costs is less effective as a major portion of fixed cost is
not taken care of under marginal costing.
In Practice, the sales price, fixed cost, and variable cost per unit may vary and thus the
assumptions underling the theory of marginal costing some times becomes unrealistic.
For long term profit planning, absorption costing is the only answer.

5.1.4 Presentation of Cost Data under Marginal Costing and Absorption

Costing
As mentioned earlier, marginal costing is not a method of costing but it is a technique of
presentation of sales and cost data with a view to guide the management in decision-making.
The traditional technique popularly known as total cost or absorption costing technique does
not make any difference between variable and fixed cost in the calculation of profits but
marginal cost statement very clearly indicates this difference in arriving at the net operational
results of a firm. The difference in the presentation of information according to absorption
and marginal costing techniques will be clear from the following presentation of hypothetical
case.
Absorption Cost Statement
(Production =100 units)
Direct Materials
Direct Wages
Direct chargeable expenses
Prime Cost
Add: Factory overheads
Factory Cost
Add: Administrative
Cost of production
Add: Selling and
Distribution Overheads

2,500
1,800
400
4,700
1,100
5,800
1,000
6,800

(Cost/ Selling price per

Unit)
25
18
4
47
11
58
10
68

1,160

11.60

140

Cost of Sales
Profit
Selling Price

7,960
2,840
10,800

79.60
28.40
108.00

There fore selling price per unit is 10,800 / 100 = 108 Rs. For the same example Marginal
cost statement:
Marginal Cost Statement
(Production = 100 units)
Particulars

Variable cost

Fixed cost

Sales (A)
Direct Materials
Direct Wages
Direct Chargeable expenses
Prime Cost
Factory Overheads (70%
variables)
Factory Cost
Administration,
(80%
variable)
Cost of production
Selling and distribution On
cost (80% variable)
Total Variable Cost (B)
Contribution (A-B)
Less Fixed Cost
Profit

10,800
2,500
1,800
400
4,700

330

770

330

5,470

232

928

562

6,398

200

800

762

7,198
3,602
762
2,840

You can observe that since the marginal cost varies directly with production, the marginal
cost per unit of output remains the same for all levels of output. It means the variations in the
levels of output do not affect the variable cost per unit of output. The similar simple example:
Absorption Cost Statement (Production = 100 units)
Direct Materials
2,500
Direct Wages
1,800
Direct chargeable expenses
400
Add: Factory overheads
1,100
Factory Cost
5,800
Add: Administrative, selling and
1,160
Distribution overheads
Total Cost
6,960
Profit
1,740
Selling Price
8,700
Marginal Cost Statement
(Production = 100 units
Sales = 8,700)

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Particulars
Direct Materials
Direct Wages
Direct Chargeable expenses
Prime Cost
Factory Overheads(7%
variables)

Variable cost
2,500
1,800
400
4,700

Fixed cost
-

770

330

Factory Cost
Administration, Selling and
distribution
On cost (80% variable)
Total Cost

5,470

330

928

232
562

6,398

Contribution (S - V)

2,302

Less Fixed Cost

562

Profit

1,740

The total marginal cost for a volume of output can be calculated simply by multiplying the
volume of output with the marginal cost per unit. On the hand, the fixed cost per unit
decreases along with increase in volume of production within the existing scale of
production. This can be understood with the help of the following cost data:
Particulars
Materials
Labor
Direct Charges
Variable factory
overheads
Variable
administration
selling
and distribution
expenses
Total Variable cost
Variable cost per
unit
Fixed cost
Fixed cost per unit
Total cost (V+F)
Cost per unit

100 Units
Rs.
2,500
1,800
400

Volume of Production
125 Units
Rs.
3,125
2,250
500

150 Units
Rs.
3,750
2,700
600

770

962.50

1,155

928

1,160

6,398

7,997.50

9,597

63.98

63.98

63.98

562
5.62
6,960
69.60

562
4.50
8559.50
68.48

562
3.75
10,159
67.73

1,392

So you again find that the cost data contained in the above table clearly shows that the
variable cost per unit remains constant i.e. Rs 63.98, whether the firm produces 100 units,
125 units or 150 units. But the fixed cost per unit decreases with every increase in production.

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For an initial production of 100 units, the fixed cost per unit is Rs 5.62 but it has gone down
to Rs. 4.50 and Rs. 3.75 for a production of 125 and 150 units respectively. As worked out in
the above table the total cost per unit also decreases with an increase in production simply
because of the existence of fixed cost which gets spread over more number of units on an
increase in the volume of output.

5.1.5 Marginal Costing Versus Absorption Costing

After knowing the two techniques of Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing we have seen
that the net profit are not the same because of the following reasons:

Over and under Absorbed Overheads: In absorption costing, fixed overheads can
never be absorbed exactly because of the difficulty in forecasting costs and volume of
output. If these balances of under or over recovery are not written off to costing profit
and loss account, the actual amount incurred is not shown in it. In marginal costing,
however the actual fixed overhead incurred is wholly charged against contribution
and hence, there will be some difference in net profits.

Difference in Stock Valuation: In marginal costing, work in progress and finished

stocks are valued at marginal cost but in absorption costing they are valued at total
production cost and hence profit will differ as different amounts of fixed overheads
are considered. The profit difference due to difference in stock valuation is
summarized as follows: - (i) when there is no opening and closing stocks, there will
be no difference in profit. (ii) When the opening and closing stocks are the same,
there will be no difference in profit provided the fixed cost element in opening and
closing stocks are of same amount. (iii) When closing stock is more than the opening
stock, the profit under absorption costing will be higher as comparatively a greater
portion of fixed cost in included in the closing stock and carried over to the next
period. (iv) When closing stock is less than the opening stock, the profit under
absorption costing will be less as comparatively higher amount of fixed cost contained
in opening stock is debited during the current period.

Limitations of Absorption Costing: The following are the criticisms against Absorption
Costing: You might have observed that in absorption costing, a portion of fixed cost is carried
over to the subsequent accounting period as part of closing stock. This is an unsound practice
because costs pertaining to a period should not be allowed to be vitiated by the inclusion of
costs pertaining to the previous period and vice versa. Further, Absorption costing is
dependent on levels of output which may vary from period to period and consequently cost
per unit changes due to the existence of fixed overhead.
Unless fixed overhead rate is based on normal capacity, such changed costs are not helpful
for purposes of comparison and control. The cost to produce an extra unit is the variable
production cost. It is realistic to value closing stock items at this directly attributable cost. As
we have seen, the size of total contribution varies directly with sales volume at a constant rate
per unit. For the decision making purpose of the management, better information about
expected profit is obtained from the use of variable costs and contribution approach in the
accounting system. Let us take an illustration to clarify the concept explained above:
Illustration 5.1
From the following data compute the profit under (a) Marginal costing and (b) Absorption
costing and reconcile the difference in profit.

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Rs.
Selling price (per unit)
10
Variable cost
5
Fixed cost
2
Normal volume of production is 26000 units per quarter.
The opening and closing stocks consisting of both finished goods and equivalent units of
work in progress are as follows:
Qr. I
Qr. II
Qr. III
Qr. IV
Total
Opening
6,000
2,000
Stock (units)
Production
26,000
30,000
24,000
30,000
1, 10,000
Sales
1, 10,000
26,000
24,000
28,000
32,000
Closing
stock

6,000

2,000

Solution
Statement of Profit under Absorption Costing
Qr. I
Qr. II
Qr. III
Qr. IV
Rs
Rs
Rs
Rs
Sales (@ 10Rs.)
Opening stock @
7 Rs.
Production @ 7
Rs
Total

Total
Rs
11,00,000

2,60,000

2,40,000

2,80,000

3,20,000

42,000

14,000

1, 82,000

2, 10,000

1, 68,000

2, 10,000

1,82,000

2,10,000

2,10,000

2,24,000

42,000

14,000

1, 68, 000

1, 96,000

2, 24,000

7, 70,000

72,000

84,000

96,000

3,30,000

8000

8000

16,000

4000

4000

72,000

84,000

96,000

3,30,000

Less Closing
Stock @7 Rs.
Cost of goods
1, 82,000
sold
Profit (before
adjustment
of under or over
78,000
absorbed fixed
cost)
Add: Over absorbed
fixed cost
(Production above
normal capacity x
Rs.2)
Less: Under
absorbed
fixed cost
(26000 24000) x 2
Profit
78,000

144

8,26,000

Sales (@ 10Rs.)
Opening stock
@ 5 Rs.
Production
@ 5 Rs
Total
Less Closing Stock
@ 5 Rs.
Cost of goods
sold
Contribution
Less Fixed
Cost
Profit

Statement of Profit under Marginal costing

Qr. I
Qr. II
Qr. III
Qr. IV
Rs
Rs
Rs
Rs
2,60,000
2,40,000
2,80,000
3,20,000

Total
Rs
11,00,000

30,000

10,000

1,30,000

1,50,000

1,20,000

1,50,000

5,50,000

1, 30,000

1, 50,000

1, 50,000

1, 60,000

5, 50,000

30,000

10,000

1, 30,000

1, 20,000

1, 40,000

1, 60,000

5, 50,000

1,30,000

1,20,000

1,40,000

1,60,000

5,50,000

52,000

52,000

52,000

52,000

2, 08,000

78,000

68,000

88,000

1, 08,000

1, 08,000

Reconciliation of Profit

Profit as per
absorption Costing
Less: Higher fixed
cost
in closing stock
(6000 x 2)
Add: Higher fixed
cost in opening Qr.
III (6000 2000) x
2 Qr. IV 2000 x 2
Profit
as
per
Marginal
Costing

Qr. I
Rs.

Qr. II
Rs.

Qr. III
Rs.

Qr. IV
Rs.

Total
Rs.

78,000

80,000

80,000

1, 04,000

3, 42,000

12,000

8000

4000

12,000

78,000

68,000

88,000

1, 08,000

3,42,000

12,000

Summary: Marginal cost is simply a cost management technique for the analysis of cost and
revenue information for the guidance of the management. The Presentation of information
through marginal costing statement is easily understood by all the mangers even that do not
have preliminary knowledge and implications of the subjects of cost and management
accounting. Absorption costing and Marginal costing are two different techniques of cost
accounting. Absorption costing is widely used for cost control purpose and marginal costing
is used for managerial decision making and control.

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.2 BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Previously we have gone through concept of cost and different types of costs like Historical
cost, differential cost, standard cost, fixed cost, variable cost, notional cost, out of pocket
cost, relevant cost, sunk cost and of course irrelevant cost. So we think that we are now ready
to discuss detail highlights associated with cost function and cost relations with the
production and distribution system of an economic entity. Please note that CVP analysis is
broadly known as cost volume profit analysis and specifically speaking we are all concern in
depth analysis and application of CVP in practical world of industry management. You know
what cost is. Let us discuss what is volume? And what is profit?

5.2.1 Cost-Volume Profit (CVP) Relationship

We have observed that in marginal costing, marginal cost varies directly with volume of
production or volume of output. Whereas fixed cost remain unaltered regardless of the
volume of output with in the scale of production already fixed by the management. When
cost behavior is related to sales income it shows the cost volume profit relationship, which is
in net effect if volume is changed, variable cost varies as per change in volume, selling price
remains fixed, fixed remains of course fixed then there is change profit. Being Manager you
constantly strive to relate these elements so that maximum profit can be achieved. Apart from
profit projection, the concept of cost volume profit (C V P) is relevant to virtually all decision
making areas particularly in short run.
The relationship between costs and revenue and therefore profits at different levels may be
expressed in graphs such as, break-even charts or profit volume graphs or in various
statement forms. You may note that profit depends on a large number of factors, most
important of which are the cost of manufacture and the volume of sales. Both these factors
are interdependent. Volume of sales depends upon the volume of production and market
forces, which in turn is related to costs. Please note that management has no control over the
market but in order to achieve certain levels of profitability it has to exercise control and
management of cost mainly variable cost because fixed cost is non- controllable cost. Cost,
again is based on the following factors:

Volume of production
Product Mix
Internal efficiency and productivity of the factors of production
Methods of production and technology
Size of batches, size of plant

Thus we can say Cost volume profit analysis furnishes complete picture of the profit structure
which enables management to distinguish between the effect of sales, fluctuations in volume
and the results of changes in price of product / services. In other words CVP is a management
accounting tool that expresses relationships among sales volume, costs and profits. CVP can
be used in the form of a graph or an equation. Cost-volume-profit analysis can answer a
number of analytical questions, such as: What is the breakeven revenue of an organization?
How much revenue does an organization need to achieve a budgeted profit? What level of
price change effects the achievement of budgeted profit? What is the effect of cost changes
on the profitability of an operation? Many other "what if" type of questions.

146

Cost volume profit analysis is one of the important techniques of cost and management
accounting. It is a simple but powerful tool for planning of profits and therefore commercial
operations provides answer to What if theme telling the volume required to produce.
There are three approaches to CVP Analysis:

Cost and revenue equations

Contribution margin
Profit graph

Objectives of Cost Volume Profit Analysis: Let us briefly go through the main objectives
of cost volume profit analysis:

In order to forecast profit accurately, it is essential to ascertain the relationship

between costs and profits on the one hand and volume on the other.
Cost volume profit analysis is helpful in setting up flexible budget which indicate
costs at various levels of activities.
Cost volume profit analysis is of assistance in evaluation of performance for purposes
of control.
Such analysis may assist the management in formulating pricing policies by
projecting the effect of different price structure on cost and profits.

5.2.2 Assumptions and Terminology

Friends, please be familiar with assumption on which the theory of CVP is based upon:

Changes in the level of revenues and costs arise only because of changes in the
number of product (or service) units produced and sold-for example, the number of
television sets produced and sold by Sigma Corporation. The number of output (units)
to be sold is the only revenue and cost driver. Just as a cost driver is any factor that
affects costs, a revenue driver is any factor that affects revenues.
Total costs can be divided into a fixed component and a component that is variable
with respect to the level of output. You may recall from previous sessions that
variable costs includes direct materials, direct labor, direct chargeable expenses and
variable overheads which include variable part of factory overheads, administration
overheads and selling and distribution overhead.
There is linear relationship between revenue and cost.
When graphed, the behavior of total revenues and total costs is linear (straight line)
i.e. Y = mx + C holds good which is the equation of straight line.
The unit selling price, unit variable costs, and fixed costs are constant.
It is based on production of single product. However recently the management
accountants are functioning to give a theoretical and practical approach to multi
product CVP analysis.
The analysis either covers a single product or assumes that the sales mix when
multiple products are sold will remain constant as the level of total units sold changes.
(This assumption is also discussed later in the chapter.)
All revenues and costs can be added and compared without taking into account the
time value of money.
It is also based on that technology remains constant.
The theory of price elasticity is not taken into consideration.

147

Friends I may also draw your attention that many companies (and divisions and sub divisions
of companies) in industries such as airlines, automobiles, chemicals, plastics, and
semiconductors have found the simple CVP relationships to be helpful in strategic and longrange planning decisions as well as decisions about product features and pricing. In other real
world the simple assumptions described above may not hold good. The theory of CVP can be
tailor made for individual industries depending upon nature and peculiarities of the same.
For example, predicting total revenues and total costs may require multiple revenue drivers
(such as number of output units, number of customer visits made for sales, and number of
advertisements placed), and multiple cost drivers (such as number of units produced and
number of batches in which units are produced).
Managers and management accountant, however, must always assess whether the simplified
CVP relationships generate sufficiently accurate information for predictions of how total
revenues and total costs would behave. However we may come across different complex
situations to which the theory of CVP can rightly be applicable in order to help managers to
take appropriate decisions under different situations.

5.2.3 Limitations of Cost Volume Profit Analysis

I would mention here that CVP analysis is generally made under certain limitation and with
certain assumed conditions some of which may not occur in practice. We will discuss here
the main limitations and assumptions in the cost volume profit analysis:

It is assumed that the production facilities anticipated for the purpose of cost volume
profit analysis do not undergo any change. Such analysis gives misleading results if
expansion or reduction of capacity takes place.
Where a variety of products with varying margins of profit are manufactured it is
difficult to forecast with reasonable accuracy the volume of sales mix which would
optimize the profit.
The analysis will be correct only if input price and selling prices remain fairly
constant. This in reality is hardly found. Thus if cost reduction program is undertaken
or selling price are changed, the relationship between Cost and Profit will not be
accurately depicted.
In cost volume profit analysis it is assumed that variable costs are perfectly and
completely variable at all levels of activity and the fixed cost remains constant
throughout the range of volume being considered. However, such situations may not
arise in practical situations.
It is assumed that changes in the opening and closing inventories are not significant;
sometimes the changes may be significant.
Inventories are valued at variable cost and fixed cost is treated as period cost.
Therefore closing stock carried over to the next financial year does not contain any
component of fixed cost. We feel inventory should be valued at full cost in reality.

5.2.4 Sensitivity Analysis

Your manager before choosing among alternatives may ask you to undertake sensitivity
analysis. So you should be familiar with the implication and application of the relevance of
sensitivity analysis in the field of cost volume profit analysis. You must be thinking - What
the Sensitivity Analysis is? You are being introduced to this new term today. Here is the
answer to your question. Sensitivity Analysis is relatively new term in Management
Accounting. Sensitivity analysis is a what if technique that managers use to examine how a

148

result will change if the original predicted data are not achieved or if an underlying
assumption changes.
In the context of CVP analysis, sensitivity analysis answers such questions as, what will
operating income be if units sold decreases by 15% from original prediction? And what will
operating income be if variable cost per unit increase by 20% percent? The sensitivity of
operating income to various possible outcomes broadens managements perspectives as to
what might actually occur before they make cost commitments.
You can make use of spread sheet to conduct CVP based sensitivity analyses in a systematic
and efficient way. Using spread sheet you can easily conduct this analysis to examine the
effect and interaction of changes in selling prices, variable cost per unit, fixed costs and target
operating incomes. Lets take an example of following spread sheet of Dolphy Software ltd,
Chennai.

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Statement Showing CVP Analysis for Dolphy Software Ltd.

Revenue Required at 200 Rs. Selling price to earn
Operating income of
Fixed Cost
(In Rs)
2,000
2,500
3,000

Variable cost
per unit (In
Rs)
100
120
140
100
120
140
100
120

0 Level

1,000 Level

1,500 Level

2,000 Level

4,000
5,000
6,667
5,000
6,250
8,333
6,000
7,500

6,000
7,500
10,000
7,000
8,750
11,667
8,000
10,000

7,000
8,750
11,667
8,000
10,000
13,333
9,000
11,250

8,000
10,000
13,333
9,000
11,250
15,000
10,000
12,500

From the above you can immediately see the revenues that need to be generated to reach
particular operating income level, given alternative levels of fixed costs and variable costs per
unit. For example revenue of Rs 6000 (30 units @ 200 each) are required to earn an operating
income of Rs 1,000 if fixed costs are Rs 2000 and variable costs per unit is Rs 100.
As aspect of sensitivity analysis is margin of safety, which is the amount of budgeted
revenues over and above break even revenues. Expressed in units, margin of safety is the
sales quantity minus the break even quantity. The margin of safety answers the What if
question: If budgeted revenues are above breakeven and drop how far can they fall below
budget before the break even point is reached? Such a fall could be due to a competitor which
has a better product, poorly executed marketing programs, and so on. Assume you have fixed
cost of Rs. 2,000, a selling price of Rs 200 and variable costs per unit of Rs 120. For 40 units
sold the budgeted point fro this set of assumptions is 25 units (Rs. 2,000 Rs 80) or Rs 5000
(Rs 200 x 25). Hence the margin of safety is Rs 3,000 (Rs 8,000 5,000) or 15 (40 25)
units. Sensitivity analysis is one approach to recognizing uncertainty, which is the possibility
that an actual amount will deviate from an expected amount.
Summary: In the aforesaid sections, you have come across the Cost Volume and Profit
relationship. Fixed and Variable cost classification helps in CVP analysis. Marginal cost is
useful for such analysis.

5.2.5 Marginal Cost Equations and Break Even Analysis

We have already discussed about Marginal Cost statements. You have observed from the
marginal cost statements that
Sales Marginal Cost = Contribution

(1)

Fixed cost + Profit

(2)

= Contribution

Now from combining these two equations, we get the fundamental marginal cost equation
Sales Marginal cost = Fixed cost + Profit

(3)

150

This fundamental marginal cost equation plays a vital role in profit projection and has wider
application in managerial decision making problems. You may observe now that the sales and
marginal costs vary directly with the number of units sold or produced. So the difference the
sales and marginal cost i.e., contribution will bears a relation to sales and the ratio of
contribution to sales remains constant at all levels. This is Profit volume or P/ V Ratio. Thus
P/V ratio (or C/S ratio) =

Contribution (c)
Sales (s)

(4)

It is expressed in terms of percentage i.e. P / V Ratio is equal to (C / S) x 100.

Or, Contribution = Sales x P/V ratio
Or, Sales =

(5)

Contribution
P/V ratio

(6)

We may now apply the above mentioned marginal cost equations under the following heads:

Contribution: Contribution is the difference between the sales and marginal or

variable costs and it contributes towards fixed cost and profit. The concept of
contribution helps in deciding break even point, profitability of products, departments
etc, to select product mix or sales mix for profit maximization and to fix selling prices
under different circumstance such as trade depression, export sales, price
discrimination etc.

Profit Volume Ratio (PV ratio) its Improvement and Application: The ratio of
contribution to sales is the P/V ratio or C/S ratio. It is the contribution per rupee of
sales and since the fixed cost remains constant in the short term period, the P/V ratio
will also measure, the rate of change of profit due to change in volume of sales. The
P/V ratio may be expressed as:
P/V ratio = Sales Marginal cost of sales

Sales

Contribution
Sales

= Changes in contribution

Changes in sales

Change in profit
Change in sales

So we can now conclude that one fundamental property under marginal costing system is that
P/V ratio remains constant at different levels of activity. A change in fixed cost does not
affect the P/V ratio The concept of P/V ratio helps in determining break even point, profit at
any volume of sales, sales volume required to earn a desired quantum of profit, profitability
of products, processes or departments, etc. Contribution can be increased by increasing sales
price or by reduction of variable costs. Thus P/V ratio can be improved by: (i) Increasing
selling price (ii) Reducing marginal costs by effectively utilizing men, machines, materials
and other services(iii) Selling more profitable products, thereby increasing the overall P/V
ratio.

151

Break even point: A break even point is that volume of sales or production where
there is neither profit nor loss. Thus we can say that
Contribution = Fixed cost
We can now easily calculate break even point with the help of fundamental marginal
cost equation, P/V ratio or contribution per unit.
a. Using Marginal Costing Equation:
S (sales) V (variable cost) = F (fixed cost) + P (profit)
at BEP P = 0, BEP S V = F
Now after Multiplying both sides by S and re arranging gives,
S BEP = F.S / S - V
b. Using P/V ratio:
Sales S BEP = Contribution at B.E.P

= Fixed Cost

P/ V ratio
Thus, if sales is Rs.2, 000;
Marginal cost Rs. 1,200;
Fixed cost Rs 400
Break even point = 400 x 2000

P/ V ratio

= Rs. 1000

2000 - 1200
Similarly P/V ratio = 2000 1200

= 40%

800
So, break even sales = Rs 400 / .4

= Rs. 1000

c. Using Contribution per Unit :

Break even point = Fixed Cost

= 100 units or Rs. 1000

Contribution per unit

Margin of Safety (MOS): You know All enterprises try to know how much they are
above the above the break even point. This is technically called margin of safety and
is calculated by the difference between the sales or production units at the selected
activity and the break even sales or production.
The margin of safety is the difference between the total sales (actual or projected) and
the break even sales. It may be expressed in monetary terms (value) or as a number of
units (volume). It can be expressed as profit / P V ratio. A large margin of safety
indicates the soundness and financial strength of the business. You may now note
that, Margin of safety can be improved by lowering fixed and variable costs,
increasing volume of sales or selling price and changing product mix so as to improve
contribution and overall P/V ratio.

152

Margin of Safety = Sales at Selected Activity Sales at B.E.P

= Profit at selected activity
P/V ratio
Margin of safety is also presented in Ratio or Percentage as
= Margin of safety (sales) x 100 %
Sales at selected activity
The size of the margin of safety is an extremely valuable guide to the strength of a
business. In large, this means that there can be substantial falling off sales and yet a profit
can be made. On the other hand, if the margin is small, any loss of sales may be a serious
matter. If the margin of safety is unsatisfactory, possible steps to rectify the causes of
mismanagement of commercial activities as listed below: (i) by increase in the selling
price, this may be possible for the company to have higher margin of safety in order
strengthen the financial health of the business. It should be able to influence the price
provided the demand inelastic, otherwise the same quantity will not be sold. (ii) Reduce
fixed costs (iii) Reduce variable costs (iv) Substitution of existing product(s) by more
profitable lines (v) Increase the volume of output. (vi) By modernization of production
facilities and introduction of most cost effective technology.
Let us take a simple example to make you understand the concept stated above:
Illustration 5.2
A company earned a profit of Rs. 30,000 during the year 2000-01 marginal cost and selling
price of a product are Rs. 8 and Rs. 10 per unit respectively, find out the of 'Margin of Safety'
Margin of Safety =
Profit
P/V ratio
P/V Ratio
= Contribution/ Sales x 100
= 20%
= Rs. 2 x 100
Rs. 10
Margin of safety = Rs. 30000
= Rs. 1, 50,000
20%

Let us take another example:

Illustration 5.3
A company producing a single article sells it at Rs 10 each, the marginal cost of production is
Rs 6 each and fixed cost is Rs 400 per annum. You are required to calculate

the profits for annual sales of 1 unit, 50 units, 100 units and 400 units;
the P/V ration;
the break even sales;
the sales to earn a profit Rs 500;
profit at sales Rs 3000;
New break even point if sales price is reduced by 10%.
Margin of safety at sales 400 units

153

Solution:
Marginal Cost Statement
Particulars
Units Produced
Sales ( units * 10)
Variable cost
Contribution (sales- V.C)
Fixed cost
Profit (Contribution F.C)

Amount
(Rs)
1
10
6
4
400
-396

Amount
(Rs)
50
500
300
200
400
-200

Amount
(Rs)
100
1000
600
400
400
0

Amount
(Rs)
400
4000
2400
1600
400
1200

Profit Volume Ratio (PVR) = Contribution / Sales * 100 = 0.4 or 40%

Break Even Sales (Rs) =
Fixed Cost / PVR = 400/ 40 * 100 = 1,000 Rs
Sales at BEP = Contribution at BEP/ PVR = 100 units
Sales at profit Rs 500
Contribution at profit Rs. 500 = Fixed Cost + Profit = 900
Sales = Contribution / PVR = 900/ .4 = Rs. 2,250 (or 225 units)
Profit at sales Rs. 3,000
Contribution at sale Rs. 3,000 = Sales x P/V ratio = 3000 x 0.4 = Rs. 1200
Profit = Contribution Fixed cost = Rs. 1200 Rs. 400 = Rs. 800
New P/V ratio = Rs. 9 Rs. 6 / Rs. 9
=1/3
Sales at BEP = Fixed cost / PV ratio = Rs. 400 = Rs. 1,200
1/3
Margin of Safety (at 400 units) = 4000-1000/4000*100
= 75 %
(Actual Sales BEP Sales / Actual Sales * 100)

5.2.6 Break-Even Analysis - Graphical Presentation

After understanding Marginal costing equation now you may note that apart from marginal
cost equations, it is found that break-even chart and profit graphs are useful graphic
presentations of this cost-volume-profit relationship. You are coming across a new concept of
Break even.
A break-even chart is a device which shows the relationship between sales volume, marginal
costs and fixed costs and profit or loss at different levels of activity. Such a chart also shows
the effect of change of one factor on other factors and exhibits the rate of profit and margin of
safety at different levels. A break-even chart contains interlaid total sales line, total cost line,
and the point of intersection called the "break-even point". It is popularly called the breakeven chart because it shows clearly the break-even point (a point where there is no profit or
no loss) on the chart.
A profit graph is a development of simple break-even chart and shows clearly the profit at
different volumes of sales.
Construction of Break-Even Charts: Construction of break-even chart involves the
drawing of fixed cost line, total cost line, and sales line as follows:

Select a scale for production on the horizontal axis and a scale for costs and sales on
the vertical axis.

154

Plot the fixed cost on the vertical axis and draw fixed cost line passing through this
point parallel to horizontal axis.
Plot the variable costs for some activity levels starting from the fixed cost line and
join these points. This will give the total cost line. Alternatively, obtain total cost at
different levels, plot the points starting from horizontal axis and draw the total cost
line.
Plot the maximum or any other sales volume and draw the sales line by joining zero
and the point so obtained.

Uses of Break-even Chart: The break-even chart can be used to show the effect of changes
in any of the profit factors namely:

Change in the volume of sales,

Change in variable expenses,
Change in the fixed expenses,
Change in selling price

Illustration 5.4
A company produces a single article and sells at Rs. 10 each. The marginal cost of production
is Rs. 6 each and total fixed cost of the concern is Rs. 400 per annum. Construct a break-even
chart and show (a) break-even point; (b) margin of safety at sales Rs. l, 500; (c) angle of
incidence; (d) increase in selling price if the break-even point is reduced to 80 units.
Solution: A break-even chart can be prepared by obtaining the information at these levels:
Fixed cost line, total cost line, and sales- line are drawn one after another following the usual
procedure described here below:

Sales
Fixed cost
Variable cost
Total cost

40
Rs.400
Rs.400
Rs.240
Rs.640

Output Units
80
120
Rs.800 Rs.1,200
Rs.400 Rs.400
Rs.480 Rs.400
Rs.880 Rs.1,120

200
Rs.2,000
Rs.400
Rs.720
Rs.1,600

This figure 5.1 below shows clearly the break even point, margin of safety and angle of
incidence

Break-Even Point: This is the point at which the sales line and the total cost line
intersect. Here B is the break-even point equivalent to a sale of Rs. 1,000 or 100 units.
Margin of Safety: This is the difference in sales or units of production from the
break-even point. Thus margin of safety at M is sales of (Rs. 1,500 - Rs. 1,000) i.e.,
Rs. 500 or 50 units of Angle of incidence
Angle of Incidence: This is the angle formed by the sales line and the total cost line
at the break -even point. A large angle of incidence shows a high rate of profit being
made. Please note that the Angle of Incidence is universally denoted by theta.

155

2000
1800

Sales Line
Profit

1600

Selected activity sales

1400
Margin
of Safety

1200

Angle of Incidence
Selected
activity
(profit)

Break even point

1000

BE Sales

800

Variable cost
Selected activity

600
400

Loss

Margin
of
Safety

200

Fixed cost line

20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160 180 200

Figure 5.1 Break Even Point

Larger the angle, higher the profitability indicated by the angel of incidence. At 80 units the
total cost (from the table) = Rs. 880; Sales value of 80 units. Hence, selling price for breakeven at 80 units = Rs. 880/80 =Rs. 11 per unit. Increase in selling price is Re. 1 or 10% over
the original selling price of Rs. 10 per unit.' Fixed cost line, total cost line, and sales- line are
drawn one after another following the usual procedure described here in before.

5.2.7 Limitations & uses of Break Even charts.

To mention, that this technique also suffers with certain limitation. A simple break-even chart
gives a correct result as long as variable cost per unit, total fixed cost and sales price remain
constant. In practice, all these factors may change and the original break-even chart gives
misleading results. Again, if a company sells different products having different percentages
of profit to turnover, the original combined break-even chart fails to give a clear picture when
the sales mix changes. In that case it may be necessary to draw up break-even chart for each
product or group of products. The break-even chart does not take into account capital
employed, which is a very important factor to measure the overall efficiency of the business.
Fixed costs may increase at some level, while variable costs may sometimes start to decline,
e.g., quantity discount on materials purchased and the sales price may be reduced to sell the
additional units produced. These changes may result in more than one break-even point or
may indicate higher profit at lower volume whereas lower profit at still higher levels of sales.

156

Nevertheless, a break-even chart is used by management as an efficient tool in marginal

costing, i.e., in forecasting, decision making, long term Profit planning and maintaining
profitability: The margin of safety shows The soundness of the business, the fixed cost line
shows the degree of mechanization and the angle of incidence is an indicator of plant
efficiency and profitability of the product or divisions under considerations. It also helps a
monopolist to make price discrimination for maximization of profit.
Multiple Product Situations: So far we have discussed BE point for a firm producing single
product. In real life most of the firms turn out many products. Here also there is no problem
with regard to the calculation of BE point. However the assumption has to be made that the
sales mix remains constant. This is defined as the relative proportion of each products sale to
total sales. It could be expressed as a ratio such as 2:4:6 or as a percentage i.e. 20%, 40%,
and 60%.The calculation of the break even point follows the same pattern as in single product
firm. While the numerator is the same fixed costs, the denominator now will be weighted
average contribution margin. The modified formula is:
Break Even Point (in units) =
Fixed Costs
Weighted average contribution margin per unit
Here you must remember that weights are assigned in proportion to the relative sales of all
products. Here it will be contribution margin of each product multiplied by its quantity. Break
Even point in Sales Revenue Again, the numerator is the same fixed costs. The denominator
now will be weighted average contribution margin ratio, also called weighted average P/V
ratio. The modified formula is:
B.E. Point (in revenue) =

Fixed Cost
Weighted average P/V ratio

Let us take an example to understand multi product BEP better:

Illustration 5.5
Ahmedabad company Ltd. Manufactures and sells four types of products under the brand
name AMBIENCE, LUXURY, COMFORT, LAVISH. The sales mix in value comprises.
Brand Name
Percentage
AMBIENCE
33 1/3
LUXURY
41 2/3
COMFORT
16 2/3
LAVISH
8 1/3
100
The total budgeted sales (100%) are Rs. 6, 00,000 per month.
The operating cost is:
AMBIENCE
60% of selling price
LUXURY
68% of selling price
COMFORT
80% of selling price
LAVISH
40% of selling price
The fixed costs are Rs. 1, 59,000 per month.
Calculate the break even point for the products on an overall basis. It has been proposed to
change the sales mix as follows, the sales per month remaining Rs. 6, 00,000.
Brand Name

Percentage

157

AMBIENCE
LUXURY
COMFORT
LAVISH

25
40
30
05
100
Assuming that this proposal is implemented, calculate the new break even point.
Solution:
Computation of the Break Even Point on Overall Basis
Sales Mix
Sales (Rs)
Less: Variable
(operating) cost
(Rs)
Contribution
(Rs)

Ambience
33 1/3 %
2,00,000

Luxury
41 2/3 %
2,50,000

Comfort
16 2/3 %
1,00,000

Lavish
8 1/3 %
50,000

Total
100
6,00,000

1,20,000

1,70,000

80,000

20,000

3,90,000

80,000

80,000

20,000

30,000

2,10,000

Overall P/V ratio

Contribution
Sales

x 100

Rs. 2, 10,000
6, 00,000
35%

x 100

Fixed Costs
P/V ratio

x 100

Rs. 1, 59,000 x 100

35%
4, 54,286

=
Break even point (sales value)

Computation of New Break Even: The revised contribution after new sales mix:
Sales Mix
Sales (Rs)
Less: Variable
(operating)
cost(Rs)
Contribution(Rs)

Ambience
25 %
1,50,000

Luxury
40%
2,40,000

Comfort
30%
1,80,000

Lavish
5%
30,000

Total
100
6,00,000

90,000

1,63,200

1,44,000

12,000

4,09,200

80,000

80,000

20,000

30,000

2,10,000

158

New P/V ratio = Rs. 1, 90,800 x 100 = 31.8%

Rs. 6, 00,000
New Break even point (sales value)

= Rs. 1, 59,000
= Rs. 5, 00,000
31.8%
Profit Graph: Profit graph is an improvement over the simple break-even chart and clearly
exhibits the relationship of profit to volume of sales. Construction of profit graph is relatively
easy and the procedure involves:

Selecting a scale for sales on horizontal axis and another scale for profit and fixed
costs or loss on the vertical axis. The area above the horizontal axis is the "profit
area" and the below it is the "loss area".
Plotting the profits of corresponding sales and joining them. This is the profit line.

Summary: In this unit we understood about marginal costing equations and how they are
useful for CVP analysis. Break-even point is incidental study of CVP. It is the point of no
profit and no loss. At this specific level of operations, it covers total costs, including variable
and fixed overheads. A break-even (B-E) chart is a graphical representation cost structure of
a business. Profit/Volume (P/V) ratio shows the relationship between contribution and value /
volume of sales. It is usually expressed as terms of percentage, and is a valuable tool for the
profitability of a business. The margin of safety is the difference between. The total of the
break-even sales. The size of the margin of safety is an extremely valuable guide financial
strength of a business.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.3 NUMERICALS ON BEP AND CVP

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Well, by now you must be quite well-versed with the basics of BEP and CVP. Let us now see
how we can apply our knowledge in solving these simple problems.
Problems to Practice:
Problem
Profit/Volume ratio of a company is 50%, while its margin of safety is 4/1 sales volume of
the company is Rs. 50 lakhs, find out its break-even point and net profit.
Solution
Sales
Less: Margin of Safety (40% of Rs. 50, 00,000)
Break-even Sales
Margin of Safety

Rs. 20, 00,000

Rs. 20, 00,000 x 50%

Profit

=
=.

Alternatively,

159

Rs.
50, 00,000
20, 00,000
30, 00,000
Profit
P/V ratio
Profit
50%
Profit
100,000

Break even Sales

= Fixed Cost
P/V ratio
= Fixed Cost
50%
= Fixed Cost
= 50% x 5, 00,000
= Rs. 25, 00,000
= Contribution Fixed Cost
= Rs. 25, 00,000 15, 0,000
= Rs. 10, 00,000

Rs. 30, 00,000

Rs. 30, 00,000 x 50%
Fixed Cost
Profit

Problem
From the following information, calculate the break even point and turnover required to earn
a profit of Rs. 36,000
Fixed Overheads
Rs. 1, 80,000
Selling Price
Rs. 20
Variable cost per unit
2
If the company is earning a profit of Rs. 36,000, express the margin of safety available to it.
Solution:
1.
Break even Point:
Contribution per unit (s v)
Selling price per unit
Variable cost per unit
Contribution
Fixed Overheads
Break even point

Rs.
20
2
18
1, 80,000
=
=
=

Fixed Overheads
Contribution per unit
1, 80,000
18
10,000 units

or sales of Rs. 2, 00,000

2.

Turnover required earning profit of Rs. 36,000:

= Fixed Overheads
Contribution per unit
= Rs.1, 80,000 + Rs. 36,000
18
=
2, 16,000
18
=
12,000 units or sales of Rs. 2, 40,000

3.

Margin of Safety:
Units
Actual sales
12,000
Sales at break even point
10,000
Margin of safety
2,000
Margin of safety may also be calculated as follows:
Margin of safety
=
Net Profit

160

Rs.
2, 40, 000
2, 00,000
40,000

Illustration 5.6
The profit volume (P/V) ratio of a pharmaceutical company is 50% and the margin of safety
is 40%. You are required to work out the break even point and the net profit if the sales
volume is Rs.50 lakhs.
Solution:
B.E.P
Sales
Margin of safety 40%
B.E.P

Rs. in lakhs
50
20
30

Contribution at B.E.P
Sales at B.E.Px P/V ratio
30x50% i.e. Rs.15 lakhs
Sales at B.E.P
30
Less: Contribution at B.E.P
15
Fixed Overheads
15
Net Profit if the Sales Volume is Rs. 50 lakhs
Profit = (Sales x P/V ratio)-Fixed cost
= (50 x 50%) -15
=25 -15 =Rs.10 lakhs
Alternatively:
Profit = P/V ratio x M/S ratio x Sales
= 50% x 40% x Rs.50 lakhs =Rs.10 lakhs.
Illustration: 5.7
The sales of Rubber industries in the first half of 2003 amounted to Rs. 2, 70,000 and the
profit earned was Rs. 7200.The sales in the second half of 2003 amounted to Rs.3, 42,000
and profit earned was Rs. 20700 for that half year.
Assuming no change in fixed cost, calculate:

The amount of profit when sales are Rs. 2, 16,000.

The amount of sales required to earn a profit of Rs.36000.

Solution:
Calculation of P/V ratio
P/V ratio
=Change in profit
Change in sales
Change in profit= 20700-7200=Rs. 13500
Change in sales=342000-270000=Rs.72000
P/V ratio
=18.75%
Calculation of fixed expenses
(Second half) Fixed cost = P/V ratio of sales profit
=18.75% of 3, 42,000 -20700 =Rs. 43,425
(First half) Fixed cost @18.75% of 2, 70,000 -7200 = Rs.43, 425
Calculation of profit when sales are Rs. 2, 16,000
P/V ratio x 2, 16,000 - Fixed cost = 18.75% of 2, 16,000 -43,425 = Rs.40500
Sales to earn a profit of Rs.36, 000

161

=Fixed cost +Desired Profit

P/V ratio
= 43,425+36000
or Rs. 423600
18.75%
Additional Practical Problems to Practice
Problem
A multi product company furnishes the following data relating to the year 2002.
1st half of the year
2nd half of the year
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
Sales
45000
50000
Total Cost
40000
43000
Assuming that there is no change in prices and variable cost and the fixed
incurred equally in the two half years, calculate for the year 2002:

The P/V ratio.

The fixed expenses.
The break even sales.
The percentage of margin of safety to total sales.

Solution
Period
2nd half of the year
1st half of the year
Change

Sales
50000
45000
5000

Total Cost
43000
40000
3000

Profit
7000
5000
2000

P/V ratio = Change in profit x 100 i.e. 2000 x 100 = 40%

Change in sales
5000
Fixed expenses
Sales for the year = 45000 + 50000
=
Contribution for the year = Rs.95000 x 40 =
100
Less: Profit for the year Rs.5000 + Rs.7000 =
Fixed expenses for the year =

95000
38000
12000
26000

Break even sales = Fixed Cost i.e. 26000 x100 = Rs.65000

P/V ratio
40
Margin of Safety = Total Sales Break even sales = 95000 65000 = Rs.30000
% of margin of safety to total sales = 30000 x 100 = 31.58%
95000

162

expenses are

Problem
Alpha Ltd. & Beta Ltd., two competing companies produce and sell the same type of product
in the same market for the year ended March 2002. Their forecasted Profit & Loss accounts
are as follows:
Alpha Ltd.
Beta Ltd.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Sales
250000
250000
Less: Variable
Cost of sales
200000
150000
Fixed Costs
25000 225000
75000
225000
Forecasted Net
Profit before tax
25000
25000
You are required to compute:
P/V ratio
Break even sales volume.
You are also required to state which company is likely to earn greater profit in conditions of:

Low Demand.
High Demand.

Solution
Sales
Contribution
(F+P)
P/V ratio
Break even sales

Alpha Ltd.
250000

Beta Ltd.
250000

50000 x 100
250000
= 20%
25000 = 125000
20%

100000 x 100
250000
= 40%
75000 = 187500
40%

Profit situation for Alpha Ltd. Will be greater than that of Beta in case of low demand since
even if sales are halved Alpha Ltd. Will still not incur a loss, whereas Beta Ltd. has a Safety
margin of only Rs.62500. If sales drop to Rs.200000, in both the cases, the profit position
would be as follows:
Contribution
Fixed expenses

Alpha Ltd.
Rs.40000
25000
15000

Beta Ltd.
Rs.80000
75000
5000

In case of high demand Beta Ltd. will do better than Alpha ltd. since additional sales will
produce profit at the rate of 40% of sales as against only 20% in the case of other company. If
sales improve to Rs.300000 the profit position will be as follows:

163

Contribution
Fixed expenses

Alpha Ltd.
Rs.60000
25000
35000

Beta Ltd.
Rs.120000
75000
45000

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.4 DECISION MAKING USING MARGINAL COSTING

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Friends, previously we have tried to understand about CVP analysis .We will be solving some
practical problems and cases relating to CVP and multi product situations. We will now
discuss some situations to understand decision making for Multi product firm.
Ascertaining Relative Profitability of Products: We know that a manufacturing concern
engaged in the production of various products is interested in the study of the relative
profitability of its products so that it may suitably change its production and sales policies in
case of those products which it considers less profitable or unproductive. This is where the
concept of PV Ratio provided by the marginal costing technique is much helpful in
understanding the relative profitability of products. It is always profitable to encourage the
production of that product which shows a higher PV ratio.
You can also take case when sometimes, the management is confronted with a problem of
loss and it has to decide whether to continue or abandon the production of a particular
product which has resulted in, a net loss. Marginal costing technique properly guides the
management in such a situation. If a product or department shows loss, the Absorption
Costing method would hastily conclude that it is of no use to produce and run the department
and it should be closed down. Or sometimes this type of conclusion will mislead the
management. The marginal costing technique would suggest that it would be profitable to
continue the production of a product if it is able to recover the full marginal cost and a part of
the fixed cost. Let us take an example to understand this:
Example:
A company manufactures three products X, Y and Z. The company has prepared the
following budget for the year 2003:
Product Z
Sales

Total

Product X

Product Y

4,20,000

80,000

2,50,000

2,90,500

40,000

1,74,000

29,500

5,000

16,000

3,20,000

45,000

1,90,000

90,000

Factory Cost:
Variable
Fixed
Production
Cost
Selling and
Administration
Cost:

164

76,500
8,000
85,000

7,000
Variable

35,000

14,000

14,000

Fixed

8,000

3,500

3,200

3,63,000

62,500

2,07,200

57,000

17,500

42,800

1,300

Total Cost
Profit

93,300
- 3,300 (less)

Now on the basis of the above information, we understand that the company management is
thinking to discontinue with the production of Product Z which has shown loss. The
management seeks your expert opinion on .the issue before they take a final decision. You
are required to comment on the relative profitability of the products.
Solution
The information contained in the budget may be re-arranged in the form of a Marginal Cost
Statement as shown below:

Particulars
Sales
Variable Cost: Factory Cost
Selling and Admn.
Cost
Total Marginal Cost
Contribution
Fixed Costs
Profit
Profit-volume Ratio.

Marginal Cost Statement

Total
Product X
Product Y
Product Z
4,20,000
80,000
2,50,000
90,000
2,90,500

40,000

1,74,000

76,500

35,000

14,000

14,000

7,000

3,25,500
94,500
37,500
57,000
22.5%.

54,000
26,000
8,500
17,500
32.5%

1,88,000
83,500
62,000
6,500
19,200
9,800
42,800 -3,300 (less)
24.8%
7.2%

Profit volume ratio is the ratio of Contribution to Sales. It is expressed in terms of percentage.
After preparing above statements and analysis we can make following recommendations:-As
discussed in the marginal cost statement, the contribution of Product Z is Rs. 6500 which
goes towards the recovery of fixed cost of Rs. 9,800. If the production of Z is discontinued,
the company will loose the marginal contribution of Rs.6, 500 whereas it will have to incur
fixed cost of Rs. 9,800. The total profit of Rs. 57,000 will be reduced to Rs. 50,500 (57,000 6,500). Thus it is advisable that the production of Z should not be discontinued. As regards
the relative profitability, Product X is more profitable than Y and Z as the Profit-Volume
Ratio in this case is highest. The production and sales of Product X should, therefore, be
encouraged.
Determining Profitability of Alternative Product-Mix: You all know that objective of an
enterprise is to maximize profits, the management of Business enterprise would prefer that
product mix which is ideal one in the sense that it yields maximum profits. Products-mix
means combination of products which is intended for production and sales. A firm producing
more than one product has to ascertain the profitability of alternative combinations of units or
values of products and select the one which maximizes profits. How marginal cost analysis
helps the management in this regard is illustrated with the help of the following example:

165

Example
A manufacturing firm supplies you the following information:

Direct Material per unit

Direct wages paid
Variable Expenses (100%
of Wages)
Fixed Expense Rs. 1,300
Sales price per unit
Sales-Mixtures

Product P
(Rs.)
16
5

Product Q
(Rs.)
14
4

32

26

1. 400 units of Product P and 400 units of Product Q

2. 500 units of Product P and 300 units of Product Q
3. 600 units of Product P and 200 units of Product Q.
You are required to prepare the marginal cost statement to show contribution per unit and
suggest the sales-mix which optimizes profits.
Solution
Marginal Cost Statement
Product A
(Rs.)
Sales per unit

32

Direct material per unit

16

Direct wages per unit

Variable Expenses Cost

per unit

Marginal

26

Contribution Per Unit

Profit from different sales-mix

1. 400 units of P and 400 units of Q
Total contribution-Fixed cost = Profit
(400 x 6) + (400 x 4) - 1,300 = 2,700
2. 500 units of A and 300 units of B
(500 x 4) + (300 x 4) - 1,300 = 2,900
3. 600 units of A and 200 units of B

166

Product B
(Rs.)
26
14
5
4
22
4

(600 x 6) + (200 x 4) - 1,300 = 3,100

Based on the above analysis you can suggest that the firm should, produce and sell 600 units
of P and 200 units of Q. This combination yields maximum and 200 units of Q. This
combination yields maximum profit of Rs. 3,100.
Determination of Sales Mix: Now we will discuss another condition where Marginal cost
helps in decision making in determining Sales Mix. Presuming that fixed costs will remain
unaffected decision regarding sales/production mix is taken on the basis of the contribution
per unit of each product. The product which gives the highest contribution should be given
the highest priority and the product whose contribution is the least, should be given the least
priority. A product, giving a negative contribution, should be discontinued or given up unless
there are other reasons to continue its production.
Illustration 5.7
Following information has been made available from the cost records of Nike Automotives
Ltd. manufacturing spare parts:
Direct Materials
X
Y
Direct wages
X
Y
Variable overheads
Fixed overheads (total)
Selling price
X
Y

Per unit
Rs.8
6
24 hours @ 25 paise per hour
16 hours @ 25 paise per hour
150% of direct wages
Rs. 750
Rs. 25
Rs. 20

The directors want to be acquainted with the desirability of adopting anyone of the following
alternative sales mixes in the budget for the next period.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

250 units of X and 250 units of Y

400 units of Y only
400 units of X and 100 units of Y
150 units of X and 50 units of Y.

State which of the alternative sales mixes you would recommend to the management.

167

Solution
Marginal Cost Statement (Per Unit)
Products

X
8
6
9
23
2
25

Direct materials
Direct wages
Variable overheads
Marginal cost
Contribution
Selling price

Y
6
4
6
16
4
20

Selection of Sales Alternative

Situation a) 250 units of X and 250 units of Y
Contribution: Product X 250 units X 2
Product Y 20 units X 4

Rs. 500
1000
1500
750
750

Less: Fixed overheads

Profit
Situation b) 400 units of product Y only
Contribution: 400 x 4
Less: Fixed overheads
Profit

Rs. 1600
750
850

Situation c) 400 units of X and 100 units of Y Contribution

Product X 400 X 2
Product Y 100 X 4
Less: Fixed overheads
Profit

Rs 800
Rs 400
1,200
750
450

Situation d) 150 units of X and 350 units of Y Contribution:

Product X 150 X 2

300

Product Y 350 X 4

1400
1700

Less: Fixed overheads

750

Profit

950

Now after we have done above calculations we find that the alternative (d) is most profitable

168

since it gives the maximum profit of Rs. 950. So we recommend the same to the company.
Illustration: 5.8
The budgeted results for Associate company Ltd. included tile following: ~
Variable cost as % of sales
value
60%

Rs. in lakhs
Sales: Product

P1

50.00

P2

50%

40.00

P3

65%

80.00

P4

80%

30.00

P5

75%

44.00

65.77%

244.00

Fixed overheads for the period is Rs.90 lakhs.

You are asked to (a) prepare a statement showing the amount of loss expected. (b)
Recommend a change in the sales volume of each product which wi1I eliminate the expected
loss Assume that the sale of only one product can be increased at a time.
Solution
Statement Showing the Estimated Loss and the Increased Sales required to set off the Loss
Products
Particulars

P1

P2

P3

P4

(i) Sales
(ii) Variable cost
(iii) Contribution (i)(ii)

50.00
30.00

40.00
20.00

80.00
52.00

30.00
24.00

Total Rs in
Lakhs
44.00 244. 00
33.00
159.00

20.00

20.00

28.00

6.00

11.00

P5

85.00

Products
Particulars

P1

Fixed overheads
Loss
P/V Ratio (iii)/(i) 40%
Increased sales
required to set off 12.50
the loss

P2

P3

P4

P5

59%

35%

20%

25%

10.00

14.29

25.00

20.00

Total Rs in
Lakhs
90.00
5.00

As you observe there is a budgeted loss of Rs 5.00 lakhs and the sales of only one product
can be increased, this loss has to be set off by additional contribution. As the fixed overheads
are constant additional contribution has been calculated by dividing the budgeted loss of Rs.

169

5 lakhs by the P/V Ratios of respective products. The sales of anyone of the products to the
extent of the amount stated in the table would be sufficient to set off the loss.
Discontinuance of Product Line: Now you will again come across another type of condition
of decision making in Multi product firm regarding discontinuance of a product line. The
following factors should be considered before taking a decision about the discontinuance of a
product line:

The contribution given by the product i.e., whether the contribution is different from
profit. Profit is arrived at after deducting fixed cost from contribution. Fixed costs are
apportioned over different products on some reasonable basis which may not be very
much correct. Hence contribution gives a better idea about the, profitability of a
product as compared to profit.
The capacity utilization i.e., whether the firm is working to full capacity or below
normal capacity. In case a firm is having idle capacity, the production of any product
which can contribute towards the recovery of fixed costs can be justified.
The availability of product to replace the product which the firm wants to discontinue
and which is already accounting for a significant proportion of total capacity.
The long-term prospects in the market for the product.
The effect on sale of other products. In some cases the discontinuance of one product
may result in heavy decline in sales of other products affecting the overall
profitability of the firm.
Illustration 5.9
A manufacturer is thinking whether he can drop one item from his product line and replace it
with another are given his present cost and output data:
Product

Price

Variable cost per

unit

60

40

100

60

200

120

Chairs

Percentage of sales
30%

Cupboard

20%

Tables

50%

Total fixed costs per

year

Rs. 7, 50,000

Sales last year

Rs. 25, 00,000

The change under consideration consists in dropping the line of cupboards in favour of
cabinets. If this dropping and change is made the manufacturer forecasts the following cost
and output data:
Product

Price

Variable cost per Percentage of sales

unit

170

Chairs

50%
60

40

Cabinet

10%
160

60

200

120

Tables

40%

Total fixed costs per

year

Rs. 7, 50,000

Sales this year

Rs. 26, 00,000

Is this proposal to be accepted? Comment.

Solution
COMPARATIVE PROFIT STATEMENT
Total
Chairs

Cupboards

Table

Total

Chairs

Cabinet

Table

Sales

7,50,000

5,00,000

12,50,000

25,00,000

13,00,000

2,60,000

10,40,000

Less:
Variable
costs

5,00,000

3,00,000

7,50,000

15,50,000

8,66,666

97,500

6,24,000

2,50,000

2,00,000

5,00,000

9,50,000

4,33 333

1,62,500

4,16,000

26,00,000
15,88,166
10,11,833
Less:
Fixed
Cost

7,50,000
2,61,833

The above analysis shows that the manufacturer will stand to gain case he drops the
production of cupboards in preference to cabinets. However, the demand for cabinets should
be of a permanent nature.

171

Working Notes:
Existing situation:
Computation of sales and variables costs
Sales
Chairs 25, 00,000 X 30/100
=Rs.7, 50,000
Cupboards 25, 00,000 X 20/100
=Rs. 5, 00,000
Tables 25, 00,000 X 50/100
=Rs. 12, 50,000

Variable Costs
7; 50,000 X 40/ 100
=Rs. 5, 00,000
5, 00,000 X 60/ 100
= Rs 3, 00,000
12, 50,000 X 120/ 100
= Rs. 7, 50,000

Proposed situation:
Computation of sales and variable costs
Sales
Variable Costs
Chairs 26, 00,000 X 10/100
13, 50,000 X 40/ 60
=Rs.13, 50,000
=Rs. 8, 66,667
Cabinets 26, 00,000 X 10/100
26, 00,000 X 60/ 160
=Rs. 2, 60,000
= Rs 97,500
Tables 25, 00,000 X 40/100
10, 40,000 X 120/ 200
=Rs. 10, 40,000
= Rs. 6, 24,000
Let us go through some more problems for better clarity of concept
Problem Solving
Illustration 5.10
A company manufactures 3 products X, Y and Z. There are no common processes and the
sale of one product does not affect prices or volume of sale of any other. The Company's
budgeted profit/loss for 2000 has been abstracted thus:
Sales

Total (Rs.)
3, 00,000

Variable
Fixed
Factory cost

1, 80,000
60,000
2, 40,000

X (Rs.)
45,000
Production cost:

Y (Rs.)
2, 25,000

Z(Rs.)
30,000

24,000
1, 44,000
3,000
48,000
27,000
1, 92,000
Selling & Administration Costs:

12,000
9,000
21,000

Variable
24,000
8,100
8,100
7,800
Fixed
6,000
2,100
1,800
2,100
Total cost
2, 70,000
37,200
2, 01,000
30,900
Profit
30,000
7,800
23,100
(-) 900
On the basis of above, the board had almost decided to eliminate product C, on which a loss
was budgeted. Meanwhile, they have sought your opinion. As the Company's, Cost
Accountant, what would you advise? Give reasons for your answer.

172

Solution
In order to comment upon the profitability' of different presentation of costs according to
Marginal Costing system is we have also to compute P/ V Ratios.
Total
X
Y
Z

Sales
Production Cost
(Variable)
Selling & Adm.
(Variable)
Total Variable
Costs
Contribution(SalesVariable Costs)
Less: Total Fixed
Cost
Profit

Rs.

Rs

Rs

Rs

45,000

2,25,000

30,000

24,000

1, 44,000

12,000

1, 80,000

8,100

8,100

7,800

24,000

32,100

1,52,100

19,800

2,04,000

12,900

72,900

10,200

96,000

5100

49,800

11,100

66,000

7,800

23,100

(-) 900

28.7%

32.4%

P/V Ratio

3,00,000

30000
34.0%

If product Z is discontinued, the fixed cost of Rs. 10,200 being recovered now cannot be
recovered since product Z is making a contribution of Rs. 10,200 towards fixed cost.
Considering the P/V Ratio, product Z doesn't seem to be unprofitable, as it is 3410 being
maximum as compared to other two products, Therefore, if the heavy burden of fixed cost
which has been apportioned to product Z, being 39% of the total such burden, is not taken
into account, product Z is most profitable. Its profit/volume ratio is higher as compared to the
other two products. This leads us to conclude that total profit will increase if Z's output and
sales can be increased.
Illustration 5.11
As a prelude to finalizing the plans for the coming year, the executives thought it advisable to
have a look at the product-wise performance during the current year just completed. The
Following information is furnished;
Product Z
Product X
Product Y
Rs

Rs

Rs

80

60

16

24

16

12

12

Unit Selling Price

Direct Material

28

Direct Labor

20

Factory Overhead

173

Fixed

Cost of Production

64

48

Variable

Fixed

Unit Cost(ii)

72

56

10,000

15,000

80,000

60,000

1.28
33.28

Selling, Distribution
and General
Administration
Expenses:

Unit Profit (Loss)

(ii)
Sales Volume:
(Units)

2
1.52
36.80
(0.80)
15,000
(12,000)

Profit (Loss)

For the coming period, the selling prices and the cost of the three products are expected to
remain unchanged There will be an increase in sales of Product X by 1000 units and the
increase in sales of Product Z is expected to be 8,000 units. The sales of Product Y will
remain unchanged. Sufficient additional capacity exists to enable the increased demands 10
be met without incurring additional fixed costs. Some among the executives contend that it
will be unwise to go for additional production and sale of Product Z. since it is already losing
at Rs. 0.80 per unit. The suggestion is that Product Z should be eliminated altogether. Do you
agree? Substantiate with necessary analysis and determine the product-wise and over-all
profits for the coming year.
Solution
XYZ CO. LTD.
Statement Showing Product-Wise Contribution and Total Profit
Particulars
Sales
Volume(Units)

Product X
Per
Total
Unit

Product Y
Per
Total
Unit

10,000

15,000

Selling
Price 80
(Rs.)
Direct Material
28
Direct Labor
Variable
factory

60

Product Z
Total
Per
Unit
15,000

Total

9,00,000 36

5,40,000 22,40,000

3,60,000 16

2,40,000 8,80,000

1,80,000 12
90,000
4

1,80,000 5,60,000
60,000
2, 30,000

8,00,000
20

24
2,80,000
2,00,000 12
80,000
6

174

Overheads
Variable Selling 4
Distribution and
General Admn.
Overhead
Total variable
60
cost
Contribution
20
Fixed factory
80,000
Overhead
Fixed Selling,
40,000
Distribution and
General Admn.

30,000

30,000

1, 00,000

44

6,
60,000
2,
40,000

34

5,
10,000
30,000

17,
70,000
4, 70.000

40,000
6,
00,000
2,
00,000

16

90,000

19,200

1, 89,200

90,000

22,800

1, 52, 800

Total Fixed
Overheads
3, 42,000
Total profit
1, 28,000
The above analysis shows that Product Z makes a contribution of Rs. 2 per unit and the loss
sustained in previous year is because of its sales volume falling below break-even level.
ABC CO. LTD
.BUDGETED PERFORMANCE FOR COMING YEAR
Product X
Product Y Product Z
Unit contribution (Rs.)
20
16
2
Sales volume (units)
11,000
15.000
23,000
Total contribution (Rs.)
2.20,000
2,40,000
46,000
Less: Fixed cost (Rs.)
1,20,000.
1,80,000
42.000
Profit (Rs.)
1,00,000
60,000
4,000
The company makes a total profit of Rs. 1, 64.000 if all the products are continued. However,
if Product Z is discontinued there will be an adverse effect on overall profit of the Company
since the Product; also contributes towards meeting the fixed costs of the company.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.5 DECISION MAKING USING LIMITING FACTOR

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Previously we discussed about some conditions of marginal costing and decision making of
multi product firm. In this topic we are going to discuss how Marginal costing technique
helps in decision making for scarce resources and limiting factor. Now we will be discussing
certain cases relating to scarce resources and limiting factor and how does marginal costing
techniques helps in decision making. To start with we will take case of Limiting factor. To
understand production limiting factor, Let us first discuss what is limiting factor? A Key
factor (also called limiting factor or principal budget factor) is that factor the extent of whose
influence must first be assessed in order to ensure maximization of resources with the help of
managerial decision making. In simple words a limiting factor is the factor the supply of
which is not unlimited or freely available to the manufacturing enterprise. Lets say in case of
labor shortages, the labor becomes limiting factor. Raw material or plant capacity may be a
limiting factor during budget period. The limiting factor is also called by the name of 'scarce

175

factor' or 'key factor,' 'principal budget factor' or 'governing factor. In order to maximize
profit a concern should employ all its resources to manufacture and sell maximum quantities
of products which yield the highest contribution under the particular circumstance. Key
factors are of one or more of factors of production and sales such as capital, labor of suitable
skill, efficient staff and executive, plant and machinery, raw materials, Consumer demand
and sales personnel.
When contribution and key factor are known, we can asses the relative profitability as
follows
Profitability = Contribution
Key or Limiting factor
When rupee sales becomes the key factor, profitability is determined by contribution sales
ratio or P/V ratio; when material is in short supply, profitability is determined by contribution
per kg of raw material, and so on. Now it may be noted that some times there are more than
one key factor. In case of one key factor the marginal costing approach may be sufficient to
quantify the problem and its solution, but in case of multiple key factors operational research
approach of problem solving has to be applied. You are aware of that sometimes; production
has to be carried with certain limiting factor. The consideration of limiting factors is essential
for the success of any production plan because the manufacturing firm cannot increase the
production to the level it desire when a limiting factor is combined with other factors of
production.
So, the commodity which contributes maximum contribution per unit or which yields
maximum PV ratio is the most profitable commodity. This is true when there is no limitation
or production. In case different products are manufactured with a particular limiting factor, it
is not the contribution per unit or PV ratio which rightly guides in fixing production priorities
but the profitability per unit of limiting factor is the proper guiding star. Supposing labor is
the limiting factor, the relative profitability will be calculated as under:
Profitability =

Contribution per unit

Time required producing one unit

Let us take simple example to understand this

176

Illustration 5.12
The following information in respect of Product X and Product Y of ABC co. Ltd is obtained:
Product X

Product Y
Rs.

Rs.
Selling Price

68
105

Direct Material

40
40

Direct labor hour

(Re 0.50 per hour)

4 hours
20 hours

Variable overhead 100 % of direct wages

Fixed overhead - Rs. 3000
Present the above information to show the profitability of products during labor shortage.
Solution
We can prepare a statement of profitability and contribution under marginal costing method
as follows:
Statement of Contribution and Profitability
Product X (Rs.) Product Y (Rs.)
Sales
105
68
Less: Variable cost Direct Material
40
40
Direct Wages
10
2
Variable overhead
10
2
60
44
Contribution per unit
45
24
Profitability = Contribution
45 / 20 hrs
24 / 4 hrs
= Rs. 2.25 per hr.
= Rs. 6 per hr
Labour hours
Therefore during labor shortage, Product Y is more profitable than Product X.
You may also solve similar example as below:

177

Illustration: 5.13
The following information in respect of Product X and Product Y of ABC co. Ltd is obtained:

Selling Price
Direct Material
Direct labor hour
(Re 0.50 per hour)

Product X
Rs
105
40

Product Y
Rs.
68
40

20 hours

4 hours

Variable overhead 100 % of direct wages

Fixed overhead - Rs. 3000
Present the above information to show the profitability of products during labor shortage.
Solution:
We can prepare a statement of profitability and contribution under marginal costing method
as follows:
Statement of contribution and profitability
Sales
Less: Variable cost
Direct Material
Direct Wages
Variable overhead
Contribution per unit
Profitability =
Contribution

Product X (Rs.)
105

Product Y (Rs.)
68

40
10
10
60
45
45 / 20 hrs
= Rs. 2.25 per hr.

40
2
2
44
24
24 / 4 hrs
= Rs. 6 per hr

Labor hours
Therefore during labor shortage, Product Y is more profitable than Product X.
Another Illustration for you with different sales mix.
Illustration: 5.14
From the above illustration recommend which of the following sales mix should be adopted:
i.
100 units X, and 50 units of Y
ii.
50 units X and 100 units of Y
iii.
150 units X and
iv.
150 units Y
What recommended would you make if due to labor shortage, the direct labor hours available
are 1200 hours only. Assess that the maximum production capacity otherwise available for
each of the products X and Y is 200 units.
Solution:
From the above discussed example we have observed contribution per unit of X is Rs 45/while that of Y is Rs. 24.
Let us now calculate the profit in each use

178

100 units X and 50

units of Y
Contribution
Fixed Overheads
Profit
50 units X and 100
units of Y
Contribution
Fixed Overheads
Profit
150 units X
Contribution
Fixed Overheads
Profit
150 units Y
Contribution
Fixed Overheads
Profit

X
Rs.

Y
Rs.

Total
Rs.

4500

1200

5700
3000
2700

2250

2400

6750

4650
3000
1650
6750
3000
3750

3600

3600
3000
0600

Therefore it can be observed that case iii is more profitable. In times of labor shortage we
have already seen that product Y is more profitable. Therefore production of maximum of Y
i.e. 200 units is recommended. 200 units of Y will consume 800 hours and the balance hours
will be utilized in producing X, i.e. 400/20 hrs = 20 units.
Contribution from 200 units Y
Contribution from 20 units X
Total contribution
Less Fixed cost
Profit

4800
900
5700
3000
2700

Rs
Rs
Rs
Rs
Rs

(200 x 24)
(20 x 45)

In any other sales mix profit will be less than Rs 2700 provided labor hours remain the key
factor. We will solve one more illustration to understand this better.
Illustration 5.15
From the following data which product would you recommend to be manufactured in a
factory, time being the Key factor?
Per unit of product M
Per unit of product N
Direct material
24
14
Direct labor (Re 1 per hour)
2
3
Variable overhead (Rs. 2
per hour)
Selling price
Standard time to produce

100
2 hours

110
3 hours.

Solution

179

Marginal Cost Statement

Product M (Per unit)
Sales (s)

Product N (Per unit)

110

100

Materials

14

24

Direct Labor

Variable overheads

Marginal Cost (vc)

23

30

Contribution (s-vc)

87

70

PV Ratio

79%

70%

Contribution or profitability
per hour

70/2=35

87/3=29

Now you have the prepared Marginal cost statement, based on which you have to give your
recommendation as: Product N is more profitable if there is no limiting factor. Since labor is
the limiting factor, the Product M should be manufactured in the factory as its profitability
per hour is Rs. 35 which is more than the profitability of N. If sales are not the limiting factor,
all the available labour should be diverted for the production of product M.
Illustration 5.16
On the basis of following informations in respect of an engineering company, determine the
product-mix which will give the highest profit attainable. Do you recommend overtime
working?
Per unit details.
Product
A
B

Selling price
100
110

Materials
24
14

Labour
Overhead
24
36

Standard time
2 hours
3 hours

Solution
Marginal Cost Statement
Sales

Product A (Per unit)

100

Product B (Per unit)

110

Materials

24

14

Direct Labor

Variable overheads

180

Marginal Cost

30

23

Contribution

70

87

PV Ratio

70%

79%

Contribution or profitability
per hour

70/2=35

87/3=29

You have prepared the Marginal costing statement like this. Based on this statement we can
recommend that Product B is more profitable if there is no limiting factor. Since labor is the
limiting factor the Product A should be manufactured in the factory as its profitability per
hour is Rs. 35 which is more than the profitability of B. If sales is not the limiting factor, all
the available labour should be diverted for the production of product A.
A Case of Two Limiting Factors: Now let us also take a case of two limiting factor. It is
possible that the production is limited by two or more limiting factors. Labor and raw
material may be in short supply. The amount of availability of one factor affects the
utilization of other factor. Under such a condition the best product mix is one which
optimizes over-all profits but is achievable under the given constraints.
Illustration 5.17
On the basis of following informations in respect of an engineering company, determine the
product-mix which will give the highest profit attainable. Do you recommend overtime
working upto maximum of 15,000 hours at twice the normal wages (overheads are ignored
for the purpose of this question?)
Products
P
Q
R
Raw material per
10
6
15
unit (Kg)
Labor hours per
15
25
20
unit(Re 1 per hour)
Maximum
6,000
4,000
4,000
production possible
Selling price per
125
100
200
unit (Rs.)
1, 00,000 Kg. of raw materials are available @ Rs.10 per kg. Maximum production hours are
1, 84,000 with a facility for further 15,000 hours on overtime basis at twice the normal wage
rate.

181

Solution
Marginal Cost Statement
Particulars

Sales
Raw
Materials
Labor
Marginal
Cost
Contribution
Contribution
per
Kg. of raw
material
(Contribution
per unit) (raw material
per unit)
Contribution
per
( hours per
unit)

Product P
(6,000
units)
Per unit
125

Total
7,50,000

Product Q
(4000
units)
Per unit
100

Total
4,00,000

Product R
(3000
units)
Per unit
200

Total
6,00,000

100

6,00,000

60

2,40,000

150

4,50,000

15

90,000

25

1,00,000

20

60,000

115

6,90,000

85

3,40,000

170

5,10,000

10

60,000

15

60,000

30

90,000

2.50

2.00

0.06

0.60

1.50

From this statement we can say that since raw material and labour are the limiting factors, the
production of Q and R should be encouraged to the maximum level as these products show
maximum profitability both per Kg of raw material and per labour hour. Any raw material
and labour hours remaining after their use in Q and R products should be utilized for the
production of P. The consumption of inputs in Q and R and the balance available for P is
calculated below:
Product
Unit
Raw Material
Labour required
required
(No. of Hrs.)
(No. of Kgs.)
Q

4,000

24,000

4,000

24,000

3,000

45,000

Total

70,000

69,000

Balancing figure for

P

31,000

Total Available

1,00,000

182

1,00,000
1,00,000
60,000
1,60,000
24,000
1,84,000

With 31,000 Kg. of raw materials and 24,000 labour hours, how many units of P can be
produced? 31,000 Kg of raw material is sufficient to produce 31,000 Kg of P but the labour
available to produce 31,000 units is not sufficient. 24,000 labour hours are sufficient just to
produce 1,600 units (15 hrs. are required to produce one unit). Therefore, 1,600 units of P can
be produced working at current normal conditions. The contribution from the production of
1,600 units of P @ Rs. 10 per unit will be Rs. 16,000. If the work is done for additional
15,000 hours for which facility exist, the additional 1,000 units can be produced, but at the
twice the normal wage rates. The contribution form the total 2,600 units of A will be,
Sales of 2,600 units @ Rs. 125 per unit 3, 25,000 Marginal cost of 2,600 units:

Raw material:
26, 00 units % Rs 10

2, 60,000

Wages :
1,600 units @ Rs. 15

24,000

Wages :
1,000 units

30,000

@ Rs. 30

3, 14,000
11,000

Marginal Contribution

You can clearly understand from the above cost analysis that the production of 1,600 units of
a yields of contribution of 16,000 whereas 2600 units of A generates a contribution of Rs.
11,000. Thus the contribution is reduced if additional 1,000 units by working over-time are
produced. Therefore, over time work is not recommended. The best product-mix will be,
Products

Units

1,600

4,000

3,000

183

Illustration: 5.18
The following particulars are obtained from records of a company engaged in manufacturing
two Product X and Y from a certain raw material.
Product X

Product Y

(per units)

(per units)

Rs.

Rs.

Sales

100

200

Materials cost (Rs. 10 per

kg.)

20

50

Direct Wages(Rs. 6 per

hour)
Variable overhead

30

60

10

20

Total fixed overhead Rs. 10,000

Comment on the profitability on each product when:

total sales potential in units is limited

total sales potential in value is limited

raw material is in short supply

production capacity is the limiting factor

When total availability of raw material is 4,000 kg.

If total material available is 3000 kg and it is decided to produce at least 200 unit of
each product, calculate the optimum profit.

Solution:

Sales
Less: Marginal
cost Material
Direct Wages

Statement showing comparative profitability

Product X
(per unit)
Rs.
Rs
Rs.
100
20
30

Product Y
(per unit)
Rs.
200
50
60

184

Variable
overhead
(i)Contribution

10

(ii) P/V ratio =

C/S
(iii)
Rs. 40/2 kg.
Contribution
=Rs. 20
per k.g.
(iv)
Rs 40/3 hr= Rs.
Contribution
8
per hour

60

130

45

80

40%

35%

20

Rs. 70/5 kg=

Rs. 14
Rs. 70/10 hrs
= Rs.7

Thus, when sales potential in units is limited, Product Y is more profitable as is revealed by
contribution per unit. When total sales potential in value is limited, the P/V ratio of Product X
is higher and hence more profitable. When raw material is in short supply, contribution per
kg of raw material for Product X is more and hence more profitable. When capacity is
limited, contribution per hour of product X is more and hence more profitable. It is a case of
two limiting factors. When raw material is in short supply, Product X is more profitable. So,
maximum i.e. 1000 units of Product X should be produced consuming 2000 kg of raw
material and with the balance quantity i.e. 4000 kg 2000 kg, 400 units (2000 kg / 5 kg) of
product Y will be produced. This can be shown as follows
Rank Product

II

Material
Per unit

Production
Unit

Total
Material
required

Kg.

Units

Kg.

1000

2000

40

400

2000

70

Total

2000/5

4000

Less:

Fixed Overheads
Profit (maximum)

Total
Contribution
Contributio
Per unit
n
Rs.
Rs.
40000
28000
68000
10000
58000

In case, minimum 200 units of Y (less profitable) should be produced and the balance to be
allocated to X as follows:
Material
Total
Contribution
Total
Rank
Product
Production
Per unit
Material
Per unit
Contribution
Kg.
Units
Kg.
Rs.
Rs.
II
Y
5
200
1000
70
14,000
I
X
2
1,000
2000
40
40,000
Total
3000
54,000
Less:
10,000
Fix

185

ed
overhead
Profit
(maximum)

44,000

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.6 DECISION MAKING USING PRICING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In this topic we are going to discuss how Marginal costing technique helps in decision
making regarding pricing. In fact pricing is the most crucial and complicated decision with
which the company is dealing, because on this depends the market strategies, competition,
survival and many long as well as short term decisions.
Pricing in Home and Foreign Markets: To understand the pricing in different markets we
will first discuss pricing. Pricing of a product is governed primarily by its cost of production
and the nature of competition being faced by the production unit. Once market forces fix the
price, it remains stable at least in the short period. During short period when selling period,
marginal cost and fixed costs remain the same, an entrepreneur is in a position to establish
relationship between them. On the basis of such a relationship, it is very easy to fix the
volume of sales and selling price during normal and abnormal times in the home market. Just
think how far the prices can be cut in case of foreign buyer to effect additional sales is a
problem which is realistically answered by the marginal costing technique. Lets go through
an example for this problem.
Illustration 5.19
A firm is currently producing 20,000 units annually of a product. The cost structure is as
under:
Per unit (Rs.)
Materials
4.50
Labor:
3.25
Variable Expenses
1.25
Variable cost per unit
9.00
Fixed Expenses
6,600
Selling Price
Rs. 12/- per unit
The firm is thinking to reduce the selling price due to severe competition to Rs.10.80 per unit
(10% decreases). How much extra should it produce and sell if the previous level of profit is
to be maintained?
Solution:
Marginal Cost Statement (20,000 Unit)
Selling Price
Materials
Labor
Variable
Expenses
Marginal Cost

Per unit
12.00
4.50
3.25

Amount
2,40,000
90,000
65,000

Per unit
10.80
4.50
3,25

Cost Reduction
Amount
2,16,000
90,000
65,000

1.25

25,000

1.25

25,000

9.00

1,80,000

9.00

1', 80,000

186

Contribution
Fixed Costs

3.00

60,000

Profit

6,600
53,400

1.80

36,000
6,600
29800

As a result of decrease in selling price by 10% the profits of the firm will be decreased to Rs.
29,400 if no effort for additional sales is made. Since the firm has decided to maintain the
present level of profit, i.e. Rs. 53,400 it will need additional sales to counterbalance the loss
due to price reduction. The number of units required to be sold to maintain the existing level
of profit is calculated as under:
Number of units to be sold

Total Contribution required

Contribution per unit
=
60,000
= 33,333 units
1.80
Therefore extra sales required = 33,333 - 20,000 = 13,333 units Note: The present level of
profit can be maintained only if the present contribution could be attained by the price change
Pricing in Foreign Markets: A foreign market can be kept separate from the domestic
market due to many legal and other restrictions imposed on imports and exports and such a
different price can be charged from foreign buyers. Any company, which enjoys surplus
production capacity, can increase its production to sell in the foreign market at lower price if
its full fixed cost already stands recovered from the production from home market. Any price
in excess of the marginal cost is -advisable from the foreign market as shown in the following
example.
Illustration 5.20
Light lamp Ltd. is operating at 60% of its installed capacity and producing 27,000 units,
which are sold in the domestic market at a price of Rs. 15 per unit. The marginal cost of
production is Rs. 12 per unit and the fixed cost amount to Rs. 15,000. The company has
received a foreign offer to purchase 9,000 units of its product at a price of Rs. 13.50 per unit.
The company has received a foreign offer to purchase 9,000 units of its product at a price of
Rs. 13.50 per unit. The Company will have to incur nothing on additional fixed cost.
However, it will have to bear Rs. 0.75 per unit as distribution cost in respect of foreign buyer.
You are required to suggest to the management-- (a) whether or not the order should be
accepted and (b) what will be your recommendations if the buyer is a local one?
Solution
Particulars

Sales
Marginal cost
Contribution

Production and Sales at

60% capacity(27,000
units)

Production and sales at

80% capacity(36,000
units)
5,26,500

4,05,000
4,32,000
3,24,000
81,000

187

94,500

15,000

Fixed cost

15,000
79,500

Profit

66,000

Less distribution cost of exports 9,000 units

@ Rs. 0.75 per unit
6,750
Net Profit
66,000

72,750

Excess Profit from exports = 72,750 - 66,000 = 6,750

The above cost statement clearly shows that the company should accept the foreign offer, as
it will generate an excess profit of Rs. 6,750. If the buyer is a local one, the company will
have to keep this buyer separate from other buyers for additional supplies of 9000 units @
Rs. 13.50 otherwise other customers will also ask for price reduction and the company will be
put to difficulties. Another pricing problem will be discussed now.
Price under Recession/ Depression: You all know, recession is an economic condition
under which demand is declining. During depression the demand is at its lowest ebb, and the
firms are confronted with the problem of price reduction and closure of production. Under
such conditions, the marginal costing technique suggests that prices can be reduced to a level
of marginal cost. In that case, the firm will loose profits and also suffer loss to the extent of
fixed costs. This loss will also be borne eyen if the production is suspended altogether.
Selling below marginal cost is advisable only under very special circumstances.
Illustration 5.21
Solar Ltd. is experiencing: conditions of depression; the demand is declining and the
company is 'forced every time to reduce the selling price. On the basis of following cost
information, you are required to suggest to the management the minimum price that they can
fix in order to continue production in the short period.

Raw materials
Labor
Variable Expenses
Overheads:

Existing cost structure

4.50 per unit
3.25
1.25
9.00

Estimated cost structure

3.85 per unit
3.25
1.25
8.35

Variable overheads
Fixed overheads
Total Cost

0.50
1.00
10.50

0.50
1.00
9.85

Selling Price .10.25

Budgeted Production - 1,000 units for half year.

188

Solution
Particulars
Sales
Raw Materials
Labor
Variable Expenses
Variable overheads
Marginal Cost
Contribution
Fixed Cost
Loss

Marginal Cost Statement

Existing cost Structure (per
unit)
10.25
4.50
3.25
1.25
0.50
9.50
0.75
1.00
0.25

New cost structure (per

unit)
3.25
3.85
3.25
1.25
0.50
8.85

Since the company is under pressure to reduce selling price, it can reduce its price to the level
of marginal cost, which is Rs. 8.85. By charging this price, it will recover only the variable
cost and suffer loss to the tune of fixed cost. Thus the company can fix Rs. 8.85 per unit for
its product if it is interested to continue production in the short-run. In the long run, this price
will not work because no firm can afford to operate with zero profits and losses in the long
run.
Exploring New Markets: Decision regarding selling goods in a new market (whether Indian
or foreign) should be taken after considering the following factors:

Whether the firm has surplus capacity to meet the new demand?
What price is being offered by the new market? In any case, it should be higher than
the variable cost of the product plus any additional expenditure to be incurred to meet
the specific requirements of the new market.
Whether the sale of goods in the new market will affect the present market affect the
goods? It is particularly true in case of sale of goods in a foreign market at a price
lower than the domestic market price. Before accepting such an order from a foreign
buyer, it must be seen that the goods sold are not dumped in the domestic market
itself.

Illustration 5.22
A company annually manufactures 10,000 units of a product at a cost of Rs. 4 per unit and
there is home market for consuming the entire volume of production at the sale price of Rs.
4.25 per unit. In the year 2002, there is a fall in the demand for home market, which can
consume 10,000 units only at a sale price of Rs. 3.72 per unit. The analysis of the cost per
10,000 units is:
Materials
Rs, 15,000
Wages
11,000
Fixed overheads
8,000
Variable overheads
6,000
The foreign market is explored and if is found that this market can consume 20,000 units of
the product if offered at a sale price of Rs. 3.55 per unit. It is also discovered that for
additional 10,000 units' of the product (over initial 10,000 units) the fixed overheads will
increase by 10 per cent. Is it worthwhile to try to capture the foreign market?

189

Solution
Statement Showing the Advisability of Selling Goods in Foreign Market.

Materials
Wages
Overheads:
Fixed
Variable
Total cost
Profit
Sales

Year 2001
Home market
10,000 units
15,000
11,000

Year 2002
Home market
Foreign market
10,000 units
20,000 units
15,000
30,000
11,000
22,000

Total
30,000 units
45,000
33,000

8,000

8,000

1,600

9,000

6,000
40,000
2,500 (Loss)
42,500

6,000
40,000
2,800
37,200

12,000
65,600
5,400
71,000

18,000
1, 05,600
2,000
1,08,200

From the above it is clear that it is advisable to sell goods in the foreign market. It will
compensate not only for the loss on account of sale in domestic market but will also result in
overall profit of Rs. 2,600.
Illustration: 5.23
A machine tool manufacturing company sells its lathes at Rs. 36,500 each made up as
follows:
Direct materials
Rs. 16,000
Direct labor

2,000

Variable overheads

5,000

Fixed overheads

3,000

Variable selling overheads

500

Royalty

1,000

Profit

5,000

32,500

Central excise duty

1000

Sales tax

3000
36,500

There is enough idle capacity.

A firm in Arabia has offered to buy to company's lathes at Rs. 28,500 each. Should
the company be interested in the business?

190

It has been decided to sell 5 such lathes to an engineering company under the same
management at bare cost. What price should you charge?

Solution
Computation of the Marginal Cost and Contribution per Lathe
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable overhead
Variable selling overhead
Royalty
Marginal cost
Price offered (export)
Gross contribution as margin

Rs. 16000
Rs. 2000
Rs. 5000
Rs. 500
Rs. 1000
Rs. 24500
Rs. 28000
Rs. 4000

The contribution per lathe is Rs. 4,000, out of which about Rs. 2,500 will go for sales tax.
There will be saving of about Rs. 1,500 per lathe in case the export order is executed. This is
on the presumption that the Central Government may exempt the company from payment of,
central excise duty in order to encourage exports and earn foreign exchange. There will be no
increase in fixed costs since there is already surplus capacity. The company may, therefore,
accept the export order.
The company may charge a price of Rs. 31,000 i.e., Rs. 36,500 - Rs. 5,500 (Profit and, selling
overhead)] as the bare cost, subject to any variation in the Sales Tax and Central Excise Duty
payable by the company on such sales.
Marginal Costing and Decision Making: We are now going to discuss how Marginal
costing technique helps in decision making and also the decision making process. You must
be thinking how this technique of costing helps in decision-making and in the effort of the
management on an enterprise is to optimize profits or minimize cost and / or losses. Yes,
Marginal costing contributes in decision-making as it reviews the existing production, pricing
and marketing policies from time to time and makes necessary adjustments, if needed.
Marginal costing technique provides objective basis and facilitates the task of decision
making in respect of the following:

Determining relative profitability of products.

Determining profitability of alternative product mix
Make or Buy decisions
Pricing in home and foreign markets
Production with limiting factor.
Profit planning
Cost Planning
Continue or Shut down
Expand and contract

Decisions Involving Alternative Choices: We have already understood the technique of

marginal costing. You must have noted that the major purpose of this technique is not to
provide new concepts of income or inventory but rather to clarify the relationship between
costs, volume and profits, particularly in the area of decision-making. Now we are going to
deal with a group of specific operating decisions that require the decision-maker to be

191

selective in deciding which cost information you will use and how you will use them.
Concept of Decision-Making: To make use of marginal costing as tool to decision making
you are required to know the concept of decision-making. Decision-making is the essence of
management function since it may make or mar the success of the business as a whole. In
general it means taking the final step in deliberations before acting. In management terms it
has a specific meaning. It means the process of choosing among alternative courses of action.
If there is no choice, there is no decision to make. Moreover, since business takes place in a
probabilistic world, every management decision deals with the future and it is not concern
with past since no past action can be altered in any way. As a decision maker you have to
make prediction. The function of decision-maker is therefore to select among the alternative
courses of action for the future. There is no opportunity to alter the past as mentioned earlier.
We all know that the future is uncertain and associated with risk. Of course, routine decisions
do not involve much of risk. However, most of the top management decisions are not of a
routine nature. They are generally of a crucial and critical nature on account of their requiring
huge investments and involving uncertainties. But they cannot be avoided. You as an
Executive have to bear risk. It has been correctly observed: "Uncertainty is his (executive's)
opponent, overcoming it his mission. Whether the outcome is a consequence of luck or
wisdom, the moment of decision is without doubt the most creative event in the life of the
executive."
Concept of Relevant Costs: Now you are aware that for managerial decision-making the
decision-maker must make use of relevant costs. The term 'relevant', means 'pertinent to
decision at hand.' Costs are relevant if they guide the executive towards the decision that
harmonizes with top management's objectives. It will be ideal if the costs are not only
relevant or pertinent but also accurate or precise. You may note that 'relevance' and 'accuracy'
are not identical concepts. Costs may be accurate but irrelevant or inaccurate but relevant For
example, the sales manager's salary may be precisely Rs. 60,500 per annum, however, thisfact has no relevance in deciding whether to add or drop a production line because it does
alter any future action of the management. Relevant cost is future cost which is the cause of
worry of the management. If fixed cost is altered in future, it also becomes relevant for the
purpose of decision-making. Please be familiar to the following are the two fundamental
characteristics of relevant costs.

They are Future Costs: Of course as mentioned earlier all future costs are relevant to
alternative choice decisions. This is because past costs are the result of past decisions
and no current or future decision can change what has already, happened. For
example, a company has to decide whether or not to accept an order for a particular
product. In calculating the cost of this product to see if the order would benefit the
company financially, the company uses the expected cost at the time when intends to
produce the product. This could be quite different from tile latest historical cost or
standard cost. Thus, in forward decision-making, data regarding historical or standard
cost is useful only as a basis for estimating future costs.

They Differ Between Alternatives: As stated above all future costs are relevant for
decision-making. Only such future costs are relevant which may be expected to differ
between alternatives. Those costs which will not change between different
alternatives arc to be ignored. For example a company is considering the substitution
of an automatic process in place of a manual process. The material consumption per
unit would be Rs. 2 under both the processes but the convenient cost would be Rs. 3
per unit under the new process in place of Rs. 5 under the present process. In this case

192

relevant cost for decision-making is not the material cost, which will not change, but
the conversion cost, which will change. The cost of material should therefore be
ignored. Conversion cost should only be considered. The proposal for automatic
process should therefore be accepted since it will result in saving of Rs. 2 per unit.
Concept of Differential Costs: Please be aware that the concept of differential cost also
affects the decision making process of the management. The differential cost means
difference in cost between two or more alternative levels of production or output. It satisfies
both the conditions necessary for relevant costs, i.e., it is a future cost as well as it changes
between alternatives. Mr. J.M. Clark has described the concept of differential costs as
follows:
"When a decision has to be made involving an increase or decrease of n - units of output, the
difference in costs between two policies may be considered to be the cost really incurred on
account of these n units of business, or of any similar units. This may be called the
differential cost of a given amount of business. It represents the cost that must be incurred if
that business is taken arid which need not be incurred if that business is not taken.
Since the management's objective is to maximize the profit (or minimize the cost/ loss) of the
firm, a comparison is made of differential costs with differential revenue under the available
alternatives, to find out the most favorable alternative, which will give the maximum possible
return on the incremental capital employed in the business.
The concept of differential cost is also known as the concept of incremental cost. Differential
and incremental cost is used interchangeably in practical situation.
Steps in Decision-Making: Dear Students, Rational decision-making requires the taking of
the following steps:

Defining the Problem: The problem must be clearly and precisely defined so that
quantitative amounts that are relevant to its solution can be determined of fact many
decisions could be improved by obtaining information.

Identifying Alternative: The possible alternative solutions to the problem should be

identified. Sometimes consideration of more alternative solutions may make the
matters more complex. In order to do away with this difficulty, after having identified
all alternatives, the analysts should eliminate on a Judgment basis those that are
clearly unattractive. A detailed analysis 'of the remaining alternatives should then be
done.

Evaluating Quantitative Factors: Each alternative is usually associated with a

number of advantages (relevant revenues) and disadvantages (relevant costs). The
decision-maker should evaluate each of the relevant factors in quantitative terms to
determine the largest net advantage.

Evaluating Qualitative Factors: In most cases the advantages and disadvantages

associated with each alternative are capable of being easily expressed in quantitative
terms. However in certain cases there may be qualitative factors associated with
certain alternatives, which may not be capable of being expressed easily and correctly
in quantitative terms. Evaluating such qualitative factors against the quantitative -

193

factors against on the judgment of the decision-maker. Sometimes on account of a

single qualitative factor, which though cannot be measured exactly and easily in
monetary terms, the decision may just be reverse than what it was generally expected
to be. To take example, we all know the fact that many persons can meet their
transportation needs less expensively by using public conveyances rather than by
operating their own automobiles. 10 spite of this people own and use their own
automobiles for reasons of prestige, convenience, or other factors which cannot be
measured it quantitative terms.

Obtaining the Necessary and Relevant Information: In case the decision maker
feels necessary, he may ask for relevant and additional information. As a matter of
fact many decisions could be improved by obtaining additional information and it is
usually possible to obtain such information.

Selection of an Alternative: After having identifying, evaluating, weighing and

obtaining additional information (if necessary), the decision maker can select the
alternative and act on it.

Appraisal of the Results: Having implemented his decision, the decision-maker

should also from time to time carry out an appraisal of the results. This will help him
in correcting his mistakes, revising his targets and making better predictions in the
times to come.

In the following pages we shall explain how the above steps/rules are taken / applied in
making decisions relating to each of the following matters as it has been enumerated and
explained in earlier occasions.

Determination of sales mix;

Exploring new markets;
Discontinuance of a production line;
Make or buy decisions;
Equipment replacement decision;
Investment in asset;
Change versus status quo
Expand or contract;
Shut down or continue.

Make or Buy Decisions: Now, we will be discussing certain problems to be solved for
decision making with the help of Marginal costing technique. A firm may be manufacturing a
product by itself. It may receive an offer from an outside supplier to supply that product. The
decision in such a case will be made by comparing the price that has to be paid and the saving
that can be affected on cost. The saving will be only in terms of marginal cost of the product
since generally no savings can be affected in fixed costs. Similarly, a firm may consider to
buy a product from outside or to manufacture that product in the firm itself. The decision in
such a case will be made by comparing the price being paid to outsiders, and all additional
costs that will have to be incurred for manufacturing the product. Such additional costs will
comprise not only direct materials and direct labor but also salaries t: additional supervisors
engaged, rent for premises if required and interest on additional capital employed. Besides
that the firm must also take into account the fact that the firm will be losing the opportunity
of using surplus capacity for any other purpose in case it decides to manufacture the product

194

by itself.
In case a firm decides to get a product manufactured from outside, besides the savings in cost,
it must also take into account the following factors:

Whether the outside supplier would be in a position to maintain quality of the product.

Whether the supplier would be regular in his supplies

Whether the supplier is reliable? In other words, he is financially and technically

sound.

In case the answer is "No" to any of these questions it will not be advisable for the firm to
buy the product from outside.
Illustration 5.24
The CEO of ABC Pvt. Ltd. asks for your assistance in arriving at a decision as to whether to
continue manufacturing a component 'X' ore to buy it from an outside supplier. The
component 'X' is used in the finished products of the company. The following data are
supplied:
1. The annual requirement of component 'X' is 10,000 units. The lowest quotation from
an outside supplier is Rs. 8'00 per unit.
2. The component' X' is manufactured in the machine shop. If the component 'X' is
bought out, certain machinery will be sold at its book value and the residual capacity
of the machine shop will remain idle.
3. The total expenses-of the Machine Shop for the year ending 31-3-2002 is as-follows:
During that year the Machine Shop manufactured 10,000 units of, X:

195

Material

Rs 1,35,000

Direct Labor

1, 00,000

Indirect Labor

40,000

Power and Fuel

6,000

Repairs and Maintenance

11,000

Rate, Taxes and- Insurance

16,000

Depreciation

20,000

Other Overhead Expenses

29,600

4. The fol1owing expenses of the Machine Shop manufacturing of component' X;

Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Power and Fuel
Repairs and Maintenance

Rs. , 35,000
56,000
12,000
600
1,000

The sale of machinery used for the manufacture of component X reduce:

by Rs. 4,000 and Insurance by Rs. 2,000

Depreciation

5. If the component 'X' were bought out, the ft.-wing additional expenses would be
incurred:
Freight Re.1.00 per unit Inspection Rs. 10,000 per annum.You are
required to prepare a report to the Managing Director showing the comparison of
expenses of Machine Shop (i) when the component 'X' is made, and (ii) when bought
out.

196

Solution
Comparative Statement of Cost
Direct Material

To make Component X
Rs. 35,000

Direct Labor

56,000

Indirect Labor

12.000

Power and Fuel

600

Repair and Maintenance

1,000

Depreciation

4,000

Insurance

2,000

Total Variable Cost

Variable cost per unit

To buy Component X
Rs.

1,10,600
11.06

Purchase price per unit

8.00

Freight charge per unit

1.00

Inspection charge per unit

1.00

Cost per unit

11.06

10.00

It is preferable to buy component' X' than to make it in the shop, because the variable cost per
unit is less by Rs, 1.06. Only variable cost is to be considered, since fixed costs would remain
the same under both the circumstances. Even if the production of component' X' is
discontinued, fixed cost cannot be saved. Moreover, the capacity, which would remain idle
on account of buying this component from the market, can be utilized for some other purpose
in the near future.
Make or Buy Decision (When plant is not fully utilized): If the similar product or
component is available outside, then a manufacturing firm compares its unit cost of
manufacture with the price at which it can be purchased from the market. The marginal cost
analysis suggests that it is profitable to the total manufacturing cost. In other words the firm
should prefer to buy if the marginal cost is more than the Bought out price and Make when
the marginal cost is lesser than the purchase price. However, the available plant capacity will
exert its own influence in such a decision-making. Let us take an example to understand this
well:

197

Illustration 5.25
A radio manufacturing company finds that component No.1SP and 3SR, which are being
manufactured internally, can be purchased from the market at a cost of Rs. 13.90 and Rs.
24.25 per unit respectively with an assured supply. The structure of cost of manufacture is as
under:
Component No 1SP
Component No 3SR
Raw Material per unit
Rs. 8,50
Rs. 11.25
Wages per unit
5.40
8.15
Variable Expenses per unit
1.10
2.10
Fixed cost per unit
2.75
9.75
Total cost
17.75
31.00
You are required to represent the data in an appropriate form and suggest the management
whether they should Make or Buy the products.
Solution
Purchase Price
Raw Materials
Wages
Variable Expenses
Marginal Cost
Fixed Cost
Total Cost

Component No. 1SP

(Rs. Per unit)
13.90
8.50
5.40
1.10
15.00
2.75
17.75

Component No. 3SR

(Rs. Per unit)
24.25
11.25
8.15
2.10
21.50
9.50
31.00

If purchased - the cost involved will be purchase price plus fixed cost:
Purchase price
24.25
13.90
Fixed cost
Cost to be borne
Total cost if manufactured
Internally
Decision Suggested

2.75

9.50
33.75

16.65
17.75

31.00

To Buy

To Manufacture

Formula to Remember: Firm should buy when PP + FC is lesser than total cost of
manufacture. Firm should manufacture when PP+FC is greater than total cost of manufacture.
Expand or Buy Decision: In case unused capacity is limited or does not exist, then an
alternative to buying is to make by purchasing additional plant and other equipment. The firm
should evaluate the capital expenditure proposal resulting out of expansion program in terms
of cash flows and cost of capital. If the installed capacity of the existing plants partially being
used, then it can be utilized by producing more internally. The additional production may
necessitate purchase of some specialized equipment and thus involve interest and
depreciation cost. It is advisable to expand and produce if the enterprise is able to save some
costs by doing so.

198

Illustration 5.26
Part No. X-292 used in the assembly of product manufactured by your company has during
the past three years been a bought-out item. The current price of this part is Rs. 120.
Transportation and other deli very costs account for Rs. 15 per piece. Sales tax at 10% is
added to the invoice price.
Your company had been manufacturing this part earlier but decided subsequently to
discontinue its own manufacture. There is sufficient unutilized capacity, which can be used if
it is decided to manufacture the part again in its own plant. Annual requirements of the part
are 6,000 units, Prepare a study to enable the management to come to a decision on a
proposal to manufacture the part within its own plant. The following estimates are available:
Part No. X-292
Estimated cost per unit (Rs.)
96
8
64
168
12
180

Raw Materials
Direct Wages
Overheads at 800% of wages
Total cost
Make up for return on investment

In addition, special tools, jigs and fixtures required to manufacture this part are needed to be
acquired at a cost of Rs. 1, 50,000. These are to be amortized over 5 years. The overhead rate
is the budgeted recovery rate for products manufactured by the company. The variable
portion of this amounts to 100 percent of direct wages. Make your recommendations.

199

Solution:
Statement of Buying Cost
Part No X 292 (6000 unit)
Particulars
Current Purchase Price
Add sales Tax at 10%
Invoice Price
Add Transportation and
other delivery cost
Total cost of buying

Particulars
Raw Materials
Direct wages
Variable overhead (100%
of wages)
Depreciation cost (1/5 x 1,
50,000)
Interest on additional
capital Investment @ 12%
(12/100 x 1, 50,000)
Total cost of manufacture

Rate per unit

(Rs.)
120
12
132

Total amount
(Rs.)
7, 20,000
72,000
7, 92,000

15

90,000

147

8, 82,000

Statement of Manufacturing Cost

Part No X 292 (6000 unit)
Rate per unit
(Rs.)
96
8

Total amount
(Rs.)
5, 76,000
48,000

48,000

30,000

18,000

120

7, 20,000

From the above statement it becomes clear that the company will save Rs. 1, 62,000 (Rs. 8,
82,000 7, 20,000) if the part is manufactured. The saving per unit is Rs. 147 120 = 27
.Thus it is recommended that part no X 292 may be manufactured. You may further note that
the rate of interest at 12% has been assumed. Fixed costs have not been taken into account
because they will remain the same even if the part is not manufactured within the company.
The most important decision is survival or shutdown, which requires proper and due thought
process.
Here is the example for the same.
Shutdown or Continue: A business is sometimes confronted with the problem of"
suspending its business operations for a temporary period or permanently closing down.'
Permanent closure of the business is a very drastic decision and should be carried out only in
extreme circumstances.
Temporary shutdown: The following items of costs and benefits should be considered while
deciding about the temporary shutdown of plant.

Items of cost

200

Effect, on fixed overhead costs.

Packing and storing of plant and equipment costs. .
Setting-up costs.
Loss of goodwill/market.
Lay-off or retrenchment compensation to workers.

Items of benefits

Saving in fixed costs.

Avoiding operating losses.
Saving in indirect costs such as repairs and maintenance; in direct labor, heat and
light costs, etc.

Permanent Closing Down: A business is expected to earn a reasonable return on its

investment. In case the business is no earning enough to compensate for' the risk involved, it
may be close' down permanently. In order to decide whether to continue operations or
abandon the project al together, a comparison should be made between the revenues from
continued operations and revenues from complete closing down or sale of plant. The business
should be closed down if the amount of revenue in the event of dosing down is more than the
amount of revenue from continued operations of the business.
Illustration 5.27
A Ltd. is experiencing reversionary difficulties and as a result its directors are considering
whether or not the factory should be closed down till the recession has passed. A flexible
budget is compiled giving the following details:
Production Capacity
(Fixed Costs+ Variable Costs)

Fixed costs
Close
down
Rs.
Factory
overheads
Administration
overheads
Selling
and
distribution
overheads
Miscellaneous
Direct Labor
Direct
Material

Normal

40%

80%

60%

100%

Rs

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

6,000

8,000

10,000

11,000

12,000

13,000

4,000

6000

6,500

7,000

7,500

8,000

4,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

1,000

1,000

1.500
10,000

2.000
15,000

2500
20,000

3,000
25,000

12,000

18,000

24,000

32,000

201

The following additional information has been supplied to you:

Present sales at 50% capacity are estimated at Rs. 30,000 per annum.
Estimated costs of closing down are Rs. 4,500. In addition maintenance of plant and
machinery is expected to amount to Rs. 800 per annum.
Costs of reopening after being closed down are estimated to be Rs.2000 for
overhauling of machines and getting ready and Rs. 1,400 for training of personnel.
Market research investigations reveal that sales should take an upward swing to
around 70% capacity at prices, which would produce revenue of Rs. 1, 00,000 in
approximately twelve months' time.

You are required to advise the directors whether to close down for twelve months or continue
operations indefinitely.
Solution
Statement of Profit (Loss)
Percentage Capacity levels

(Close down)
Sales (A)
Variable Costs
Fixed Costs
Closing down
Plant Maintenance
Cost of reopening &
Overhauling
Training

50

Rs.

Rs.

Nil

30,000

Nil

33,000

15,000

21,000

70
Rs.
1, 00,000
47,000
21,000

4,500
800
2,000
1,400

Total Cost of
Special Shut down
cost
Total costs (B)

23,700

Profit (loss)

-23,700

8,700

202

54,000

68,000

24,000

32,000

Working Note:
Computation of Variable Costs
For 50% Capacity
At 40% capacity the total costs are
At 60% capacity the total costs are

Rs. 47,000
61,000

Variable Costs for 1 % capacity level = Change in Cost

Change in capacity' levels
= 14,000 =Rs. 700
20
For 10% increase in capacity the variable
costs will be
Total costs at 40% capacity
Total costs at 50% capacity
(47,000+7,000)
Fixed costs as given are
Hence variable costs at 50% capacity are
(Rs. 54,000 -Rs. 21,000) :

Total costs at 60% capacity

Variable costs for 10% capacity
Total costs for 70% capacity
Fixed costs as given are
Variable costs for 70% capacity

7,000
47,000
54,000
21,000
33,000

For 70% capacity

Rs. 61,000
7,000
68,000
21,000
47,000

Profits Planning: The process of profit planning involves the calculation of expected costs
and revenues arising out of operations at different levels of plant capacity for the production
of different types of goods during a given period of time. The cost and revenues at different
level of operating are different and a concern has to choose one level at which its profits are
maximum. Marginal costing technique helps the management by suggesting a suitable
product-mix or plant capacity, which optimizes profits. It also guides the management in
selecting the best product mix for attaining a specified level of profit.
Illustration 5.28
A manufacturing company operating at its 40% installed capacity produced 12,500 units of a
product in involving the following cost was sold at Rs. 28/- per unit.
Cost per unit (Rs.)
12.00
4.50
3.50
2.50

Raw materials
Labor
Variable overheads
Fixed overheads

203

The company is planning for profit for 1993. It anticipates a decrease in the selling price by
5% and 10% if it operates a 60% and 90% plant capacity respectively. The supplier of raw
materials are agreeing to reduce' the price of raw materials by 5% if the order for supplies
needed to operate at 90% capacity is made. Wage-rate will remain the same but the fixed
overhead per unit will decline according to increase in output. You are required to estimate
the profits at different levels and make your recommendations.
Solution:
We need to prepare Marginal cost Statement for different levels of capacity.
Marginal Cost Statement For 1993
Particulars
Sales
Raw materials
Labor
Variable overheads
Marginal Cost
Marginal
Contribution
Fixed Cost
Profit per Unit
Total Profit

40% capacity
12,500 unit
28.00
12.00
4.50
3.50
20.00

60% capacity
18,750 unit
26.60
12.00
4.50
3.50
20.00

90% capacity
28,125 unit
25.20
11.40
4.50
3.50
19.40

8.00

6.60

5.80

2.50
5.50
68,750.00

1.67
4.93
92,437.50

1.16
4.69
1,31,906.25

Thus the profit at 40%,60% and 90% capacity is recommended that the company should
operate at 90% capacity as the profits at this level is maximum provided there is no limiting
factor.
Illustration: 5.29
Two manufacturing companies A & B, which have the following operating details, decided to
merge.
Company A
Company B
Capacity utilization %
90
60
Sales (Rs. Lakhs)
540
300
Variable cost (Rs. Lakhs)
396
225
Fixed cost (Rs. Lakhs)
80
50
Assuming that the proposal is implemented, calculate:

Break even sales of the merged plant and the capacity utilization at that stage.
Profitability of the merged plant at 80% capacity utilization.
Sales turnover of the merged plant to earn a profit of Rs.75 lakhs.
When the merged plant is working at a capacity to earn a profit of Rs.75 lakhs, what
percentage increase in selling price is required to sustain an increase of 5% in fixed
overhead.

Solution

204

Computation of Break Even Sales of the Merged Plant

Capacity utilization
%
Sales (Rs. Lakhs)
Less: Variable
cost(Rs. Lakhs)
Contribution(S-V)
Less: Fixed cost
(Rs. Lakhs)
Profit

Company A

Company B

Total

100%

100%

100%

600

500

1100

440

375

815

160

125

285

80

50

130

80

75

155

Composite P/V ratio = Total Contribution x 100 = 25.909%

Total Sales
Break even sales of the merged plant = 130 x 100 = Rs.501.67lakhs.
25.909
Capacity utilization at break- even = 501.67 x 100 = 45.61%.
1100
Profitability of the Merged Plant at 80% Capacity
Rs. in lakhs
Sales
Less: Variable cost
Contribution(S-V)
Less: Fixed expenses (Rs. Lakhs)
Profit
Profitability

98
880

880
652
228
130
98
x 100 = 11.14%

Computation of Sales Turnover to Earn a Profit of Rs.75 Lakhs.

Contribution required: F + P = 130 + 75 = 205 lakhs.
P/V ratio = 25.909%.
Sales =

205
x 100 = 791.23lakhs.
25.909

205

Computation of % increase in selling price to sustain 5% increase in fixed overheads.

5% of fixed overheads: 130 x 5% = Rs.6.5lakhs.
% increase in selling price = 6.5

x 100 = 0.8215%
791.23

Summary: Now you have understood the Marginal costing and managerial decision-making.
Also how marginal costing techniques is being applied to various decisions and the process
that follows decision making.

206

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TOOLS OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
6.1 Introduction to Budgets
6.1.1 Advantages of Budgets
6.1.2 Limitations of Budgets
6.1.3 Essentials of Budgetary Control
6.1.4 Budget Manual
6.1.5 Budget Key Factors
6.2 Fixed and Flexible Budgets
6.3 Functional and Master Budgets
6.4 Numerical on Budgets: Sales and Cash Budgets
6.5 Zero Based and Incremental Budgets
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO BUDGETS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now we are going to deal with the actual control over the costing part. Generally, the
management forecast that how much has to be produced? What would be the requirement of
raw materials at the verge of production? How much money is to be required? For answering
all these questions the management prepares budgets? You might have heard about financial
budget of the country which every year is been prepared and presented in the parliament.
Generally it is in deficit? Here we would be talking about the budgets prepared by the
company.
What is a Budget and how does it helps in Control? As a manager you may have many
good ideas but implementation of those ideas requires proper planning. You would understand
that it is not a one time exercise. The planning horizon varies from one day to many years,
depending on the objectives of the organization and the uncertainties involved. An
organization may be well equipped in advanced technology and resourceful for having a
galaxy of intelligent managers but it may not achieve success unless it sets its objectives
clearly and plans its activities accordingly. Even if the objectives are set, an organization may
not be able to achieve them for want of a proper plan.
You should know that budget is the quantitative expression of plans - it expresses the plan in
terms of physical units or monetary units. Budget gives the target to be achieved. Not only a
big business entity or government of the country needs a budget, it is essential for a very
small business unit or even for a family. In the context of a business organization, budget is
the integral part of strategy and tactics. Strategies mean designing objectives and tactics are
the ways of achieving the strategic goals.

207

The term 'Budget's defined as a financial and/or quantitative statement, prepared prior to a
defined period of time, of the policy to be pursued during that period for the purpose of
attaining a given objective. When you do the analysis of this definition it reveals the
following characteristics of the budget.

It may be prepared in terms of quantity or money or both.

It is prepared for a fixed or set period of time.
It is prepared before the defined period of time commences.
It spells out the objects to be attained and the policies to be pursued to
achieve that objective.

You can understand budgets and the term 'Budgetary Control' defined as the establishment of
budgets, relating the responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy and the
continuous comparison of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by individual action
the objective of that policy or to provide the basis for its revision. The analysis of this
definition reveals the following facts about budgetary control:

It deals with the establishment of the budgets.

It deals with the comparison of budgeted results with the actual results.
It deals with computation of the variations and the actions to be taken for maintaining
the favorable variations, removing the adverse variation or revising the Budgets
themselves.

6.1.1 Advantages of Budgets

Budget fixes up the target in physical and financial terms. This helps the managers to
understand the precise responsibilities by which they can take decisions to attain the set
targets. This overcomes lack of objectives or direction by which the managers would have
wasted resources and time.

Budget helps to coordinate the efforts of various divisions and departments. It is

possible to fix up the divisional or departmental targets and thus all divisions /
departments may work harmoniously avoiding working for cross purposes.
Budget fixes up control yardsticks. Performance of various managers, divisions/
departments is evaluated against the budget.
It is a powerful tool available to the management for the purpose of cost control and
maximization of profits through the same. It enables the management to utilize the
available resources in the most profitable manner.
A budget sets the plan of action. Plans in respect of various functional areas of
operations are expressed in the form of the budgets. As such, the Budgetary Control
systems act as a means of declaration of the policies of the management.
It acts a means of communication. The plans and objects laid down by top level
management are communicated to middle level and lower level management by way
of the budgets. As such, each and every person working in the organization is aware of
his duties and responsibilities in relation to those of the others. This maximizes the
utilization of resources.
It acts as a means of improving the co-ordination. The budgets prepared in the various
functional areas of operations are prepared in such a way that the efforts are coordinate in the direction of achievement of common and defined objective.
It develops the team spirit and help of various people can be sought to solve the
common problem.

208

The comparison between the budgeted results and the actual results may reveal the areas
where there are adverse variations which may be identified as weak areas or delicate areas. As
such, efforts can be made to remove these adverse variations, keeping aside the areas where
there are no variations. This enables the concentration of efforts of the management on a
smaller portion of activities which facilitates 'Management by exception.' Budgetary control
system enables the delegation of authority and makes possible the principles of Responsibility
Accounting. It is a powerful tool available to the management for Performance Appraisal. The
executives responsible for those functions where there is favorable variation may be
rewarded, whereas the executives responsible for those functions where there is adverse
variation may be punished. In this sense, budgetary control system provides a basis for
establishment of the incentive systems.

6.1.2 Limitations of Budget

Now we shall discuss about the important limitations of budgets which are identified below.

Budget Plan is Based on Estimates: As is known, budgets are prepared on the basis
of forecasts and estimates about the future. Since they are based on estimates,
successful accomplishment of the targets depends, to a greater extent, upon the degree
of accuracy with which the estimates have been made. If there is any lapse in the
estimates, the entire budget exercise will be futile.

Budgets are not Substitute for Management: Mere preparation of budgets will not
ensure the desired result. Because, the successful introduction and implementation of
budgetary control system depends upon the effort put in by all the concerned. Because,
budgeting is only a means to achieve the goal. Therefore, every individual (both the
employees and management) has to work hard to achieve the budgeted result. Further,
budgeting is normally an impersonal approach and therefore, the budgets are to be
supported by the systematic management. Because, it is the management which
prepares the budgets and which strives to achieve the targets. Therefore,
management's effort - starting from the preparation to the execution cannot be
disregarded

Budgets do not Ensure Result: Budgets clearly specify the targets and ways through
which the targets can be achieved. Mere preparation of budgets will not ensure the
desired result. It is therefore necessary on the part of all the departmental heads to
work sincerely to achieve the result. They have to extend full co-operation to others
and they must obtain co-operation from others. Each employee must work for reaching
the target set for him in the budget. Because, it is a group effort. For instance, let us
assume that the production department of a company has succeeded to achieve its
target. If the marketing department of the company is not able to sell the target volume
at the budgeted price, the company will not be able to achieve its overall target.

Budgeting is a Costly Exercise: In order to introduce budgetary control system, a

huge amount of expenditure is to be incurred. Because, the introduction of budgetary
control system involves the preparation of budgets, execution, obtaining the actual,
comparison of actual with the budgets and finding out the deviations. In order to
perform all these, a huge amount of expenditure is to be incurred. If the employees are
not serious about their responsibilities, no benefit can be obtained from the system.
Consequently, only the costs (without backed by substantial benefit) will have to be

209

incurred. Further, small scale organizations do not afford to spend this much for the
introduction of budgetary control system. Therefore, one must compare the costs with
the benefits expected to be generated by the system.

Rigidity: As the budgets express quantitatively all the relevant facts mid figures, an
element of rigidity are attached to the budgetary control system. Because, once the
budgets are finalized and approved, the next step will be to achieve the target result by
all the concerned following the guidelines suggested in the budgets. Therefore, an
element of rigidity or finality or static can be observed in the budgets. But, the budgets
are to be revised properly in the light of the changes that are taking place. They should
be revised and improved in the light of the changed conditions in the business. These
are some of the important limitations of budgetary control system and the budget
committee and execution agency must have complete knowledge about these
limitations so that realistic budgets may be prepared and implemented successfully.

6.1.3 Essentials of Budgetary Control

Now you should know that if the organization decides to install the Budgetary Control system
as a cost control technique, it will have to comply with the following preliminaries.

Deciding the Budget Centre: A Budget Centre is that section of the organization with
respect to which the budgets will be prepared. A Budget centre may be in the form of
a product or a department or a branch of the company and so on. Budget centre should
be clearly defined and established as the budgets will be prepared with respect to each
and every Budget Centre.

Deciding the Budget Period: A Budget Period is that period of time for which the
budget will be prepared and operated. The selection of the Budget Period should be
made very carefully- Too long a budget period makes the correct estimation more
difficult while too short a budget period may prove to be more costly. The selection of
Budget Period may depend upon the nature of operations and the purpose of preparing
the budget{'As such, in case of industries like the ones engaged in generation and
distribution of electricity, transport operations etc. where capital expenditure is too
high, budgets may be prepared even for a period of 5 to 10 years, while in case of
industries like the ones engaged in manufacturing of motor vehicles or radios etc.,
where the customer demand may change more frequently, the budget period may be
shorter. Similarly, a sales budget may be prepared for a period of 5 years, whereas the
short term cash budget may be prepared on weekly or even daily basis.

Establishment of Accounting Records: There should be efficient and proper system

of accounting so that the information and data as required for the efficient
implementation of the Budgetary Control system will be available in time.

Organization for Budgetary Control: A property prepared organization chart may

make the duties and responsibilities of each level of executive very clear to himself.
The budgetary control organization will be headed by a senior executive in the form of
budget controller or budget officer. In small or medium sized organizations, he
himself will be involved in all types of works involved with the budgetary control
system.

210

However, in case of large organizations, be may have a budge committee under him which
may consist of Chief Executive, budge officer himself and heads of main departments. The
role of budge committee may be only advisory and its decision may become binding only if
accepted by the Chief Executive. The functions performed by the budget committee can be
broadly stated as below:

To receive and scrutinize the functional budgets.

To revise the functional budgets, if necessary.
To approve the revised budgets.
To receive the budget reports and comparative statements.
To locate the responsibilities and recommend the corrective and remedial action.

6.1.4 Budget Manual

After knowing about the advantages, Limitations and essentials of a budget you should know
about a budget manual. A budget manual is a document setting out the responsibilities of the
persons engaged in and the forms and procedures required for the budgetary control. A budget
manual enables the standardization of the methods and procedures in relation to the budgetary
control. It should be well written, indexed and divided into the sections. It may be in bound
book form or loose leaf form. A budget manual may contain the following particulars.

Introduction of principles and objectives of budgetary control and the definitions and
brief explanations.
Duties and responsibilities of the various executives and the organization chart,
Functions and duties of budget officer and budget committee.
Scope of the budget and areas to be covered, whether budget will be a fixed budget or
flexible budget, Accounts codes, budget center codes and other codes operated.

6.1.5 Budget Key Factor

A budget key factor is that the impact of which should be assessed first before other
functional budgets are prepared to ensure that other functional budgets are capable of
fulfillment. The key factor may take various forms e.g. Sales, Raw material, Labor,
Production capacity, availability of funds and Government restrictions. Once the key factor is
established, the budget with respect to that function will be prepared first and the other
budgets will be prepared to conform to that e.g. If sales is the key factor, the sales manager
will prepare and submit sales forecast first. The production manager will then decide whether
it is possible to produce the quantity to meet sales demand. In case of the situations where
there is more than one key factor, the importance of key factors themselves will be assessed
first. The problem of multiplicity of key factors may be solved with the help of techniques
like linear programming, operations research etc.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.2 FIXED AND FLEXIBLE BUDGETS

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Any budget in any functional area of operation can be established as a fixed budget or a
flexible budget. A fixed budget is established for a specific level of activity and is not
adjusted to the actual level of activity attained at the time of comparison between the
budgeted and actual results.
Naturally, fixed budget is established only for a short period of time where the budgeted level
of activity is expected to be attained to the maximum possible extent. Fixed budgets are more
suitable for fixed expenses i.e. the expenses that have no relation with the level of activity.

211

The fixed budgets do not indicate that they cannot be changed at all. A fixed budget can be
revised if the actual level of activity is likely to differ widely from the budgeted level of
activity. The fixed budget cannot be used as an effective tool of cost control while computing
the variations between the budgeted result and the actual result, the variance cannot be
explained properly and it is not possible to say whether the variance is due to the changes in
the level of activity or due to the efficiency or inefficiency of the executive responsible for the
execution of the budget.
A flexible budget is designed to change with the fluctuations in the level of activity and
provides a basis for comparison for any level of activity actually attained. A flexible budget is
more elastic, and practical. It can be properly used as an effective tool for evaluation of
performance and cost control.
It explains the variations between the budgeted results and actual results stating the variations
which are due to changes in the level of activity (which is beyond the control of operating
executive) and which are due to the operational efficiency or inefficiency (for which the
operating executive is responsible.)
For the purpose of establishment of the flexible budgets, it is necessary to classify the costs as
fixed costs, variable costs and semi-variable costs. The fixed costs remain the same at all the
levels of activity whereas the variable costs change directly in proportion to the level of
activity.
So far as the semi-variable costs are concerned, each item of cost is examined and classified
into its fixed and variable elements and a trend is established regarding the nature and
behavior of each item of cost.
Illustration 6.1
The manager of a Repairs and Maintenance Department has submitted the following budget
estimates that are to be used to construct a flexible budget to be used during the coming
budget year.
Details of cost
Employee Salaries
Indirect Repair Materials
Miscellaneous Costs

Planned at 6000 direct

repairs
hours
30,000
40,200
13,200

Planned at 9000 direct

repair
hours
30,000
60,300
16,800

Prepare a flexible budget for the department up to activity level of 10,000 repair hours
(Use increment of 1000)
What would be the budget allowance at 8,500 repair hours?

212

Solution:
8500 Hours

10000 Hours

Employee Salaries

30,000

30,000

Indirect Repair Materials

56,950

67, 000

Miscellaneous Costs

16,200

18,000

1, 03,150

1, 15, 000

Total

Working Notes: From the analysis of the costs, it is observed that:

Employee salaries are fixed costs, as they remain constant for both 6000 repair hours
and 9000 repair hours.

An indirect repair material is a variable cost as it proportionately from 6000 hours to

9000 hours.

This cost neither remained constant nor increased proportionately the activity level of 6000
hours to 9000 hours. The cost increased by Rs. 3,600 for the increase of 3000 hours means
that the variable portion of this cost is Rs. 1.20 hour. Hence, out of total miscellaneous cost of
Rs. 13,200 6000 hours, Rs. 7,200 is variable portion and balance 6,000 is the fixed portion.
Vivek Elementary School has a total of 150 students consisting of 5 sections with 30 students
per section. The school plans for a picnic around the city during the weekend to places such
as the zoo, the amusement park, the planetarium etc. A private transport operator has come
forward to lease out the buses for taking the students. Each bus will have a maximum
capacity of 50 (excluding 2 seats reserved for the teacher accompanying the students). The
school will employ 2 teachers for each bus paying them an allowance of Rs. 50 per teacher. It
will also lease out the required number of buses. The following are the other cost estimates
Cost per student
Breakfast
Lunch
Tea
Entrance fee at zoo
Rent

Rs.
5
10
3
2
Rs. 650 per bus.

Special permit fee

Block entrance fee of the planetarium

Rs. 50 per bus

Rs. 250.

Prizes to the students for games

Rs. 250.

No costs are incurred in respect of the accompanying teachers (except the allowance of Rs.
50 per teacher). You are required to prepare:

A flexible budget estimating the total cost for the levels of 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150

213

students. Each item of cost is to be indicated separately.

Compare the average cost per student of these levels.
What will be your conclusions regarding the break even level of students if the school
proposes to collect Rs. 45 per student?

Solution

No.
of
Students
Variable
Cost
Semi-fixed
costs : Rent
of the bus
Permit
Fees
Allowances
to teachers
Fixed
Costs:
Entrance
Fees
Prizes to
students
Total Costs
Average
Cost
per
student

30

60

90

120

150

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

650

1300

1300

1950

1950
150

50

100

100

150

100

200

200

300

250.

250

250

250

250

300

250

250

50

250

250

1900

3300

3900

5300

5900

63.33

55.00

43.33

44.17

39.33

Prepare the flexible budget for overheads on the basis of data given below. Ascertain the
Overheads rates at 50%, 60% and 70% capacity.
Variable Overheads

At 60%Capacity
Rs
6,000
18,000

Indirect Material
Indirect Labor
Semi Variable Overheads
Electricity(40% fixed, 60% variable)
Repairs and Maintenance(80% fixed, 20%
variable)
Fixed Overheads: Depreciation

30,000
3,000
16,500

Insurance
Salaries
Total Overheads
Estimated Direct labor Hours

4,500
15,000
93,000
1, 86,000

214

Solution:
Calculation of Overheads Rates
50% Capacity

60% Capacity

70% Capacity

Rs

Rs.

Rs.

Indirect Material

5,000

6,000

7,000

Indirect Labor

15,000

18,000

21,000

27,000

30,000

33,000

2,900

3,000

3,100

16,500
4,500
15,000
85,900

16,500
4,500
15,000
93,000

16,500
4,500
15,000
1,00,100

1,55,000

1, 86,000

2,17,000

Re.0.55

Re.0.50

Re.0.46

Variable Overheads

Semi Variable
Overheads
Electricity
Repairs and
Maintenance
Fixed Overheads
Depreciation
Insurance
Salaries
Total Overheads
Estimated Direct
Labor Hours
Overhead Rate
(Labor Hour Rate)

A Factory can produce 60,000 units per annum at its 100% capacity. The estimated costs of
production are as under:
Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Expenses :Fixed
Variable
Semi-Variable

Rs. 3 per unit.

Rs. 2 per unit
Rs. 1, 50,000 per annum
Rs. 5 per unit
Rs. 50,000 per annum up to50% capacity
and extra expenses of Rs. 10,000 for every
20% increase in capacity or part thereof

The factory produces only against orders. If the production programme of the factory is as
indicated below, and the management desires to ensure a profit of Rs.1, 00,000 for the year,
work out the average selling price at which each unit should be quoted. For three months of
the year - 50% capacity Remaining nine months of the year - 80% capacity

215

Solution
Calculation of Total Cost
Number of units
produced
Direct Material Rs.
Direct Labor - Rs.
Variable Expenses Rs.
Fixed Expenses
Semi-Variable
Expenses - Rs.
Total Cost

50% capacity

00% capacity

Total capacity

7,500

36,000

43,500

22,500

1,08,000

1,30,500

15,000

72,000

87,000

37,500

1,80,000

2,17,500

37,500

1, 12,500

1,50,000

12,500

32,50Q

45,000

1, 25,000

5,05,000

6,30,000

Thus, the total cost during the year is likely to be Rs.6, 30,000. If it is desired to earn a profit
of Rs. 1,00,000 the total amount to be covered by the units to be sold will have to be Rs. 7,
30,000 (Rs. 6,30,000 + Rs. 1,00,000) As the total units produced are estimated to be 43,500,
the above amount will have to be covered by 43,500 units. Hence, the average selling price
per unit will be
= Rs.7, 30,000
43,500
= Rs, 16.78 per unit (approx)
Notes:
It is assumed that whatever units are produced can be sold.
It is assumed that the production and the incidence of all the indirect expenses are
equally spread during the year.
From the following particulars, prepare a flexible budget for the three months ending 30th
September showing the estimated sales, sales cost and profit for 60%, 80% and 100%
activity. Assume that all items produced are sold.
Rs.

Fixed Expenses

4, 20,000

Management Salaries

2, 80,000

Rent and Taxes

3, 50,000

Depreciation on machinery

4,45,000

Sundry office cost

14,95,000
Semi-Variable Expenses at 50% capacity
Plant Maintenance

1, 25,000

216

4, 95,000

Indirect Labor

1, 45,000

Salesmen's Salary & Expenses

1, 30,000

Sundry Expenses

8, 95,000
Variable Expenses at 50% capacity
12, 00,000

Materials

12, 80,000

Labor

1, 90,000

Sales men's Commission

26, 70,000
Semi-variable expenses remain constant between 41 % and 70% activity, increase by 10% of
the above figures between 71 % and 80% activity and increase by 15% of the above figures
between 81 % and 100% activity. Fixed expenses remain constant whatever may be the level
of activity. Sales at 60% activity are RS.51, 00,000, at 80% activity are Rs-68, 00,000 and at
100% activity is Rs.85, 00,000

Solution
Flexible Budget

(A) Sales

60% capacity

00% capacity

100% capacity

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

51,00,000

68,00,000

85,00,000

4,20,000
2,80,000

4,20,000
2,80,000

4,20,000
2,80,000

3,50,000

3,50,000

3,50,000

4,45,000
14,95,000

4,45,000
14,95,000

4,45,000
14,95,000

1,25,000
4,95,000

1,37,500
5,44,500

1, 43,750
5,69,250

(B) Sales Cost

(1) Fixed Expenses
Management Salaries
Rent and Taxes
Depreciation on
Machinery
Sundry office cost
(2) Semi Variable
Expenses
Plant Maintenance
Indirect Labor

217

Sales mens' Salary

and Expenses
(3) Variable
Expenses
Material
Labor
Salesman's
Commission
Total Sales Cost 1 +
2+3
(C) Profit A - B

1,45,000

1, 59,500

1,66,750

8,95,000

9,84,500

10,29,250

14,40,009.
15,36,000

19,20,000
20,48,000

24,00,000
25,60,000

2,28,000

3,04,000

3,80,000

32,04,000

42,72,000

53,40,000

55,94,000

67,51,500

78,64,250

(4,94,000)

48,500

6,35,750

Problems:
A Ltd. produces a standard product. The estimated cost per unit in given below:
Rs.
10
8
2
5

Raw materials
Direct wages
Direct Expenses
Variable Overhead

Fixed overheads are estimated to Rs. 70,000 selling price per unit is Rs. 40. Prepare a flexible
budget at 50%, 70% and 90% level of activity. Assume that output at 100% level of activity
is 10,000 units.
The following expenses relate to a cost center operating at 80% of normal capacity (Sales are
Rs.1, 20,000) Draw up flexible Administration, Selling and Distribution costs budget
operating at 90%, 100% and 110% of normal capacity.
Administration Costs
Office Salaries
General Expenses
Depreciation
Rates and Taxes
Selling Costs
Salaries
Traveling Expenses
Sales Office Expenses
General Expenses
Distribution Costs
Wages
Rent
Other Expenses

Rs. 3,000
1.5% of sales
Rs. 1,500
Rs. 1,750
4 % of sales
1.5% of sales
1 % of sales
1 % of sales
Rs.3, 000
0.5% of sales
2% of sales

218

The expenses budgeted for productions of 10,000 units in a factory are furnished below:
Per Unit
Materials
Labor
Variable Overheads
Fixed Overheads

Rs
70.25
20.10
5
1, 00,000

Variable Expenses (Direct)

Selling Expenses
Distribution Expenses
Administrative Expenses
Total Cost of sale per unit (to make and
sell)

13.75
(10% Fixed)
(20% Fixed)
(Rs.50, 000)
155

Prepare a budget for the production of a. 8,000 units and b. 6,000 units. (Assume that
administrative expenses are rigid for all levels of production.) Following are the actual for the
year 1985.
Rs.
60,000
26,500
5,000
8,000
10,000

Sales 20,000 units @ RS.3 per unit

Raw Material
Direct Labor Cost
Variable Overheads
Fixed Overheads

The management expects following estimate in 1986. Sales to increase to 30,000 units,
selling price remaining unchanged. Raw materials prices increase by 10%, wage rate to
increase by 10% but labor productivity improves by5%. Fixed overheads are expected to
increase by Rs. 2,000. You are required to prepare the budget for 1986. Production costs of a
factory for a year are as follows.
Direct Wages
Direct Materials
Production Overheads:

Rs. 90,000
Rs. 1, 20,000

Fixed
Variable

Rs.40, 000
Rs. 60,000

During the forthcoming year, it is anticipated that:

The average rate for direct labor remuneration will fall from 90 paisa to 75 paisa per
hour.

Production efficiency will be reduced by 5%

Price per unit of direct material and other materials and services which comprise

219

Overheads will remain unchanged and

Direct labor hours will increase by 331/3

Draw up a budget and compute factory overhead rate, the overheads being absorbed on direct
wages.
ABC Ltd. manufacturing a single product is facing a severe competition in selling at Rs. 50
per unit. The company is operating at 60% level of activity at which level sales are Rs. 12,
00,000. Variable costs are RS.30 per unit. Semi variable costs may be considered as fixed at
Rs. 90,000 when output is nil and variable element is RS.250 for each additional 1 % level of
activity. Fixed costs are Rs, 1, 50,000 at the present level of activity, but at the level of
activity of 80% or above if reached, these costs are expected to increase by Rs.5, 000.
To cope with the competition, the management of the company is considering a proposal to
reduce the selling price by 5%. You are required to:

Prepare a statement showing the operating profit at levels of activity of 60%, 70% and
80%. Assuming that the selling price remains at RS.50 per unit.

If selling price is reduced by 5%, show the number of units which will be required to
be sold to maintain the present profits.

A company, producing electronic watches, estimates the following factory overheads costs
for producing 5,000 Units
Indirect Materials
Indirect Labor
Inspection Cost
Heat, light & power
Expendable tools
Supervision Costs
Equipment depreciation
Factory Rent

Rs. 16,000
Rs. 30,000
Rs. 16,000
Rs. 8,000
Rs. 8,000
Rs. 8,000
Rs. 4,000
Rs. 4,000

Indirect labour, indirect material and expendable tools are entirely variable. Heat, light and
power and inspection costs are variable to the extent of 50% and 40% respectively. Other
costs are fixed costs for a month. Prepare a flexible budget for overheads for production of
4,000 and 6,000 units per month. Also find out the average factory overheads per unit for
these two production levels.
Anil and Avinash Enterprises is currently working at 50% capacity and produces 10,000
units. Estimate the profits of the company when it works at 60% and 70% capacity At 60%
capacity, the raw materials cost increases by 2% and the selling price falls by 3%. At 70%
capacity the raw materials cost increases by 4% and selling price falls by 5% At 50%
capacity, the product costs Rs. 180 per unit and is sold for Rs.200 per unit
The unit cost of Rs. 180 is made up as below:

220

Materials cost
Wages RS.30

Rs. 100

Factory overheads
Administration overheads

Rs. 20 (40% Fixed)

Rs. 30 (50% fixed)

ABC Ltd. manufactures a single product for which market demand exists for additional
quantity. Present sale of Rs. 60,000 per month utilities only 60% capacity of the plant. Sales
Manager assures that with a reduction of 10% in the price, he would be in a position to
increase the sale by about 25% to 30%. The following data are available.
(a)

Selling price

Rs. 10 per unit

(b)

Variable cost

Rs. 3 per unit

(c)

Semi-variable cost

Rs. 3 per unit

(d)

Fixed cost -

Rs. 6000 per unit Rs. 0.50

per unit Rs.20, 000 at
present level, estimated to
be Rs. 24,000 at 80%
output

You are required to submit the following statements to the Board showing:

The operating profits at 60%, 70% and 80% levels at current selling price and at
proposed selling price.
The percentage increase in the present output which will be required to maintain
the present profit margin at the proposed selling price.

A manufacturing company has an installed capacity of 1, 20,000 units filter annum. The cost
structure of the products manufactured is as under:

Variable Cost (Per Unit)

Materials
Rs.8
Labor
Rs.8
(Subject to a minimum of RS.56, 000 per month)
Overheads Rs.3

Fixed overheads are Rs. 1, 04,000 per annum.

Semi variable overheads Rs.48, 000 per annum at 60% capacity, which increase by
Rs.6000 per annum for increase of every 10% of the capacity utilization or any part
thereof. The capacity utilization for the next year is estimated at 60% for 2 months,
75% for 6 months and 80% for the balance part of the year. If the company is planning
to have a profit of 25% on the selling price, calculate the estimated selling price for
each unit of production. Assume there is no opening or closing stock.

The monthly budgets for manufacturing overhead of a concern for two levels of activity
were as follows :

221

Capacity
Budgeted Production (units)
Wages
Consumable Stores
Maintenance
Power and Fuel
Depreciation
Insurance

60%
600
1,200
900
1,100
1,600
4,000
1,000
9,800

100%
1000
2,000
1,500
1,500
2,000
4,000
1,000
12,000

You are required to:

Indicate which of the items are fixed, variable and semi- variable.
Prepare a budget for 80% capacity.
Find out the total cost, both fixed and variable, per unit of output at 60%, 80% and
100% capacity.

From the following data, prepare a flexible budget for the production of 40,000 units, 60,000
units and 75,000 units, distinctly showing variable and fixed costs as well as total costs. Also
indicate element wise cost per unit
Budgeted Output and Budgeted Cost per Unit
Budgeted output

100000 units
Per unit cost Rs

Direct Material

90

Direct Labor

45

Direct Variable Expenses

10

Manufacturing Variable Overheads

40

Fixed Production Overheads

Administration Overheads (Fixed)

Selling Overheads

10 (10% fixed)

Distribution Overheads

15 (20% fixed)

The budget manager of Progressive Electrical Limited is preparing a flexible budget for the
st
accounting year commencing 1
April 1995. The company produces one product a
component - Kaypee .Direct Material costs Rs. 7 per unit. Direct Labor averages Rs. 2.50 per
hour and requires 1.60 hours to produce one unit of Kaypee. Salesmen are paid a commission
of Re. 1 per unit sold. Fixed selling and administration expenses amount to Rs. 85,000 per
year. Manufacturing overheads under specified conditions of volume have been estimated as
follows:
Volume

of

Production

1, 20,000

222

1, 50,000

(units)
Rs.

Rs

Indirect Materials

2, 64,000

3, 30,000

Indirect Labor

1, 50,000

1, 87,500

Inspection

90000

112500

Supervision

198000

234000

Depreciation

90000

90000

Engineering Services

94000

94000

Total
Overheads

970000

1150000

Manufacturing

Normal capacity of production of the company is 1, 25.000 units. Prepare a budget of total
cost at 1, 40,000 units of output.
Excellent Manufacturers can produce 4000 units of a certain product at 100% capacity. The
following information is obtained from the books:
Units produced
Repairs and Maintenance
Power
Shop Labor
Consumable Stores
Salaries
Inspection
Depreciation

June 94
2,800
Rs.
500
1,800
700
1,400
1,000
200
1,400

July 94
3,600
Rs.
560
2,000
900
1,800
1,000
240
1,400

The rate of production is 10 units per hour. Direct Materials cost is Re. 1 and Direct Wages
per hour is Rs. 4. You are required to

Compute the cost of production at 100%, 80% and 60% capacity showing the
variable, fixed and semi-fixed items under the flexible budget.
Find out the overhead absorption rate per unit at 80% capacity.

223

The following data are available for a manufacturing company for a yearly period
Rs. in Lakhs
Fixed Expenses
Wages and Salaries

9.5

Rent, Rates and Taxes

6.6

Depreciation

7.4

Sundry Administrative Expenses

6.5

Semi-Variable Expenses (at 50% capacity)

3.5

Maintenance and Repairs

7.9

Indirect Labor

3.8

Sales Department Salaries

2.8

Sundry Administrative Salaries

Variable Expenses (at 50% capacity)
Material

21.7

Labor

20.4

Other Expenses

7.9
98.0

Assume that the fixed expenses remain constant at all levels of production, semi-variable
expenses remain constant between 45% and 65% of capacity increasing by 10% between
65% and 80% capacity and by 20% between 80% and 100% capacity. Sales at various levels
are:
Rs. in Lakhs
50% capacity
60% capacity
75% capacity
90% capacity
100% capacity

100
120
150
180
200

Prepare a flexible budget for the year at 60% and 90% capacities and estimate the profits at
these levels of output.
A factory is currently running at 50% capacity and produces 5,000 units at a cost of Rs.90/per unit as per details below:

224

Material
Labor
Factory overheads
Administrative overheads

Rs.
50
15
15 (Rs. 6/- fixed)
10 (Rs. 5/- fixed)

The current selling price is Rs. 100/- per unit. At 60% working, material cost per unit
increases by 2% and selling price per unit falls by 2%.At 80% working, material cost per unit
increases by 5%.arid selling price per unit falls By 5%. Estimate profits of the factory at 60%
and 80% working and offer your comments.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.3 FUNCTIONAL AND MASTER BUDGETS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------There can be basically four areas in which management can function and the types of budgets
can be studied with respect to these functional areas of management viz. Sales/Marketing,
production, personnel, Finance, Miscellaneous and Master Budget
Sales/Marketing: The budgets in this area may be of following types:

Sales Budget: It is a forecast of total sales expressed in terms of quantity and or

money. It is inevitably the interplay between two factors Le. Sales quantity and
selling price. Sales quantity may be forecasted after taking into consideration various
factors: (i) Analysis of Past Trend: Analysis of the past trend over the last 5-10
years, may reveal the long term trends, seasonal trends and the cyclical trends. With
the help of this trend analysis, the future trend can be established. For this purpose,
reference can be made to the reports published by trade organizations and
Government publications. (ii) Reports by Salesmen: Being in the actual field,
probably the sales staff may be best able to estimate the quantity which can be sold in
the market. Before using this estimate as a official sales forecast, necessary
adjustments may be made for, error of judgment or to avoid the possibility of
overestimation on the part of the salesmen. (iv)Market Research and Market
Survey: This is a very specialized technique available to assess which of the
company's products can be sold, in which market, in which quantity and at what
selling price. Such an analysis will facilitate the preparation of sales forecast area
wise, product wise, salesmen wise and channel of distribution wise. (v) General
Economic Conditions: General Trade and Business conditions affect the sales
forecast of the company. They may be in the form of competition from other
companies, supply condition for material and labor, trade conditions of the customers
of the company and so on.
Selling price at which products of the company can be sold may depend upon various
factors viz. Cost price of the product, Selling price charged by the competitors,
Expected amount of profits, Advertisement and other sales promotion efforts carried
out by the company.
If the company envisages to sell higher quantity than the past sales or the existing
production capacity, and if some capital investment proposal is involved to increase
the production, then the feasibility of the proposal and the availability of funds may
also be required to be considered. If the sales forecast is less than the past sales but the

225

top management insists upon a certain amount of additional profits, then the
possibility of increasing the selling price or selling efforts and reduction in the cost
price may be required to be considered.

Selling and Distribution Cost Budget: It shows the selling and distribution cost for
selling the quantities considered in sales budget. The sales manager, the distribution
manager, the advertising manager and the finance manager will be the persons
involved in the preparation of this budget. This budget may be prepared on the
principles of flexible budgeting (as discussed later in this chapter) for each head of
selling and distribution costs, on the basis of volume of sales to be achieved.

Advertising Cost Budget: This cost is closely associated with sales. The intention
of incurring this cost is to increase the sales. However, the result of incurring this cost
Le increased sales may not be immediate and even if there is increase in sales, it is
difficult to measure the portion of increased sales which is due to advertising cost. As
such, normally, advertising cost budget is established in the form of a fixed amount
for a specific period. The various ways in which the amount of budgeted advertising
cost can be decided are as below: (i) Percentage of Sales or Profits: Here the
advertising cost may be decided as a fixed percentage of sales or profits. However, the
past data may not be suitable in view of recent business situations. (ii) Funds
Available: Here the advertising cost depends upon the capability of the company to
spend on advertising. This may be a hypothetical method and may not necessarily
consider the relationship between advertising cost and benefits there from. (iii)
Competitor's Policy: Here the advertising cost may depend upon the amount which
the competitors are spending on advertising. This method may pose some difficulty as
the amount spent by competitors may not be known and it may be wrong to assume
that the company may be able to derive the same benefits from advertising as the
competitors derive.

Production: The budgets in this area may be of following types:

Production Budget: It is a forecast of production for the budget period. It may be

prepared from two angles. Production Budget in terms of Quantity, Production
Budget in terms of money i.e. the production Cost Budget further classified under
each element of cost such as Direct Material Cost, Direct Labour Cost and Overheads
Cost. The material cost can be estimated by preparing the materials budget which
indicates the estimated quantities as well as costs of various materials required for
carrying out production as per production budget. The labour cost can be estimated by
preparing Direct Labor Cost budget which indicates the direct labour requirements
required to produce the quantity as specified in the production budget. For the purpose
of this budget, labour requirement in terms of number of workers of different grades
will be decided first. Afterwards, the rates of pay and allowances will be considered to
decide the labour cost. The production overheads can be estimated by preparing
production overhead budget which indicates all items of production overheads
classified as fixed, variable and semi-variable. The process of allocation and
apportionment can be followed to decide the loading of overheads to each budget
centre.
Following factors will have to be considered before preparing the production budget
in terms of quantity'. (i) Coordination with Sales Forecast: Before the quantity to be
produced is decided, it will be necessary to confirm whether it is possible to sell the

226

quantity which is produced during the budget period. If it is not possible to sell
whatever can be produced, in spite of all the sales promotion efforts, then the
production budget should be adjusted to conform to the sales forecast. If the expected
sales exceed existing production capacity, possibility of overtime working or extra
shift working should be considered. (ii) Production Capacity: Production Budget
estimates the quantity to be produced. If it is not possible to produce the quantity with
the existing capacity available, it will be necessary to increase the capacity by
incurring additional capital expenditure. (iii) Consideration of Stocks: Whatever is
to be sold need not be produced necessarily. The quantity to be produced, after giving
due consideration to the sales forecast, may depend upon the opening and closing
stock of finished goods. The quantity to be produced during the budget period may be
decided as Estimated Closing stock of finished goods. Add: Quantity to be sold, Less:
Opening Stoic of Finished Goods. (iv) Management Policy: Sometimes, the policy
decisions taken by the management are required to be considered before setting the
production budget E.g. It will have to be considered whether certain components are
decided to be produced instead of purchasing or vice versa.

Purchases Budget: It is a forecast of quantity and value of materials, direct or

indirect, required to be purchased during the budget period. It is needless to state that
the purchases budget is closely connected to the production budget. Following factors
are required to be considered before setting the purchases budget, Orders already
placed for the purchases of materials, Material already purchased but reserved for
some specific purposes, Opening and closing stocks, Storing facilities and economic
order quantity, Availability of funds, Prices of the materials.

Personnel: In this functional area, the budget to be prepared takes the form of a personnel
budget, which indicates the requirement of personnel or labour force, either direct or indirect,
to confirm to the sales forecast and the production budget. The labour requirement may be
decided in terms of number and grade of workers, number of labour hours, rupee value etc.
Consideration is also required to be made of the overtime working or shift working. This
budget may also indicate the training plans for new workers.
Finance: The most important budget which is prepared under this functional area is the cash
budget. It is an estimate of the expected cash receipts and cash payments during the budget
period. Thus by preparing the cash budget, it is possible to predict whether at any point of
time, there is likely to be excess or shortage of cash. If the shortage of cash is estimated, it
may be required to arrange the cash from some other source. If the excess of cash is
estimated, it may be possible to explore the investment opportunities. Before preparing the
cash budget, following principles should be kept in mind. (i) The period for which cash
budget is prepared should be selected very carefully. There is no fixed rule as to the period to
be covered by the cash budget. It may vary from company to company depending upon the
individual requirements. As a general rule, the period covered by the cash budget should
neither be too long or too short. If it is too long, it is possible that the estimate will not be
accurate. If it is too short, the factors which are beyond the control of management will not be
given due consideration. (ii) The items which should appear in the cash budget should be
carefully decided. Naturally, all those items which do not involve cash flow will not be
considered while preparing the cash budget. E.g. As the cost of depreciation does not
involve any cash outflow; it does not affect the cash budget, though the amount of
depreciation affects the determination of tax liability which involves cash outflow.

227

A cash budget may be prepared in any of the following three methods. Receipts and
Payments Method: This method is useful for short time estimations. It lists the various
estimated sources of cash receipts on one hand and the various estimated applications of cash
on the other. While preparing the cash budget by this method, the various items appearing on
the same may be classified under the following two categories: (i) Operating Cash Flows:
These are the items of cash flow which arise as a result of regular operations of the business.
(ii) Non operating Cash Flows: These are the items of cash flow which arise as the result of
other operations of the business. The standard items which may appear on the cash budget
prepared by this method may be stated as below: Cash Inflow - Operating: Cash sales;
Collection from debtors Interest/Dividend received Non-operating: Issue of
shares/debentures; Receipt of loans/borrowings; Sales of Fixed Assets; Sales of Investments
Cash Outflow - Operating: Payment to creditors; Cash Purchases of raw materials
Wages/Salaries; Various kinds of overheads. (To the extent they are actually paid) Nonoperating: Redemption of shares/debentures; Loan Installments; Purchases of Fixed Assets;
Interest; Taxes; Dividends. Thus, finally cash budget appears in the form of opening cash
balance, to which various estimated cash receipts are added, the estimated cash payments
being deducted from this sum to arrive at the closing cash balance. Balance Sheet Method:
This method is useful for long term estimates. According to this method, the budgeted
Balance Sheet is prepared for the following budget period, after considering the various terms
viz. Capital, Long Term Liabilities, Current liabilities, Fixed Assets, Current Assets, but
except cash. After both the sides of Balance Sheet are balanced, the balancing figure indicates
the estimated cash balance in hand at the end of that period. This method does not consider
the expenses and assumes the regular pattern of inflow and outflow of cash. Further, it
indicates the cash requirement only at the end of budget period, any excess or shortage of
cash during the budget period is not considered. Adjusted Profits/Losses Method: This
method also is useful for long term estimates. According to this method, the cash budget is
prepared in the following way to show the estimated cash balance at the end of the budget
period.
Opening cash balance.
Add: Profit before depreciation, provisions and other non-cash expenses.
Add: Decrease in Current Assets or Increase in Current Liabilities.
Add: Capital Receipts.
Add: Receipt of loans/borrowings
Less: Capital Expenditure
Less: Repayment of loan installments
Less: Payment of dividends/taxes
In other words, cash budget prepared as per this method is in the form of cash flow statement.
Miscellaneous Budgets: In addition to the various budgets as described above, which can be
prepaid in prime functional areas of marketing, production, personnel and finance, some
other types of budgets may also be prepared.

228

Overheads cost Budget: It indicates the various types of overheads to be incurred

during the budget period, for the correct establishment of overheads cost budget, it
will be necessary to classify the various overheads. In order to exercise proper control
on the overheads, it will be necessary to analyze the overheads as fixed, variable and
semi-variable, the semi-variable overheads are further required to be split into fixed
and variable elements.

Capital Expenditure Budget: It is the plan of proposed investment in the fixed

assets. It is closely related to the sales budget, production budget and cash budget. As
such, capital expenditure budget should be properly coordinated with other functional
budgets. The capital expenditure may be required to be incurred for the replacement
purposes or expansion purposes. The requirements of capital expenditure may be
basically received from the various functional executives viz. production manager,
sales manager, and finance manger and so on. If the investment in fixed assets is
considered to be economically and financially feasible, then the arrangement is
required to be made for the acquisition of the same. If the cash budget reveals the
excess funds available, it may not be necessary to arrange the funds for acquiring the
fixed assets from outside source. However, if no excess cash balance is available, then
it may be necessary to borrow the funds from some outside source.

Master Budget: After all the functional budgets are prepared individually and are properly
coordinated with each other, the master budget can be prepared by incorporating all the
functional budgets. The ultimate incorporation of all the functional budgets takes the form of
budgeted Profit and Loss Account and the Budgeted Balance Sheet. It may involve the
presentation of current year's budgeted figures as well as those of the previous year showing
clearly why there is a change. What are the Components of Master Budget: Usually a master
budget of manufacturing companies is made up of the following components: Sales budget;
Production budget; Purchases budget; Wages budget; Cost of goods sold budget;
Administrative expenses budget; Selling and distribution expenses budget; Cost of sales
budget; Profit and loss budget; Budgeted balance sheet; Cash budget
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.4 NUMERICALS ON BUDGETS: SALES AND CASH BUDGETS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------An estimate shows that there is a market for 10, 00,000 units of an electric bell. Two big
companies producing this electric bell will probably divide 80% of the market. Among other
companies, producing the bell, Ghatanad Ltd. should get 15% of the total market. 60% of the
Ghatanad sales will probably be evenly divided between the first and last calendar quarters,
with twice as many sales being made in the second quarter as in the third. The bell sells for
RS.30 a unit, with the manufacturing cost as follows. The cost is worked out with reference
to normal working capacity for the production which is 1, 50,000 bells a year.

229

Rs 15

Direct Materials Cost

Rs 7.50

Direct Labor cost

Variable overheads cost

Rs 2.5
Rs 1,00,000

Fixed overhead cost

Prepare a sales budget for the year showing cost of production and gross profit by calendar
quarters. Assume no change in the inventory levels during the year.
Solution:Sales Budget
Particulars
(A) Sales Units
Rs.

Quarter l

Quarter II

Quarter III

Quarter lV

Total

45,000

40,000

20,000

45,000

1 ,50,000

13,50,000

12,00,000

6,00,000

13,50,000

45,00,000

6,75,000

6,00,000

3,00,000

6,75,000

22,50,000

3,37,500

3,00,000

1 ,50,000

3,37,500

11 ,25,000

1,12,500

1,00,000

50,000

1 ,12,500

3,75,000

25,000

25,000

25,000

25,000

1,00,000

11,50,000

10,25,000

5,25,000

11,50,000

38,50,000

2,00,000

1,75,000

75,000

2,00,000

6,50,000

(B) Cost of
Production
Direct
Materials Rs
Direct Labor
Rs.
Variable
Overheads Rs
Fixed
Overhead Rs.
Total (B)
c) Gross Profit
Le. A - B

230

Look ahead Ltd. produces and sells a single product. Sales budget for the calendar year 1987
by quarter is as under :
Quarter
I
II
III
IV

No of Units to be sold
12, 000
15, 000
16, 500
18, 000

The year 1987 is expected to open with an inventory of 4,000 units of finished product and
close with an inventory of 6,500 units. Production is customarily sche9uled to provide for
two third of the current quarter's sales demand plus one third of the following quarter's
demand. Thus production anticipates sales volume by about one month.
The standard cost details for one unit of the product is as below Direct Materials 10 lbs @ 50
paise per lb.
Direct Labor 1 hour 30 minutes @ Rs. 4 per hour. Variable Overheads 1 hour 30 minutes @
Re. 1 per hour. Fixed Overheads 1 hour 30 minutes @ Rs. 2 per hour, based on a budgeted
production volume of 90,000 direct labor hours for the year.

Prepare a production budget for 1987, by quarters, showing the number of units to be
produced and the total costs of direct material, direct labour, variable overheads and
fixed overheads.
If the budgeted selling price per unit is Rs. 17, what would be the budgeted profit for
the year as a whole?
In which quarter of the year is the company expected to break even?

Solution
Production Budget: We know that Opening Stock + Production - Sales = Closing Stock
Hence we know that Closing Stock + Sales - Opening Stock = Production
Quarter l

Quarter.lI

4000

5000

5500

Production

13000

15500

17000

Sales

12000

15000

16500

Closing Stock

5000

5500

6000

Opening Stock

Quarter III

Hence, the total production for all the quarters will be 64,000 units.

231

Quarter lV
6000
18500
18000
6500

Production Cost Budget

Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Variable Overheads

64000 units x Rs. 5

96000 hours x Rs. 4
96000 hours x Re. 1

3, 20,000
3, 84,000
96,000

Total Variable Cost

8, 00,000

Fixed Cost

1.80,000

Total Cost

9, 80,000

Total Variable Cost for 64000 units is Rs. 8, 00,000. Hence, per unit variable cost is Rs.12.50
Calculation of Profit
Sales 61500 units @ Rs. 17 per unit
Variable Cost of units sold 61500 units
@Rs. 12.50 per unit
Contribution
Less: Fixed Cost
Profit

10, 45,500
7, 68,750
2, 76,750
1, 80,000
96,750

Break Even Point

Per Unit Selling Price is Rs. 17 and Per Unit Variable Cost is Rs. 12.50. Hence, Per Unit
Contribution Rs. 4.50.
As Fixed Cost is Rs. 1, 80,000, Break Even Point in units will be 180000/4.50 = 40000 units.
This target is achieved by the company in Quarter 3; hence the company is expected to break
even in Quarter Three.
A single product company estimated its sales for the next year quarter wise as under:
Quarter
I
II
III
IV

Sales units
30, 000
37, 500
41, 250
45, 000

The opening stock of the finished goods is 10,000 units and the company expects to maintain
the closing stock of finished goods at 16,250 units at the end of the year. The production
pattern in each quarter is based on 80% of the sales of the current quarter and 20% of the
sales of the next quarter. The opening stock of raw materials in the beginning of the year is
10,000 Kg. and the closing stock at the end of the year is required to be maintained at 5,000
Kg. Each unit of finished output requires 2 Kg. of raw material.

232

The company proposes to purchase the entire annual requirement of raw materials in the first
three quarters in the proportion and at the prices given below:
Quarter

Purchases of Raw Material

% of Total required
30
50
20

I
II
III

Price per Kg Rs
2
3
4

The value of the opening stock of raw materials in the beginning of the year is Rs. 20,000.
You are required to present the following for the next year, quarter wise:

Production Budget in units.

Raw Materials consumption budget in quantity.
Raw Materials purchase budget in quantity and value.

Solution:
Production Budget: We know that Opening Stock + Production - Sales = Closing Stock
Hence we know that Closing Stock + Sales - Opening Stock = Production
Quarter l

Opening Stock

Quarter.lI

Quarter III

Quarter. IV

13000
10000

11500

12250
48250

Production

31500

38250

42000
45000

Sales

30000

37500

41250

Closing Stock

11500

12250

13000

16250

Hence, the total production for all the quarters will be 1, 60,000 units.
Raw Materials Consumption Budget: Production Budget is 1, 60,000 units. Each unit of
the final product requires 2 Kg. of raw material. Hence, the raw material consumption budget
in quantity will be 3, 20,000 Kg.
Raw Materials Purchase Budget: Total quantity of raw materials to be purchased will be
Closing Stock + Consumption - Opening Stock 5000 + 320000 - 10000 = 315000
The quarter wise purchases will be as below:

233

01 30% of 315000 Kg. Le 94500 Kg @ Rs.

2 per Kg.

1, 89, 000

0250% of 315000 Kg. i: e. 157500 Kg.

@Rs. 3 per Kg.
0320% of 315000 Kg. i.e. 63000 Kg. @Rs.
4 per Kg.

4, 72, 500
2, 52,000
9, 13, 500

Hence, total purchase budget in terms of value is Rs. 9, 13,500.

A private Limited company is formed to take over a running business. It has decided to raise
Rs.55 Lakhs by issue of Equity shares and the balance of the capital required in the first six
months is to be financed by a financial institution against an issue for Rs.5 Lakhs 8%
Debentures (Interest payable annually) in its favour.
Initial outlay
consists of Freehold
premises
Plant & Machinery

Rs.

25

Lakhs
Lakhs

Rs.

10
Lakhs

Stock

Rs.

Vehicle & Other

items

Rs.

Lakhs

Payments on the above items are to be made in the month of incorporation. Sales during the
first 6 months ending on 30th June are estimated as under:
January
February

March

Lakhs.
Rs

14

Lakhs

April

Rs.

25

Rs.

15

Lakhs

May

Rs.

26.50

Rs.

18.50

Lakhs

June

Lakhs.

Lag in payment- Debtors 2 months

- Creditors 1 month

234

Rs.

28

Lakhs.

Other information:

Preliminary expenses Rs.50, 000 (Payable in February)

General Expenses Rs.50, 000 p.m. (Payable at the end of each month)

Monthly wages (payable on 1 st day of next month) Rs. 80,000 p.m. for first 3 months
and Rs. 95,000 p.m. there after.

Gross Profit rate is expected to be 20% on sales.

The shares and debentures are to be issued on 1 st January.

The stock levels though out is to be the same as the outlay.

Prepare cash budget for the 6 months ended 30th June

Solution:
Cash Budget
(For 6 month sending 30th June)
(A)

Cash Inflow
Issue of shares
Issue of Debentures
Collection from
Debtors

Feb.
-

Mar.
-

Apr.
-

14.00

15.00

18.50

14.00

15.00

18.50

60.00
(B)

(C)

Cash Outflow
Fixed Assets
Stock (Initial)
PreliminaryExpenses
Sundry Creditors
General Expenses
Wages
Net cash Inflows
(A-B)
Opening Balance
+ Surplus for the
month
Closing Balance

(Rs. in Lakhs)
May.
Jun.
-

Jan
55.00
5.00

25.00
25.00

40.00
6.00
0.50
-

0.50
10.40
0.50
0.80

11.20
0.50
0.80

14.00
0.50
0.80

19.05
0.50
0.95

46.50

12.20

12.50

15.30

20.50

13.50
-

(12.20)
13.50

1.50
1.30

(0.30)
2.80

(2.00)
2.50

3.30
0.50

13.50

(12.20)

1.50

(0.30)

(2.00)

3.30

13.50

1.30

2.50

0.50

2.80

20.25
0.50
0.95
21.70

3.80

Working Notes: It is assumed that the company is incorporated in January. Assuming that

235

the company is carrying on manufacturing operations, the purchase say for the month of
January are computed as below:
Sales for January

14.00

Less Gross profit @ 20%

2.80

Cost of goods

11.20

Less wages for January Purchases

0.80

Purchases

10.40

A newly started company "Green Co. Ltd." wishes to prepare cash budget from January.
Prepare a cash budget for the first 6 months from the following estimated revenue and
Expenditure.
Overheads
Month

Total Sales

Material

Wages
Production

Selling &
Distribution
Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

20,000

20,000

4,000

3.200

22,000

14,000

4,400

3.300

24,000

14,000

4,600

3.300

26,000

12,000

4,600

3,400

28,000

12,000

4,800

3,500

Jan.

800

Feb.

900

Mar.

800

Apr.

900

May

900

June

1000
30,000

16,000

4800

236

3,600

Cash balance on 1 st January was Rs.10, 000. A new machine is to be installed at Rs.30, 000
on credit, to be repaid by two equal installments in March and April. Sales commission @
5% on total sales is to be paid within the month following actual sales. Rs. 10,000 being the
amount of second call may be received in March. Share premium amounting to Rs. 2,000 is
also obtainable with 2nd call.
Period of credit allowed by suppliers

2 months

Period of credit allowed to customers

1 month

Delay in payment of overheads

1 month

Delay in payment of wages

half a month

Assume cash sales to be 50% of total sales.

Solution
Cash Budget of Green Co. Ltd.
(A)

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

10,000

11,000

12,000

13,000

14,000

15,000

10,000

11,000

12,000

13,000

14,000

10,000

Cash Inflows
Cash sales
Collection
from debtors
Share Capital
(2nd call)
Share

2,000

Premium
(B)

10,000

21,000

35,000

25,000

27,000

29,000

20;000

14,000

14,000

12,000

2,000

2,200

2,300

2,300

2,400

2,400

2,000

2,200

2,300

2,300

2,400

3,200

3,300

3,300

3,400

3,500

800

900

800

900

900

1 5,000

15,000

1,000

1,100

1,200

1,300

1 ,400

Cash
Outflows
Sundry
Creditors
Wages For
current month
For last
month
Production
Overheads
Selling &
Distribution
Overheads
Installment
for Machine
purchased
Sales
commission

237

(C)

2,000

9,200

44,800

38,900

24,300

22,600

8,000

11 ,800

(-) 9800

(-) 13,900

2,700

6,400

10,000

18,000

29,800

20,000

6,100

8,800

8,000

11 ,800

(-) 9,800

(-) 13,900

2,700

6,400

18,000

29,800

20,000

6,100

8,800

15,200

Net Cash
Inflows or
outflows

(A-B)
Opening cash
balance
+ Surplus for
month
Closing cash
balance

Prepare a cash budget for the quarter ended 30th September 1987 based on the following
information:
Cash at Bank on 1 st July
Rs.
25,000
1987
Salaries
and
wages
Rs.
10,000
estimated monthly
Interest Payable August
Rs.
5,000
1987

June

July

August

September

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Estimated Cash
sales

1,40,000

1 ,52,000

1,21,000

Credit Sales

1,00,000

80,000

1,40,000

1 ,20,000

1,60,000

1,70,000

2,40,000

1,80,000

20,000

22,000

21,000

Purchases
Other Expenses

Credit sales are collected 50% in the month of sales are made and 50% in the month
following collection from credit sales are subject to 5% discount if payment is received in the
month of sales and 2.5% if payment is received in the following month.
Creditors are paid either on a prompt or 30 days basis. It is estimated that 10% of the
creditors are in the prompt category.

238

Solution:
Cash Budget
(For Quarter Ending September 1987)

(A)

Cash Inflows
Cash Sales
Collection from
Debtors Last
month
Current month

(B)

Cash Outflows
Sundry
Creditors
Prompt Basis
Others
Salaries &
wages
Other Expenses
Interest

(C)

Net Cash
Inflow (A-B)
Opening
Balance
+ Surplus for
the month
Closing
Balance

July
Rs.

August
Rs.

September
Rs.

1,40,000

1 ,52,000

1,21,000

48,750

39,000

68,250

38,000

66,500

57,000

2,26,750

2,57,500

2,46,250

17,000

24,000

18,000

1 ,44,000

1 ,53,000

2,16,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

20,000
1,91,000

22,000
5,000
2,14,000

21 ,000
2,65,000

35,750

43,500

(18,750)

25,000

60,750

1,04,250

35,750

43,500

(18,750)

60,750

1,04,250

85,500

ABC CO. Ltd. wishes to arrange overdraft facilities with its bankers during the period April
to June 1987 when it will be manufacturing mostly for stock. Prepare a cash budget for the
above period from the following data, indicating the extent of the bank facility the company
will require at the end of each month.

239

Month
February
March
April
May
June

Sales
Rs.
1 ,80,000
1,92,000
1,08,000
1.74,000
1,26,000

Purchases
Rs.
1,24,800
1,44,000
2,43,000
2,46,000
2,68,000

Wages
Rs.
12,000
14,000
11,000
10,000
15,000

Additional Information
All Sales are Credit Sales 50% of Credit Sales are realized in the month following the
sales and the remaining 50% in the Second month following
Creditors are paid in the month following the month of purchases.
Cash at Bank of 1.4.87 (Estimated) Rs.25, 000
Solution

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Cash Budget of ABC Co. Ltd.Problems

Apr. 87
May 87
Cash Inflows
Sundry Debtors
First 50%
96,000
54,000
90,000
96,'000
Second 50%
1,86,000
1 ;50,000
Cash Outflows
Sundry
1,44,000
2,43,000
Creditors
11 ,000
10,000
Wages
1 ,55,000
2,53,000
Net Cash
31,000
(-) 1,03,000
Inflows or
outflows (A-B)
Estimated Cash
Surplus or
shortage
Opening Cash
25,000
56,000
Balance
+
31,000
(-) 1,03,000
Surplus/Deficit
for the month
Closing cash
56,000
(-) 47,000
balance

240

June 87

87,000
54,000
1 ,41 ,000
2,46,000
15,000
2,61,000
(-) 1,20,000

(-) 1,20,000

(-) 1,20,000

Problems
On 30th September 1990, the Balance Sheet of Melodies Pvt. Ltd. retailers of musical
instruments, was as under:
Liabilities
Ordinary shares of
Rs.1 0
each fully paid
Reserves
and
surplus
Trade Creditors
Proposal Dividend

Rs.
20,000

Assets
Equipment (at cost)
Less: Depreciation

10,000
40,000
15,000

Rs.
20,000
5,000
15,000

Stock
Trade Debtors
Balance at Bank

85,000

20,000
15,000
35,000
85,000

The company is developing a system of forward planning and on 1 st October 1990, it

supplies the following information:

Sept. 90 (Actual)
Oct. 90 (Budget)
Nov. 90 (Budget)
Dec. 90 (Budget)

Credit Sales
Rs.
15,000
18,000
20,000
25,000

Cash Sales
Rs.
14,000
5,000
6,000
8,000

Credit Purchases
Rs.
40,000
23,000
27,000
26,000

All trade debtors are allowed one month's credit and are expected to settle promptly. All trade
creditors are paid in the month following delivery.
On 1 st October 1990, all the equipment was replaced at a cost of Rs 30,000. Rs. 14,000 was
allowed in exchange for the old equipment and a net payment of Rs. 16,000 was made.
Depreciation is to be allowed at the rate of 10% per annum. The proposed dividend will be
paid in December 1990.

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The following expenses will be paid:

Wages
Administration

Rs. 3,000 per month

Rs. 1500 per month

Rent

Rs. 3600 for the year to 30th September

1991 (to be paid in October, 1990)
estimated at 25%

The gross profit percentage on sales

You are required:

To prepare cash budget for the months of October, November and December. (2)
To prepare Income Statement for the three months ended 31 st December 1990.
Develop Performa income statement for the months of July, August and September
for a company for the following information: (a) Sales are projected at Rs. 2,25,000,
Rs. 2,40,000 and Rs. 2,15,000 for July, August and September respectively (b) Cost
of goods sold is RS.50, 000 plus 30% of selling price per month.(c) Selling Expenses
are 3% of sales.(d) Rent is Rs. 7,500 per month; administrative expenses for July are
expected to be Rs. 60,000 but are expected to rise 1% per month over the previous
month's expenses.(e) The company has Rs.3, 00,000 of 8% loan interest payable
monthly. (f) Corporate Tax rate is 70%.

The projected sales and purchases of ABC Ltd. for the months July to November 1983 are:
July
August
September
October
November

Sales (Rs.)
6, 20,000
6, 40,000
5, 80,000
5, 60,000
6, 00,000

Purchases (Rs.)
3, 80,000
3, 33,000
3, 50,000
3, 90,000
3, 40,000

The wages are expected to be Rs.1 00,000 per month. The management is expected to pay
two months wages as bonus during October 1983. The company is expected to pay advance
income tax Rs.90, 000 before 15th September 1983. The company has ordered in June 1983
for a machine costing Rs. 16, 00,000. The Bank has agreed to finance the purchase of the
machine which is expected to be delivered in January 1984. The company has advanced 5%
in June 1983 and they have agreed to pay another 10% advance after 3 months. The company
extends 2 months credit for the customers and enjoys one month credit from the suppliers.
The general expenses for the company are Rs.60, 000 per month payable at the end of each
month. The company anticipates receiving dividends of 10% for the investments of 90,000
shares of Rs. 10 each during October 1983. The company anticipates to have an overdraft of
Rs. 40,000 on 1st September 1983 (limit sanctioned is Rs. 55,000). Draw a cash budget for
September 83 to November 83.

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.5 ZERO-BASED AND INCREMENTAL BUDGETS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now we are going to do a new concept that is called as Zero Based Budgeting. Does any
body in the class know about Zero Based Budgeting?
Zero-base budgeting requires managers to start at zero budget levels every year and justify all
costs as if all programs were being proposed for the first time. This process differs from
traditional budgeting, in which changes in budgets from one year to the next are subject to the
greatest scrutiny. In the absence of a financial crisis, there is a presumption in traditional
budgeting that a manager is "entitled" to at least as much as was budgeted in the previous
year. The benefits of an annual in-depth budgeting review must be weighed against the time
and effort required for such a review. After some experimentation with zero-based budgeting
in the late 1970s, few organizations now employ this approach to budgeting.
Zero-base budgeting, at present, is receiving great attention from business experts as a new
approach to the budgeting process. The concept of zero-base budgeting was first put forward
in a crude form by E. Hilton in 1924 when he emphasized to re justify budget programmes
annually. Later, this technique of budgeting was used successfu11y in 1962 by the former
President of America, Jimmy carter when he was the Governor of Georgia. Mr. Carter used it
as a ground-up budgeting technique for controlling state expenditure. This techniques has
come to be associated in the present form and named with P. A.Phyrr ever since he
represented it" in a systematic manner in his article entitled:' Zero Base Budgeting" in 1970.
Zero-base budgeting is a technique where executives are requited to start at zero budget
levels every year and justify all C6sts of the existing programme in comparison with all
present and future programmes. Thus, zero-base budgeting is a programmed budgeting where
existing programme already instituted are again evaluated on an equal footing With newly
proposed programmes each year. It attempts to review and defend all programmes and
expenditures every year. The same evaluation process is used for both on going and newly
proposed activities and programs. In traditional budgeting, the previous year's budget is
considered a base for the future; only changes in the base are defended. The base year's
figures are increased or decreased according to anticipated needs.
This approach is based on the philosophy "Where we are, where do we go from here?" Zerobase budgeting is quite reverse of traditional budgeting in the sense that in the latter every
period is treated as new period and the previous period is not taken as a base. Every budget
activity must justify its existence in the light of present situation. The budget begins with-the
base zero and accordingly future programmes are chalked out. Zero-base budgeting is getting
popular in India. The government of India has directed its public sector undertakings to
introduce Zero-base budgeting in their budgeting programmes. Joshi and Raja reports that
few steel plants and nationalized banks in India are in the process of implementing this
budgeting technique. The Governments of Maharashtra and Karnataka have also
implemented this technique in their respective state planning. The use of Zero-base budgeting
has also been reported from Rajasthan and Gujarat by the State Governments.

6.5.1 Steps Involved In Zero-Base Budgeting

Now we are going to discuss about the steps involved in ZBB the zero base budgeting
consists of the following steps:

243

Organizational and budgeting objectives should be carefully laid down;

The areas of business where zero base budgeting is to be applied should be identified;
The organization must he divided in small segments i.e. budget units, for effective
analysis and evaluation.
The in charge executive of the budget unit must prepare alternative spending plans as
decision packages.
The decision packages should be evaluated on the basis or cost and benefit analyses
and ranked in order of priorities.

The preceding discussion reveals that the process of Zero-base budgeting begins with the
development of budget units followed by the formulation of "decision packages" and their
evaluation and ranking in order of priority. The responsibility of preparing departmental
decision packages lies with the budget unit in charge. The decision packages submitted by
various budget units are properly evaluated by-systematic analysis and then ranked according
to relative importance, going from those that are considered essential to those that are
considered of least importance. Presumably this allows top management to; evaluate each
decision package, independently, and to pare back in those areas that appear less critical or
which do not appear to be justified in terms of the cost involved. The ranking system helps
management to allocate its limited resources effectively. The critics of the Zero base concept
argue that an annual in-depth defense of all programmes may be too. Time consuming too
costly to be really feasible. They suggest that periodic reviews should be made only every
two or three years. Such period review would ensure minimum assessment cost with
maximum efficiency. However, the decision of frequency of Zero-base reviews is governed
by number of factors such as nature of business, nature of activity. Time and cost involved in
review, organizational structure etc.

6.5.2 Advantages and Limitations of Zero-Base Budgeting

The major purpose of zero-base budgeting is to improve efficiency of decisions. It provides a
scientific and systematic approach to budgeting as it considers the alternative of a programme
through benefits - cost analysis. The cost-effectiveness analysis provides the basis for
efficient choice. Zero-base budgeting contributes in number of ways to the profitability and
prosperity of the organization. The important among them are:

It ensures efficient use of limited resources by allocating them according to the

relative importance of the programmes.
The annual review of the programme indicates the relative worth of the programmes
and thus ensures no programme continues beyond its productive life.
It helps management to design and develop cost effective techniques for improving
operations.
The corporate objectives can be achieved more successfully under zero-base
budgeting.
It ensures a proper financial and economic study of a programme and thereby reduces
the element of the risk in the project.
The establishment of decision units makes the performance evaluation system more
effective.
The submission of decision-packages directly from budget unit to top management
Zero-base budgeting suffers from following serious limitations:

244

Zero-base budgeting is a costly affair; therefore, small organization cannot afford it.
The annual reviews of the programmes become mechanical with the passage of time
which makes main objective of the zero-base concept lost.
The identification of decision units and decision packages creates number of problems
for the organization.
The process of zero-base budgeting requires experience, intelligence, expertise, and
continuous training on the part of executives. Thus it is not suitable for ordinary
organization.
It fails to find out a workable solution to a problem created by stopping funding on
such current programmes that have turned unproductive. They may improve longterm, commitments or fixed investments that cannot easily be shifted to other areas.

6.5.3 Incremental Budgeting

Traditionally, much setting of budgets has tended to be on the basis of what happened last
year, with some adjustment for any changes in any factors which are expected to affect the
forthcoming budget period. This tends to be particularly the case with 'spending' budgets like
research and development and training, where the 'budget holder' (manager responsible for
the budget) is allocated a sum of money to be spent in the area of activity concerned. These
spending budgets are very common in local and central government and in other public
bodies. A feature of the type of activities for which such budgets exist is the lack of a clear
relationship between inputs and outputs. Compare this with, say a raw materials usage budget
in a manufacturing company, where the amount of material used and, therefore, the amount
of funds taken by it is clearly related to the level of production. It is easy for spending
budgets to eat up funds with no clear benefit being derived. Often it is only possible increases
in budgets which are examined with any real rigor.
Zero-base budgeting (ZBB) is based on the philosophy that all spending needs to be justified
annually. When establishing the training budget each Year, it is not automatically accepted
that a particular training course should be financed next year simply because it was
undertaken last year. With an increasing portion of the total costs of most businesses being in
areas where the link between outputs and inputs is not always clear, and where commitment
of resources is discretionary rather than demonstrably essential to production. ZBB is
increasingly relevant.
The principal problems with ZBB are: It is time-consuming and therefore expensive to
undertake. Managers whose sphere of responsibility is subjected to ZBB can feel threatened
and. insecure. The benefits of a ZBB approach can be gained to some extent, perhaps at not
too great a cost, by using the approach on a selective basis. Perhaps a particular budget area
could be subjected to a ZBB-type scrutiny every second or third year. It will almost certainly
be the case, for the typical business, that some areas would benefit from ZBB more than
others. ZBB could, in these circumstances be applied to those areas, but not to others. The
areas which are most likely to benefit from ZBB , are discretionary spending ones, like
training and research and development If senior management is aware of the potentially
threatening nature, care can be taken to apply ZBB with sensitivity.

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TECHNIQUES OF COSTING I
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
7.1 Introduction to Target Costing
7.1.1 Target Costing and New Product Development
7.1.2 Illustration of Target Costing
7.1.3 Target Costing and Cost Plus Pricing
7.1.4 Target Costing, ABC, and Service Companies
7.1.5 Summary Problems
7.2 Activity Based Costing
7.2.1 Background to ABC
7.2.2 The Benefits of ABC
7.2.3 ABC: Design and Implementation
7.2.4 How ABC Works
7.3 Introduction to Transfer Pricing
7.3.1 Various Approaches to Transfer Pricing
7.3.2 Need for Many Transfer Prices
7.3.3 External Monitoring and Control of Transfer Pricing
7.3.4 Transfer Pricing Law in India
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO TARGET COSTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------You will learn about the Target Costing in this unit. You please consider the situation where
the management of a company has to decide whether to develop and market a new product.
In evaluating the feasibility of the new product, management must determine both the price it
can charge and the expected cost. As we have seen, both the price and cost of the new
product are affected by market conditions and actions of management. The degree that price
and cost can be affected by management actions determines the most effective approach to
use for pricing and cost management purposes. Cost-plus pricing is used for products where
management actions (for example, advertising) can influence the market price. Although cost
management is important in this case, there is a strong focus on marketing and the revenue
side of the profit equation.
But what you will do if the market conditions are such that management cannot influence
prices? If management's desired profit is to be achieved, the company must then focus on the
product's cost. What management needs is an effective tool to reduce costs without reducing
value to the customer. Many companies faced with this situation are adopting Target Costing.
You know that the target costing approach, a form of life cycle costing, has recently assumed
importance due to the hyper competitive marketing environment. Marketing managers first
estimate the performance characteristics and market price requirements in order to achieve a
desired market share for a proposed product. A standard profit margin is then subtracted from
the projected selling price to arrive at the target cost for the product. The product
development team must then, through its product and process design decisions, attempt to
reach the product's target cost.

246

You know that this procedure is just the opposite of that followed by many companies today
in which the product is designed with little regard either to the manufacturing process or to its
long-run manufacturing cost. With this traditional procedure of first designing the product
and then giving the design to process engineers and cost analysts, the product cost is
developed by applying standard cost factors to the materials and processes specified for the
design. Frequently, this cost may be well above that which can be sustained by market prices
and the product is either aborted or, if marketed, fails to achieve desired profitability levels.
You will realize that with the target cost approach, the new product team, consisting of
product designers, purchasing specialists, and manufacturing and process people, works
together to jointly determine product and process characteristics that permit the target cost to
be achieved. The target cost approach is especially powerful to apply at the design stage,
since decisions made at this stage have high leverage to affect long-run costs.
You should understand that Target Costing is a cost management tool for making cost
reduction a key focus throughout the life of a product. A desired, or target cost is set, before
the product is created or even designed. Managers must then try to reduce and control costs
so that the product's cost does not exceed its target cost. Target costing is most effective at
reducing costs during the product design phase when the vast majority of costs are
committed. For example, the costs of resources such as new machinery, materials, parts, and
even future refinements are largely determined by the design of the product and the
associated production processes. These costs are not easily reduced once production begins.
So, the emphasis of target costing is on proactive, up-front planning throughout every activity
of the new product development process. Once the product is released into production, it
becomes much harder to achieve significant cost reductions. Figure 11-3 shows that the
majority of costs become committed or locked in much earlier than the time at which the
major cash expenditures are made.

7.1.1 Target Costing and New Product Development

Based on the existing technology and related cost structure, the product has three parts,
requires direct labor, and has four types of indirect costs. The first step in the target costing
process is the determination of market price. The market sets this price. Management sets the
gross margin for the new product. The difference between the gross margin and the market
price is the target cost for the new product. The existing cost structure for the product is
determined by building up costs on an individual component level. This product has two
components. Component 1 consists of parts A and B. Component 2 consists of part C. Direct
labor is needed for both components and final assembly. The indirect costs are associated
with activities necessary to plan and process the product.
You may sometimes think that marketing department may have a limited role in target
costing because the price is set by competitive market conditions. Actually, market research
from the marketing department at the beginning of the target costing activity guides the
whole product development process by supplying information on customer demands and
requirements. In fact, one of the key characteristics of successful target costing is a strong
emphasis on understanding customer demands. Not necessarily. A cross-functional team
consisting of engineers, sales personnel, and accountants now must determine if cost
reductions can be implemented that will reduce the costs enough to meet the target cost

247

Design and process engineers were also able to eliminate the activity, generating the first
type of indirect cost. These cost reductions resulted from value engineering-a cost-reduction
technique, used primarily during the design stage, which uses information about all valuechain functions to satisfy customer needs while reducing costs. In total, the planned cost
reductions were adequate to reduce costs to the target. However, not all the reductions in
cost take place before production begins.
Have you heard of Kaizen costing, which is the Japanese word for continuous improvement
during manufacturing? How is kaizen costing applied? Kaizen goals are established each
year as part of the planning process. Examples include the continual reduction in setup times
and processing times due to employee experience. In total, target costing during design and
kaizen costing during manufacturing enables the achievement of the target cost over the
product's life. You should appreciate that accurate cost information is critical to these costreduction methods. Activity-Based Costing (ABC) provides this information. ActivityBased Management (ABM) is then used to identify and eliminate non-value-added
activities, waste, and their related costs. ABM is applied throughout both the design and
manufacturing stages of the product's life.

7.1.2 Illustration of Target Costing

We may now consider the target-costing system used by ITT AUTOMOTIVE of USA -- One
of the world's largest automotive suppliers. The company designs, develops, and
manufactures a broad range of products, including brake systems, electric motors, and lamps.
Also, the company is the worldwide market leader in anti-lock braking systems (ABS),
producing 20,000 such systems a day. Because these ABS are computerized, lTT Automotive
actually ships 30% more computers daily than does Compaq! You may wonder as to what
pricing approach does lTT automotive use for the ABS? The pricing process starts when one
of lTT's customers, says Mercedes-Benz, sends an invitation to bid. The, market for brake
systems is so competitive that very little variance exists in the prices that companies can ask
(bid). A target costing group is formed and charged with determining whether the price and
costs allow for enough of a profit margin. This group is made up of engineers, cost
accountants, and sales personnel. Factors considered in determining the feasibility of earning
the desired target profit margin include competitor pricing, inflation rates, interest rates, and
potential cost reductions during both the design (target costing) and production stages
(Kaizen Costing) of the ABS product life. lTT purchases many of the component parts that
make up the ABS. Thus, the target costing group works closely with suppliers. After product
and process design improvements are made and commitments from suppliers are received,
the company has the cost information needed for deciding the price for the bid.
You would be glad to know that the Target Costing system has worked well at lTT
Automotive. The company's bid for the ABS resulted in Mercedes-Benz U.S. International
selecting lTT Automotive as the developer and supplier of ABS for the automaker's M-Class
All-Activity Vehicle.

7.1.3 Target Costing, and Cost-Plus Pricing

You know that the successful companies understand the market in which they operate and use
the most appropriate pricing approach. To see how target costing and cost-plus pricing can
lead to different decisions, suppose that lTT Automotive receives an invitation to bid from
Ford on the ABS to be used in a new model car. Lets us assume the following data apply:

The specifications contained in Ford's invitation lead to an estimated current man-

248

ufacturing cost (component parts, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead) of

Rs.154.
lTT Automotive had a desired gross margin rate of 30% on sales, which means that
actual cost should make up 70% of the price.
Highly competitive market conditions exist and have established a sales price of
Rs.200 per unit

If cost-plus pricing were used to bid on the ABS, the bid price would be Rs.220 (Rs.154 /
0.7). Ford would most likely reject this bid because the market price is only Rs.200. ITT Auto
motives pricing approach would lead to a lost opportunity.
Suppose that managers at ITT Automotive recognize that the market conditions dictate a set
price of Rs.200. If a target-costing system were used, what would the pricing decision be?
The target cost is Rs.140 (that is, Rs.200 X .7), so a required cost reduction of Rs.14 per unit
is necessary. The target-costing group would work with product and process engineers and
suppliers to determine if the average unit cost could be reduced by Rs.14 over the product's
life. Note that it is not necessary to get costs down to the Rs.140 target cost before production
begins. The initial unit cost will likely be higher, say Rs.145. Continuous improvement over
the product's life will result in the final Rs.5 of cost reductions. If commitments for cost
reductions are received, the managers will decide to bid Rs.200 per unit. Note that if the bid
is accepted, ITT Automotive must carry through with its focus on cost management
throughout the life of the product.
You may be aware that the Target Costing originated in Japan. However, many companies
now use it worldwide, including Chrysler, Mercedes-Benz, Proctor & Gamble, Caterpillar,
and lTT Automotive. Even some hospitals use target costing. Why the increasing popularity
of target costing? With increased global competition in many industries, companies are more
and more limited in influencing market prices. Cost management then becomes the key to
profitability. Target costing forces managers to focus on costs to achieve the desired profits.

7.1.4 Target Costing, ABC, and Service Companies

You may please note that many companies use target costing together with an activity-basedcosting (ABC) system. Target costing requires a company to first determine what a customer
will pay for a product and then work backwards to design the product and production process
that will generate a desired level of profit. ABC provides data on the costs of the various
activities needed to produce the product. Knowing the costs of activities allows product and
production process designers to be able to predict the effects of their designs on the product's
cost. Target costing essentially takes activity-based costs and uses them for strategic product
decisions.
For example, Culp Inc., a North Carolina textile manufacturer, uses target costing and ABC
to elevate cost management into one of the most strategically important areas of the firm.
Culp found that 80% of its product costs are predetermined at the design stage, but earlier
cost control efforts had focused only on the other 20%. By shifting cost management efforts
to the design stage and getting accurate costs of the various activities involved in production,
cost management at Culp evolved into a process of cutting costs when a product is being
designed, not identifying costs that are out of line after the production is complete.
You have just now learnt that the basic goal of target costing is to reduce costs before they
occur. After all, once costs have been incurred they cannot be changed. Such a strategy is

249

especially important if product life cycles are short. Because most product life cycles are
shrinking, use of target costing is expanding. Target costing focuses on reducing costs in the
product design and development stages-when costs can really be affected. For example,
Chrysler's design of the low-priced Neon was heavily influenced by the company's use of
target costing, and Procter & Gamble's CEO credits target costing for helping eliminate costs
that could cause products to be priced too high for the market.
As you would have guessed, the Target costing has generally been applied in manufacturing
companies. However, its use in service and nonprofit companies is growing. For example, a
process nearly identical to target costing is being used in some hospitals. Development of
treatment protocols-the preferred treatment steps for a patient with a particular diagnosis-is
the "product design" phase for a hospital Treatment protocols have short life cycles because
of rapid advances in medical technology and knowledge. Therefore, with increased attention
to cost containment in health care, it is important to consider the costs of the various
activities in a treatment protocol at the time of designing the protocol.
Measuring the costs of a particular treatment protocol after it is in use was the best that could
be done until recently, even in the most cost-conscious hospitals. But identifying cost
overruns after the fact, although better than never measuring them, did not lead to good cost
control. By using target costing techniques, that is, identifying the maximum amount that
would be paid for a treatment, protocols can be designed to avoid potential cost overruns
before a treatment begins. Cost containment is then focused on the patient level, where most
decisions are made, not at the department level, where identifying the causes of cost overruns
is more difficult.

7.1.5 Summary Problems

Problem:
Manu Offset Press is a printing firm that bids on a wide variety of design and printing jobs.
The Proprietor of the firm, Manu Sharma, prepares the bids for most jobs. His cost budget for
the year 2004 is as follows:
Rs. Amount (Rs.)

Factor
Materials
Labor
Prime Cost (Materials + Labor)
Overhead
Variable
Fixed
Total production cost of jobs
Selling and administrative expenses*
Variable
Fixed

350,000
250,000
600,000
300,000
150,000
75,000
125,000

Total costs

450,000
1,050,000
200,000
1,250,000

Manu Sharma has a target profit of Rs. 250,000 for the year 2004. You are required to
compute the average target mark up percentage for setting prices as a percentage of:

250

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Prime costs (materials plus labor)

Variable production cost of jobs
Total production cost of jobs
All variable costs
All costs

Solution
You should understand that the purpose of this problem is to emphasize that many different
approaches to pricing might be used and when they are properly employed, would achieve
the same target selling prices. To achieve a target profit of Rs. 250,000, after meeting the
total costs of Rs. 1,250,000, the targeted Income for the year 2004 should be:
Rs. 1,250,000 + Rs. 250,000 = Rs.1, 500,000.
The target markup percentages are worked-out as follows:
1. Percent of prime cost = (Rs.1, 500,000 - Rs.600, 000) = 150%
(Rs.600, 000)
2. Percent of variable production cost of Jobs = (Rs.1, 500,000 - Rs. 900,000) = 66.7%
(Rs. 900,000)
3. Percent of total production cost of Jobs = (Rs.1, 500,000 - Rs.1, 050,000) = 42.9%
(Rs.1, 050,000)
4. Percent of all variable costs

= (Rs. 1,500,000 - Rs.975, 000) = 53.8%

(Rs.975, 000)

5. Percent of all costs

= (Rs.1, 500,000 - Rs.1, 250,000) = 20%

(Rs.1, 250,000)

Problem: Target Costing

Mehta Electrical Motors (MEM) makes small electric motors for a variety of home
appliances. MEM sells the motors to appliance makers, who assemble and sell the appliances
to retail outlets. MEM makes dozens of different motors. But MEM does not currently make
the motor to be used in garage-door openers. The firms market research department has
discovered a sizeable market for such a motor. The market research department has indicated
that a motor for garage-door openers would likely to sell for Rs. 3200. A similar motor
currently being produced has the following manufacturing costs:
Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Overheads

1800
900
800
3500

Total
MEM management desires a gross margin of 18% of the manufacturing cost.
You are required to work out the solutions for the following questions:
1.

Suppose Memphis used cost-plus pricing, setting the price 15% above the
manufacturing cost. What price would be charged for the motor? Would

251

2.

3.

you produce such a motor if you were a manager at Memphis? Explain.

Suppose Memphis uses target costing. What price would the company
charge for a garage-door-opener motor? What is the highest acceptable
manufacturing cost for which Memphis would be willing to produce the
motor?
As a user of target costing, what steps would Memphis managers take to
try to make production of this product feasible?

Problem: Target Costing Over Product Life Cycle

Sunder Utility Equipments (SUE) makes a variety of motor-driven products for the home and
small businesses. The market research department recently identified power lawn mowers as
a potentially lucrative market. As a first entry into this market, SUE is considering a riding
lawn mower that is smaller and less expensive than those of most of the competition. Market
research indicates that such a lawn mower would sell for about Rs. 9,950 at retail and Rs.
8,500 wholesale. At that price, SUE expects life cycle sales is shown below:
The production department has estimated that the variable cost of production will be Rs.
4,800 per lawn mower, and annual fixed costs will be Rs. 850,000 per year for each of the 7
years. Variable selling costs will be Rs. 450 per lawn mower and fixed selling costs will be
Rs. 350,000 per year. In addition, the product development department estimates that Rs. 45,
00,000 of development costs will be necessary to design the lawn mower and the production
process for it.
1. Compute the expected profit over the entire product life cycle of the proposed
riding lawn mower.
2. Suppose SUE expects pretax profits equal to 12% of sales on new products.
Would SUE undertake production and selling of the riding lawn mower?
3. SUE uses a target costing approach to new products. What steps would
management take to try to make a profitable product of the riding lawn?
Year
1

Sales (Nos.)
2,000

6,000

9,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

5,000

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7.2 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------We saw many of the aspects of what we called traditional overhead analysis and then went on
to look at more modern aspects of overhead cost analysis. In this chapter we will look in
detail at activity-based costing (ABC) and activity-based costing management (ABCM). We
know ABC is not new. We see in that ABC has been discussed under different names for at
least two decades now. We also appreciated that the -concepts on which ABC is based are
probably centuries old. Nevertheless, ABC has led to a change of mindset for many
management accountantsThere are a few review points that are worthwhile looking at before
moving forward with the ABC debate.
ABC does not solve all of the management accountant's overhead assignment problems:
'Costs may still require some element of arbitrary apportionment, for example, where they
represent resources shared by more than one product and where joint ness exists in the use of
cost drivers' (Mitchell 1994: 266). Mitchell goes on to discuss, however, why such
assignments are not necessarily a bad thing allocation can provide a means of rationing
shared resources. Overhead rates represent a set of taxes on the use of these resources . . . cost
allocation can reduce prerequisite [sic; surely perquisite?] consumption by managers. ABC
can contribute directly here by strengthening the monitoring capacity of the costing system'
through the visibility which it brings to the 'hidden factory' of overhead services. ABC also
provides a direct control link between providers of activities and the users of their output. The
existence of cost driver rates provides the mechanism for the cross charging of costs which
will initiate the type of monitoring behavior described above.
This view, as given by Mitchell, probably clarifies many to the accusations that ABC is not
wholly new. The assignment of overheads still takes place, first, because it is necessary for
ABC to work, and secondly, because it does provide some useful functions, such as we see
from Mitchell's work.
7.2.1 Background to ABC: The Generation of Reliable Cost Information
There are three key areas of ABC:
1. Product cost differentiation.
2. Activities and their cost drivers.
3. Identification of non-value added cost improvement opportunities
In the early days of the history to cost accounting, from the middle of the nineteenth century
to the- mid-1970s, management accountants who needed to would happily allocate and
apportion overhead costs on bases that were considered fair at the time. Studies of cost
accounting techniques from this period will reveal that the kind of apportionment bases we
discussed in Chapter 6 were widely applied. Several studies have shown that organizations
were quite happy to recover their overheads by using a single plant-wide overhead absorption
rate. A survey reported in 1988 the in the United States almost one-third of companies
canvassed used a single plant-wide overhead absorption rate. A similar study of UK
management accounting practice revealed that small business organizations tended to use a
single plant-wide overhead absorption rate, as did some larger organizations with high
overhead costs.

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The product and service costs derived from traditional allocation and appointment methods
were used, even though they may have been inappropriate, for a number of reasons:
Overheads were relatively unimportant, as a proportion of total costs.
When organizations were labor intensive, rather than capital intensive, the direct labor
hour rate basis of apportionment of overheads was a sufficiently appropriate method
to I1se.
Before the advent of computerization and office automation, ABC could only have
meant .An even more massive bureaucracy than before.
All organizations were behaving the same way, so it was unnecessary to develop such
Innovations as ABC.
Competition, if it existed, was relatively regional, not global, so detailed cost
knowledge was not vitally important.
Organizations were much less diversified than they are now, so there was little
impetus to increase management s cost awareness.
Whilst these reasons will not be applicable to all organizations, they do indicate the nature of
the need for ABC. In an increasingly automated, globally competitive, environment an
organizations management must have reliable cost information: 'Unreliable cost information
is an open invitation to disaster.
Reliable cost information is now considered by many to help with an organizations
competitive advantage. In the same way that the application of information and computer
technology has given many organizations a competitive advantage, the reliability of cost
information also gives an organization a leading edge over other organizations whose cost
information is not so reliable. The organization that depends only on unreliable cost
information must be in a weaker position than the organization that has reliable cost
information. If cost information is unreliable, it is also difficult to control. There is evidence
to suggest that, in the case of the automobile manufacturing industry, only 15% of direct
costs are controllable by management; even variable costs are not controllable in the short
term. However, comprisable overhead costs amount to 27% of total product costs.
In the service sector of an economy, of course, the gains to be made can be significantly
greater. This will be true when overhead costs account for as much as 60%, or more, of total
costs. In the case of overheads, therefore, there is much more scope to influence total costs
through monitoring and controlling overhead costs than there is in trying to control the direct
costs. ABC is, rightly, concerned largely with monitoring and controlling overhead costs.

7.2.2 The Benefits of' ABC: Diversity and Complexity

A simple example will show how ABC generates more accurate product and service costs.
ABC recognizes that it is activities that cause costs to change, and that the cost of these
activities should be basic on such activities. For example, this means that if a forklift truck is
being used to move raw materials from one area of a warehouse to another, the costs of using
that forklift truck must be indemnified with such movement, and not simply calculated on an
arbitrary basis. Identifying costs with their activity bases means more than ever that the
management accountant has to understand the nature of the production and service process,
whether his or her organization is a manufacturing or service organization.

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Worked Example
Product Zed passes through a variety of stages when being converted from raw materials to
finished product. Throughout the production process, 4 direct labour hours are needed to
carry out the conversion process in making 50 units; and quality control will spend 30
minutes on attempting to ensure that the product meets the strict requirements of the
organizations customers. The quality control overheads are absorbed at the rate of either 50
per quality control hour or 65 per direct labor hour.
Required
Using the direct labour hour basis (conventional costing) and the ABC method, determine the
overhead costs of the product. We need, first, to determine the activity from which the quality
control overheads are derived. Under the conventional costing system, the implication here is
that the direct labour hour basis would have been used to recover (absorb) the quality control
overheads. Using ABC, we would say that the reason for the existence of the quality control
overheads is the act of quality control: that is, the need to check to ensure that what the
customer gets is what he or she wants. In this case, the activity base of quality control is the
time spent on controlling quality. The solution to this problem is therefore as follows:
Traditional Costing
Quality control
Hour basis

ABC
Direct labour
Hour basis
Over heads Absorbed

qch x 50 per qch

4 dlh x 65 per dlh

=260
25 50 units
= 0.5

= 25
260 50 units
= 5.2

Dlh = direct labour hours; a

qch = quality control hours.)
A simplified example, but it does illustrate the possible distortion that the conventional
costing system can lead to. If an inappropriate overhead absorption basis is used to calculate
product or service costs, the costs reported will be unreliable. Using ABC, we have an
overhead cost of 0.50 per unit of output rather than the 5.20 per unit under the traditional cost
accounting system. We should be able to agree that ABC is giving us the more realistic view
of the costs. The realistic view comes from using the correct cost driver; that is, we have
identified the reason behind the existence of the activity being undertaken (quality control).
The activity is driving the cost. Without the cost driver, there would be no cost to worry
about. A cost driver is 'An activity, which generates cost' (CIMA 1991). The conclusion
drawn from a complex situation is that costs vary with the range of items produced, not with
the volume of items produced. Cooper and Kaplan give the following example to illustrate
this point:
Plant A
Makes 100,000 of A

Plant B
Makes 1 million of A
+ 900,000 of 199 similar products
Complex: 200
products, frequent
Set-ups, stock movements, etc.

Simple environment,
Few set-ups,
Stock movements, etc.

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The reasoning here is quite straightforward, in that when 100,000 of the product are made,
together with the other 199 products, the infrastructure required to manage this diverse range,
mils be more complex than in the situation where only one product is made. The diversity of
200 products will inviolate many machine setups and startups, stock movements, supervision
and inspection problems, and so on. They problem however, that a traditional cost accounting
view does not appreciate the significance of diversity. For example, as Cooper and Kaplan
point out, if a product with a production run of 800 units is made, it will be allocated 0.08%
of the production overheads (assuming a units of output overhead absorption rate), whereas a
run of 100,000 units of a product would be allocated the same proportion of production
overheads, 100/0 in this example. Relatively, both the 800 units and the 100,000 units are
being charged with the same overheads, but they are not driving the overheads equally. The
benefits of ABC, then, are that it addresses the issues of where costs come from, any doing
so, it also addresses the issue of diversity and complexity of the production/service structure.
When discussing complexity in the automobile industry the question was asked: 'how long
would it take in the minimum efficient scale assembly plant to produce one of every possible
end unit combinations for the automobile company?' The answers were:
Honda
Toyota
Chrysler
General Motors

45 minutes
1 day
220,000 years
7,800,000,000,000,000 years
36 trillion years for anyone model.
There were 200 different models under production at
the time.

Shank and Govindarajan (ibid.) record that: 'whatever advantages GM enjoyed in economies
of scale, technology, experience and vertical scope, they more than lost in the. Diseconomies
of product line complexity.' The minimum efficient scale assembly plant they refer to
produces one car per minute for 16 hours a day, 250 days a year.
As a side issue, to some extent, an interesting debate took place over the period September
1990 to March 1991 between two British based academics, Eiper and Walleye, and Cooper,
one of the leaders in ABC development. Although the debate became a little personalized at
one stage, it did raise the issue of whether ABC does indeed succeed as a result of costs
resulting from activities. Piper and Walley (1990) maintain. That it is decisions and not
activities that cause costs. They opened the debate in September 1990 and Cooper (1990).
Replied in the following November. There and Walley (1991) had the final word in March of
the following year. A reading of the three articles will help with the understanding of the
usefulness of ABC and ABCM.
Why organizations use ABC systems
Bailey (1991) carried out a survey into the implementation of ABC by ten UK companies.
This survey gives a reasonable insight into how ABC can or cannot help with the issues we
have been discussing. Although Bailey did report problems with ABC implementation, he
concluded that respondents felt the benefits outweighed the problems (see Table 7.1).

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Benefits

% of
sample
Greater accuracy in product costing 100
Greater involvement of production 90
managers
Improved management
70

Probably leading to:

Improved pricing, make or-buy decision

Improvement cost awareness, feeling of
ownership, interaction.
Greater
awareness
of
departmental
managers, better product design, strategy
improved, management control, and quality
management
Table 7.1
Bailey also reported on the perceived benefits at ABC (see Table 7.2).

More accurate product

costing
Better management
information

Motivation to consider
ABC (%)
80

Resulting benefits reported (%)

50

70

100

Table 7.2

7.2.3 ABC: Design and Implementation

Cooper (1990) outlined five steps that need to be identified for an ABC system:
1.
2.
3
4.
5.

Aggregate actions into activities.

Report the cost of activities.
Identify activity centers.
Select first-stage cost drivers.
Select second-stage cost drivers.

An action is any process that we might carry out - switching on machinery, securing a wheel
to a car, programming a computer, are all actions. Actions become activities when we take a
series of actions and make them into a complete whole, such as a complete job or a complete
stage of a job. Similarly, the aggregation of activities leads to their being centers. An activity
centre is a segment of an organization or production process for which management wants to
report the cost of activities performed separately.
Cost drivers are, as we agreed above, the activities that determine, or help us to determine,
why a cost arose. Most of the ABC literature shows that cost drivers are found in two stages
of the ABC process:
i.
ii.

First-stage cost drivers trace the costs of inputs into cost pools in each activity centre.
Each cost pool represents an activity performed in that centre
Second-stage cost drivers trace the costs of cost pools into product costs. Keys (1994:
34), however, advocates a three-stage ABC process:

Stage 1:
Stage 2:

assign the cost to the year in which the cost produces benefit.
assign the current year's cost to activities (ABC system) or departments
(traditional system).

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Stage 3:

assign each activity cost or each department cost to products or

customers.

He makes the indisputable argument that if this stage 1 procedure is not followed properly:
'inaccuracy of assigning in one stage tends to be cumulative in later stages' (ibid.).
The kinds of costs that Keys sees as often being attributed to the wrong year include
management salaries, depreciation, planning and designing new products, start-up costs of
new methods, and training costs. Given the concepts and conventions of financial accounting,
we should realize that there is nothing new in what Keys is saying; the matching or accruals
concept takes care of this assignment problem. However, Keys is probably the first writer to
overtly link matching expenditure to benefit received in the context of ABC. Whether we
accept that ABC is a two-stage or three-stage process, there are further fundamental questions
that need resolution - problems facing designers of ABC systems.
Some of the problems facing the designers of an ABC system in an organization are:

How many activity centres should there be?

How many cost pools should there be?
Which cost drivers should we use?

As we should expect with a system as product- and organization-specific as ABC, there are
no ready solutions to these questions. General guidance, however, says that the solutions to
these questions depend on such matters as:

Product diversity
The relative costs of the activities aggregated. Batch size diversity
The ease of obtaining cost derived data
The behavior induced by the cost driver.

Each of these matters will vary according to the organization being dealt with. The solution
for my organization may well be entirely different to the solution for your organization.
There is no simple, general, guidance that can be given to answer the question of how many
activity centers and cost pools an organization should install within its ABC system.
However, as far as possible, common sense should prevail! Taking the definition of an
activity centre literally might lead us to draw the conclusion that our organization has 200
activity centres. Imagine the bureaucracy surrounding 200 activity centres, with each centre
subdivided into one or more cost pools. Most organizations installing an ABC system have to
arrive at a compromise - the trade-off between accuracy and precision. Accuracy means
providing information that is acceptably legitimate - it may be 900/0 of the truth. Precision
means that the information is 100% legitimate.
Setting up a realistic ABC system and accepting the accuracy/precision trade-off, activity
centres will often consist of several activity areas being added together or aggregated. Rather
than 200 activity centres, therefore, there will only be, say, 30. Similarly with cost pools.
There is no theoretical answer or formula that will allow us to derive how many cost pools an
organization should have. The management accountant must have an eye for a sensible level
of aggregation in his or her acceptance of the trade-off between accuracy and precision, in the
same way that he or she has for activity centres. There is a problem with the aggregation of

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activities into activity centres, of course, namely, that the number of activities is potentially
infinitely large across an organization. To overcome this problem, many actions will need to
be aggregated. Such aggregations may be so arbitrary that they tend to lead to the arbitrary
allocation of overheads. If this becomes the case ABC may lose many of its benefits. These
problems are common to both traditional and activity-based costing.
Cost drivers tell the management accountant why an activity has been carried out, and the
level of effort required carrying out that activity. Examples of cost drivers include:

The number of production runs;

The number of goods received transactions;
The number of quality control inspections;
The number of patients admitted hospital;
The number of punctures repairs

Although we know what a cost driver is, we still have the difficulty of agreeing precisely how
to choose one. In some cases, a cost driver will suggest it very easily. In the case of a
puncture repairing service, the number of punctured tires repaired will almost certainly be
one of the cost drivers (if not the only one). In other cases, it may not be so obvious at all. In
such circumstances, the management accountant will have to liaise with colleagues and
collect perhaps several series of data for analysis in order to determine what the driver should
be. This means that, in some cases, there will be instances where direct labour hours; view of
cost accounting in any case still has, and will continue to have, a significant impact on a
management accountant's view on life. The other aspect to traditional" cost accounting
methods is that they will continue to be of direct relevance to non-financial managers too.

7.2.4 How ABC Works

We are now able to discuss the way that ABC works in reality. The best way to see how ABC
works is to consider an example that compares the traditional cost accounting approach with
the ABC approach. When the necessary calculations are completed, we will be able to make a
much better judgment of the appropriateness of ABC in any given situation.
Worked Out Example
This example is very similar to the example in Drury's (1989) article. Although it is lengthy
both to read and to work through, it does illustrate many of the points that need to be
appreciated for the work of this unit and subject. There are some significant differences
between Drury's explanations and the ones given here. The information in provides details of
the costs, volume and transaction cost drivers for a period in respect of XYZ Ltd.

259

Table Details of the costs, volume and transaction cost drivers for a period for XYZ
Ltd.
C
0
B
A
Product
Sales and Production (Units)

90,000

30,000

15,000

135,000

Raw materials Usage (unit)

10.00

7.0

14.0

1,320,000

30.0

40.0

15.0

4,125,000

Direct labour hour

2.5

3.0

1.5

337,500

Machine hours

5.0

3.0

7.5

652,500

20.0

30.0

10.0

2,850,000

5.0

10.0

50.0

65

Number of deliveries

18.0

7.0

50.0

75

Number of receipts

50.0

70.0

700.0

820

Number of production orders

45.0

25.0

60.0

130

Direct materials Cost (f)

Direct labour cost (f)

Number of production runs

Overhead costs

75,000

Setup

1,000,000

Machines

900,000

Receiving

650,000

Packing

750,000

Engineering

The implications of the ABC method: Most writers on ABC, when discussing the advantages
of the system, record the following as the principal advantages:

Product cost accuracy is enhanced.

Cost data is more comprehensive.
Greater information is provided for managerial decision-making.

These advantages should be appreciated when we consider that ABC attempts to address all
to the shortfalls. Accountants are often accused of not knowing what is happening in their
organizations in terms of materials flow, storage, production systems and so forth. This has to
be one of the most important advantages of the implementation of systems such as ABC,
namely, that the management accountant is working with his or her colleagues to. Provide
them with what they need. Looking at the example we have just worked through in the

260

previous section, there are serious implications for the organization involved under each of
the three advantages listed above. This is so because, for example, product A now seems to
have a true unit cost of 62.89 per unit as opposed to the traditionally calculated 105 per
unit; similarly, product C's cost has gone from 45 to 139.74 per unit. Similarly, King ET
a/.'S (1994: 149-50) study into ABC implementation in the NHS in the United Kingdom
showed that information generated through ABC can help hospital management in a number
of ways:

Measuring and improving departmental efficiency.

Promoting activity provider, activity receiver links.
Managing costs and strategic planning decision making

ABC: Design and Implementation

Assuming that selling prices are based on costs, what does the organization in our example do
now? Does it reduce the prices of product A and increase the price of product C? A simplistic
view says that they should, of course, but the evidence coming out of research into ABC
practice is that even though costs are being re-evaluated, prices sometimes do not change not in the short to medium term at least. The reason why prices are not being changed can be
complicated, and include such factors as marketing policies, competitors maintaining their
prices at the' old' levels, and so on. There is, perhaps, a more serious aspect to the resistance
to changing selling prices that is discussed by Bhimani and Piggott (1992: 130):
Sales managers did not understand or appreciate the reasons for product cost changes since
they had not taken part in deve1oping the ABC system. Their resentment nevertheless tended
to diminish once the logic of ABC was explained and the rationale for cost changes indicated.
In order to convince one's colleagues to the worth of one's work, one needs to educate and
involve him or her: that is, participation. Along the lines of much of modern management
practice and thought, even the management accountant is not always and only concerned with
things financial. Mitchell (1994: 272) states: In addition to new cost data, ABC generates sets
of non-financial measures through the cost driver data, which is needed for its
implementation in output costing. They typically represent activity output measures and so
can provide an indication of throughput, which facilitates performance measurement and
assessment particularly at an operational level. .
A theory of costs should always be built upon a corporate model of the physical and technical
production relationships as the main design frame work . Any cost accounting model
therefore should be designed in such a fashion that it can supply any cost information
necessary for attaining an optimal situation. The management accountant needs to look to his
engineering and technical colleagues to help him or her understand his or her environment.
We have made this kind of comment at various stages throughout this text. Furthermore
Boons et al. paint rather a cynical view of the management accountant: ABC starts with
aggregating tasks into actions then activities and finally into activity centres. It does so
without questioning the present methods of producing/servicing i.e., its design starts from the
assumption that the status quo is perfect and contains no inefficiencies or structural flaws.
This is rather a cynical view in that it presupposes that the management accountant simply
translates his or her existing imperfect system into a more advanced infects system. This
ABC is a developing idea - but it is not new. We have admitted that ABC is merely an.
extension of existing cost accounting techniques and methods. However, there is, with ABC,
a mind-set that traditional cost accounting does not have. With ABC we have to be prepared
to accept arguments and inputs from colleagues outside the accounting function. As we know
already, in order to monitor and control costs effectively, we need to become Lillian with
production processes, with the way that our organizations services are provided. More than

261

before, however, ABC is telling us that in order to monitor and control costs fully and
effectively, we have to go a stage further: we need co know every aspect of every process,
rather than, perhaps, just having a good overview of the whole organization. ABC can be
applied in most organizations no matter what their size. The argument that applies to some
management accounting techniques, such as capital budgeting - the argument which says my
organization is just too small, or just too simple, to warrant applying that technique (it would
be overkill) - does not apply to ABC. Applied with care and used properly, ABC has a lot to
offer all organizations
The most important issue concerning the implementation and upkeep of the ABC system is
the length of time it will take to set up and implement the system and, following on from that,
the cost of setting up and implementing the system. Takes a relatively long time and it is
relatively expensive. Hence many small organizations will probably not implement an ABC
system. Nevertheless, many organizations have implemented an ABC system, concluding
that the trade-off, between, on the one hand, the time and cost and, on the other, the benefits
received, is beneficial. As Bailey (1991) found, in addition to the costs of setting up and
implementing the ABC system, there can be significant savings, for example in terms of staff
costs.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.3 TRANSFER PRICING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Till now, you have learnt about the Responsibility Accounting and Responsibility Centres
such as Expense Centre, Revenue Centre, Profit Centre and Investment Centres etc. One of
the major contentious issues between various Responsibility Centres is the Transfer Pricing.
In this session, you will learn about the Transfer Pricing, its various approaches, comparison
of major approaches and also briefly, on the external monitoring and control of Transfer
Pricing.
In decentralized organizations where all the segments / divisions are independent of one
another, the inter-segmental transactions will be less and hence, a very few problems related
thereto, are encountered. Segment managers can then focus only on their own segments
without hurting the organization as a whole. In contrast, when segments interact greatly,
there is an increased possibility that what is best for one segment hurts another segment badly
enough to have a negative effect on the entire organization. Such a situation may occur when
one segment provides products or services to another segment and charges that segment a
Transfer Price.
Definition
A Transfer Price is: 'an administered (or notional, intra company charge at which goods or
services are "sold" by one division to another in the same organization or by central
management to a division' (Melham 1980: 240).Transfer prices are the amounts charged by
one segment of an organization for a product or service that it supplies to another segment of
the same organization. Most often, the term is associated with materials, parts, or finished
goods. The Transfer Price is revenue to the segment producing the product or service, and it
is a cost to the acquiring segment.
Nowhere is there greater potential for conflict in such interactions than when goods produced
in one unit are transferred to a second unit. If both units are organized as profit centers, a
price must be placed on such transfers; this price represents revenue to the producing division

262

and a cost to the buying division. Therefore, the transfer price affects the profitability of both
divisions, so that the managers of both divisions have a keen interest in how this price is
determined. Early applications of transfer pricing were designed to facilitate the evaluation of
unit performance. Alfred Sloan and Donaldson Brown, the senior managers of General
Motors in the 1920s, understood well the importance of transfer pricing in this role:
The question of pricing product from one division to another is of great importance.
Unless a true competitive situation is preserved, as to prices, there is no basis upon which
the performance of the divisions can be measured. No division is required absolutely to
purchase product from another division. In their interrelation they are encouraged to deal
just as they would with outsiders. The independent purchaser buying products from any of
our divisions is assured that prices to it are exactly in line with prices charged our own car
divisions. Where there are no substantial sales outside, such as would establish a competitive basis, the buying division determines the competitive picture - at times partial
requirements are actually purchased from outside sources so as to perfect the competitive
situation. (Donaldson Brown, "Centralized Control with Decentralized Responsibilities,"
Annual Convention Series No. 57 - American Management Association: New York,
1927,, p. 8).
Why do transfer-pricing systems exist? The role of transfer prices frequently extends beyond
that of being a passive bookkeeping device. In particular, the system may be intended to:
1. As prices, they guide local decision-making; they help the producing division
decide how much of the product to supply and the purchasing division decide how
much to acquire
2. The prices and subsequent profit measurement help the top management to
evaluate the profit centres as separate entities.
3. Many MNCs use transfer pricing to minimize their worldwide taxes, duties and
tariffs. But these goals of MNCs are difficult to achieve, due to stringent taxation
laws on transfer pricing being enforced by many countries.
Many observers of the transfer pricing situation see transfer pricing as something of a
battleground, with winners and losers amongst the many players: 'Transfer pricing systems
function in decentralized firms and influence the balance between, on the one hand, the profit
centre managers' room for maneuver and, on the other hand, the need for integration between
the profit centre activities' (Meer-Kooistra 1980:129). But a set of transfer prices providing
motivations that produce maximum profits to the firm may cause one division to operate at a
loss. For example, the transfer price that motivates the optimal short-run economic decision is
short-run marginal cost. If the supplier has excess capacity, this cost will equal variable cost.
The supplier will fail to cover any of its fixed costs and will therefore report a loss.
Conversely, a set of transfer prices that may be satisfactory for evaluating divisional
performance may lead the divisions to make sub-optimal decisions when viewed from an
overall corporate perspective. If division managers are encouraged to maximize their
individual divisional profits, they may take actions with respect to other division managers
that cause overall corporate profits to decline. The conflict between decision-making and
evaluation of performance is the essence of the transfer-pricing conundrum. A further conflict
occurs if managers emphasize short-term performance in their transfer-price negotiations at
the expense of long-run profitability of their position and the firm.
One of the reasons why we might talk in terms of winners and losers is that the level at which

263

transfer prices are set often impinge upon a manager's annual remuneration package. If a
manager is paid at least partly by results, he or she will be keen to ensure that his or her
results are as good as possible. Hence a manager with profit centre responsibilities might be
most keen to see the highest possible transfer price in order to ensure the highest possible
divisional profit. It is a subject of continuous concern to top management. A manager in a
large wood products firm called the transfer pricing as the most troublesome management
control issue.

7.3.1 Various Approaches to Transfer Pricing

There are various approaches for transfer pricing, as indicated below:
1. Cost-based prices
(a) Actual Absorption Cost;
(b) Standard Absorption Cost;
(c) Actual Marginal Cost
(d) Standard Marginal Cost.
2. Cost-plus prices
(a) Actual Absorption Cost Plus Profit;
(b) Standard Absorption Cost Plus Profit;
(c) Actual Marginal Cost Plus Profit;
(d) Standard Marginal Cost plus Profit.
3. Market prices
(a) Actual Market Price;
(b) Modified Market Price.
4. Linear programming prices
5. Negotiated prices
6. Administered prices
7. Pricing based on equity considerations
8. Profit sharing-based prices
9. Dual-Rate Transfer Prices
We will discuss aforesaid transfer pricing approaches, one by one, in the following sections.
Perhaps thousands of articles, books, monographs, and working papers and so on have been
written and presented on the subject of transfer prices and how they might be set. However,
there seems to be no single answer on how to set a transfer price. Every new paper and book
discusses similar approaches and no one ever gets nearer to solving this problem.
Sizer (1989: 482-3) quotes Anthony and Dearden who have developed a set of guidelines for
establishing transfer prices:

264

1. Use standard cost-plus-profit transfer prices for goods transferred between divisions
that are likely never to be made outside the company.
2. Use estimated long-run competitive prices for goods that management might be
willing to buy from outside but only on a relatively long-term basis because their
manufacture requires a significant investment in facilities and skills.
3. Use market-based prices for goods that can be made outside the company without any
significant disruption to present operations. Use actual competitive prices for those
products that are:
(a) Sold to both the company and outside sources; or
(b) Produced from outside and within the company.
In a survey of transfer-pricing practice in large firms in Canada, 85% of the responding firms
reported that they used transfer pricing. In the responding firms, the transfer price was
determined by:
57% - cost
30% - market
7% - negotiated
6% - other
The Rationale for using transfer pricing included:
47% - for profit evaluation
21% - for cost determination
23% - for control and accountability
9% - other
Cost-based Transfer Pricing: It includes the following:
Standard Cost Pricing: Some companies may prefer standard cost-based prices, so that the
inefficiencies of the transferring segments are not passed on to the receiving segment. This
may be so because the selling division would have no incentive to control production costs,
since any cost increases can be passed on to the buying division. Transfers at standard cost
impose cost discipline on selling divisions and enable buying divisions to plan with the
security of certain prices for transferred inputs.
Variable-Cost Pricing: Market prices have innate appeal in a profit-centre context, but they
are not cure-all answers to transfer-pricing problems. Sometimes market prices do not exist,
are inapplicable, or are impossible to determine. For example, no intermediate markets may
exist for specialized parts, or markets may be too thin or scattered to permit the determination
of a credible price. When market prices cannot be used, versions of "cost-plus-a-profit" are
often used as a fair substitute. To illustrate, consider Outdoor Equipment Company again.
Exhibit 10-1 shows its selling prices and variable costs per unit. In this example, the Fabric
Division's variable costs of $8 per yard are the only costs affected by producing the additional
fabric for transfer to the Tent Division. On receiving five yards of fabric, the Tent Division
spends an additional $53 to process and sell each tent. Whether the fabric should be
manufactured and transferred to the Tent Division depends on the existence of idle capacity
in the Fabric Division (insufficient demand from outside customers).
If there were no idle capacity in the Fabric Division, the optimum action for the company as a
whole would be for the Fabric Division to sell outside at $50, because the Tent Division
would incur $53 of additional variable costs but add only $50 of additional revenue ($100 $50). Using market price would provide the correct motivation for such a decision because, if

265

the fabric were transferred, the Tent Division's cost would be $50 + $53 or $103, which
would be $3 higher than its prospective revenue of $100 per unit. So the Tent Division would
choose not to buy from the Fabric Division at the $50 market price, Of course, the Tent
Division also would not buy from outside suppliers at a price of $50. If fabric is not available
at less than $50 per tent, this particular tent will not be produced.
Sell Fabric Outside
Market price per yard of
finished fabric to outsiders
Variable costs per yard of
fabric
(Market price of fabric for
one tent = 5 yards x $ 10 =
$ 50,

$ 10
8

Use Fabric to Make Tent

Sales price of finished
tent
Variable Costs:
Fabric Division
(5 yards x $ 8,
Tent
Division
Processing

Contribution margin
yard
Total
contribution
50,000 yards x $ 2

per
for

$ 100

40

Selling
Contribution margin

$ 100,000

Total Contribution for

10,000 tents x $ 7

41
12

93
7
$ 70,000

Table 7.3 Data for Analysis of Transfer Prices

What if the Fabric Division has idle capacity sufficient to meet all the Tent Division's
requirements? The optimum action would be to produce the fabric and transfer it to the Tent
Division. Idle capacity implies that the Fabric Division could not sell the fabric to external
customers and therefore would have zero contribution. If there were no production and
transfer, the Tent Division and the company as a whole would forgo a total contribution of
$70,000. In this situation, variable cost would be the better basis for transfer pricing and
would lead to the optimum decision for the firm as a whole. To be more precise, the transfer
price would be all additional costs that will be incurred by the production of the fabric to be
transferred, For example, if a lump-sum set-up cost is required to produce the 50,000 square
yards of fabric required, the set-up cost should be added to the variable cost in calculating the
appropriate transfer price. (In the example there is no such cost).
The Case against Marginal-Cost Transfers: The incremental-cost rule for internal transfers
(when no intermediate market exists) may be theoretically desirable, but few companies
follow this guideline. This suggests that the rule has defects that we have not made explicit.
One problem, already mentioned, is that the supplying division will typically record a loss
while large profits are allocated to the acquiring division selling the product in final form. In
this case, we are forcing the supplying division to operate at a loss, thereby reducing its
autonomy. If the transferred product represents a small fraction of the total output of the
supplying division, this may be only a minor annoyance. If, however, the great majority of
the supplying division's output must be transferred internally, and no external reference prices
for these products exist, then it is a fiction to treat the supplying division as a profit centre.
The division should either be controlled as a standard cost centre or be combined into a larger
profit centre with a division that processes the bulk of its output.
A second problem with incremental-cost transfers occurs if the marginal cost is not constant
over the range of output. In this case, the supplying division must supply a marginal-cost

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schedule to the acquiring division. The situation becomes even more complicated if there is
more than one purchasing division, so that the level of output is jointly determined by the
separate decisions of each purchasing division. This would require an iterative solution as the
supplying division varied its marginal cost according to the shifting demands of the
purchasing divisions, or else a combined decision among all divisions involved.
The marginal-cost rule also starts to break down when the supplying division is operating
near a capacity constraint. In this ease, the proper economic transfer price shifts suddenly
from the short-run marginal cost when operating below capacity to the long-run marginal
cost (or profits forgone) when the supplying division can no longer meet all the demands for
the product. When demand is at or above the capacity of the supplying division, incremental
costs are well below the opportunity costs of production and provide poor guidance for
resource-allocation decisions.
Marginal-cost transfer prices also provide an incentive for the manager of the supplying
division to misrepresent the cost function of producing the intermediate product. If the
transfer is to occur at marginal cost, and if the manager of the producing division is evaluated
on the basis of the profits of this division, the manager can overstate the marginal cost of
production and thereby obtain a higher transfer price. All the deterministic models used to
demonstrate the optimality of the marginal-cost procedure assume that all the organization
participants know the cost function or that the manager will truthfully report it when asked.
But strong incentives exist for the manager to overstate the marginal-cost function, since this
will increase the transfer price and thereby increase divisional profits.
In our two-division example of the Nicosia Company, the manager of Division A may claim
that all costs are variable and that at the previous output level of 2,000 units the incremental
costs are $0.35 per unit. (Recall that the actual costs of Division A at this output level are
$700, of which $500 was fixed). At this price, a computation reveals that Division B would
earn maximum profits of $500 at a volume of either 2,000 units or 3,000 units. Assuming B
decided to order 3,000 units. Division A would earn revenues of $1,050 and incur fixed costs
of $500 and variable costs of $300, for a profit of $250. The manager of Division A is much
happier d this transfer price of $0.35, since the division now shows a profit of $250 as
opposed to the $400 loss reported at the marginal-cost transfer price of $0.10 per unit. The
firm as a whole suffers, since it earns only $750 in profit per day ($250 for A, $500 for B), at
an output level of 3,000 units as opposed to the maximum profit of $800 that could be earned
at an output level of 4,000 units. Of course, the Division A manager may have to explain how
a profit of $250 was earned when transfers were supposedly made at incremental cost. An
appeal to cost saving efficiencies or reduced incremental costs when increasing output from
2,000 to 3,000 units per day might serve to counter this accusation.
The incentive for misrepresenting local information was a possibility. When managers are
asked to provide information for decision-making that will also be used to evaluate their
performance, we should expect some strategic manipulation of information (lying). The
distorted information will improve the local performance measure of the manager, but at the
expense of overall firm profits. In summary, then, marginal-cost transfers (1) conflict with the
divisional autonomy of profit centres, (2) are difficult to implement if the marginal cost varies
over the range of demanded output, especially if there is more than one purchasing division,
(3) may be indeterminate as the supplying division reaches capacity, and (4) provide
incentives for the supplying division to misrepresent its cost function.

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Problems with cost-based prices

You should know that cost behavior analysis, overhead apportionment, the non-use of
activity-based costing, and so on, might distort product costs. Hence, if a cost basis has been
used that is inaccurate, how can a fair transfer price be established. We know from the work
on activity-based costing that the production manager often has a keener eye for his or her
costs than the management accountant! Consequently, if the production manager is aware of
his or her true costs and the management accountant is setting transfer prices based on his or
her own notion of costs, there is bound to be conflict and a lack of motivation somewhere
along the line. There is also the possibility that the divisional manager will be playing games
with the cost schedules. In such a case, the costs that are being presented as being actual
costs will be nothing of the sort. If the buying division has no choice but to pay the price
demanded by the selling division, where is the incentive for the selling division to be
efficient? The selling division has no incentive to keep costs under control and improve
efficiency if it can merely pass on all cost increases to the next division in the chain. One
way round the problem of inefficient supplying divisions is to treat them as real profit
centres along the lines of the Weyerhaeuser organization we looked at in a previous chapter.
If a selling division genuinely has to compete with external organizations that are keen to
compete with it at every level, and if the buying division genuinely has the right to buy
goods and/or services from outside its own organization, there will be an incentive for the
selling division to perform well. As an end result, we must ensure that all 'managers are
working together for the greater benefit of the entire organization: in other words that they
are working goal congruent. One manager trying to optimize his or her own performance
may do so at the expense of all other divisions in the organization. In a situation where the
goals of the manager of division A are self-set and are in conflict with the goals of all other
divisions, goal congruence is lacking.
Cost plus prices: By cost-plus prices, we mean exactly the same under the heading of
transfer pricing as we did under the heading of pricing. The same problem faces the
divisional manager as faced the marketing manager: What should be the profit margin?
Incremental Cost plus Fixed Fee: One variation of the marginal-cost transfer-price scheme
that has some desirable properties is to price all transfers at incremental (short-run marginal)
cost but charge the purchasing division a fixed fee for the privilege of obtaining these
transfers at incremental cost. Under this scheme, the purchasing division pays incremental
cost for additional units, so that when it chooses an output level to maximize profits by
equating marginal cost to n1arginal revenue, it is using the appropriate marginal costs of the
producing division. The producing division has the opportunity to recover its fixed costs and
earn a profit through the fixed fee charged each period. The fixed fee represents a reservation
price that the purchasing division is paying for the privilege of acquiring the intermediate
product at marginal cost.
The fixed fee plus marginal cost has some interesting control and motivational properties.
Suppose the fixed fee assigned to each user is based on that user's planned (or long-run
average) use of that facility. For example, if a division uses 20% of the average capacity, the
division is assigned 20% of the fixed costs of the facility. The prepaid capacity would be
reserved for the user paying for that capacity. This scheme has two desirable economic traits.
First, in the short run, transfers will take place at short-run marginal cost as economic theory
dictates. Second, people will tend to be more honest in the capacity acquisition stage. If they
overstate their expected requirements, perhaps to ensure adequate capacity for their own use,
they will pay a higher fixed fee. If they understate their expected requirements, to avoid the
fixed fee for capacity, they may not have sufficient capacity for their needs as capacity either

268

is not acquired or is reserved for others who are paying the fixed fee for that capacity.
Suppose, however, that expectations are not realized. Then the approach may not be best for
the firm overall. The capacity may no longer be assigned to the most profitable current uses.
This problem can be overcome by allowing divisions to subcontract with each other so that a
division, facing better opportunities, could rent the capacity previously reserved by another
division.
This dual-price system is perfectly generalizable. For example, suppose an automobile
dealership is choosing the level of its service operations. After negotiations with the new-car
and used-car departments, a level of capacity is chosen. The plan is for' the new-car operation
to use 20% of capacity, the used-car department to use 30% of capacity, and the service
department's own use (for outside customers) to consume 50% of capacity. Now suppose that
the used-car operation falls upon hard times but must still pay its share of the fixed costs of
the service department. This is proper, since otherwise these fixed costs would be reallocated
to the other two departments; in effect, causing them to bear the costs of the used car
department's failure to use the capacity that it reserved. Therefore this scheme is consistent
with responsibility accounting.
In the limit, the fixed-fee plus variable-cost scheme will yield either a pure market or a pure
cost-plus operation. For example, suppose the service department did no outside work. In this
case, it would be responsible for none of its fixed costs and would become a pure cost centre.
Jobs would be priced at standard variable costs, and the only goal of the service department
would be to provide quality service at below standard cost. On the other hand, suppose the
service department did no internal work. Then it would be a pure profit centre and all
transfers would be at market prices. Therefore, this scheme blurs the distinction between pure
cost and pure profit centres by operating over a continuum. Also, the scheme provides a
justification for performing the buying and selling activities within the firm, since it uses a
dual-price scheme for internal transfers that would be difficult to implement and enforce if
the division: did not operate under centralized control.
The approach of a budgeted fixed fee to cover period costs and provide a return to capital
plus an incremental cost based on marginal cost per unit for each unit transferred, is
desirable. It leads to efficient resource allocation among divisions while still letting
purchasing divisions see the full cost of obtaining goods or services from other divisions. If
this is such a great scheme, why is it not widely used? We can only speculate that the need to
account for usage and to acquire capacity or a planned and systematic basis may have
prevented a more widespread use of this approach to transfer pricing.
Full Costs: Perhaps the most popular transfer price in practice is the full-cost pricing scheme.
But such a scheme distorts decision-making. Nor does the full-cost pricing scheme seem to
be a good guide for evaluating divisional performance. It provides the wrong incentives for
the supplying division by allowing it to accumulate all costs and add mark-ups to generate
profits. Efficiency is certainly not rewarded nor inefficiency penalized on a full cost-plus
transfer-pricing scheme.

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As a simple illustration of the perverse effects of a full-cost transfer pricing scheme, consider
the practice of a large industrial company that allocates all corporate G&A expenses to its
operating divisions and imposes a transfer price based on cost plus profit mark-up for all
internal transfers. Assume it is manufacturing a product that must be processed through three
divisions before final sale. The company allocates $12,000 of general and administrative
expenses to the three divisions manufacturing this product. Transfers between each division
are done at full cost plus 20% mark-up, which is also the procedure used to price the final
product.
Suppose the G&A expenses are allocated equally to each division $4,000 each. The first
division takes the $4,000 allocation, marks it up by 20%, and transfers these costs to the
second division (along with all other product-related costs). The second division now has not
just its own $4,000 G&A expense allocation for the product but also the $4,800 from the first
division ($4,000 + 20% mark-up). Division 2 takes the $8,800 G&A allocation marks it up by
20%, and transfers a total of $10,560 to Division 3. The third division accumulates its own
$4,000 allocation with the $10,560, adds the 20% mark-up to this sum of $14,560, and obtains
a total of $17,472 of corporate G&A that must be added to the final price of the product. Thus,
the $12,000 of G&A has been increased not by a standard 20% mark-up but by a 46% mark-up
(17,472 - 12,000 / 12,000) because of the escalating effect as the product passes from one
division to the next. When last heard from, the company was calling in a consultant to
determine how competitors were able to price their products so much lower and why the
company was steadily losing market share in its product lines. Poorly conceived transferpricing policies can be highly dysfunctional.
With all these problems, we must ask why the full-cost approach to transfer pricing is so
widely practiced. We must distinguish between two situations. Where an external market
price exists, there appears to be little justification for the use of a cost-based approach to
pricing. Where there is no external market price, a full-cost price may be used as a surrogate
for the long-run marginal cost to the firm of manufacturing the product. This raises the
question of why short-run cost is not used to price transfers as economic theory dictates. One
executive observed: When we add a product to our product line, we expect to continue to
offer it on a full-time basis. It is not practical to offer products only in the short-run when
conditions seem right and then, in the longer-run, or periodically, say to our customers that
we cannot produce this product this period because our costs are now too high. This
executive believes that irrespective of the short-run cost, product decisions reflect long-run
commitments and should therefore be based on long-run cost that includes a fixed-cost
component. Product decisions imply commitments to product continuity and the integrity of
the product line and therefore provide a justification for full-cost pricing.
Market prices: One surrogate for a transfer price is to look outside the organization and find
the price at which the goods or services can be obtained on the open market. For example, if
the goods, coming out of my division can be bought in the same state on the open market,
my transfer price is the price at which the goods can be bought outside the organization:
'when the selling division is operating at capacity it should transfer goods at the external
market price because this represents the opportunity cost of selling the goods' (Wilson and
Chua 1993: 304).
The principal benefit of a market-based selling price is, of course, its inherent fairness. A
market-based transfer price is an unbiased estimate of the worth of the goods. Secondly, if a
market price exists for a good or service, there is no requirement for a sophisticated cost

270

accounting system to calculate the transfer price: it is a ready-made estimate. In some cases monopolies, for, example - no ready market exists for a product since no one else is making
and selling it. Alternatively, there is no open market for the goods or services because they
are always intermediate goods and services. That is, they are always and only transferred
between processes and are never brought to the open market. Thirdly, as Cats-Baril et al.
(1988) point out, in the introduction phase in the product life cycle, the firm frequently has a
near monopoly on its product; hence no market price will exist. If it is not possible to obtain
quotations from outside suppliers, it may be possible to:
1. Adjust for differences in design the price of a similar product or service, for which
a market price does exist. .
2. Adjust a past market price for changes in product group market levels since that
price became effective.
If there is a competitive market for the product or service being transferred internally, using
the market price as a transfer price will generally lead to the desired goal congruence and
managerial effort? The market price may come from published price lists for similar products
or services, or it may be the price charged by the producing division to its external customers.
If the latter, the internal transfer price may be the external market price less the selling and
delivery expenses that are not incurred on internal business. The major drawback to marketbased prices is that market prices are not always available for items transferred internally.
Consider Outdoor Equipment Company, Inc. (OEC), a major outdoor equipment manufacturer that makes clothing and gear for all kinds of outdoor activities. One division of
OEC makes fabrics that are used in many final products as well as being sold directly to
external customers, and another division makes tents. A particular tent requires five square
yards of a special waterproof fabric. Should the Tent Division obtain the fabric from the
fabric Division of the company or purchase it from an external supplier?
Suppose the market price of the fabric is $10 per square yard, or $50 per tent, and assume for
the moment that the Fabric Division can sell its entire production to external customers
without incurring any marketing or shipping costs. The Tent Division manager will refuse to
pay a transfer price greater than $50 for the fabric for each tent. Why? If the transfer price is
greater than $50, she will purchase the fabric from the external supplier, in order to maximize
her division's profit.
Furthermore, the manager of the Fabric Division will not sell five square yards of fabric for
less than $50. Why? Because he can sell it on the market for $50, so any lower price will
reduce his division's profit. The only transfer price that allows both managers to maximize
their division's profit is $50, the market price. If the managers had autonomy to make
decisions, one of them would decline the internal production of fabric at any transfer price
other than $50.
Now suppose the fabric Division incurs a $1 per square yard marketing and shipping cost
that can be avoided by transferring the fabric to the Tent Division instead of marketing it to
outside customers. Most companies would then use a transfer price of $9 per square yard, or
$45 per tent, often called a "market-price-minus" transfer price. The Fabric Division would
get the same net amount from the transfer ($45 with no marketing or shipping costs) as from
an external sale ($50 less $5 marketing and shipping costs), whereas the Tent Division saves
$5 per tent. Over all, GEC benefits.

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Under a restrictive set of conditions, which are occasionally realized in practice, the choice of
a transfer price is clear. If a highly competitive market for the intermediate product exists,
then the market price (less certain adjustments) is recommended as the correct transfer price.
The conditions of a highly competitive market imply that the producing division can sell as
much of the product as it wishes to outside customers, and the purchasing division can
acquire as much as it wishes from outside suppliers without affecting the price.
If the purchasing division cannot make a long-run profit at the outside market price
(assuming that the market price is a reasonable approximation of the long-run price and not
simply a short-run distress price), then the company is better off to not produce the product
internally and go to the external market for its supply. Similarly, if the purchasing division
cannot make a long-run profit when it must acquire the product at the external price, the
division should cease acquiring and processing this product and should allow the producing
division to sell all its output to the external market. With a competitive market for the
intermediate product, the market price provides an excellent basis for allowing the decisions
of the producing and purchasing divisions to be independent of each other.
Some modifications to the pure market-price rule facilitate its use in practice. The company
will usually benefit if the transaction occurs internally rather than having a producing
division sell a certain amount externally while the purchasing division is acquiring the same
amount from its own outside suppliers. To encourage internal rather than external transfers} a
discount from market price is offered to reflect savings on selling and collection expenses and
the delivery, service, or warranty terms associated with external sales. This discount will
encourage an internal transfer, all other factors being held equal. Offsetting the desire to
coordinate transactions within the firm is the frequent difficulty that division managers have
in negotiating the terms of transfers with other divisions in the company. Hidden costs can
arise if the buying division makes unreasonable delivery demands on the selling division
(which may not be imposed on external suppliers) or when the selling division manager has
concerns that any foul-up in product quality or delivery will become publicized throughout
the organization, as expressed by the following complaint from the manager of a supplying
division:
It is more difficult to work inside than externally. In the smallest impasse, a person can go up
the line. Nobody wants to have the boss coming and making accusations of not cooperating.
It is always difficult, so you need a financial incentive or something else, such as recognition
for being a good corporate citizen. Sometimes the transaction must occur internally, rather
than externally, to maintain product quality or product confidentiality requirements. In this
case, the market price may be adjusted to reflect the extra cost required to meet a more
stringent quality standard or special feature available only from internal manufacture. The
challenge is to keep an accumulation of such special charges from driving the price far above
the prices of comparable products available externally. A profit-conscious manager of the
purchasing division will usually provide the necessary discipline.
Additional problems arise from the conflict between short-run and long run considerations.
An external supplier may quote a low price in an attempt to buy into the business, with the
expectation of raising prices later'. The company ordinarily should not switch its source of
supply from an internal division to an outside company unless it is confident that the outside
company will maintain the quoted price for a substantial period. A similar conflict arises
when the price for the intermediate product or service is quoted on both a long-term-contract
and a spot-market basis. As more of these complicating factors intrude on the price-setting
process, they begin to violate our basic assumption of a perfectly competitive market for the

272

intermediate product. When the market is not perfectly competitive, as it usually is not for
most manufactured goods, the transfer-price problem becomes much more complicated.
As more of these complications intrude on the transfer-pricing mechanism, we get additional
evidence of the difficulty of using market prices to coordinate transactions within the firm. If
market prices existed that allowed optimal resource allocation and managerial evaluation
decisions to be made within the firm, little reason would exist to keep the different divisions
within a single corporate entity. The units could function as independent market entities,
since no gain apparently arises from centralized control.
Linear programming prices: Linear programming is used in establishing transfer prices.
However, there are problems with it! The problems largely stem from reconciling who sets the
organizations objectives and who sets the transfer prices. If divisional managers set both
objectives and prices, there will probably be few problems. Wilson and Chua (1993) provide a
very simple example of the application of linear programming to the transfer pricing problem.
With linear programming prices we examine all of the relevant variables of a situation, and set
up a linear programming model, which we then solve. The outputs of the linear programming
model are the number of units to be made.

Goal congruence problems are, however, well illustrated when objective setting is
divorced from pricing setting. Emmanuel et al. (1990) discuss examples to deal with
these problems. Essentially, the issues surrounding the latter case, where objective
and price setting are divorced are grouped under the heading of decomposition
methodology. The essence of the situation is:

Divisions solve divisional LPs;

Solutions sent to HQ;
HQ sends out new transfer prices
When optimum is reached, divisions informed of quantities to produce. (Emmanuel et
al. 1990: 147).

The arguments should be clear. In the divisional situation, management at headquarters is the
ones with the final say in the setting of transfer prices and so on. Hence, whilst divisional
managers can solve their problems using LP, they do so only as an interim measure; and their
results are subject to revision. Otherwise, the problems of goal congruence may impact upon
the rest of the organization. As Emmanuel et al. say: 'Note that step 4 is necessary because
knowledge of the transfer prices alone does not give divisions enough information to
calculate optimum production quantities' (ibid. 146).
As Emmanuel et al. also demonstrate, the solution to the LP solution of transfer pricing
problems is to build an LP model with linking constraints. That is, we develop an LP for
division A, a model for division B, a model for division C . . . then build in the constraints
that link the requirements of the whole organization as they impact upon division A . . . B
C...
Although the development of LP models in the context of transfer pricing has helped
considerably, there are still limitations associated with them. First, the models assume goal
consensus: that is, managers from different divisions are working towards achieving the same
goals. They also assume, of course, that everyone is trading openly and honestly in terms of
the information they submit to head office! Secondly, uncertainty is usually left out - of

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textbook models, at least; yet each manager will probably be faced with a probability
distribution of transfer prices in many situations. Thirdly, there are organizational and
behavioral issues to be faced in transfer pricing situations: for instance, when corporate and
divisional optimality come into conflict, which makes the final sacrifice? As Emmanuel et al.
say these arguments do not invalidate LP theory and practice. In cases of doubt or nonapplicability of an LP model, remodeling may be all that is needed.
Negotiated Market-Based Price: Lacking a perfectly competitive market for the
intermediate product and being aware of the limitations of cost-based pricing rules, perhaps
the most practical method for establishing a transfer price is through negotiation between the
managers of the two divisions. The negotiating process typically begins when the producing
division provides a price quotation plus all relevant delivery conditions (timeliness, quality,
and so on). The purchasing division may:
1. Accept the deal
2. Bargain to obtain a lower price or better conditions
3. Obtain outside bids and negotiate with external suppliers
4. Reject the bid and either purchase outside or not purchase at all
In a different sequence, the purchasing division may make an offer to the producing division
for a portion of its current output or an increment to current output. The producing division
can then bargain with the purchasing division over terms, talk to its existing customers, or
decide not to accept the purchasing division's offer. In either case, a negotiated transfer price
requires that the managers of both divisions be free to accept or reject a price at any stage of
the negotiation. Otherwise we would have a dictated price rather than a negotiated price.
The conditions under which a negotiated transfer price will be successful include:

Some form of outside market for the intermediate product. This avoids bilateral
monopoly situation in which the final price could vary over too large a range,
depending on the strength and skill of each negotiator.

Sharing of all market information among the negotiators. This should enable the
negotiated price to be close to the opportunity cost of one or preferably both divisions.

Freedom to buy or sell outside. This provides the necessary discipline to the
bargaining process.

Support and occasional involvement of top management. The parties must be urged to
settle most disputes by themselves; otherwise the benefits of decentralization will be
lost. Top management must be available to mediate the occasional un-resolvable
dispute or to intervene when it sees that the bargaining process is clearly leading to
sub-optimal decisions. But such involvement must be done with restraint and tact if it
is not to undermine the negotiating process.

274

A negotiated-price system has the following limitations:

It is time consuming for the managers involved.

It leads to conflict between divisions.
It makes the measurement of divisional profitability sensitive to the negotiating skills
of managers.
It requires the time of top management to oversee the negotiating process and to
mediate disputes.
It may lead to a sub-optimal (too low, level of output if the negotiated price is above
the opportunity cost of supplying the transferred goods.

The negotiated-price system depends also on the willingness of external suppliers or

purchasers to supply legitimate bids to the company. If, each time these external bids are
solicited, the transfer price is determined so that all transfers are eventually made internally}
the external bidders will soon tire of participating in this exercise. Therefore, some amount of
external purchase or sale should be a realistic expectation in order to keep the faith of these
outside participants and thereby ensure a continuing source of legitimate external prices.
Despite these limitations, however, a negotiated-transfer-price system seems to offer
desirable mechanisms for permitting local managers to exploit the specialized in formation
they possess about local opportunities.
Administered Transfer Price: An Arbitrator or a manager who applies some policy sets
Administered Transfer Prices, for example, market price less 10% or full cost plus 5%.
Organizations often used administered transfer prices when a particular transaction occurs
frequently. However, such prices reflect neither pure economic consideration, as marketbased or cost-based transfer prices do, nor accountability consideration, as negotiated transfer
prices do. You may find the administered transfer prices, in many of the Public Sector
Undertakings.
For example, the management of an automobile (car) manufacturing company may fix the
transfer price for the Body Shop Workshop at 80% of the normal market rate, in respect of
body shop work done for the New and Used car Divisions. This may seem reasonable and
may reflect a practical approach to dealing with the issues associated with market-based and
cost-based transfer prices; but this rule is arbitrary and, therefore, provides an arbitrary
distribution of revenues and costs between the body shop and the Divisions with which it
deals. Administered transfer prices inevitably create subsidies among responsibility centres.
Subsidies obscure the normal economic interpretation of responsibility centre income and
may provide a negative motivational effect if members of some responsibility centre believe
that the application of such rules is unfair.
Transfer Prices Based on Equity Considerations: Administered transfer prices are usually

based on cost; that is, the transfer price is cost plus some mark-up on cost or market. Thus,
the transfer price is some function (e.g. 80%) of the market price. However, sometimes
administered transfer prices are based on equity considerations that invariably are designed
around some definition of a reasonable division of jointly earned revenue or a jointly incurred
cost.
As an example, consider the situation in which three responsibility centre managers need
warehouse space (in the same locality). Each manager has undertaken a study to determine

275

the cost for an independent separate warehouse that meets the responsibility centers needs.
The costs are as follows: Manager A Rs. 3 million; Manager B Rs. 6 million; and
Manager C Rs. 5 million. A property developer has proposed that the managers combine
their needs into a single large warehouse, which would cost Rs. 11 million. This represents a
Rs. 3 million savings from the total cost of Rs. 14 million if each manager were to build a
separate warehouse. The issue is how the managers should split the cost of this warehouse.
One alternative, sometimes called the relative cost method, is for each manager to bear a
share of the warehouse cost that is proportional to each managers alternative opportunity.
This would result in the following cost allocations:
Manager As share = Rs. (11 x 3 / 14) million = Rs. 2,357,143
Manager Bs share = Rs. (11 x 6 / 14) million = Rs. 4,714,286
Manager Cs share = Rs. (11 x 5 / 14) million = Rs. 3,928,571
This process is fair in the sense of being symmetrical. All parties are treated equally and each
allocation reflects what each individual faces. Another approach, which reflects the equity
criterion of ability to pay, is to base the allocation of cost on the profits that each manager
derives from using the warehouse. Still another approach, which reflects the equity criterion
of equal division, is to assign each manager a one-third share of the warehouse cost. Thus,
each of the many different approaches to cost allocation reflects a particular view of equity.
Profit sharing-based prices: We may need to develop such ideas as profit-sharing models in
the situation where three departments or divisions exist within an organization, but only one
of them sells the final product, with the other two divisions processing the ingredients to
make it. The question is, how, if at all, can divisions 1 and 2 share in the profit that division 3
has apparently earned by selling the product? The Massachusetts formula is one model that
allows us to apportion the profit earned by the group aver the separate divisions at that group.
Two possible issues might arise:
1. Need we bother with assigning profit anyway?
2. Is such a method the best one, given that profit must be assigned?
Whether the profit needs to be assigned will be a question that the management accountant
and his or her management colleagues will have to resolve. We cannot really anticipate all of
the arguments in general here far what will be a specific question an organisation-byorganisation basis. If we feel we do have to assign profit across departments or divisions, we
can possibly improve on the situation here by considering the use of non-financial indicators
in helping us to sort out such assignments. If we take throughput times, productivity rates and
soon, instead of trying to use what are essentially artificial methods of profit assignment, we
would be better able bath to assess management and to assign profits.
Dual-Rate Transfer Prices: In a dual-rate transfer-pricing scheme, the supplier receives the
net realizable value (the market price less finishing costs) for the commodity that is
transferred while the buyer pays the sum of any out-of-pocket and opportunity costs of
producing the product. In this way, both the buyer and the seller are motivated to demand and
supply the optimal amount of the quantity. The buyer pays opportunity cost, and the seller
receives the net realizable value of what is produced. This scheme raises the issue of
estimating opportunity costs, and as we discussed earlier, it can motivate suppliers to

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misrepresent their opportunity costs. Possibly because of these problems, the dual-pricing
scheme is implemented in practice by substituting an allocation of fixed cost as an estimate of
the opportunity cost; that is, the selling division receives its full cost in the transfer, but the
buying division is charged only for the marginal cost.
At first glance, the dual-pricing scheme seems very attractive, but several companies that
have tried it have eventually abandoned the practice. (Robert G. Eccles, "Control with
Fairness in Transfer Pricing," Harvard Business Review (November-December 1983), pp.
153-54). Senior management objected to having the sum of divisional profits exceed overall
corporate profits. In an extreme situation, buying and selling divisions could all show profits
while the corporation as a whole is losing money. Thus, divisions would report profits at or
above budget, only for large write-downs to occur, to eliminate the double counting of profits
among divisions, when the books were closed at the corporate level. One company president
noted: Dual pricing sort of died of its own complexity and conflict. There were situations in
which divisions could get something internally that didn't exactly fit their needs but went
ahead and got it because actual full cost was so much less than market price.
The dual-price system encouraged divisions to shift more of their mix to internal sales and
purchases at the highly favorable terms. Internal sales increased well beyond expected levels.
When business was poor and the selling units could not meet their budget for external sales,
they generated excessive internal sales. Similarly, since buying units received internal
product at cost, they had little incentive to negotiate for more favorable prices from external
or even internal suppliers. In general, neither division in a dual-pricing scheme has a high
incentive to monitor the performance of the other division. Thus, the dual-pricing scheme, by
lowering the incentives for buying and selling divisions to deal in the external market, could
lower overall corporate profitability.
Multinational Transfer Pricing: Transfer-pricing policies of domestic companies focus on
goal congruence and motivation. In multi-national companies, other factors may dominate.
For example, multinational companies use transfer prices to minimize worldwide income
taxes, import duties, and tariffs. Suppose a division in a high-income-tax-rate country
produces a subcomponent for another division in a low-income-tax-rate country. By setting a
low transfer price, most of the profit from the production can be recognized into low-incometax-rate country, thereby minimizing taxes. Likewise, items produced by divisions in a lowIncome-tax-rate country and transferred to a division in a high-income-tax-rate country
should have a high transfer price to minimize taxes.
Sometimes income tax effects are offset by import duties. Usually import duties are based on
the price paid for an item, whether bought from an outside company or transferred from
another division. Therefore low transfer prices generally lead to low import duties.
Of course, tax authorities recognize the incentive to set transfer prices to minimize taxes and
import duties. Therefore most countries have restrictions on allowable transfer prices, U.S.
multinationals must follow an Internal Revenue Code rule specifying that transfers be priced
at "arm's-length" market values, or at the values that would be used if the divisions were
independent companies. Even with this rule, companies have some latitude in deciding an
appropriate "arm's-length" price. Consider an item produced by Division A in a country
with a 25% income tax rate and transferred to Division B in a country with a 50% income tax
rate. In addition, an import duty equal to 20% of the price of the item is assessed. Suppose the
full unit cost of the item is $100, and the variable cost is $60. If tax authorities allow either
variable- or full-cost transfer prices, which should be chosen? By transferring at $100 rather

277

than $60, the company gains $2 per unit:

Effect of Transferring at $100 Instead of at $60
Income of A is $40 higher; therefore A
pays 25% X
$40 more Income taxes
Income of B is $40 lower; therefore B pays
50% X $40 less income taxes
Import duty is paid by B on an additional
$100 - $60 = $40; therefore B pays 20% X
$40 more duty
Net savings from transferring at $100
instead of $60

$ (10)
20
(8)
$2

Companies may also use transfer prices to avoid financial restrictions imposed by some
governments. For example, a country might restrict-the amount of dividends paid to foreign
owners. It may be easier for a company to get cash from a foreign division as payment for
items transferred than as cash dividends. In summary, transfer pricing is more complex in a
multinational company than it is in a domestic company, Multinational companies have more
objectives to be achieved through transfer-pricing policies, and some of the objectives often
conflict with one another.
Strategic Decisions: Eccles, after an extensive field study of transfer-pricing practices, found
it useful to link the transfer-pricing policy to two strategic decisions. (See Eccles. "Control
with Fairness in Transfer Pricing"; Eccles, "Analyzing Your Company's Transfer Pricing
Practices," Journal of Cost Management for the Manufacturing Industry (Summer 1987), pp.
21-83; and Eccles, The Transfer Pricing Problem: A Theory for Practice (Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books, 1985).
Sourcing Decision: Some companies follow a deliberate strategy of vertical integration that
mandates internal transfers between divisions. The vertical integration creates interdependencies among production, selling, and distribution profit centres, but the prices of the
internal transfers are not factors in determining the sources of intermediate goods. When the
firm has no explicit strategy of vertical integration, transfers are not mandatory and the price
of the intermediate good determines whether' a transfer is made internally or sold and sourced
externally.
Pricing Decision: The pricing decision determines whether the intermediate good contains a
margin for profit (or loss). A margin for profit (or loss) is included in the transfer price when
the selling division is regarded as a profit centre for the transferred product. Alternatively, the
selling division could be viewed as a cost centre for internal transfers, and a profit centre only
for products sold externally. In this case, the internal transfer could be made at some costbased price, and the division making final sales to external customers would realize all profits
or losses for this product. With this classification scheme, Eccles found that companies
without an explicit vertical integration strategy relied on negotiated transfer prices between
buying and selling divisions. In general, the resulting transfer price included a margin for
profit (or loss) for the selling division.
For firms following a vertical integration strategy, with mandated internal transfers of certain

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products between divisions, two possible transfer prices could occur. Market-based prices
would be used when the selling division was to be viewed as a profit centre for all its
transactions. Full-cost or occasionally dual-price, systems would be used when the selling
division was treated as a cost centre for internal transfers.
Dysfunctional Behavior: Virtually any type of transfer pricing policy can lead to
dysfunctional behavior-actions taken in conflict with organizational goals. Gulf Oil provides
a clear example. Segments tried to make their results look good at each other's expense. One
widespread result: inflated transfer payments among the Gulf segments as each one vied to
boost its own bottom line. A top manager, recognizing the problem, was quoted in Business
Week; "Gulf doesn't ring the cash register until we've made an outside sale."
What prompts such behavior? Reconsider the situation shown in Table 7.3. Suppose the
Fabric Division has idle capacity. As we saw earlier, when there is idle capacity, the optimal
transfer price is the variable cost of $40 (that is, $8 per yard). As long as the fabric is worth at
least $40 to the Tent Division, the company as a whole is better off with the transfer.
Nevertheless, in a decentralized company the Fabric Division manager, working in the
division's best interests, may argue that the transfer price should be based on the market price
instead of variable cost. If the division is a profit centre, its objective is to obtain as high a
price as possible because such a price maximizes the contribution to the division's profit.
(This strategy assumes that the number of units transferred will be unaffected by the transfer
price - an assumption that is often shaky).
If the company uses a market-based transfer-pricing policy when the Fabric Division has idle
capacity, dysfunctional behavior can occur. At a $50 transfer price, the Tent Division
manager will not purchase the fabric and make the tent. Why? Because at a transfer price of
$50 and with additional processing costs of $53, the division's cost of $103 will exceed the
tent's $100 selling price. Because the true additional cost of the fabric to the company is $40,
the company forgoes a contribution of $100 - ($40 + $53) = $7 per tent. Now, suppose the
Fabric Division has no idle capacity. A variable-cost transfer-pricing policy can lead to
dysfunctional decisions. The Tent Division manager might argue for a variable-cost-based
transfer price. After all, the lowest possible transfer price will maximize the Tent Division's
profit. But such a policy will not motivate the Fabric Division to produce fabric for the Tent
Division. As long as output can be sold on the outside market for any price above the variable
cost, the Fabric Division will use its capacity to produce for the market, regardless of how
valuable the fabric might be to the Tent Division. How are such dilemmas resolved? One
possibility is for top management to impose a "fair" transfer price and insist that a transfer be
made. But managers in a decentralized company often regard such orders as undermining
their autonomy.
Alternatively, managers might be given the freedom to negotiate transfer prices on their own.
The Tent Division manager might look at the selling price of the tent, $100, less the
additional cost the division incurs in making it, $53, and decide to purchase fabric at any
transfer price less than $100 - $53 = $47. The Tent Division will add to its profit by making
the tent if the transfer price is below $47. Similarly, the Fabric Division manager will look at
what it costs to produce and transfer the fabric. If there is idle capacity, any transfer price
above $40 will increase the Fabric Division's profit. However, if there is no idle capacity, so
that transferring a unit causes the division to give up an external sale at $50, the minimum
transfer price acceptable to the Fabric Division is $50.
Negotiation will result in a transfer if the maximum transfer price the Tent Division is willing

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to pay is greater than the minimum transfer price the Fabric Division is willing to accept.
When the Fabric Division has idle capacity, a transfer at a price between $40 and $47 will
occur. The exact transfer price may depend on the negotiating ability of the two division
managers. However, if the Fabric Division has no idle capacity, a transfer will not occur.
Therefore, the manager's decisions are congruent with the company's best interests. What
should top management of a decentralized organization do if it sees segment managers
making dysfunctional decisions? As usual, the answer is, "It depends." Top management can
step in and force transfers, but doing so undermines segment managers' autonomy and the
overall notion of decentralization. Frequent intervention results in re-centralization. Indeed, if
more centralization is desired, the organization could be re-structured by combining
segments.
Top managers who wish to encourage decentralization will often make sure that both
producing and purchasing division managers understand all the facts and then allow the
managers to negotiate a transfer price. Even when top managers suspect that a dysfunctional
decision might be made, they may swallow hard and accept the segment manager's judgment
as a cost of decentralization. (Of course, repeated dysfunctional decision-making may be a
reason to change the organizational design or to change managers). Well-trained and
informed segment managers who understand opportunity costs and fixed and variable costs
will often make better decisions than will top managers. The producing division manager
knows best the various uses of its capacity, and the purchasing division manager knows best
what profit can be made on the items to be transferred. In addition, negotiation allows
segments to respond flexibly to changing market conditions when setting transfer prices. One
transfer price may be appropriate in a time of idle capacity, and another when demand
increases and operations approach full capacity. To increase segment managers' willingness
to accommodate one another's needs and benefit the organization as a whole, top managers
rely on both formal and informal communications. They may informally ask segment
managers to be "good company citizens" and to sacrifice results for the good of the
organization. They may also formalize this communication by basing performance evaluation
and rewards on company-wide as well as segment results. In the case of our outdoor
equipment maker, the contribution to the company as a whole, $70,000 in the idle capacity
case, could be split between the Fabric and Tent Divisions, perhaps equally, perhaps in
proportion to the variable costs of each, or perhaps via negotiation.

7.3.2 The Need for Many Transfer Prices

As you can see, there is seldom a single transfer price that will ensure the desired decisions.
The "correct" transfer price depends on the economic and legal circumstances and the
decision at hand. Organizations may have to make trade-offs between pricing for congruence
and pricing to spur managerial effort. Furthermore, the optimal price for either may differ
from that employed for tax reporting or for other external needs. Income taxes, property
taxes, and tariffs often influence the setting of transfer prices so that the firm as a whole will
benefit, even though the performance of a segment may suffer. For example, to maximize tax
deductions for percentage depletion allowances, which are based on revenue, a petroleum
company may want to transfer crude oil to other segments at as high a price as legally
possible.
Transfer pricing is also influenced in some situations by state fair-trade laws and national
antitrust acts. Because of the differences in national tax structures around the world, or
because of the differences in the incomes of various divisions and subsidiaries, the firm may
wish to shift profits and "dump" goods, if legally possible. These considerations further

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illustrate the limits of decentralization where heavy inter-dependencies exist and explain why
the same company may use different transfer prices for different purposes.
Summary of various Approaches to Transfer Pricing: We have covered much ground in
our discussion of transfer pricing. We have obtained some results under fairly restrictive
conditions, and we have discussed some pitfalls from using transfer prices inappropriately.
We can summarize our current recommendations as follows:
Where a competitive market exists for the intermediate product, the market price, less
selling, distribution, and collection expenses for outside customers represents an
excellent transfer price.
Where an outside market exists for the intermediate product but is not perfectly
competitive, a negotiated-transfer-price system will probably work best, since the
outside market price can serve as an approximation of the opportunity cost. At least
occasional transactions with outside suppliers and customers must occur if both
divisions are to have credibility in the negotiating process and if reliable quotes from
external firms are to be obtained.
When no external market exists for the intermediate produce transfers should occur at
the incremental cost of production. This will facilitate the decision making of the
purchasing division. A periodic fixed fee should also be paid by the buying divisions
to the producing divisions to enable the producing divisions to recover budgeted fixed
costs and the cost of invested capital. The fixed fee should allocate the fixed costs of
the facility in proportion to each user's planned use of that facility. The fixed fee also
forces the purchasing division to recognize the full cost of producing the intermediate
product internally and provides a motivation for the producing divisions to cooperate
in choosing the proper level of productive capacity to acquire.
We find it difficult to discover circumstances in which a transfer price based on fully
allocated costs per unit (using present methods of allocation) or full cost plus mark-up
has desirable properties. While the full-cost transfer price, as presently computed, has
limited economic validity, it remains widely used. Perhaps an activity-based cost,
which approximates long-run variable cost, provides the unifying concept that would
enable a practical full-cost system to conform to economic theory.

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Approach
Measure
Used
Advantage

Problems

Cost Based

Market-based

Negotiated

Administered

Market Price

Product Cost

Direct
Negotiations

Application of a
Rule

Easy to put in
place, where cost
accounting is
actively
practiced in the
company

If a market
price exists, it
is objective and
provides the
proper
economic
incentives

This reflects the

accountability
and
controllability
principles
underlying
Responsibility
Centres

This is simple
to use and
avoids
confrontations
between the two
parties to the
transfer pricing
relationship

There are many

cost possibilities
and any costs
other than the
Marginal Cost
will not provide
the proper
economic signal

There may be
no market or it
may be
difficult to
identify the
proper market
price because
the product is
difficult to
classify

This can lead to

This tends to
decisions that do violate the spirit
not provide the
of the
greatest economic Responsibility
benefits
approach

Table 7.4 Comparison of major Transfer Pricing Approaches

7.3.3 External Monitoring and Control of Transfer Pricing

Economists often get hot under the collar about transfer prices when the transfer price set by;
for example, a multinational organization relates to business taking place between two
countries. The problem here is that the organization may set an artificial transfer price such
that the tax exposure in one country is minimized. Alternatively, the transfer price may be set
with the intention of repatriating as much profit as possible from the country containing the
subsidiary organization. Many of the arguments under this heading tend to revolve around
organizations with investments in developing countries. Thus a multinational that has
investments in Africa might take as much profit as possible by means of its manipulation of
transfer prices of the products developed in the African subsidiary. The purpose of our
discussion here is to reassure anyone who believes that multinationals have it all their own
way. Whilst it is probably still true that large organizations have experts working on this kind
of problem all of the time, the tax authorities in many countries have for several years
attempted to control the situation through external monitoring. If necessary, tax authorities
are often prepared to dictate to an organization what they feel is the correct transfer price for
a subsidiary's outputs if they believe that tax evasion is taking place. Nevertheless, transfer
pricing is a sufficiently serious issue for the tax authorities to devote such a relatively large
amount of their energies towards regulating it.

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7.3.4 Transfer Pricing Law in India

Increasing participation of multi-national groups in economic activities in the country has
given rise to new and complex issues emerging from transactions entered into between two or
more enterprises belonging to the same multi-national group. With a view to provide a
detailed statutory framework which can lead to computation of reasonable, fair and equitable
profits and tax in India, in the case of such multinational enterprises, the Finance Act, 2001
substituted section 92 with a new section and introduced new sections 92A to 92F in the
Income-tax Act, relating to computation of income from an international transaction having
regard to the arms length price, meaning of associated enterprise, meaning of information
and documents by persons entering into international transactions and definitions of certain
expressions occurring in
Section 92: As substituted by the Finance Act, 2002 provides that any income arising from
an international transaction or where the international transaction comprise of only an
outgoing, the allowance for such expenses or interest arising from the international
transaction shall be determined having regard to the arms length price. The provisions,
however, would not be applicable in a case where the application of arms length price results
in decrease in the overall tax incidence in India in respect of the parties involved in the
international transaction.
Arms length price: In accordance with internationally accepted principles, it has been
provided that any income arising from an international transaction or an outgoing like
expenses or interest from the international transaction between associated enterprises shall be
computed having regard to the arms length price, which is the price that would be charged in
the transaction if it had been entered into by unrelated parties in similar conditions. The arms
length price shall be determined by one of the methods specified in Section 92C in the
manner prescribed in Rules 10A to 10C that have been notified vide S.O. 808 E dated
21.8.2001.
Specified methods are as follows:
a. Comparable uncontrolled price method;
b Resale price method;
c. Cost plus method;
d. Profit split method or
e. Transactional net margin method.
The taxpayer can select the most appropriate method to be applied to any given transaction,
but such selection has to be made taking into account the factors prescribed in the Rules.
With a view to allow a degree of flexibility in adopting an arms length price the proviso to
sub-section (2) of section 92C provides that where the most appropriate method results in
more than one price, a price which differs from the arithmetical mean by an amount not
exceeding five percent of such mean may be taken to be the arms length price, at the option
of the assessee.
Associated Enterprises: Section 92A provides meaning of the expression associated
enterprises. The enterprises will be taken to be associated enterprises if one enterprise is
controlled by the other, or both enterprises are controlled by a common third person. The

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concept of control adopted in the legislation extends not only to control through holding
shares or voting power or the power to appoint the management of an enterprise, but also
through debt, blood relationships, and control over various components of the business
activity performed by the taxpayer such as control over raw materials, sales and intangibles.
International Transaction: Section 92B provides a broad definition of an international
transaction, which is to be read with the definition of transactions given in section 92F. An
international transaction is essentially a cross border transaction between associated
enterprises in any sort of property, whether tangible or intangible, or in the provision of
services, lending of money etc. At least one of the parties to the transaction must be a nonresident. The definition also covers a transaction between two non-residents where for
example, one of them has a permanent establishment whose income is taxable in India.
Sub-section (2), of section 92B extends the scope of the definition of international transaction
by providing that a transaction entered into with an unrelated person shall be deemed to be a
transaction with an associated enterprise, if there exists a prior agreement in relation to the
transaction between such other person and the associated enterprise, or the terms of the
relevant transaction are determined by the associated enterprise. An illustration of such a
transaction could be where the assessee, being an enterprise resident in India, exports goods
to an unrelated person abroad, and there is a separate arrangement or agreement between the
unrelated person and an associated enterprise which influences the price at which the goods
are exported. In such a case the transaction with the unrelated enterprise will also be subject
to transfer pricing regulations.
Documentation: Section 92D provides that every person who has undertaken an
international taxation shall keep and maintain such information and documents as specified
by rules made by the Board. The Board has also been empowered to specify by rules the
period for which the information and documents are required to be retained. The
documentation has been prescribed under Rule 10D. Such documentation includes
background information on the commercial environment in which the transaction has been
entered into, and information regarding the international transaction entered into, the analysis
carried out to select the most appropriate method and to identify comparable transactions, and
the actual working out of the arms length price of the transaction. The documentation should
be available with the assessee by the specified date defined in section 92F and should be
retained for a period of 8 years. During the course of any proceedings under the Act, an AO
or Commissioner (Appeals) may require any person who has undertaken an international
transaction to furnish any of the information and documents specified under the rule within a
period of thirty days from the date of receipt of notice issued in this regard, and such period
may be extended by a further period not exceeding thirty days.
Further, Section 92E provides that every person who has entered into an international
transaction during a previous year shall obtain a report from an accountant and furnish such
report on or before the specified date in the prescribed form and manner. Rule 10E and form
No. 3CEB have been notified in this regard. The accountants report only requires furnishing
of factual information relating to the international transaction entered into, the arm s length
price determined by the assessee and the method applied in such determination. It also
requires an opinion as to whether the prescribed documentation has been maintained.
Burden of Proof: The primary onus is on the taxpayer to determine an arms length price in
accordance with the rules, and to substantiate the same with the prescribed documentation:
where such onus is discharged by the assessee and the data used for determining the arms

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length price is reliable and correct there can be no intervention by the Assessing Officer
(AO). This is made clear in sub-section (3) of section 92C which provides that the AO may
intervene only if he is, on the basis of material or information or document in his possession
of the opinion that the price charged in the international transaction has not been determined
in accordance with the methods prescribed, or information and documents relating to the
international transaction have not been kept and maintained by the assessee in accordance
with the provisions of section 92D and the rules made there under, or the information or data
used in computation of the arms length price is not reliable or correct ; or the assessee has
failed to furnish, within the specified time; any information or document which he was
required to furnish by a notice issued under sub-section (3) of section 92D. If any one of such
circumstances exists, the AO may reject the price adopted by the assessee and determine the
arms length price in accordance with the same rules. However, an opportunity has to be
given to the assessee before determining such price. Thereafter, the AO may compute the
total income on the basis of the arms length price so determined by him under sub-section
(4) of section 92C.
Section 92CA provides that where an assessee has entered into an international transaction in
any previous year, the AO may, with the prior approval of the Commissioner, refer the
computation of arms length price in relation to the said international transaction to a Transfer
Pricing Officer. The Transfer Pricing Officer, after giving the assessee an opportunity of
being heard and after making enquiries, shall determine the arms length price in relation to
the international transaction in accordance with sub-section (3) of section 92C. The AO shall
then compute the total income of the assessee under sub-section (4) of section 92C having
regard to the arms length price determined by the Transfer Pricing Officer.
The Transfer Pricing Officer means a Joint Commissioner/ Deputy Commissioner/Assistant
Commissioner authorized by the Board to perform functions of an AO specified in section
92C & 92D.
The first proviso to section 92 C(4) recognizes the commercial reality that even when a
transfer pricing adjustment is made under that sub-section the amount represented by the
adjustment would not actually have been received in India or would have actually gone out of
the country. Therefore no deductions u/s 10A or 10B or under chapter VI-A shall be allowed
in respect of the amount of adjustment.
The second proviso to section 92C(4) provides that where the total income of an enterprise is
computed by the AO on the basis of the arms length price as computed by him, the income
of the other associated enterprise shall not be recomputed by reason of such determination of
arms length price in the case of the first mentioned enterprise, where the tax has been
deducted or such tax was deductible, even if not actually deducted under the provision of
chapter VIIB on the amount paid by the first enterprise to the other associate enterprise.
Penalties: Penalties have been provided as a disincentive for non-compliance with
procedural requirements. Explanation 7 to sub-section (1) of section 271 provides that where
in the case of an assessee who has entered into an international transaction any amount is
added or disallowed in computing the total income under sub-sections (1) and (2) of section
92, then, the amount so added or disallowed shall be deemed to represent income in respect
of which particulars have been concealed or inaccurate particulars have been furnished.
However, no penalty under this provision can be levied where the assessee proves to the
satisfaction of the Assessing Officer (AO) or the Commissioner of Income Tax (Appeals) that
the price charged or paid in such transaction has been determined in accordance with section

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92 in good faith and with due diligence. Section 271AA provides that if any person who has
entered into an international transaction fails to keep and maintain any such information and
documents as specified under section 92D, the AO or Commissioner of Income Tax
(Appeals) may levy a penalty of a sum equal to 2% of the value of international transaction
entered into by such person. Section 271BA provides that if any person fails to furnish a
report from an accountant as required by section 92E, the AO may levy a penalty of a sum of
one lakh rupees. Section 271G provides that if any person who has entered into an
international transaction fails to furnish any information or documents as required under
section 92D (3), the AO or CIT(A) may levy a penalty equal to 2% of the value of the
international transaction. Above mentioned penalties shall not be imposable if the assessee
proves that there was reasonable cause for such failures.
Some Important Definitions: Section 92F defines the expressions accountant arms length
price, enterprise, permanent establishment, specified date and transaction used in
section 92,92A, 92B, 92C,92D and 92E. The definition of enterprise is broad and includes a
permanent establishment (PE) even though a PE is not a separate legal entity. Consequently,
transaction between a foreign enterprise and its PE, for example between the head office
abroad and a branch in India are also subject to these transfer-pricing regulations. Also the
regulations would apply to transactions between foreign enterprise and a PE of another
foreign enterprise. The term PE has been defined on the lines of the definition found in tax
treaties entered into by India with other countries. PE includes a fixed place of business
through which the business of the enterprise is wholly or partly carried on.
Documentation requirements under the Indian Transfer Pricing law By: Dinesh Verma
The author is an officer of the Indian Revenue Service currently posted as Commissioner of
Income tax, Mumbai. The views expressed in this article are the author's personal views and
do not necessarily reflect the views of his employer. In India a new transfer pricing regime
has been introduced this year by the Finance Act 2001. Earlier a limited provision (Section
92) existed in the Income tax Act, which provided for making adjustment to the income of a
resident taxpayer from a transaction with a non resident if the Assessing Officer was of the
view that the income from such a transaction was understated in the hands of the resident due
to the close connection between the two. No other rules or obligations about maintenance of
documents about such transaction existed under the old
Section 92 which remained in the statute for a number of years though it was almost never
invoked in practice. The Finance Act 2001 has substituted a new section 92 and inserted
sections 92A to 92F and certain other provisions in the Income tax Act which provide the
statutory backbone of the new transfer pricing law. The procedural rules under these sections
have been inserted in the Income tax Rules, by Notification S.O 808 (E) dated 21 August,
2001. This article touches very briefly on the main substantive provisions and then provides a
summary of the requirements relating to documentation under the Indian transfer pricing
regulation. The new transfer pricing regime requires compliance with the principle of arm's
length price in cases involving an 'international transaction' between associated enterprises
(Section 92). The term 'associated enterprise' is defined in Section 92A which provides 13
parameters to determine if the enterprises concerned would constitute 'associated enterprises'.
Section 92B defines the term 'international transaction' as a transaction between two or more
associated enterprises when either or both they are non resident. The transactions covered are
transfer of tangibles, intangibles, services, lending and borrowing of capital and cost
contribution agreements. Section 92 C lays down five methods for the determination of arm's
length price. These are same as the transaction methods prescribed in the OECD guidelines
viz. comparable uncontrolled price method, resale price method, cost plus method, profit split

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method and transaction net margin method. Section 92C also lays down the provisions
relating to transfer pricing audit which may be triggered if the administration is of the opinion
that the transfer price adopted does not reflect arm's length price, or if proper information or
documents are not maintained. Provisions have also been made in respect of penalties for
concealment of income by adopting non arm's length price, defaults relating to maintenance
of prescribed information and documents and failure to furnish required information or
documents during an audit or appellate proceedings.
The legal framework for maintenance of information and documentation by a taxpayer is
provided in Section 92D which lies down that every person who enters into an international
transaction with an associated enterprise shall maintain prescribed information and
documents. The various types of information to be maintained in respect of an international
transaction, the associated enterprise and the transfer pricing method used are prescribed in
Rule 10D of the Income tax Rules, as under:
1. A description of the ownership structure of the enterprise and details of shares or
other ownership interest held therein by other enterprises;
2. A profile of the multinational group of which the taxpayer is a part and the name,
address, legal status and country of tax residence of each of the enterprises comprised
in the group with whom international transactions have been made by the taxpayer
and the ownership linkages among them;
3. A broad description of the business of the taxpayer and the industry in which it
operates and the business of the associated enterprises;
4. The nature, terms and prices of international transaction entered into with each
associated enterprise, details of property transferred or services provided and the
quantum and the value of each such transaction or class of such transaction;
5. A description of the functions performed, risks assumed and assets employed or to be
employed by the taxpayer and by the associated enterprise involved in the
international transaction;
6. A record of the economic and market analyses, forecasts, budgets or any other
financial estimates prepared by the taxpayer for its business as a whole or separately
for each division or product which may have a bearing on the international transaction
entered into by the taxpayer;
7. A record of uncontrolled transactions taken into account for analyzing their
comparability with the international transaction entered into, including a record of the
nature, terms sand conditions relating to any uncontrolled transaction with third
parties which may be of relevant to the pricing of the internationals transactions;
8. viii. A record of the analysis performed to evaluate comparability of uncontrolled
transactions with the relevant international transaction;
9. A description of the methods considered for determining the arm's length price in
relation to each international transaction or class of transaction, the method selected
as the most appropriate method along with explanations as to why such method was
so selected, and how such method was applied in each case;
10. A record of the actual working carried out for determining the arm's length price,
including details of the comparable data and financial information used in applying
the most appropriate method and adjustments, if any, which were made to account for
differences between the international transaction and the comparable uncontrolled
transactions or between the enterprises entering into such transaction;
11. The assumptions, policies and price negotiations if any which have critically affected
the determination of the arm's length price;

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12. Details of the adjustments, if any made to the transfer price to align it with arm's
length price determined under these rules and consequent adjustment made to the total
income for tax purposes;
13. Any other information data or document including information or data relating to the
associated enterprise which may be relevant for determination of the arm's length
price.
Rule 10D also prescribes that the above information is to be supported by authentic
documents which may include the following:
1. Official publications, reports, studies and data bases of the government of the country
of residence of the associated enterprise or of any other country;
2. Reports of market research studies carried out and technical publications of
institutions of national or international repute;
3. Publications relating to prices including stock exchange and commodity market
quotations;
4. Published accounts and financial statements relating to the business of the associated
enterprises;
5. Agreements and contracts entered into with associated enterprises or with unrelated
6. Transaction;
7. Enterprises in respect of transaction similar to the international transactions;
8. Letters and other correspondence documenting terms negotiated between the taxpayer
and associated enterprise;
9. Documents normally issued in connection with various transaction under the
accounting practices followed.
It is noteworthy that the information and documentation requirements referred to above are
linked to the burden of proof laid on the taxpayer to prove that the transfer price adopted is in
accordance with the arm's length principle. One of the conditions to be fulfilled for
discharging this burden by the taxpayer is maintenance of prescribed information and
documents in respect of an international transaction entered into with a associated enterprise.
A default in maintaining information and documents in accordance with the rules is one of
the conditions which may trigger a transfer pricing audit under Section 92C (3). Any default
in respect of the documentation requirement may also attract penalty of a sum equal to two
percent of the value of the international transaction (Sec 271AA).
There is no reference in the provisions included either in the Income tax Act or the Income
tax Rules about any requirement to submit the prescribed information and documents at the
stage of initial compliance in the form of submission of report under section 92E. All that
Section 92E requires is that the concerned taxpayer shall obtain a report from an Accountant
in the prescribed form (Form 3CEB) and submit the report by the specified date. Form 3CEB
contains a certificate from the Accountant that in his opinion proper information and
documents as prescribed have been maintained by the taxpayer. It does not require their
submission along with the report. While there is no requirement for their submission along
with the report, Rule 10D requires that the information and document maintained should be
contemporaneous as far as possible and should exist latest by the specified date for filing the
report under section 92E. Section 92D also provides that information and documentation may
be requisitioned by the Assessing Officer or the Appellate Commissioner on a notice of thirty
days which period may be extended by another period of 30 days.

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Although the law has prescribed no monetary limit in respect of international transaction
covered by the transfer pricing requirements, an exception is provided in paragraph 2 of Rule
10D in respect of the information and document requirement in respect of transactions not
exceeding INR 10 million. It is provided that the above requirement will not apply to such
transactions. However the concerned taxpayer may be required to substantiate on the basis of
available material that the income arising from the international transaction is computed in
accordance with the arm's length rule. The prescribed information and documents are
required to be maintained for a period of eight years. Rule 10D absolves a taxpayer entering
into a international transaction which continues to have effect over more than one year from
maintaining separate set of documents for each year. However separate documents are
required for each year if there is any significant change in the terms and conditions of the
international transaction which have a bearing on the transfer price.
As the transfer pricing provisions introduced by the Finance Act are effective from 1 April
2001, the above requirements will be applicable to all international transactions entered into
by associated enterprises in India after that date. The first compliance date in respect of the
new transfer pricing regulation would be 31 July 2002 for non-corporate and 31 October
2002 for corporate taxpayers in respect of international transactions entered into by them
during the period 1 April 2001 to 31st March 2002. Taxpayers who are affected by the new
transfer pricing regulation would thus have time till the above-mentioned dates to be ready
with the required information and documents in respect of covered transactions.

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TECHNIQUES OF COSTING-II
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Structure
8.1 Responsibility Accounting
8.1.1 Steps Involved in Responsibility Accounting
8.1.2 Responsibility Centres
8.1.3 Advantages of Responsibility Accounting
8.1.4 Cost Centres vs. Responsibility Centres
8.1.5 Development of Measures of Performance
8.2 JIT (Just in Time)
8.3 Introduction to Value Added Accounting
8.3.1 Why VA statement
8.3.2 Limitations of VA
8.3.3 Interpretation of VA
8.4 Introduction to Inflation Accounting
8.4.1 Limitations of Historical Accounting
8.4.2 Methods of Accounting for Changing Prices
8.4.3 Merits of Inflation Accounting
8.4.4 Demerits of Inflation Accounting
8.5 Introduction to Human Resource Accounting
8.5.1 Models of HRA
8.5.2 Implications of Human Capital Reporting
8.5.3 HRA in India
8.5.4 Total Value of Human Capital
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.1 INTRODUCTION TO RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The previous unit has presented many important tools of management accounting. Tools such
as Activity-Based Costing, Budgeting, and Variance Analysis are each useful by themselves.
They are most useful, however, when they are parts of an integrated system an orderly,
logical plan to coordinate and evaluate all the activities of the organization's value chain.
Managers of most organizations today realize that long-run success depends on focusing on
cost, quality, and service - three components of the competitive edge.
The systems of costing, like standard costing and budgetary control, are useful to management for controlling the costs. In those systems the emphasis is on the devices of control and
not on those who use such devices. Responsibility Accounting is a system of control where
responsibility is assigned for the control of costs. The persons are made responsible for the
control of costs. Responsibility Accounting implies a system of accounting whereby the performance of various people is judged by assessing how far they have achieved the pre-deter-

290

mined targets set for the divisions, departments or sections for which they are responsible.
Each person is responsible for his area of operation.
Responsibility Accounting is similar to any other system of cost, such as standard costing or
budgetary control, but with greater emphasis towards fixing of the responsibility of the
persons entrusted with the execution of specific job. For example, if Mr. A has prepared the
cost budget of his department, he will be made responsible for keeping the costs under
control. Mr. A will be supplied with detailed information of actual costs incurred by his
department. In case the costs are more than budgeted costs, then A will try to find out the
reasons and take corrective measures. A will be personally responsible for the performance
of his department. Responsibility Accounting is a system under which managers are given
decision-making authority and responsibility for each activity occurring within a specific area
of the company. Under this system managers are made responsible for the activities of
segments. These segments may be called departments or divisions.
Eric Kohler defines Responsibility Accounting as "a method of accounting in which costs
are identified with persons assumed to be capable of controlling them, rather than with products or functions. It differs from activity accounting, in that it does not in itself require an
organizational grouping by activities and sub-activities or provides a systematic criterion of
system design." Charles T. Horngren defines "Responsibility Accounting is a system of
accounting that recognizes various responsibility centers throughout the organization and
reflects the plans and actions of each of these centers by assigning particular revenues and
costs to the one having the pertinent responsibility. It is also called profitability accounting
and activity accounting". Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India defines
Responsibility Accounting as a system of management accounting under which
accountability is established according to the responsibility delegated to various levels of
management and management information and reporting system instituted to give adequate
feedback in terms of the delegated responsibility. Under this system, divisions or units of an
organization under a specified authority in a person are developed as responsibility centers
and evaluated individually for their performance." David Fanning defines Responsibility
Accounting as a system or mechanism for controlling the wider freedom of action 'those
executives decision centre manager in other words - are given by senior management and
for holding those executives responsible for the consequences of their decisions.
Robert Anthony defines Responsibility Accounting as "that type of management accounting
that collects and reports both planned and actual accounting information in terms of responsibility centers." Responsibility Accounting focused main attention on responsibility centers.
The managers of different activity centers are responsible for controlling the costs of their
centers. Information about costs incurred for different activities is supplied to the persons in
charge of various centers. The performance is constantly compared to the standards set and
this process is very useful in exercising cost controls. Responsibility Accounting is different
from cost accounting in the sense that the former lays emphasis on cost control whereas the
latter lays emphasis on cost ascertainment.
Responsibility Accounting is a system, which makes every-one conscious and responsible:
for the job that is entrusted to him by his supervisor, i.e. a control by delegating and locating
responsibility for cost. Each supervisory area in the organization is charged only with the cost
for which it is responsible or over which it has control. Not only the costs but also the
revenues are assigned. That is why it is defined as "a system of accounting that recognizes
various responsibility centres throughout the organization and that reflects plans and actions
of each of these centres, by assigning particular revenues and cost to one having pertinent

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responsibility. This system defines the specific responsibility of the departmental supervisor
as well as functional managers, which should be performed. Practically it is the management
that has to chalk out the plan and control the activities relating to the responsibility centre. It
follows the basic principle like any other control system, such as Standard Costing or Budget.
The only difference is that the fixation of responsibility lies in the hands of individuals or
departments.
The following inferences can be made from the above definitions:
(1) Responsibility Accounting stresses on communication of information in general and
accounting information in particular to various decisional centres.
(2) Responsibility Accounting lays greater emphasis on persons (human resources
management)
(3) Responsibility Accounting is tailored to the organizational structure so that the
process of communication of information follows principles of organization.
It is an accounting system, which collects and report both planned and actual accounting data
in terms of sub-units, which are recognized as responsibility centres.

8.1.1 Steps Involved in Responsibility Accounting

Responsibility Accounting is used as a control device. Following steps are necessary to effect
control through the Responsibility Accounting:
(1) The organization is divided into various responsibility centres. Each responsibility
centre is put under the charge of a responsibility manager.
(2) The targets or budgets of each responsibility centre are set in consultation with the
manager of responsibility centre, so that he may be able to give full information about
his department. The manager of responsibility centre should know as what is expected
of him - each centre should have a clear set of goals. The responsibility and authority of
each centre should be well defined.
(3) Managers are charged with the items and responsibility, over which they can exercise a
significant degree of direct control.
(4) Goals defined for each area of responsibility should be attainable with efficient and
effective performance.
(5) The actual performance is communicated to the managers concerned. If it falls short of
the standards, the variances are conveyed to the top management. The names of persons
responsible for the variances are also conveyed so that responsibility may be fixed.
(6) The performance reports for each centre should be prepared highlighting the variances
and items requiring management's attention. The corrective measures are suggested or
taken and communicated to the concerned managers of the centres.
The purpose of all these steps is to assign responsibility to different individuals so that their
performance is improved and costs are controlled. The personal factor in Responsibility
Accounting is most important. The management may prepare the best plan or the budget and
put up before its staff, but its success depends upon the initiative and the will of the workers
to execute it. The essence of Responsibility Accounting is to communicate the right information to the right person at the right time. Responsibility Accounting provides a means of control, it cannot control. Control is a personalized affair. The people do control, not the reports.
Responsibility Accounting will certainly act as a control device and it will help in improving
the overall performance of the business.

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8.1.2 Responsibility Centres

A responsibility centre is a set of activities assigned to a manager, a group of managers, or
other employees. A set of machines and machining tasks, for example, may be a
responsibility centre for a production supervisor. The full production department may be a
responsibility centre for the department head. Finally, the entire organization may be a
responsibility centre for the president. In some organizations, management responsibility is
shared by groups of employees to create wide "ownership" of management decisions, allow
creative decision making, and prevent one person's concern (or lack of concern) for risks of
failure to dominate decisions.
An effective management control system gives each lower-level manager responsibility for a
group of activities and objectives and then monitors and reports on (1) the results of the
activities and (2) the manager's influence on those results. Such a system has innate appeal
for most top managers because it helps them delegate decision-making and frees them to plan
and control. Lower-level managers appreciate the autonomy of decision-making they inherit.
Thus system designers apply responsibility accounting to identify what parts of the
organization have primary responsibility for each objective, develop performance measures
and targets to achieve, and design reports of these measures by organization subunit or
responsibility centre. Responsibility centres usually have multiple objectives that the
management control system monitors.
Responsibility Accounting focuses attention on responsibility centres. A responsibility centre
is a sub-unit of an organization under the supervision of a manager who has the responsibility
for the activities of that responsibility centre. Each sub-unit has certain activities to perform
and its manager is assigned the responsibility and/or authority to carry out those activities.
Responsibility centre is the segment of business with reference to which information will be
communicated to pin point responsibilities. In the words of Anthony and Races, "A
responsibility centre is like an engine in that it has inputs, which are physical quantities of
material, hours of various types of labor, and a variety of services; it works with these
resources usually; working capital and fixed assets are also required. As a result of this work,
it produces output, which is classified either as goods, if they are tangible or as services, if
they are intangible. These goods or services go to other responsibility centre; within the
company or to customers in the outside world."
Responsibility centres, for planning and control purposes, is classified into the following
cases:
(A) Expense Centre: An expense centre or a cost centre is a responsibility centre in which
inputs, but not outputs, are measured in monetary terms. A cost centre is a responsibility
centre in which a manager is accountable for costs only. Its financial responsibilities are to
control and report costs only. An entire department may be considered a single cost centre, or
a department may contain several cost centres. For example, although one manager may
supervise an assembly department, it may contain several assembly lines and regard each
assembly line as a separate cost centre. Likewise, within each line, separate machines or test
equipment may be regarded as separate cost centres. The determination of the number of cost
centres depends on cost benefit considerations - do the benefits of smaller cost centres (for
planning, control, and evaluation) exceed the higher costs of reporting?
Responsibility Accounting is based on financial information relating to input (costs) and
outputs (revenues). In an expense centre of responsibility, the accounting system records only
the cost incurred in / by the centre or unit, but revenues earned (output) are excluded. In case

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of certain responsibility centres, it is neither possible nor necessary to measure the output in
terms of monetary units. Most of the service departments come in this category. For example,
it is almost impossible to measure the monetary value of the finance or the account
department's contribution to the company. The accounting system, therefore, records the cost
incurred in respect of these centres but not the revenue incurred. The performance of the
responsibility centre managers is evaluated by comparing the costs incurred with the
budgeted costs. Management focuses its attention on cost variances for control purposes.
(B) Revenue Centre: A revenue centre is a segment of the organization, which is primarily
responsible for generating sales revenue. A revenue centre manager does not possess control
over cost, investment in assets, but usually has control over some of the expenses of the
marketing department. The performance of a revenue centre is evaluated by comparing the
actual revenue with budgeted revenue. The marketing manager of a product line is an
example of revenue centre.
(C) Profit Centre: A responsibility centre is called a profit centre when the manager is held
responsible for both costs (inputs) and revenues (outputs) and thus for profit. Despite the
name, a profit centre can exist in nonprofits organizations (though it might not be referred to
as such) when a responsibility centre receives revenues for its services. A profit centre is a
big segment of activity for which both revenues and costs are accumulated: A centre, whose
performance is measured in terms of both - the expense it incurs and revenue it earns, is
termed as a profit centre. The output of a responsibility centre may either be meant for
internal consumption or for outside customers. In the latter case, the revenue is realized
when the sales are made. That is, when the output is meant for outsiders, then the revenue
will be measured from the price charged from customers. If the output is meant for other
responsibility centre, then management takes a decision whether to treat the centre as profit
centre or not. In fact, any responsibility centre can be turned into a profit centre by
determining a selling price for its outputs. For instance, in case of a process industry, the
output of one process may be transferred to another process at a profit by taking into account
the market price. Such transfers will give some profit to that responsibility centre. Although
such transfers do not increase the Company's assets, they help in management control
process.
(D) Investment Centre: An investment centre goes a step further than a profit centre does.
Its success is measured not only by its income but also by relating that income to its invested
capital, as in a ratio of income to the value of the capital employed. In practice, the term
investment centre is not widely used. Instead, the term profit centre is used indiscriminately
to describe centres that are always assigned responsibility for revenues and expenses, but may
or may not be assigned responsibility for the capital investment.
It is defined as a responsibility centre in which inputs are measured in terms of cost /
expenses and outputs are measured in terms of revenues and in which assets employed are
also measured. A responsibility centre is called an investment centre, when its manager is
responsible for costs and revenues as well as for the investment in assets used by his centre.
He is responsible for maintaining a satisfactory return on investment i.e. asset employed in
his responsibility centre. The investment centre manager has control over revenues, expenses
and the amounts invested in the centres assets. The manager of an investment centre is
required to earn a satisfactory return. Thus, return on investment (ROI) is used as the
performance evaluation criterion in an investment centre. He also formulates the credit
policy, which has a direct influence on debt collection, and the inventory policy, which determines the investment in inventory. The Vice President (Investments) of a mutual funds

294

company may be in charge of an Investment Centre.

In the Investment Centre, the manager in charge is held responsible for the proper utilization
of assets. He is expected to earn a satisfactory return on the assets employed in his
responsibility centre. Measurement of assets employed poses many problems. It becomes
difficult to determine the amount of assets employed in a particular responsibility centre.
Some of the assets are in the physical possession of the responsibility centre while for some
assets it may depend upon other responsibility centres or the Head Office of the company.
This is particularly true of cash or heavy plant and equipment. Whether such assets should be
included in the figure of assets employed of the responsibility centre and if included, at how
much value, is a difficult question. On account of these difficulties, investment centres are
generally used only for relatively large units, which have independent divisions, both
manufacturing and marketing, for their individual products.

8.1.3Advantages of Responsibility Accounting

Management uses Responsibility Accounting as a control device. The aim of Responsibility
Accounting is to help management in achieving organizational goals. It is an invaluable
support to modern management. It contributes to the firm's management by providing
relevant information on a continuous basis. The following are some of the advantages of
Responsibility Accounting:
1. It introduces sound system of control - a system of closer control.
2. Each and every individual in the organization is assigned some responsibility and they
are accountable for their work.
3. Everybody knows what is expected of him. Nobody can shift responsibility to
anybody else if something goes wrong.
4. It is effective tool of cost control and cost reduction applied with budgetary control
and standard costing.
5. It facilitates the management to set realistic plans and budgets.
6. It is not only a control device but also facilitates decentralization of decision-making.
7. It measures the performance of individuals in an objective manner.
8. It fosters a sense of cost-consciousness among managers and their subordinates.
9. It helps the management to make an effective delegation of authority and required
responsibility as well.
10. Under the system of Responsibility Accounting, detailed information is collected
about costs and revenues, on a continuous basis and the data is helpful in planning for
future costs and revenues.
11. Timely corrective action can be taken and better control over costs can be achieved.

8.1.4 Cost Centres vs. Responsibility Centres

A cost centre is "a location, person or item of equipment (or group of these) for which costs
may be ascertained and used for purposes of cost control". Thus, cost centre is used as a
means of assembling items of cost, so that they can be assigned to goods and services. In the
case of cost centre, emphasis is more on products, jobs or processes whose costs are to be
ascertained. Thus here the emphasis is not on the persons who may be managing a level or
product or process. Responsibility centres, on the other hand, are established on the basis of
responsibility delegated to responsible personnel of the organization with a view to identify
costs which can be controlled by each one of them. However, cost centres sometimes may be
used as responsibility centres too. In that case cost reports are prepared both costs wise-wise
and responsibility -centre- wise.

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8.1.5 Development of Measures of Performance

Because most responsibility centres have multiple objectives, only some of these objectives
are expressed in financial terms, such as operations budgets, profit targets, or required return
on investment, depending on the financial classification of the centre. Other objectives, which
are to be achieved concurrently, are non-financial in nature. For example, many companies
list environmental stewardship and social responsibility as key objectives. The well-designed
management control system functions alike for both financial and non-financial objectives to
develop and report measures of performance. Good performance measures will:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Relate to the goals of the organization

Balance long-term and short-term concerns
Reflect the management of key results and activities
Be affected by actions of managers and employees
Be readily understood by employees
Be used in evaluating and rewarding managers and employees
Be reasonably objective and easily measured
Be used consistently and regularly

Both financial and non-financial performance measures are important. Sometimes

accountants and managers focus too much on financial measures such as profit or cost
variances because they are readily available from the accounting system. Managers, however,
can improve operational control by also considering non-financial measures of performance.
Such measures may be timelier and more closely affected by employees at lower levels of the
organization, where the product is made or the service is rendered. Non-financial measures
are often easier to quantify and understand. Hence, employees can be easily motivated toward
achieving performance goals. For example, AT&T Universal Card Services, which was
awarded the prestigious Baldrige National Quality Award (presented by the U.S. Department
of Commerce), uses 18 performance measures for its customer inquiries process. These
measures include average speed of answer; abandon rate, and application processing time
(three days compared to the industry average of 34 days).
Often the effects of poor non-financial performance (quality, productivity, and customer
satisfaction) do not show up in the financial measures until considerable ground has been
lost. Financial measures often are lagging indicators that arrive too late to help prevent
problems and ensure the organization's health. What is needed are leading indicators. As a
result, many companies now stress management of the activities that drive venues and costs
rather than waiting to explain the revenues or costs themselves after the activities have
occurred. Superior financial performance usually follows from superior non-financial
performance.

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The Balanced Scorecard: There are several approaches to performance reporting. Each
approach attempts to link organizational strategy to actions of managers and employees. One
popular approach to performance reporting is the balanced scorecard. A balanced scorecard is
a performance measurement and reporting system that strikes a balance between financial and
operating measures, links performance to rewards, and gives explicit recognition to the
diversity of organizational goals. Companies such as Champion International, AT&T,
Allstate, and Apple Computer use the balanced scorecard to focus management's attention on
items subject to action on a month-by-month and day-to-day basis.
One advantage of the balanced scorecard approach is that line managers can see the
relationship between non-financial measures, which they often can relate more easily to
their own actions, and the financial measures that relate to organizational goals. Another
advantage of the balanced scorecard is its focus on performance measures from each of the
following four components of the successful organization. This enhances the learning
process because managers learn the results of their actions and how these actions are linked
to the organizational goals.
Sl.
No.

Component

Financial Strength

Customer
Satisfaction
Business
Process
Improvement
Organizational
Learning

3
4

Performance measures used to monitor

achievement of the Responsibility Centre
In-charge
Product Profitability, Earnings before
Interest and Taxation (EBIT), Return on
Investment (ROI), Residual Income (RI)
etc.
Market-share,
Customer
Satisfaction
Scores, Customer Complaints etc.
Cycle Time, Defects / Non-Conformities,
Activity Costs etc.
Training Time, Employees Turnover Ratio,
Staff Satisfaction Score etc.

Table 8.1 Components and Measures of Performance

How does a balanced scorecard look like? A balanced scorecard used in a Luxury Suite Hotel
is given below:
Components
Measures

and

Performance

Targeted

Achieved

Rs. 620 Mio

Rs.632 Mio

Financial Strength
Revenue per new service

Rs. 3,500

Revenue per arrival

Rs. 3,800

Customer Satisfaction
Customer Satisfaction Index

93

89

Brand Loyalty Index

55

45

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Business Process Improvement

10

11

15 Mts

13 Mts

Employee Turnout Ratio

12 %

10 %

Employees Re-trained

75 %

80 %

Number of Improvements
Avg. cycle time for check-in and
checkout
Organizational Learning

Table 8.2 Balanced Scorecard used in a Luxury Suites Hotel

This scorecard is for the organization as a whole. It has performance measures for all four
components of organizational success. There are many scorecards for an organization. In fact,
each area of responsibility will have its own scorecard. Scorecards for some lower-level
responsibility centers that are focused strictly on day-to-day operations may be totally focused
on only one of the four components. We should also note that not all performance measures
appear on scorecards. Managers of responsibility centres include only those measures that are
key performance indicators or Key Result Areas (KRAs) - measures that drive the organization
to achieve its goals. For example, top management at Luxury Suites set "exceed guest
expectations" as one organizational goal. The balanced score card should have at least one key
performance indicator that is linked to this goal. The customer satisfaction index, brand loyalty
index, number of improvements, and average cycle time for check-in and checkout measures
all are linked to this goal.
Balanced Scorecard to be implemented by 40% of Fortune 1000
Gartner Group: 40% of Fortune 1000 companies will have implemented Balanced Scorecard
by end of 2000.
What Is Balanced Scorecard?
Translates vision and strategy
Defines the strategic linkages to integrate performance across organizations.
Communicates objectives and measures to a business unit, joint venture, or shared
service.
Aligns strategic initiatives
Aligns everyone within an organization so that all employees understand how what
they do supports the strategy
Provides a basis for compensation
Provides feedback to senior management if the strategy is working
Balanced Scorecard: part of Performance Management system to enable organizations to
achieve their goals.
Translates strategic business units mission and strategy into a set of measures built around 45 perspectives:

Financial: How do we look to our shareholders?

Customers: How do we become our targeted customers most valued supplier?
Internal Processes: What processes - both long and short term - must we excel at, to
achieve our financial and customer objectives?

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Innovation and Improvement: How can we continue to improve our processes and
systems in order to create value?
Employee: How does our organization and employees continue to learn and grow?

Balanced Scorecard Benefits

According to Kaplan & Norton, 1992:
Make strategy operational by translating strategy into performance measures and
targets.
Helps focus entire organization on what must be done to create breakthrough
performance.
Integrates and acts as an umbrella for a variety of often disconnected corporate
programs, such as quality, re-engineering, process redesign, and customer service.
Breaks down corporate level measures so local managers, operators, and employees
can see what they must do well in order to improve organizational effectiveness.
Problem Balanced Scorecard
Consider our example, the Luxury Suites hotel chain. As we have noted, top management
established "exceed guest expectations" as one organization-wide goal. The critical process
for this goal is produce and delivers services. Among the key success factors for this critical
process are timelines of customer service and quality of personalized service. The Vice
President (Customer Relations) is the manager responsible for the critical process of produce
and deliver services. He has already identified one action (objective) for the coming year,
that is, upgrade customer service department capabilities.

Identify several possible performance measures for the quality of personalized

service, a key success factor.
Recommend several specific actions or activities associated with upgrading customer
service department capabilities that would drive Luxury Suites towards its goal of
exceeding customer expectations.

Solution
Performance measures for the quality of personalized service key success factor
include number of changes to registration, rating on the "friendly, knowledgeable
staff' question on the guest survey, number of complaints, percent return guests, and
percent of customers with completed customer profile (profiles special needs of
customers).
Specific actions or activities include training employees, implementing a call
checklist (list of services and 0ptions available to guest) and monitoring compliance
with the list, developing a customer satisfaction survey, and reengineering the guest
registration and reservation processes.

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.2 JIT (JUST IN TIME)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Business Readings Questions to Consider

What are three main differences between the JIT and traditional manufacturing
systems?
What is the beneficial aspect of value-chain linkages?
JIT and the Balanced Scorecard:
Linking Manufacturing Control to Management Control
Just-in-Time manufacturing techniques can be made more effective by controlling them with
the scorecard approach.
BY B. DOUGLAS CLINTON, CPA,
AND KO-CHENG HSU, CPA

Lybrand Gold Medal: The Just-in-Time (JIT) philosophy was adopted by American
companies to control manufacturing. The Balanced Scorecard concept was developed to help
management control overall operations. What we propose here is linking the two techniques
to increase the effectiveness of both. The Balanced Scorecard meets a critical need for
management information that has as yet been unsatisfied by other approaches. (See sidebar.)
Financial accounting measures lag performance because they are historical in nature, by
definition reporting on activities that already have occurred. For this reason, they are
irrelevant in guiding managers in their quest to improve current and future operations.
Second, the creation of value is not measured by financial accounting metrics. Because the
nature of these metrics is to report on only the costs of past actions, little indication is
provided of what value investors and other stakeholders will place on the actions of
management to change future events, especially those considered to be long-term. Investment
in employee training programs is a prime example because although traditional measures
show the cost of training, the benefits are not directly quantified. Third, managers need to
understand what factors drive success in their organizations again something that traditional
financial measures do not help managers do. Fourth, the Balanced Scorecard, as described by

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Norton and Kaplan, does more than measure. That is, if constructed properly, a Balanced
Scorecard can communicate, provide feedback, create learning, and align strategic objectives
with daily operational control. Changes in technology and the competitive environment are
shaping analysis techniques, information gathering mechanisms, and the way decisions are
framed. Management's job is to accommodate these changes with new managerial control
systems to measure and evaluate operating performance and to provide timely and
appropriate information for managerial decision making. Nowhere has a more dramatic
example of radical change been displayed than by companies adopting and implementing the
Just-in-Time (JIT) philosophy. That is why before constructing a Balanced Scorecard for
companies implementing or using JIT, management carefully must consider the uniqueness
of the manufacturing environment and the management control system. There are many
important differences in approach between a traditional manufacturing environment and a JIT
environment that would indicate unique considerations when the Balanced Scorecard is
employed in a JIT context.
A Problem of Incongruence: After investigating the success of Japanese companies,
American companies implemented JIT manufacturing systems with mixed success in the
United States. The conversion from a traditional process to JIT has had profound effects on
both manufacturing systems and organizations as a whole. In emulating Japanese techniques,
American firms adopted what they believed was the essence of the method while ignoring
areas directly affected by the change. Herein lies the problem. Changing the manufacturing
process in a radical way without changing the management control system can create an
incongruent state that results in inconsistent performance evaluation and dysfunctional
behavior. Properly matching attributes of manufacturing control with management control is
necessary to avoid this problem. Studies of JIT implementations have indicated that
movements from traditional systems to JIT typically have not caused significant alterations in
existing performance measurement systems. Furthermore, basic control and support systems
frequently were not put in place prior to the adoption of the new technology, and changes in
performance measurement systems often have tended to be reactive in nature. Accordingly,
suggesting a proper linking of the manufacturing system with its drivers of performance
requires an understanding of the differences between traditional and JIT manufacturing
systems. From that vantage point, differences in management control among the systems can
be examined appropriately.
Manufacturing Control; JIT can be described as a set of manufacturing techniques and
concepts or a philosophy of doing business that minimizes inventory levels and enjoys the
commensurate effects of doing so. Generally, JIT manufacturing is more oriented to broadbased effectiveness, while traditional manufacturing systems tend to emphasize efficiency.
JIT exposes production problems because there is no buffer stock of inventory. If a part on
the line is discovered to be defective, and therefore unusable, then the production line must
be stopped because there is no additional excess inventory to replace it. JIT would require
that the problem be addressed immediately so that production could resume and similar
problems could be avoided in the future. Accordingly, JIT is quality oriented and emphasizes
simplifying the process and preventing problems. If we compare JIT manufacturing methods
with traditional manufacturing methods, typical differences in three areas are highlighted,
implying the need for changes in management control. The first difference impacting
management control is that JIT focuses more on the manufacturing process. Consistent with
the quality emphasis in JIT systems, expectations actually are predicted to change as quality
improves continuous improvement is assumed. Moreover, defects are prevented by line
workers rather than appraised by a separate quality assurance department. Emphasis is on no

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financial measures and controlling activities and transactions. Flexibility is considered to be

more important than automation and efficiency.
Second, JIT promotes a stable workforce. Workers typically are not specialized in a dedicated
production task but are trained to perform various production duties. Communication and
teamwork among workers are encouraged as a means of identifying and resolving problems.
Workers often are salaried and empowered to report and resolve problems as they arise. If the
process is not going as quickly as needed in a particular area, then workers converge on that
area. A spirit of cooperation and companywide loyalty is supported.
Third, the supplier base used with JIT is much smaller than with traditional systems and often
consists of certified vendors. These suppliers are certified (i.e., contractually required) to
provide timely deliveries of goods at a high-quality level. A partnership relationship with
suppliers is encouraged, and suppliers often are invited to the plant to help them understand
the needs of the manufacturer. Long-term contracts involving a minimum amount of
paperwork are pursued.
Management Control; These three areas highlight differences in manufacturing that require
different treatment in the management control system to be effective (see Table 1). With a
JIT system, defect prevention becomes more important than appraisal, and workers are
rewarded for pointing out and solving problems rather than hiding them. Managers are
rewarded for minimizing investment by explicitly imputing inventory investment into the
performance evaluation scorecard. Moreover, control over activities rather than costs are
stressed while maintaining a long-term organization-based approach to evaluation.
A JIT system would suggest that performance expectations should be constantly changing
under the assumption of continuous improvement. In addition, quality should be evaluated,
not on the basis of specifications but on the basis of meeting and exceeding customer needs
and wants. With traditional systems, minimization of defects discovered is rewarded as is the
minimization of cost per unit. JIT workers, however, are encouraged to stop the production
line to prevent defects, point out problems, or otherwise improve the process. Long
production runs are irrelevant in a flexible JIT environment. Therefore, minimizing setup
time for production changeovers is rewarded. Prevention of defects is emphasized along with
the minimization of no value-added activities. Here the product versus process emphasis is
extended to customer relations. That is, traditional systems identify appropriate customers
with the marketing of products produced, while JIT identifies products to produce as desired
by customers. Traditional systems schedule production based on worker expertise and
running large batches, while JIT systems schedule production based on achieving flexibility
to meet customer orders. JIT rewards workers based on their ability to work cooperatively as
a team in adapting to the flexibility required in satisfying customers. Where traditional
systems emphasize planning, budgeting, and scheduling, JIT emphasizes communication and
workers helping each other with urgent demands. Using certified supplier relationships
simplifies supplier relations, ensures that quality and delivery levels are attained, and
minimizes transaction cost and paperwork. Activity analysis is appropriate with JIT to
determine effectiveness. Activity analysis also is helpful in developing relevant management
control metrics.
Linking Manufacturing Control to Management Control: JIT manufacturing control
activities can be mapped to their related drivers, which double as the metrics that would be
used for management control in the Balanced Scorecard. The manufacturing control factors
are presented in the three areas of

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(1) Process, (2) workforce, and (3) suppliers as discussed previously.

Although several Balanced Scorecard metrics are suggested here, these performance
measures should not be considered generic for any JIT operation. Each company must
develop its own metrics based on its own individual strategy. Moreover, the metrics used
should be well-thought-out to ensure that they can be linked to strategic objectives and linked
together in such a way that they reinforce each other. Kaplan suggests a heuristic for
evaluating the veracity of the linkage: "You should be able to look at your measures and infer
the business strategy the company is intending to use to get to breakthrough performance."3
That is, the measures themselves should obviate the strategy intended. For this reason, the
metrics should be fairly specific. For example, for the manufacturing control activity
"increase flexibility" (shown in Figure 8.1 a)), the driver should be somewhat more specific
than "respond quickly to changes." The ability to minimize setup and changeover time, as
shown, would be a more reasonable metric to drive manufacturing flexibility and provide a
specific indicator of the company's ability to perform in that area.

Fig8.1 a) Activities to Metrics Mapping & b) Integrated Balanced Scorecard

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Fig 8.2 Linking the Metrics Together

The time horizon for each metric (Figure 8.1a)) reflects the importance of considering the
time dimension in assessing how each metric meets strategic objectives and how the metrics
are linked together. Each measure should be time sequenced in its linkages to other measures
to avoid the non beneficial lag problem associated with most financial accounting measures
and to indicate its purpose clearly. The time element should vary in application to suit the
needs of the company. One way to break this element down would be in
(1) Short-term specific causes or primary drivers of the control factor, (2) evaluation in
intermediate indicators of time, and (3) long-term validations in terms of time. Most of the
items shown in Figure 8.1a) reflect metrics with short-term time horizons.
Each short-term manufacturing control activity should have at least one short-term driver that
provides a clear cause-and-effect type of relationship to provide guidance for management
action. Indeed, the most sensible metric to use will in many cases be derived directly from the
management activity itself. For example, reducing paperwork is an objective of JIT systems
that clearly would be driven by the amount of paper itself (i.e., the direct output of the
activity). The number of invoices is an example of a measure derived from the activity that
directly reflects a tangible output from management actions to reduce paperwork.
Other measures are better indicators of the indirect results of specific management activities,
for example, employee satisfaction. This measure would be expected to result from such
things as empowering workers and encouraging teamwork. Employee satisfaction is not a
direct measure of either of these items (i.e., the degree to which employees are becoming
empowered or participating with other workers in a manner that would reflect teamwork).
Nevertheless, employee satisfaction is important and should be measured and linked back to
the specific short-term drivers that are expected to produce it. These metrics can be referred
to as intermediate indicators, and they likely are fewer in number than the metrics thought to
reflect the primary short-term drivers of the manufacturing control activities.
The long-term validators are fewer in number than even the intermediate indicators. Only one
such item is shown in Figure 8.1, mostly for illustration purpose that of inventory costs.
Metrics in this category should reflect long-term expectations and are broader in scope and
more fundamental to overall company goals. Reduction in inventory costs is a fundamental
objective of JIT and could be used as a long-term validator of something you would expect to
see with a changeover to JIT. Often, as in this case, the long-term validator-type metrics are
financial measures, and it is here that companies can establish the link between intermediate
and long-term performance metric categories and the more traditional overall financial
indicators of effectiveness.

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Panel A of Fig 8.2 shows how various metrics can be linked to each other by considering the
time horizon of relevant activities. That is, a short-term metric is shown that relates to an
intermediate indicator that in turn relates to a long-term validator metric. Studying these
linkages reveals how each metric relates to the "big picture" strategy and provides a clear
map for evaluating particular management actions. The value of specific activities can be
assessed by linking them all the way from their short-term drivers through their intermediate
indicators and ultimately to their long-term validation.
By considering the categories of the Balanced Scorecard and where specific management
actions are likely to take place to achieve results, a company can conduct value-chain
analysis. For the JIT manufacturing items discussed, most specific management actions are
likely to be initiated in the production phase of the value chain. Although these actions must
include top management support and involvement, and ultimately will affect other phases of
value creation, identifying the value-chain phase where primary drivers of results occur is a
worthwhile task. Knowing the primary areas where value creation is initiated is important to
reinforcing those efforts and tracking them with suitable metrics. This effort also can
facilitate using a responsibility accounting approach to monitoring the measures. For
purposes of illustration involving the JIT items discussed here, making a distinction between
production and upstream and downstream categories is sufficient. This can be shown as part
of a Balanced Scorecard where the value-chain perspective is integrated.
Panel B of Fig 8.2 shows how metrics can be linked together through the value chain. In the
panel, the upstream development and design metric number of new products is linked to the
production phase process reliability metric. Arguably, the activities involved with increasing
the number of new products will be intertwined inextricably with the reliability of the
production process. Indeed, the employees responsible for value creation in these two groups
likely will work together and be functionally dependent on each other for value creation in
these areas. From there, the linkage is made to the distribution metric percent on-time
delivery and on to the service phase metric number of warranty claims. Again, these metrics
are related. In a JIT context process, reliability will greatly affect the percentage of on-time
deliveries that are made and ultimately the degree of warranty claims resulting from
production defects (i.e., those caused by or arising as a result of an unreliable process).
The beneficial aspect of value-chain linkages is to facilitate an overall management
assessment of value creation across functional categories. The old adage that a chain evens a
value chains only as strong as its weakest link is ever true with the Balanced Scorecard as
well.
Putting It All Together: Fig 8.1 b) shows a comprehensive presentation of an Integrated
Balanced Scorecard. This format presents a "big picture" approach to linking JIT
manufacturing control activities to management control metrics via the Balanced Scorecard.
In addition to showing the
Drivers/metrics and their activity linkages, such a presentation emphasizes the time horizon,
value-chain phase(s), and Balanced Scorecard categories for each management control
metric. Figure 8.1 b) builds upon the Figure 8.1 a) presentation of activity-to-metric linkages
and their respective time horizons by adding the value-chain phases and scorecard categories
as additional columns. Also added is a section for overall objectives which would be germane
to a JIT context.

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The addition of the overall section is provided as an illustration of how a firm would integrate
broad measures of success to the more specific JIT considerations of process, workforce, and
supplier relationships. The overall objectives, metrics, time horizons, and value-chain and
scorecard categories used in this illustration are in some cases somewhat arbitrary. There are
many possibilities in terms of different strategies and management perspectives regarding
what metrics are appropriate, how they link to strategy, what time horizon is relevant, and
where value would be primarily initiated or created. The items presented, however, are
representative of a typical conceptualization that could be used. Again, the point to using the
Balanced Scorecard as a management tool is not to adopt a specific set of metrics by cloning
them from a particular list. The idea is to analyze each of these components and consider how
they link to strategy and link together to support a meaningful continuous improvement and
assessment effort.
Although the "overall" category items are presented in Figure 8.1 b) as activities similar to
the Figure 8.1 a) manufacturing control items, because they are broader they should be
understood as having multiple drivers. Moreover, these drivers will occur at various levels.
For this reason, the metrics associated with them often will be classified as intermediate
indicators or long-term validators in terms of the time horizon. This section is where the more
traditional financial accounting-based "validator-type" measures will be located. Even though
traditional financial measures can be found here, they are by no means the only measures
found here. Note that in the Figure 8.1 b) "Overall" section, only two of the eight measures
presented fall into the financial category. Many "big picture," overall-type objectives are best
measured by using no financial metrics.
Previously it was mentioned that when categorizing metrics into the value chain, the primary
location where value creation is initiated should be the method of classification. Although
this rule of thumb is true, there are some activities that are inseparable within the value chain
and some for which it would be dysfunctional to specify a particular value-chain phase. In the
JIT context there are many activities for which production and engineering personnel work
together. For example, the process reliability metric discussed earlier is highly influenced by
both the diligence of the workforce and the initial design and subsequent changes made by
industrial engineering. Therefore, both production and upstream phases should be considered.
Likewise, specifying a value-chain phase for broadly sweeping metrics such as "decreasing
no value-added activities" or "increasing employee satisfaction" would be to suggest that one
set of workers adds value to the exclusion of others or that the company should be more
concerned with the satisfaction of a particular subset of the company's employees. Indeed, all
phases of the value chain are not only relevant to these activities but vital.
Clearly, there are activities that fall exclusively in the domain of particular phases of the
value chain. In these cases, specifying the primary initiation of the value creation process is
critically important to achieving success. Management can encourage viewing these valuechain phases as responsibility centers for the activities isolated in these areas and use the
linked metrics for creating Balanced Scorecards for individual departments, divisions, or
other segments. In this way, each department can be informed of its contribution to the
success of the company and be evaluated accordingly.
The final column in the integrated table is the Balanced Scorecard category classification as
conceptualized by Kaplan and Norton. Most of the items mentioned here will fall in the
Internal Business Processes (IBP) category for JIT items because this area is where the most
tangible changes from a traditional system will be initiated. Exceptions involve inventory

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cost, which is a "big picture" financial metric, item designed to measure workforce gains in
the innovation and learning category, and those metrics targeted specifically at meeting and
exceeding customer needs and wants.
The Balanced Scorecard, as illustrated, can be a useful tool in systematizing the management
control system to accommodate radical changes in activities that are brought on by
implementation of a JIT manufacturing system. Properly matching attributes of
manufacturing control with management control is necessary to avoid dysfunctional results
brought about by such sweeping changes. The Balanced Scorecard provides a context for
conducting activity and measurement analysis, linking activities to the value chain, time
phasing each metric for proper interpretation, and linking the elements together in an
integrated and useful manner. This tool for management accounting change will benefit
companies and their managers who desire to find a systematic way to analyze and control
operations in a timely and relevant manner.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.3 INTRODUCTION TO VALUE ADDED ACCOUNTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now we will discuss the new dimension of management accounting concept. Interestingly
value addition is a vital part of any commercial establishments for growth and development.
Let us look into the concept in detail. The concept of value added is considerably old. It
originated in the USA. Treasury in the 18th Century and periodically accountants have
deliberated upon whether the concept should be incorporated in financial accounting practice.
But actually, the value added statement has come to be seen with greater frequency in Europe
and more particularly in Britain. The discussion paper Corporate Report published in1975
by the then Accounting Standard Steering committee (now known as Accounting Standards
Board) of the U.K. advocated the publication of value added statement along with the
conventional annual corporate report. In 1977, the Department of Trade, U.K. published The
Future of Company Report which stated that all substantially large British companies should
include a value added (V.A.) statement in their annual reports. Also a few companies in the
Netherlands include V.A. information in their annual reports, but the disclosures often fall
short of being a full V.A. statement and also the method of arriving at V.A. is grossly nonstandardized. In India Britannia Industries Limited and some other prepare value added
statement as supplementary financial statement in its annual report.
Definition:
Value Added (V.A.): VA is the wealth a reporting entity has been able to create through the
collective effort of capital, management and employees. In economic terms, value added is
the market price of the output of an enterprise less the price of the goods and services
acquired by transfer from other firms. VA can provide a useful measure in gauging
performance and activity of the reporting entity.
Gross Value Added (GVA): GVA is arrived at by deducting from sales revenue the cost of
all materials and services, which were brought in from outside suppliers. We know that the
retained profit of a company for a given accounting year is derived as below:
R = S B Dep W I T Div

. (1)

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Where R= Retained profit, S= Sales revenue, B= Bought in cost of materials and services,
Dep= annual depreciation charge, W= Annual wage cost, I= Interest payable for the year T=
Annual Corporate tax and Div = Total dividend payable for the year. Rearranging the
equation (1) we get GVA as below:
S B = R + Dep + W + I + T + Div

(2)

Each side of equation (2) represents GVA. However this is a very simple definition of GVA.
In practice GVA includes many other things.
Besides sales revenue, any direct income, investment income and extraordinary incomes or
expenses are also included in calculation of GVA. Including these items in the above
equation No.2, we get
(S + Di) B + Inv + EI = R + Dep + W + T + I + Div.

(3)

Where Di = Direct incomes, Inv = Investment incomes, EI= Extraordinary items.

The above equation can be shown by way of the following statement.
Gross Value added of a manufacturing company
Sales

Add: Royalties and other direct income

Less: Materials and Services used

Value added by trading activities

Add: Investment Income

Add/Less: Extraordinary items

Gross Value Added

X
X
X

Applied as follows:
To employees as salaries, wages etc.

To government as taxes, duties, etc.

To Financiers as interest on Borrowing

To Shareholders as dividends

To retained earnings including depreciation

Net Value Added (NVA): NVA can be defined as GVA less depreciation.
Rearranging the equation (1) we can get NVA as below:
S B- Dep = R + W + I + T + Div.

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Reporting Value Added

The Corporate Report of the U.K. advised the British companies to report Gross value
Added (GVA). The Report did not consider the possibility of the alternative Net Value
Added (NVA). As a result the majority of British companies prefer to set forth their VA
statement as a report on GVA, so that depreciation is an application of VA rather than a cost
to be deducted in calculating VA In India also GVA is more popular among reporting
companies than NVA The reasons for reporting GVA are as follows:
GVA can be derived more objectively than NVA. This is because depreciation is more
Prone to subjective judgment than are bought-in costs.

GVA format involves reporting depreciation along with retained profit. The resultant
sub-total usefully shows the portion of the years VA, which has become available for
re-in vestment.
The practice of reporting GVA would lead to a closer correspondence between VA
and national income figures. This is because economists generally prefer gross
measures of national income to net one.

However, there are also valid reasons for reporting NVA. They are:
Wealth Creation (i.e. VA) will be overstated if no allowance is made for the wearing
out or loss of value of fixed assets, which occurs as new assets are created.
NVA is a firmer base for calculating productivity bonus than is Gather productivity of
a company may increase because of additional investments in modernization of plant
and machinery. Consequently, the value added component may improve significantly.
The employees of the company will naturally claim and be given some share of
additional VA as productivity bonus. But if the share is based on GVA then no
recognition is given to the need for an increased depreciation charge.
The concept of matching demands that depreciation be deducted along with bought in
costs to derive NVA GVA is inconsistent, for costs would be charged under the
bought in heading if the item has a life of under one year. But if the item has a longer
life it would be treated as a depreciable fixed assets and its cost would never appear as
a charge while arriving at GVA. From the above discourse it can be said that it is
better to report on NVA rather than on GVA.

8.3.1 Why VA Statement?

The advantages claimed for the VA statement are considerable. The main thrust of financial
accounting development in the recent decades has been in the area of how we measure
income rather than whose income we measure. The common belief of the traditional
accountants that net income or profit is the reward of the proprietors (shareholders in the case
of a company) had been considered as a very narrow definition of income In fact, proponents
of the proprietary theory argued that the proprietor is the centre of interest. The assets were
assumed to be owned by the proprietor and the liabilities were the proprietors obligations.
The notion of proprietorship was accepted and practiced so long as the nature of business did
not experience revolutionary changes. The proprietary theory did hold good for a sole
proprietorship or a partnership kind of business. But with the emergence of corporate entities
and the legal recognition of the existence of business entity separate from the personal affairs
and other interests of the owners led to the rejection of the proprietary theory and formulation
of other theories like entity theory, enterprise theory and fund theory. The entity theory has
its main application in the corporate form of business enterprise. The entity theory is based on
the basic accounting equation and it suggests that the net income of the reporting entity is
generally expressed in terms of the net change in the stockholders equity. It represents the

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residual change in equity position after deducting all outsiders claims. The enterprise theory
is a broader concept than the entity theory. For entity theory, the reporting entity is
considered to be a separate economic unit operating primarily for the benefit of the equity
shareholders, whereas in the enterprise theory, the reporting entity is a social institution,
operating for the benefit of many interested groups. The most relevant concept of income in
this broad social responsibility concept of the enterprise is the value added concept.
Therefore, the origin of concept of value added lies in the enterprise theory. Proponents of
VA argue that there are advantages in defining income in such a way as to include the
rewards of a much wider group than just the shareholders. The various advantages of the VA
statement are as follows:

Reporting on VA improves the attitude of employees towards their employing

companies this is because the VA statement reflects a broader view of the companys
objectives and responsibilities.
VA statement makes it easier for the company to introduce a productivity linked
bonus scheme for employees based on VA. The employees may be given productivity
bonus on the basis of VA/Payroll ration.
VA based ratios (e.g. VA/Payroll, Taxation/VA, VA/Sales etc.) are useful diagnostic
and predictive tools. Trends in VA ratios, comparisons with other companies and
international comparisons may be useful. In India, the VA statement of Britannia
Industries Limited for the two years 1992-93 and 1993-94 showed that almost 50% of
the value addition is applied in payment of various taxes and duties. The employees
and shareholders get almost and constant share of value added of 35% and 5%
respectively. The value added as a percentage of sales revenue has increased from
23.8% to 25.6% over the two years period. However, it may be noted that the VA
ratios can be made more useful if the ratios are based on inflation adjusted VA data.
VA provides a very good measure of the size and importance of a company. To use
sales figures or capital employed figures as a basis for company rankings can cause
distortion. This is because sales may be inflated by large bought in expenses or a
capital intensive company with a few employees may appear to be more important
that a highly skilled labor intensive company.
VA statement links a companys financial accounts to national income. A companys
VA indicates the companys contribution to national income.
Finally VA statement is built on the basic conceptual foundations, which are currently
accepted in balance sheets and income statements. Concepts such as going concern,
matching, consistency and substance over form are equally applicable to the VA
statement.

Value Added Statement (VA Statement): The VA statement shows the value added for a
business for a particular period and how it is arrived at and apportioned to the following
shareholders:
The workforce for wages, salaries and related expenses;
The financiers for interest on loans and for dividends on share capital.
The government for corporation tax;
The business for retained profits
A statement of VA represents the profit and loss account in different and possibly more
useful manner. The conventional VA statement is divided into two parts the first part shows
how VA is arrived at and the second part shows the application of such VA.

310

Illustration
Given below is the Profit & Loss Account of Creamco Ltd.
Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st March 1999
Notes
Amount
(Rs.000)
Income
Sales
1
28,525
Other income
756
29,281
Expenditure
Operating Cost
2
25,658
Excise duty
1,718
Interest on Bank overhead
3
93
Interest on 10% Debentures
1.157
28.616
Profit before Depreciation
655
Less: Depreciation
255
Profit before tax
400
Provision for tax
4
275
Profit after tax
125
Less: Transfer to Fixed Asset
25
Replacement Reserve
100
Less: Dividend paid and payable
45
Retained profit
55
Notes:
1.
This represents the invoice value of goods supplied after deducting discounts, returns
and sales tax.
2.
Operating cost includes Rest. (000) 10.247 as wages, salaries and other benefits to
employees.
3.
The bank overdraft is treated as a temporary source of finance.
4.
The charge for taxation includes a transfer of Rs. (000) 45 to the credit of deferred tax
account.
You are required to:
(a)
Prepare a value added statement for the year ended 31st March 1999.
(b) Reconcile total value added with profit before taxation.

311

Solution
(a)
CREAMCO LTD.
VALUE ADDED STATEMENT
For the year ended March 31, 1999
Rs. (000)
Sales
Less: Cost of bought in material
and services:
Operating Cost
Excise duty
Interest on Bank Overdraft

15,411
1,718
93

Value added by manufacturing

and trading activities
Add: Other Income
Total value added

Rs. (000)
28.525

17.222
11.303
756
12,059

Application of value added:

To pay employees:
Wages, salaries and other
benefits
To pay government:

10.247

84.97

Corporation tax

230

1.90

1.202

9.98

380

3.15

12.059

100.00

To pay providers of capital:

Interest on 10% Debentures

1.157

Dividends

45

To provide for the maintenance

And expansion of the company:
Depreciation
Fixed Assets Replacement
Reserve
Deferred Tax Account
Retained profit

255
25
45
55

312

(b) Reconciliation between total value Added and Profit before Taxation
Rs. (000)
Rs. (000)
Profit before tax
400
Add back:
Depreciation
Wages, salaries and other
benefits
Debenture interest
Total Value Added

255
10.247
1.157

11.659
12.059

Notes:
(1) Deferred tax could alternatively be shown as a part of To pay government.
(2) Bank overdraft, being a temporary source of finance, has been considered as the
provision of a banking service rather than of capital. Therefore, interest on bank
overdraft has been shown by way of deduction from sales and as a part of cost of
bought in material and services.

8.3.2 Limitations of VA
It is argued that although the VA statement shows the application of VA of several interest
groups (like employees, government, shareholders, etc.) the risks associated with the
company is only borne by the shareholders. In other words, employees, government and
outside financiers are only interested in getting their share on VA but when the company is in
trouble, the entire risks associated therein is borne only by the shareholders. Therefore, the
concept of showing value added as applied to several interested groups is being questioned by
many academics. They advocated that since the shareholders are the ultimate risks takers, the
residual profit remaining after meeting the obligations of outside interest groups should only
be shown as value added accruing to the shareholders. However, academics have also
admitted that from overall point of view vale added statement may be shown as
supplementary statement of financial information. But in no case can the VA statement
substitute the traditional income statement (i.e. Profit & Loss Account.)
Another contemporary criticism of VA statement is that such statements are nonstandardized. One area of non-standardizations is the inclusion or exclusion of depreciation in
the calculation of value added. Another major area of non-standardization in current VA
practice is taxation. Some companies report only tax levied on profits under the heading of
VA applied to governments. Other companies prefer to report on extensive range of taxes
and duties under the same heading. In the case of Britannia Industries Limited. It has shown
taxes and duties paid under the heading VA applied to Government. In the illustration
given in Para 1.5-excise duty has been shown as a part of bought-in cost and deducted while
calculating value added. Some academics argued that such excise duty should be shown as an
application of VA. However, bringing out an accounting standard on value added can
effectively eliminate this practice of non-standardization. Therefore, this criticism is a
temporary phenomenon.
The reasons for preferring NVA to GVA. We prepare the NVA statement on the basis of the
information given in illustration in Para 1.5. It can be mentioned here that in preparing VA
statement on NVA basis excise duty has been shown as an application of VA.

313

(a)

CREAMCO LTD.
VALUE ADDED STATEMENT
For the year ended March 31, 1999
Rs. (000)
Sales

Rs. (000)

28.525

Less: Cost of bought in material and

services:
Operating Cost
Interest on Bank Overdraft
Gross Value Added
Less: Depreciation
Net Value Added
Add: Other income
Available or application
Applied as follows:

15,411
93

15.504
13.021
255
12,766
756
13.522

To pay employees:
Wages, salaries and other benefits
To pay government:

10.247

75.78

Corporation tax & excise duty

To pay providers of capital:

1.948

14.41

1.202

8.8

125

0.92

13.522

100.00

Interest on 10% Debentures

Dividends
To provide for the maintenance
And expansion of the company:

1.157
45

Fixed Assets Replacement Reserve

25

Deferred Tax Account

Retained profit

45
55

314

(b) Reconciliation between total value Added and Profit before Taxation
Rs. (000)
Profit before tax
Add back:
Excise duty
Wages, salaries and other
benefits
Debenture interest
Total Value Added

Rs. (000)
400

1.718
10.247
1.157

13.122
13.522

We can see that VA based ratios have changed significantly particularly with respect to
payments to employees and government (i.e. Payroll/VA and taxation /VA.) Taxation/VA
ratio has increased from a meager 1.9% to a significant 14.41%, whereas payroll/VA ratio
has come down from 84.97% to 75.78%. It suggests that although the employees are enjoying
the major share of VA. Governments share has also increased significantly. As a result the
retained profit of the company has significantly come down.
Illustration
Prepare a Gross Value Added statement from the following Profit and Loss Account of
Strong Ltd. Show also the reconciliation between Gross Value Added and Profit before
taxation.
Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 1999
Income
Notes (Rs. In lakhs)
Amount (Rs. In lakhs)
Sales
610
Other Income
25
635
Expenditure
Production &
Operational
Expenses
Administration
Expenses
Interest and
other charges
Depreciation
Profit before
Taxes
Provision for
Taxes

465

19

27
14

525
110
16
94

Balance as per
Last Balance
Sheet

7
101

315

Transferred to:
General
Reserve
Proposed
Dividend
Surplus carried
to Balance
Sheet

60
71

11

30
101

Notes:
1.

Production & Operational Expenses

Increase in Stock

(Rs. In lakhs)
112

Consumption of Raw Materials

185

Consumption of Stores

22

Salaries, Wages, Bonus & Other Benefits

41

Cess and Local Taxes

11

Other Manufacturing Expenses

94
465

1.

Administration expenses include inter-alia audit fees of Rs.4.80 lakhs, salaries &
commission to directors Rs.5 lakhs and provision for doubtful debts Rs.5.20 lakhs.

2.

Interest and other Charges:

(Rs. In lakhs)

On working capital loans from Bank

On Fixed Loans from IDBI
Debentures

8
12
7
27

316

Solution

STRONG LIMITED
VALUE ADDED STATEMENT
For the year ended March 31, 1999
Rs. (000)

Sales
Less: Cost of bought
in material and
services:
Production and
operational expenses
Administration
expenses
Interest on working
capital loans
Value added by
manufacturing and
trading activities
Add: Other Income
Total Value Added
Application of Value
Added:
To pay employees:
Wages, salaries Bonus
and other benefits
To pay Directors:
Salaries and
Commission
To pay Government:
Cess and Local Taxes

Rs. (000)
610

413
14
8

435
175
25
200

41

20.50

2.50

27

13.50

30

15.00

97
200

48.50
100.00

11

Income Tax
To pay providers of
Capital
Interest on Debenture

16

Interest on Fixed Loan

Dividend
To Provide for
Maintenance and
Expansion of the
Company:
Depreciation
General Reserve
Retained Profit (30-7)

12
11

14
60
23

317

Reconciliation between total value Added and Profit before Taxation

Rs. (000)
Profit before tax
Add back:
Depreciation
Wages, salaries and other benefits

14
41

Directors Remuneration
Cess and Local Taxes
Interest on Debentures
Interest on Fixed Loans
Total Value Added

5
11
7
12
90

Rs. (000)
110

200

8.3.3 Interpretation of VA
While the absolute value of net VA and its proportion to gross output are very important, the
factor components of value addition reveal more information. It is generally found that value
addition is highest for service companies and lowest for a trading business. Consider a
hypothetical situation. There are three companies A, B and C. Each sells the finished product
for Rs.1, 000. Company A buys a lump of metal in the market for Rs.500 performs four
operations on it annealing, forging, trimming and polishing and sells the finished product
for Rs.1, 000. Company B buys the semi finished product in the market for Rs.800, performs
certain operations and sells the finished product at the said price of Rs.1000. Company C
buys the finished product from another company for Rs.950 and sells it for Rs.1, 000.
Thus even though al
l the three companies have the same turnover, company. A has added highest net value to its
product and company C the least. As a percentage of the gross output, company As value
addition is 50%, company Bs 20% and company Cs a meager 5%. At this point it appears
that company A, having highest value addition, will give highest returns to shareholders. But
if it so happens that out of total value addition of Rs.500 by company A, almost 90% goes out
for meeting wage bill, the position is entirely different. Therefore, considering the ratio of net
value added to gross output does not yield a complete picture .If much a company net value
added comes from an unproductive labor force, there will be little leftover for future
investments for addition to reserves. Hence, besides considering the ratio of net value
addition to gross output, one must consider the contribution of various factor costs to the net
value added.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.4 INTRODUCTION TO INFLATION ACCOUNTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Accounting is based on the traditional concept of cost and revenue. Money is the yardstick
for measuring profits and losses and financial health of the business operating results and
financial position. The basic objective of accounting is the preparation of financial statements
in a way that they give a true and fair view of the business. That is, the income statement
should disclose the true profit or loss made by the business during a particular period while
the balance sheet must show a true and fair view of the financial position of the business on a
particular date. Financial statements are prepared in monetary units i.e., rupee. The medium
of expression is the money value. The value of money is itself fluctuating; any measurement
with an unsteady scale cannot be finite and comparable. The recording of business transac-

318

tions under the assumption that monetary unit is stable is known as historical accounting.
However, it has been our experience that over a period of time, the prices have not remained
stable. There have been inflationary as well as deflationary tendencies. Rise in general price
level, termed inflation erodes the intrinsic value of money, and conversely, fall in general
prices called deflation, raises its purchasing power. Inflation is a concept which every human
being is not only aware of, but also painfully experiencing. The direct effect of inflation is the
erosion in the purchasing power of money. The root cause of the problem is the change in the
value of money.
Monetary unit is never stable and all types of countries have been experiencing high rates of
inflation. The prices change as a result of various economic and social forces and such
changes bring about a change in the purchasing power of money. Unless the necessary adjustments are made, price level changes produce distortions in the financial statements and suffer
serious limitations. Financial statements, prepared according to conventional or historical accounting system, do not reflect current economic realities. The assumption of stable money
value subject to which the financial statements are prepared is fallacious in the context of
rising prices. By Inflation, we mean a rise in general price level and a fall in the value of
money. Because historical rupee is not comparable to the present day rupee. Unlike physical
units, such as kilogram, metre etc. is stable units in measuring weight and distance, monetary
units i.e., rupee is an unstable unit of exchange value.
Consider the following example:
Capital Employed
Current Liabilities

8,00,000
2,00,000

Fixed Assets
Less: Depreciation
Current Assets

10,00,000

8,00,000
2,00,000
6,00,000
4,00,000
10,00,000

Profit after tax@ 50% and depreciation of Rs. 80, 000 (10% of the original cost of assets), the
profit is Rs 2, 00, 000. The replacement cost of the fixed asset is Rs.15, 00,000 due to
inflation. In the above example,, the rate of return on capital employed is 25% i.e. (2,00,000/
8, 00, 000x100) under historical accounting system.
But when the profit is compared to the real value of the fixed assets, being used i.e., Rs. 15,
00,000, it would be clear that the rate of return on capital employed is not 25% as shown
below:
Net Profit
Add: 10% depreciation on Rs. 8, 00,000
Add: Tax @ 50% of profit
before tax
Profit before charging depreciation and tax:

Rs 2, 00,000
80,000

Less: 10% of depreciation on

replacement cost of
Asset: Rs 15, 00,000

2, 00,000

319

Less: Tax @ 50%

Profit on the basis of price
level accounting
Capital employed on the basis
of replacement cost:
Fixed
Assets
Less: Depreciation (as in historical accounting
system)

4, 80, 000
1, 50,000
3, 30,000
1, 65,000
15, 00,000
3, 75,000
11, 25,000
4, 00, 000
15, 25, 000
2, 00,000

Add
Current
Assets
Less Current Liabilities
Capital
Employed
Rate of Return on Capital Employed
x 100
Rs 1, 65,00
Rs 13, 25,000

13, 25, 000

12.45%

Thus it is clear that the profit is over-stated and the fixed assets are under-stated, when the
effect of inflation is ignored. In this example, when the asset has to be replaced, larger funds
are required on account of inflationary conditions. The asset purchased for Rs. 8, 00,000 and
its life was expected to be 10 years, a sum of Rs 80,000 (10%) would be charged as depreciation every year. If after 10 years, the asset can be purchased for Rs. 13, 00,000, the firm
may have to face serious problems because of insufficiency of funds. Hence, the need for
inflation accounting.

8.4.1 Limitations of Historical Accounting

In order to trace the impact of inflation on the financial statements, it becomes necessary to
pinpoint the limitations of the conventional statements conveying historical financial information for end-users within an organization and also outsiders.
Changes in the price level are not taken into account. The financial statements prepared under
the conventional system are merely statements of historical facts. They fail to give realistic
and correct picture of the state of affairs of a concern. Monetary unit is never stable under
inflationary conditions. This instability has resulted in a number of distortions in the financial
statements and is the most serious limitation of historical accounting.
Fixed assets are shown in the position statement at the cost at which they were acquired.
Further purchase of assets at different points of time is clubbed together as additions to the
existing assets, without any regard to change in the purchasing power of rupee. For example,
we constructed a building at a cost of Rs. 1, 00,000 in 1990 and constructed a similar building
in 2000 at a cost of Rs 2, 50,000. The rupee value in 1990 is not the same as in 1990. The
value is significantly less in 2000. These buildings are shown as follows:

320

Building (1990)
Building (2000)

Rs. 1, 00,000
Rs. 2, 50,000
Rs.3, 50,000

8.4.2 Methods of Accounting for Changing Prices

The following are the generally accepted methods of accounting for price level changes:
a) Current Purchasing Power Method (or) General Purchasing Power Method (CPP or
GPP Method)
b) Current Cost Accounting Method (CCA Method)
c) Hybrid Method i.e. mixture of CPP and CCA Methods.
a) Current Purchasing Power Method (CPP)
Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales recommended that changes in the
price level should be reflected in the financial statements through the current purchasing
power method (CPP). For measuring changes in the price level and incorporating the changes
in the financial statements we use index numbers, which may be considered to be a barometer
meant for the purpose. Under this method any established and approved general price index is
used to convert the values of various items in the Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account.
This method takes into consideration the changes in the value of items as a result of the
general price level, but it does not account for changes in the value of individual items. For
example, a particular machine may have become cheaper over the last few years, whereas the
general price level may have risen; the value of the machine will also be raised in accordance
with general price index. Thus general price level adjustment restates financial data by
bringing past rupee amounts in line to current rupee purchasing power by general index
multiplier.
The preparation of the financial statements according to CPP method needs understanding of
the following steps:
(i) Conversion Factor
CPP method involves the restatement of historical figures at current purchasing power. For
this purpose, historical figures must be multiplied by conversion factors and the formula for
the calculation of conversion factor is:
Conversion Factor =

Price Index at the date o revaluation

Price Index at the date of existing figures
Illustration: A Company purchased a machine on 1.1.2000 for Rs. 60,000. The retail price
index on that date stood at 150. You are required to restate the value of the machine
according to CPP method on 31.12.2000 when the price index stood at 200.
Solution:
Price Index at the date of revaluation
200
4
Conversion Factor = ------------------------------------------------------= --- = -Price Index at the date of existing figures
150
3
Value of machine on 31 st December 2000 = Existing Value Conversion Factor = Rs. 60,000
x 4 / 3 = Rs. 80,000
In case, one desires to know only the difference between existing value and the converted
value of an item, it can directly be known by applying the following formula:
Difference = Existing Value x (Conversion Factor - 1)
= Rs. 60,000 x ((4 / 3) 1) = Rs. 60,000 x 1 / 3 = Rs. 20,000

321

(ii) Mid-Period Conversion

In case of transactions occurring throughout a period, it will be advisable to convert them
according to the average index of the period. Such transactions generally include revenue
items such as sales and purchases of goods, payment of expenses etc. In case the information
regarding average index is not available, it may be calculated by taking the average of the
index numbers at the beginning and at the end of the period.
(iii) Monetary and Non-Monetary Items
Monetary items are those assets and liabilities the amount of which are fixed by contract or
otherwise, and expressed in units of money, regardless of changes in general price level.
These cover cash, bank, bills receivable, bills payable, debtors, creditors, outstanding expenses, pre-paid expenses etc., represent specific monetary claim which is receivable or payable in specified number of rupees regardless of price level changes. For example, a person
lends to a company a sum of Rs. 10,000 on 1st Jan. 2000 and payable on 31st Dec. 2000. The
price index on 1st Jan. 2000 was 100 while it is 150 on 31st Dec. 2000. If the creditor is to be
compensated for loss in purchasing power on account of increase in the price level, he should
be paid:
Rs. 15,000 x (Rs. 10,000 x 150 x100)
However, he will be paid as per contract only a sum of Rs. 10,000. Similarly the company is
gaining Rs. 5,000 while the lender is losing Rs. 5,000. Monetary items need no conversion
since they are already stated in current rupees at the end of the period to which the accounts
relate.
Contrary to monetary items, non-monetary items denote such assets and liabilities that do not
represent specific monetary claims and include land, buildings, machinery, investments,
stocks, etc. For example, a land costing Rs. 50,000 in 1998 may sell for Rs. 1, 00,000 in
2000. This is due to change in the general price level. The non-monetary items do not carry a
fixed value like monetary items. Therefore, under CPP method, all such items are to be
restated to represent current general purchasing power.
Monetary assets lose their value during a period of inflation since they are expressed in fixed
monetary value: similarly, there is a gain in holding monetary liabilities. Accordingly, the
loss by holding monetary assets is offset to a little extent by the gain on monetary liabilities.
The difference between the loss and gain indicates the extent to which the concern is exposed
to inflation.
Illustration: Compute the net monetary result of X Company Ltd. as at 31st December 2000.
The relevant data are given below:
1.1.2000
31.12.2000
Rs
Rs
Cash
5,000
10,000
Book Debts
20,000
25,000
Creditors
15,000
20,000
Loan
20,000
20,000
Retail price index numbers:
1st January
200
31st December
300
Average for the year
240

322

Solution:
Statement showing the Net Monetary Result on account of Price Level Changes

Monetary liabilities as on 1st Jan.

2000 should have gone up with
increase in price indices (Rs. 35,000 x
1.5)
Increase in monetary liabilities
during 2000, which should have gone
up with increase in price indices
(Rs. 5,000 x 1.25)
Monetary liabilities on 31st Dec. 2000
should have stood at:
However the liabilities on 31st
Dec. 2000 stood at
Gain on holding of monetary liabilities
Monetary assets IS on 1st Jan. 2000
should have gone up with increase in
price indices (Rs. 25,000 x 1.5)

Rs
52,000

6,250

58,750
40,000
18,750

37,500

Increase in monetary assets during

2000 should have gone up with
increase in price indices
(Rs. 10,000 x 1.25)
Monetary assets on 3 I sty Dec. 2000
should have stood at

12,500

However the monetary assets on

31st Dec. 2000 stood at
Loss on
holding monetary assets

35,000

Net gain on monetary items

15,000

Working Notes: Conversion Factor:

3,750

For items as on 1st Jan. 2000

300 / 200 = 1.5

For items arising during 2000

300 / 240 = 1.25

50,000

323

Increase in monetary assets and liabilities during 2000:

as on 1.1.2000
as on 31.12.2000
Rs.
Rs.
(a) Monetary assets
b)Monetary Liabilities

25,000
35,000

35,000
40,000

Increase during the

year
Rs.
10,000
5,000

It is not necessary to find out monetary gain or loss for each item separately.
(iv) Cost of Sales and Inventories
Cost of sales and inventory value vary according to cost flow assumptions, i.e., FIFO or
LIFO. Under FIFO method cost of sales comprise the entire opening stock and current purchases less closing stock. And closing stock is entirely from current purchases.
Under LIFO method cost of sale comprise current purchases only. However, if the current
purchases are less than cost of sales, a part of the opening inventory may also become a part
of cost of sales. And closing stock comprises purchases made in .the previous year.
The following indices are used under CPP method for restating the historical figures:
i. For current purchases: Average index of the year.
ii. For opening stock: Index at the beginning of the year.
iii. For purchases of the previous year: Average indices for the year.
Illustration From the following data calculate (a) cost of sales and cost of inventory under
CPP method presuming that the firm is following LIFO method for inventory valuation:
Rs
Inventory as on 1.1.2000
8,000
Purchases during 2000

48,000

Inventory as on 31.12.2000

12,000

Price Index as on 1.1.2000

100

Price Index as on 31.12.2000

140

Average Price Index for 2000

125

324

Solution:
Cost of Sales and Closing Inventory (LIFO)
Historical Cost
Rs
Determination
Profit

Conversion Factor

Converted Amount

Under CPP

Rs

of

Inventory as on
1.1.2000

8,000

Add: Purchases

140/100

11,200

140/125

53,760

48,000
64,960

56,000
Less: Closing
Inventory (b)
From opening
inventory

8,000

From current
purchase

4,000

Cost of goods sold

(a)

44,000

140/100

11,200

140/125

4,480
49,280

Under Current Purchasing Power Method, the profit can be determined in two ways:
(i) Net Change Method
This method is based on the normal accounting principle that profit is the change in equity
during an accounting period. In order to determine this change the following steps are taken:
(a) Opening Balance Sheet prepared under historical cost accounting method is converted
into CPP terms as at the end of the year. This is done by application of proper conversion
factors to both monetary as well as non-monetary items. Equity share capital is also converted. The difference in the balance sheet is taken as reserves. Alternatively, the equity share
capital may not be converted and the difference in balance sheet be taken as equity.
(b) Closing Balance Sheet prepared under historical cost accounting is also converted. Of
course, monetary items are not restated, as explained earlier. The difference between the two
sides of the balance sheet is put as reserves after converting the equity capital. Alternatively,
the equity capital may not be restated in CPP terms and the balance be taken as equity.
(c) Profit is equivalent to net change in reserves (where equity capital has also been converted) or net change in equity (where equity capital has not been restated).

325

(ii) Conversion or Restatement of Income Statement Method

In case of this method, the income statement prepared on historical cost basis is restated in
CPP terms, generally on the basis:
(a) Sales and operating expenses are converted at the average rate applicable for the
year.
(b) Cost of sales is converted as per cost flow assumption (FIFO or LIFO) as
explained in the preceding pages.
(c) Fixed assets are converted on the basis of the indices prevailing on the dates they
were purchased. The same applies to depreciation.
(d) Taxes and dividends paid are converted on the basis of indices that were prevalent
on the dates they were paid.
(e) Gain or loss on account of monetary items should be calculated and stated
separately in Restated Income Statement to arrive at the overall figure of profit or loss.
b) Current Cost Accounting Method
The current cost accounting method is an alternative to the current purchasing power method.
Price changes may be general or specific. Changes in the general level of prices which occur
as a result of a change in the value of the monetary unit are measured by index numbers.
Specific price changes occur if prices of a particular asset held change without any general
price movements. Under this method, assets are valued at current cost. Current cost is the cost
at which the assets can be replaced as on a date. While the current purchasing power method
is known as the general price level approach, the current cost accounting method is known as
the specific price level approach or replacement cost accounting.
Sandilands Committee of U.K has suggested this method. The Sandilands Committee
published its report in September 1975 recommending the adoption of current cost
accounting for dealing with the problem of inflation accounting. In this method, historic values of items are not taken into account; rather current values of individual items are taken as
the basis for preparing profit and loss account and balance sheet. Thus items are not adjusted
as a result of the change in the general price level as they are adjusted in the CPP method.
Features of CCA System
The following are the important features of the CCA Method:
(a) Fixed Assets are to be shown in the Balance Sheet at their value to the business and
not at historical cost as reduced by depreciation. That is assets are shown in terms of what
such assets would currently cost.
(b) Similarly, inventories are shown in the Balance Sheet at their value prevailing on the
date of the Balance Sheet. These are not shown at cost or market price whichever is
lower, as in case of historical accounting.
(c) Depreciation is to be computed on the current value of fixed assets.
(d) The cost of goods sold during the year has to be ascertained on the basis of prices
prevailing at the date of consumption and not at the date of purchase.
(e) The difference between the current values and the depreciated original cost of fixed
assets and of stocks, the increased requirements for monetary working capital and the
under provision of depreciation in the past years may be adjusted through Revaluation
Reserve Account.
(f) The fixed assets are shown at their "value to the business". The "value to the
business" can be defined in one of the following three ways:

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(i) Replacement cost is the estimated cost of acquiring new asset of the same Productive
capacity at current prices adjusted for estimated depreciation since acquisition.
(ii) Net Realizable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business
less reasonably predictable costs of completion and disposal.
(iii) Economic value is the sum of the discounted future cash flows expected from the
use of an asset during its useful life.
Current Cost Operating Profit
Three main adjustments to trading account, calculated on the historical cost basis before
interest, are required to arrive at current cost operating profit. These are called the Depreciation Adjustment, Cost of Sales Adjustment and Monetary Working Capital Adjustments.
Depreciation Adjustment
The depreciation adjustment allows for the impact of price changes when determining the
charge against revenue for the part of fixed assets consumed in the period. It is the difference
between the value to the business of part of fixed assets consumed during the accounting
period and the amount of depreciation charged on historical cost basis. The resulting total
depreciation charge thus represents the value to the business of the part of fixed assets consumed in earning the revenue of the period.
Illustration A plant was purchased on 1st Jan. 1996 for Rs. 2, 00,000 and is depreciated at
10% p.a. on straight line basis. By the end of 2000, the price of the same went up to Rs. 4,
00,000. Show how the plant account would appear in the Balance Sheet as at 31st Dec. 2000.
Solution:

Plant
Less: Depreciation for five years

Historical Cost
Rs
2, 00,000

Current Cost
Rs
4, 00,000

1, 00,000
1, 00,000

2, 00,000
2, 00,000

The increase in the value that is Rs 2,00,000 less increased depreciation that is Rs
1,00,000=Rs 1,00,000 would be shown on the liability side of the balance sheet as current
cost reserve.
Cost of Sales Adjustment
The important principle to be remembered is that current costs must be matched with current
revenues. As far as sales are concerned, it needs no adjustment as it is current revenue. One
of the features of current cost accounting is to show inventories in the Balance Sheet on the
basis of their value to the business, and not at cost or market price, whichever is lower. If
there are stocks, certain adjustments are to be made to cost of sales. If there are no stocks,
then cost of sales will comprise only current purchases and cost of sales adjustment is not
necessary.

327

Illustration:
From the following information calculate the Cost of Sales under Historical and Current
Cost Accounting System:
Opening Stock of materials on 1.1.2000
(1,000 kilos @ Rs 30 per kilo)
Purchases during the year 2000
Materials consumed during the year 2000
Price of materials on 1.1.2000
Average price during 2000
Price of materials on 31.12.2000

30,000
Nil
Nil
800 Kilograms
Rs 35 per Kilo
Rs 40 per Kilo
Rs 45 per Kilo

Solution:
Cost of Sales (800 kilos x Rs 30)

Rs 24,000

Closing Stock (200 kilos x Rs 30)

Rs 6,000

Current Cost Accounting System:

Cost of Sales (800 kilos x Rs 40)

Rs 32,000

Closing Stock (200 kilos x Rs 45)

Rs 9,000

The increase in stock of Rs 3,000 in CCA method over Historical Cost basis will be credited
to Current Cost Account Reserve. The closing stock in Balance Sheet will be shown at Rs.
9,000. The cost of Sales Adjustment amounting to Rs. 8,000 (Rs. 32,000 - Rs. 24,000) will be
charged to Profit and Loss Account and credited to Current Cost Accounting Reserve.
Monetary Working Capital Adjustment
Most businesses have other working capital besides stock involved in their day-to-day operating activities. For example, when sales are made on credit the business has funds tied up
in debtors. Conversely, if the suppliers of goods and services allow a period of credit, the
amount of funds needed to support working capital is reduced. This monetary working capital
is an integral part of the net operating assets of the business. Thus, the standard provides for
an adjustment in respect of monetary working capital when determining current cost
operating profit. This adjustment should represent the amount of additional (or reduced)
finance needed for monetary working capital as a result of changes in the input prices of
goods and services used and financed by the business.
In a business, which holds stocks, the monetary working capital adjustment (MWCA) complements the COSA and together they allow for the impact of price changes on the total
amount of working capital used by the business in its day-to-day operations. For example, the
relationship between the MWCA made in respect of trade debtors and trade creditors and the
COSA is as follows:(a) When sales are made on credit the business has to finance the
changes in its input prices until the sale results in a receipt of cash. The part of the MWCA
related to trade debtors, in effect, extends the COSA to allow for this; and (b) Conversely,
when materials and services are purchased from suppliers who offer trade credit, price
changes are financed by the supplier during the credit period. To this extent extra funds do

328

not have to be found by the business and this reduces the need for a COSA and in some cases
for a MWCA on debtors. The part of the MWCA related to trade creditors reflects this
reduction.
Gearing Adjustment: The net operating assets shown in the Balance Sheet have usually
been financed partly by borrowing and the effect of this is reflected by means of a gearing
adjustment in arriving at current cost profit attributable to shareholders. No gearing
adjustment arises where a company is wholly financed by shareholders' capital. While
repayment rights on borrowing are normally fixed in monetary amount, the proportion of net
operating assets so financed increases or decreases in value to the business. Thus, when these
assets have been realized, either by sale or use in the business, repayment of borrowing could
be made so long as the proceeds are not less than the historical cost of those assets.
Illustration From the data given below calculate the gearing adjustment required under CCA
method:
Current Cost
Convertible Debentures
Bank Overdraft

Opening (Rs.)
1, 00,000
60,000

Closing (Rs.)
1, 20,000
80,000

Cash

10,000

20,000

Paid up Share Capital

1, 50,000

2, 00,000

Reserves

30,000

50,000

COSA

20,000

MWCA

15,000

Depreciation

5000
40,000

Solution:
Opening (Rs.)
Calculation
of
net
borrowing:
Convertible Debentures
1, 00,000
Bank Overdraft
60,000
Total of the borrowing
1, 60,000
Less: Cash which does not 10,000
enter MWCA
Net borrowings (L)
1, 50, 000
1, 80,000
Shareholders funds (S)

Closing (Rs.)
1, 20,000
80,000
2, 00,000
20,000

Total of borrowings and 3, 30,000

shareholders funds (L + S)

4, 30,000

1, 80,000
2, 50,000

329

The gearing adjustment is calculated by the application of the formula:

Gearing Adjustment = L / (L + S) x A
L = Average net borrowing
S = Average shareholders interest
A = Total of the current cost adjustments.
The gearing equation is = (1,50,000 + 1,80,000) / (3,30,000 + 4,30,000) = 43.5 %
Gearing Adjustment =
43.5% x Rs. 40,000 = Rs. 17,400

8.4.3 Merits of Inflation Account

Since assets are shown at current values, Balance Sheet exhibits a fair view of the financial
position of a firm. Depreciation is calculated on the value of assets to the business and not on
their historical cost - a correct method. It facilitates easy replacement. Profit and Loss
Account will not overstate business income. Inflation accounting shows current profit based
on current prices. Profit or loss is determined by matching the cost and the revenue at current
values, which are comparable - a realistic assessment of performance. Financial ratios based
on figures, adjusted to current value, are more meaningful. Inflation accounting gives correct
information, based on current price to the workers and shareholders. In the absence of this,
workers may claim for higher wages and shareholders too claim for higher dividends.

8.4.5 Demerits of Inflation Account

The system is not acceptable to Income tax authorities. Too many calculations make
complications. Changes in prices are a never ending process. The amount of depreciation will
be lower in times of deflation. The profit calculated on the system of price level accounting
may not be a realistic profit
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.5 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RESOURCE ACCOUNTING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dear students, I believe by this time the prime object of the management accounting is to
optimum utilization of resources. You should find that Human resource is the vital resource
for success of any organization. As you are interestingly learning all managerial tools for,
perhaps it will enrich your knowledge. Let us discuss the same.
Human beings are considered central to achievement of productivity, well above equipment,
technology and money. Human Resource Accounting (HRA) is an attempt to identify,
quantify and report investment made in human resources of an organization that are not
presently accounted for under conventional accounting practice. The committee of HRA of
the American Accounting Association defined HRA as the process of identifying and
measuring data about human resources and communicating this information to interested
parties. However Resources are not yet recognized as assets in the Balance Sheet. The
measures of the net income, which are provided in the conventional financial statement, do
not accurately reflect the level of business performance. Expenses relating to the human
organization are charged to current revenue instead of being treated as investments to be
amortized over the economic service life, with the result that the magnitude of net income is
significantly distorted.
The necessity of HRA arose primarily as a result of the growing concern for human relations
management in industry since the sixties of the last century. Behavioral scientists (like R.
Likert, 1960), concerned with management of organizations pointed out that the failure of

330

accountants to value human resources was a serious handicap for effective management.
Many social scientists are of the opinion that it is difficult to value human resources. Some
others have cautioned that people are sensitive to the value others place on them. A machine
never reacts to an over or under valuation of its capacity, but an employee will certainly react
to such distortion. Conventionally, human resources are treated just as any other services
purchased from outside the business firm. As a result conventional Balance Sheet fails to
reflect the value of human assets and hence distort the value of the business. The treatment of
human resources as assets is desirable with a view to ensuring compatibility and
completeness of financial statements and more efficient allocation of funds as well as
providing more useful information to management for decision-making purpose.

8.5.1 Models of HRA

Quite a few models have been suggested from time to time for the measurement and
valuation of human assets. Some of these models are briefly discussed below:

Cost Based Models:

Capitalization of Historical Costs: R. Likert and his associates at R. G. Barry Corporation

in Ohio, Columbia, USA, developed this model in 1967. It was first adopted for managers in
1968 and then extended to other employees of R. G. Barry Corporation.
The method involves capitalizing all costs related with making an employee ready for
providing service recruitment training, development etc. The sum of such costs for all the
employees of the enterprise is taken to represent the total value of human resources. The
value is amortized annually over the expected length of service of individual employees. The
unamortized cost is shown as investment in human assets. If an employee leaves the firm (i.e.
human assets expire) before the expected service life period, the net asset value to that extent
is charged to current revenue. The model is simple and easy to understand and satisfies the
basic principle of matching cost and revenues. But historical costs are sunk costs and are
irrelevant for decision-making. This model was severely criticized because it failed to
provide a reasonable value to human assets. It capitalizes only training and development costs
incurred on employees and ignores the future expected cost to be incurred for their
maintenance. This model distorts the value of highly skilled human resources. Skilled
employees require less training and therefore, according to this model, will be valued at a
lesser cost. For all these reasons, this model has not been totally rejected.
Replacement Cost: The Flamholtz Model (1973): Replacement cost indicates the value of
sacrifice that an enterprise has to make to replace its human resource by an identical one.
Flamholtz has referred to two different concepts of replacement cost viz. individual
replacement cost and positional replacement cost. The individual replacement cost refers
to the cost that would have to be incurred to replace an individual by a substitute who can
provide the same set of services as that of the individual being replaced. The positional
replacement cost, on the other hand, refers to the cost of replacing the set of services
required of any incumbent in a defied position. Thus the positional replacement cost takes
into account the position in the organization currently held by an employee and also future
positions expected to be held by him. However, determination of replacement cost of an
employee is highly subjective and often impossible. Particularly at the management cadre,
finding out an exact replacement is very difficult. The exit of a top management person may
substantially, change the human assets value.

331

Economic Value Models: Opportunity Cost: The Hekimian and Jones Model (1967): This
model uses the opportunity cost that is the value of an employee in his alternative use, as a
basis for estimating the value of human resources. The opportunity cost value may be
established by competitive bidding within the firm, so that in effect, managers must bid for
any scare employee. A human asset, therefore, will have a value only if it is a scarce
resource, that is, when its employment in one division denies it to another division. One of
the serious drawbacks of this method is that it excludes employees of the type, which can be
hired readily from outside the firm, so that the approach seems to be concerned with only
one section of a firms human resources, having special skills within the firm or in the labor
market. Secondly, circumstances in which mangers may like to bid for an employee would be
rare, in any case, not very numerous.
Discounted wages and salaries: The Lev and Schwartz Model (1971): This model involves
determining the value of human resources as the present value of estimated future earnings of
employees (in the form of wages, salaries etc.) discounted by the rate of return on investment
(cost of capital). According to Lev and Schwartz, the value of human capital embodied in a
person of age is the present value of his remaining future earnings from employment. Their
valuation model for a discrete income stream is given by the following:
T
Vt =
I (t)
t =r (1+r)t r
Where,
Vt =
the human capital value of a person t years old
I (t) =
the persons annual earnings up to retirement.
R =
a discount rate specific to the person
T=
retirement age.
However, the above expression is an ex-post computation of human capital value at any age
of the person, since only after retirement can the series 1(t) is known. Lev and Schwartz,
therefore, converted their ex-post valuation model to an ex-ante model by replacing the
observed (historical) values of I (t) with estimates of future annual earnings denoted by 1*(t).
According, the estimated value of human capital of a person years old is given by:
Vt =
I (t)
t =r (1+r)t r
Lev and Schwartz again pointed out the limitation of the above formulation in the sense that
the above model ignored the possibility of death occurring prior to retirement age. They
suggested that the death factor can be incorporated into the above model with some
modification and accordingly they recommended the following expression for calculating the
expected value of a persons human capital:
T
t
E (V *) = (t + 1)
I*
T=t
I = t (1+r)1-r

332

Where R (t) is the probability of a person dying at aget.

Lev and Schwartz have shown in the form of a hypothetical example the method of
computing the firms value of human capital. Age groups and degrees of skill have
decomposed employees of the hypothetical firm and the average annual earnings for each age
and skill group have been ascertained. Finally the present values of future earnings for each
group of employees have been calculated on the basis of a capitalization rate. The sum of all
such present value of future earnings was taken as the firms value of human capital.
In this model, wages and salaries are taken as surrogate for the value of human assets and
therefore it provides a measure of future estimated cost. Although according to economic
theory, the value of an asset to a firm lies in the rate of return to be derived by the firm from
its employment. Lev and Schwartz model surrogated wages and salaries of the employees for
the income to be derived from their employment. They felt that income generated by the
workforce is very difficult to measure because income is the result of group effort of all
factors of production.
However, this model is subject to the following criticisms:
A persons value to an organization is determined not only by the characteristics of
the person himself (as suggested by Lev and Schwartz) but also by the organizational
role in which the individual is utilized. An individuals knowledge and skill is
valuable only if these are expected to serves a means to given organizational ends.
The model ignores the possibility and probability that the individual may leave an
organization for reasons other that death or retirement. The models expected value of
human capital is actually a measure of the expected conditional value of a persons
human capital the implicit condition is that the person will remain in an organization
until death or retirement. This assumption is not practically social.
It ignores the probability that people may make role changes during their careers. For
example, an Assistant Engineer will not remain in the same position throughout his
expected service life in an organization.
In spite of the above limitations, this model is the most popular measure of human capital
both in India and abroad.
Stochastic process with service rewards: Flamholtz (1971) Model: Flamholtz (1971)
advocated that an individuals value to an organization is determined by the services he is
expected to render. An individual moves through a set of mutually exclusive organizational
roles or service states during a time interval. Such movement can be estimated
probabilistically. The expected service to be derived from an individual is given by:
n
E (s) = Si P ( Si)
I=I
Where Si represents the quantity of services expected to be derived in each state and P (Si) is
the probability that they will be obtained.
However, economic valuation requires that the services of the individuals are to be presented
in terms of a monetary equivalent. This monetary representation can be derived in one of the
two ways:
(a)
By determining the product o their quantity and price, and
(b)
By calculating the income expected to be derived from their use.

333

The present worth of human capital may be derived by discounting the monetary equivalent
of expected future services at a specified rate (e.g. interest rate)
The major drawback of this model is that it is difficult to estimate the probabilities of likely
service states of each employee. Determining monetary equivalent of service states is also
very difficult and costly affair. Another limitation of this model arises from the narrow view
taken of an organization. Since the analysis is restricted to individuals, it ignores the added
value element of individuals operating as groups.
Valuation of group basis: Jaggi and Lau Model: Jaggi and Lau realized that proper
valuation of human resources is not possible unless the contributions of individuals as a
group are taken into consideration. A group refers to homogeneous employees whether
working in the same department or division of the organization or not. Individuals expected
service tenure in the organization is difficult to predict but on a group basis it is relatively
easy to estimate the percentage of people in a group likely to leave the organization in future.
This model attempted to calculate the present value to all existing employees in each rank.
Such present value is measured with the help of the following steps:

Ascertain the number of employees in each rank

Estimate the probability that an employee will be in his rank within the organization
or terminated/promoted in the next period. This probability will be estimated for a
specified time period.
Ascertain the economic value of an employee in a specified rank during each time
period.
The present value of existing employees in each rank is obtained by multiplying the
above three factors and applying an appropriate discount rate.

Jaggi and Lau tried to simplify the process of measuring the value of human resources by
considering a group of employees as valuation base. But in the process they ignored the
exceptional qualities of certain skilled employees. The performance of a group may be
seriously affected in the event of exit of a single individual.

8.5.2 Implications of Human Capital Reporting

The relevance of the human resource information lies in the fat that it concerns organizational
changes in the firms human resources. The ratio of human to non-human capital indicates
the degree of labor intensity of the enterprise. Reported human capital values provide
information about changes in the structure of labor force. Difference between general and
specific values of human capital is another source for management analysis the specific
value of human capital is based on firms wages scale while the general value is based on
industry wise wage scale. The difference between the two is an indicator of the level of the
firms wages scale as compared to the industry.

334

8.5.3 HRA in India

HRA is a recent phenomenon in India. Leading public sector units like OIL, BHEL,
NTPC, MMTC, SAIL etc. have started reporting, Human Resources in their Annual
Reports as additional information from late seventies or early eighties. The Indian
companies basically adopted the model of human resource valuation advocated by Lev
and Schwartz (1971). This is because the Indian companies focused their attention on the
present value of employee earnings as a measure of their human capital. However, the
Indian companies have suitably modified the Lev and Schwartz model to suit their
individual circumstances. For example BHEL applied Lev and Schwartz model with the
following assumptions:

Present pattern of employee compensation including direct and indirect benefits;

Normal career growth as per the present policies, with vacancies filled from the levels
immediately below:
Weight age for changes in efficiency due to age, experience and skills;
Application of a discount factor of 12% per annum on the future earnings to arrive at
the present value.

OIL, on the other hand, used a discount factor of 10.5% per annum for the year 1985-86 and
increased the discount factory to 15% per annum from the year 1986-87.
However, the application of Lev and Schwartz model by the public sector companies has in
many cases, led to over ambitious and arbitrary value of the human assets without giving any
scope for interpreting along with the financial results of the corporation. For example, in the
case of MMTC over a period of three years (1984-85 to 1986-87), the value of human assets
increased by more than 46%, whereas during the same period the book value of all other
assets increased only by about 3%. On the other hand in the case of Oil India Ltd. (OIL) the
value of human assets had actually decreased over a three-year period from 1985-86 to 198788. The human assets accounted for 49.38% of total resources (including investment in HR)
as on 31st March 1986. But it came down to 38.01% on 31st March 1988.In the Indian
context, more particularly in the Public Sector, the payment made to the employees are not
directly linked to productivity. The fluctuations in the value of employees contributions to
the organization are seldom proportional to the changes in the payments to employees. All
qualitative factors like the attitude and morale of the employees are out of the purview of Lev
and Schwartz model of human resource valuation.
Illustration:
From the following information in respect of Exe Ltd. Calculate the total value of human
capital by following Lev and Schwartz model:
Age
No.
30-39
70
40-49
20
50-54
10
Apply 15% discount factor

Distribution of employees of Exe Ltd.

Unskilled
Semi skilled
Av. Annual No.
Av. annual No.
Earnings
earnings
(Rs. 000)
(Rs. 000
3
50
3.5
30
4
15
5
15
5
10
6
5

335

Skilled
Av. Annual
Earnings
(Rs. 000)
5
6
7

Solution
The present value of earnings of each category of employees is ascertained as below:
(A) Unskilled employees:
Age group 30-39. Assume that all 70 employees are just 30 years old.
Present Value
Rs.
Rs.3, 000 p.a. for next 10 years
15.057
Rs.4, 000 p.a. for years 11 to 20

4,960

Rs.5, 000 p.a. for years 21 to 25

1,025
21.042

Age group 40-49. Assume that all 20 employees are just 40 years old.
Present Value
Rs.
Rs.4, 000 p.a. for next years
20,076
Rs.5, 000 p.a. for years 11 to 15

4,140
24.216

Age group 50-54. Assume that all 10 employees are just 50 years old.
Rs.5, 000 p.a. for next 5 years
16,760
Similarly, present value of each employee under other categories will be calculated.
(B) Semi-skilled employees:

Rs.3, 500 p.a. for next 10 years

Rs.5, 000 p.a. for years 11 to 20
Rs.6, 000 p.a. for years 21 to 25

Rs.5, 000 p.a. for next 10 years

Rs.6, 000 p.a. for years 11 to 15

Age group 30-39

Present Value
Rs.
17.567
6,200
1,230
24.997
Age group 40-49
Present Value
Rs.
25,095
4,968
30,063

336

Age group 50-54

Present Value
Rs.
20,112

Rs.6, 000 p.a. for next 5 years

(C) Skilled employees:
Rs.5, 000 p.a. for next 10 years
Rs.6, 000 p.a. for years 11 to 20
Rs.7, 000 p.a. for years 21 to 25

Age group 30-39

Rs.
25.095
7.440
1,435
33.970
Age group 40-49
Rs.
30,114
5,796
35,910

Rs.6, 000 p.a. for next 10 years

Rs.7, 000 p.a. for years 11 to 15

Age group 50-54

Rs.
23,464

Rs.7, 000 p.a. for next 5 years

8.5.4 Total Value of Human Capital

Age

Unskilled

Semi skilled
Av.
Annual

Av.Annual
No

Earnings

Skilled

No.

(Rs.000)

Earnings

Total

Av.
Annual
No.

(Rs.000)

Earnings

Av.Annual
No.

Earnings
(Rs.000)

(Rs.000)

30-39

70

14,72,940

50

12,49,850

30

10,19,100

150

37,41,890

40-49

20

4,94,320

15

4,50,945

15

5,38,650

50

14,73,915

10

1,67,600

10

2,01,120

1,17,320

25

4,86,040

100

21,24,860

75

19,01,915

50

16,75,070

50-54

337

57,01,845

The central problem in HRA is not what kind of resources should be treated, but rather when
the resources should be recognized. This timing issue is particularly important because
human resources are not owed by the firm, while many physical resources are. However, the
firm also uses many services from physical resources, which it does not own. The accounting
treatment for such services should, therefore, is the same as the treatment used for human
resources. Traditional accounting involves treatment of human capital and non-human capital
differently. While non-human capital is represented by the recorded value of assets, the only
reference to be found in financial statement about human resources are entries in the income
statement in respect of wages and salaries, directors fees etc. But it should be kept in mind
that measuring and reporting the value of human assets in financial statements would prevent
management from liquidating human resources or overlooking profitable investments in
human resources in a period of profit squeeze. But while valuing human assets one should not
lose sight of the fact that human beings are highly sensitive to external forces and human,
skills in an organization do not remain static. Skill formation, skill obsolescence or utilization
may take a continuous process. Besides employee attitude, loyalty commitment, job
satisfaction etc. may also influence the way in which human resource skills are utilized.
Therefore human resources should be valued in such a way so to cover the qualitative aspects
of human beings. As human being are highly susceptible to certain behavioral factors (unlike
physical assets) any human resource valuation model without behavioral features can hardly
present the value of human assets in an objective manner. However while attaching
respective weight age to behavioral factors, care should be taken to avoid excessive
subjective ness.

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MODERN TECHNIQUES OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

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Structure
9.1 Introduction to Standard Cost
9.1.1 Advantages of Standard Costing
9.1.2 Limitations of Standard Accounting
9.1.3 Setting Standards
9.1. 4 Determination of Standard Cost
9.2 Cost Variance Analysis
9.2.1 Causes of Variances
9.2.2 Controllable and Uncontrollable Variances
9.2.3 Uses of Variance Analysis
9.2.4 Types of Cost Variances
9.3 Material Cost Variance Analysis
9.4 Labor Cost Variance Analysis
9.5 Sales Variance Analysis
9.5.1 Sales Variance Calculation Methods
9.5.2 Profit or Margin Method
9.5.3 Causes of Variance and Disposition
9.6 Budgetary Control and Monitoring
9.6.1 Importance of Budgetary Control
9.6.2 Essentials of Budgetary Control
9.6.3 Budget Manual
9.6.4 Budget Monitoring
9.7 Cost Audit
9.7.1 Cost Audit: Types and Advantages
9.7.2 Cost Audit and Financial Analysis
9.7.3 Cost Auditor
9.7.4 Cost Accounting Records
9.7.5 Cost Audit Report
9.8 Management Audit
9.8.1 Objectives and Scope of Management Audit
9.8.2 Areas of Management Audit
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9.1 INTRODUCTION TO STANDARD COST

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dear learner you just recollect the fundamental objectives of the Management Accounting is,
managing a business through accounting information. In this process management accounting
is facilitating managerial control. It you can also apply to your own day/monthly expenses if

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necessary, applying correct measures so that performance takes place according to plans.
Planning is the first tool form making control effective. The vital aspect of managerial control
is cost control. Hence, it is very important to plan and control costs. Standard costing is a
technique, which helps you to control costs and business operations. It aims at eliminating
wastes and increasing efficiency in performance through setting up standards or formulating
cost plans.
When you want to measure some thing we must take some parameter or yard stick for
measure then this is we can measure as standard. What your daily expenses an average is
Rs50. it you have been spending from so many days. Hence this is your daily standard
expenses. The word standard means a benchmark or yard stick. The standard cost is a
predetermined cost which determines in advance what each product or service should cost
under given circumstances. In the words Backer and Jacobsen, standard cost is the amount
the firm things a product or the operation of the process for a period of time should cost based
upon certain assumed conditions of efficiency, economic conditions and other factors. The
CIMA London a predetermined cost which is calculated from managements standards of
efficient operations and the relevant necessary expenditure. They are the predetermined
costs on technical estimate of material labour and overhead for a selected period of time and
for a prescribed set of working conditions.
A standard cost is a planned cost for a unit of
product or service rendered
The technique of using standard costs fro the purposes of cost control is known as standard
costing. It is a system of cost accounting, which is designed to find out how much, should be
the cost of a product under the existing conditions. The actual cost can be ascertained only
when production is undertaken. The pre-determined cost is compared to the actual cost and a
variance between the two enables the management to take necessary corrective measures.

9.1.1 Advantages of Standard Costing

By now you may understand the very purpose of the standard costing. It is evident to
emphases that it is a management control technique for every activity. Standard costing is not
only useful for cost control purposes but it is also helpful in production planning and policy
formulation. It allows management by exception. In the light of various objectives of this
system some of the advantages of the tool. are:
1. Efficiency Measurement: You just find it is a yardstick for measuring efficiency. The
comparison of actual costs with standard costs enables the management to evaluate
performance of various cost centers. In the absence of standard costing system actual costs of
different period may be compared to measure efficiency. It is not proper to compare costs of
different period because circumstance of both the periods may be different. Still a decision
about base period with which actual performance can be compared.
2. Finding of Variance: Now we can find the performance by comparing actual costs with
standard costs variances are determined. Management is able to spot out the place of
inefficiencies. It can fix responsibility for deviation in performance. It is possible to take
corrective measures at the earliest. A regular check on various expenditures is also ensured
by standard cost system.
3. Management by Exception: Now we can use of standard costing, the targets of different
individuals are fixed if the performance is according to predetermined standards then there is
nothing to worry the attention of management is drawn only when actual performance is less
than the budgeted performance. Management by exception means that everybody is given a

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target to be achieved and management need not supervise each and everything. The
responsibilities are fixed and every body tries to achieve his targets.
4. Cost Control: Every costing system aims at cost control and cost reduction. The standards
are being constantly analyzed and an effort is made to improve efficiency. When ever a
variance occurs the reasons are studied and immediate corrective measures are undertaken.
The action taken in spotting weak points enables cost control system.
5. Right Decisions. It enables and provides useful information to the management in taking
important decisions. The problem created by inflating, rising prices. It can also be used to
provide incentive plans for employees etc.
6. Eliminating Inefficiencies. The settings of standard for different elements of cost require
a detailed study of different aspects. The standards are differently set for manufacturing,
administrative and selling expenses. Improved methods are used for setting these standards.
The determination of manufacturing expenses will require time and motion study for labor
and effective material control devices for materials. Similar studies will be needed for finding
other expenses. All these studies will make it possible to eliminating inefficiencies at
different steps.

9.1.2 Limitations of Standard Costing

In our previous discussion we find the need and importance of the standard costing. It can be
success full when its have the standards and actual comparison. Now we can look in to real
difficulties and limitations.
It cannot be used in those organizations which non standard products are produced.
If the production is undertaken according to the customer specifications then each
job will involve different amount of expenditures.
In the process of setting standard is a difficult task, as it requires technical skill. The
time and motion study is required to be undertaken for this purpose. These studies
require a lot of time and money.
There are no inset circumstances to be considered for fixing standards. The conditions
under which standards are fixed do not remain static. With the change in
circumstances the standards are not revised the same become impracticable.
The fixing of responsibility is not an easy task. The variances are to be classified into
controllable and uncontrollable variances. This is only for controllable variances.
For instance if the industry changed the technology then the system will not suitable
then we have to change or revise the standards. A frequent revision of standards will
be come costly.

9.1.3 Setting Standards

You may be experienced that, normally setting up standard basing on the past experience.
The total standard cost includes direct materials, direct labor and overheads. Normally all
these are fixed to some extent. The standards should be set up in a systematic way so that
they are used as a tool for cost control. Some of the various elements, which influence the
setting the standards.
Setting Standards For Direct Materials: There are several basic principles, which ought to
be appreciated in setting standards for direct materials. Generally when you want to purchase
some material what are the factors you consider? If material is used for a product it is known
as direct material, on the other hand if the material cost cannot be assigned to the

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manufacturing of the product it will be called indirect material. Therefore it Involve two
things. 1. Quality of materials 2. Price of the materials. When you want to purchase quantity
of material the quality and size of materials should be determined. The standard quality to be
maintained should be decided. The quantity is decided by production department this
department makes use of historical records and an allowance for changing conditions will
also be given for setting standards. A number of test runs may be undertaken on different
days and under different situations and an average of these results should be used for setting
material quantity standards. The second step in determining direct material cost will be a
decision about the standard price. Materials cost will be decided in consultation with the
purchase department. The cost of purchasing and store keeping of materials should also be
taken into consideration. The procedure for purchase of materials, minimum and maximum
levels for various materials, discount policy and means of transport are the other factors
which have bearing on the materials cost price. It includes the Cost of materials; Ordering
cost; Carrying cost. The purpose should be to increase efficiency in procuring and store
keeping of materials. The type of standard used ideals standard or expected standard, also
affect the choice of standard price.
Setting Direct Labor Cost: When you wanted engage labor force for manufacturing a
product or a service for which you need to pay some amount, which is called as wages. If the
labor is engaged directly to produce product which is known as direct labor. The second
largest amount of cost is labor. The benefit derived from the workers can be assigned to a
particular product or a process. The wages paid to workers cannot be directly assigned to a
particular product; these will be known as indirect wages. The time required for producing a
product would be ascertained and labor should be properly graded. Different grades of
workers will be paid different rates of wages .the times spent by different grades of workers
for manufacturing a product should also be studied for deciding upon direct labor cost. The
setting of standard for direct labor basically on Standard labor time for producing; Labor rate
per hour. You may find standard labor time indicates the time taken by different categories of
labor force
1. Skilled labor
2. Semi-skilled labor
3. Un skilled labor
Now you setting a standard time for labor force normally we taken account for previous
experience past performance records, test run result, work-study etc., .The labor rate standard
refers to the expected wage rates to be paid for different categories of workers. Past wage
rates and demand and supply principle may but be safe guide for determining standard labor
rates. The anticipation of expected changes in labor rates will be an essential factor. In case
there is an agreement with workers for payment of wage are in the coming period then these
rates should be used. If a premium or bonus scheme is in operation then anticipated extra
payments should also be included. Where a piece rate system is used then standard cost will
be fixed per piece. The object of fixed standard labor time and labor rate is to device
maximum efficiency in the use of labor.
Setting Standards of Overheads: The next important element which comes under
overheads. The very purpose of setting standard for over heads is to minimize the total cost.
Standard overhead rates are computed by dividing overhead expenses by direct labor hours or
units produced. The standard overhead cost is obtained by multiplying standard overhead rate
by the labor hours spent or number of units produced. The determination of overhead rate
involves three things.

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A. Determination of overheads
B. Determination of labor hours or units manufactured
C. Calculating overheads rate by dividing A by B
The overheads are classified into fixed overheads, Variable overheads and semi-variable
overheads. The fixed overheads remain the same irrespective of level of production while
variable overheads change in the proportion of production. The expenses increase or
decreases with the increase or decrease in out put. Semi-variable overheads are neither fixed
nor variable. These overheads increase with the increase in production but the rate of increase
will be less than the rate of increase will be less than the rate of increase in production. The
division of overheads into fixed, variable and semi-variable categories will help in
determining overheads.

9.1.4 Determination of Standard Costs

I haven explaining you is the over all controlling system of standard costing. Any controlling
process it should go for investigation of facts and its rectifications. In the same process now
we look in to how to determine the ideal standards for better controlling. I think you are
Interested to know some thing about.
1. Determination of Cost Centre: According to J.Betty, a cost center is a department or
part of a department or item of equipment or machinery or a person or a group of persons in
respect of which costs are accumulated and one where control can be exercised. Cost
Centers Are Necessary For Determining The Costs. In the whole factory is engaged in
manufacturing a product the factory will be a cost centre. In fact, a cost center describes the
product whole cost is accumulated. Cost centers enabled the determination of costs and
fixation of responsibility. A cost centre relating to a person is called personnel cost centre and
a cost centre relating to products and equipments is called impersonal cost centre.
2. Current Standards: A current standard is a standard, which is established for use over a
short period of time and is related to current condition. It reflects the performance, which
should be attained during the current period. The period for current standard is normally only
ear. It is presumed that conditions of production will remain unchanged. In case there is any
change in price or manufacturing condition, the standards are also revised. Current standard
may be ideal standard and expected standard.
3. Ideal Standard: This is the standard, which represents a high level of efficiency ideal
standard is fixed on the assumption that favorable conditions will prevail and management
will be at it best. The price paid for materials will be lowest and wastes. Etc. will be
minimum possible. The labor time for making the production will be minimum and rates of
wages will also be low. The overheads expenses are also set with maximum efficiency in
mind. All the conditions both internal and external should be favorable and only then ideal
standard will be achieved. Ideal standard is fixed on the assumption of those conditions,
which may rarely exist. This standard is not practicable and may not be achieved. Though,
this standard may not be achieved even then an effort is made to reach this standard .the
deviation between targets and an actual performance is ignorable. In practice, ideal standard
has an adverse effect on the employees. They do not try to reach the standard because the
standards are not considered realistic.
4. Basic Standards: A basic standard may be defined as a standard which is established for
use for an indefinite period which may a long period. Basic standard is established for a long
period and is not adjusted to the preset conations. The same standard remains in force for a

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long period. These standards are revised only on the changes in specification of material and
technology productions. It is just like an indeed number against which subsequent process
changes can be measured. Basic standard enables the measurement of changes in costs. For
example, if the basic cost for material is Rs.20per unit and the current price is Rs.25 per unit
it will show an increase of 25% in the cost of materials. The changes in manufacturing costs
can be measured by taking basic standard, as a base basic standard cannot serve as a tool for
cost control purpose because the standard is not revised for a long time. The deviation
between standard cost and actual cost cannot be uses as a yardstick for measuring efficiency.
5. Normal Standards: As per terminology, normal standard has been defined as, a standard,
which it is anticipated, can be attained over a future period of time, preferably long enough to
cover one trade cycle. This standard is based on the conditions, which will cover a future
period 5 years, concerning one trade cycle. If a normal cycle of ups and downs in sales and
production is 10 years then standard will be set on average sales and production which will
cover alls the years. The standard attempts to cover variance in the production from one time
to another time. An average is taken from the periods of recessions and depression. The
normal standard concept is theoretical and cannot be used for cost control purpose normal
standard can be properly applied for absorption of overhead cost over a long period of time.
6. Organization for Standard Costing: In this emphasis is on the success of standard
costing system will depend upon the setting up of proper standards. For the purpose of setting
standards, a person or a committee should be given this job. In a big concern a standard
costing committee is formed for this purpose. The committee includes production manager,
purchase manager, sales manager, personnel manager, chief engineer and cost accountant.
The cost accountant acts as a co-coordinator of this committee.
7. Accounting System: Classification of accounts is necessary to meet a required purpose i.e.
function, asset or revenue item. Codes can be used to have a speedy collection of accounts. A
standard is a predetermined measure of material, labor and overheads. It may be expressed in
quality and its monetary measurements in standard costs.
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9.2 COST VARIANCE ANALYSIS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------You observe the whole concept of management accounting is control the cost and maximum
the profit. The fundamental object of any concern is maximizing the profit. If you want to
earn maximum profit what you will do. Now I feel that there are two for getting profit

Increase the selling price.

Decrease the cost of the product.

Increases the selling price may not possible in the all circumstances .we increase the selling
price we cannot meet the competition. There fore there is another alternative is to reduce the
cost of production with ensuring quality. You may recollect cost is an expenditure incurred to
make a product or a service. Total cost includes the following elements

Direct materials
Direct Labor
Overheads

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Earlier we are aware how to setting of standards. For the effective cost control we can ensure
when we compare the standards and actual performance. You now very well that variance
means the difference between or deviation between two or more items. The deviation of the
actual from the standard is known as variance. The variance may be favorable or unfavorable.
Incase of cost variances, if the actual cost is less than the standard cost, it is something
favorable and therefore, it will be said that there is a favorable variance. In case actual cost is
more than standard cost it said to be unfavorable or adverse variance

9.2.1 Causes of Variances

You know why variances occur. You may across in this situation in your monthly budgets. If
youre standard expenditure for instance is Rs. 5000 but in the some month you spend Rs.
6000. Now this difference is known as your budget variance in the month. Similarly in
organization the cost variances may occur. The causes of variances can be categorized as
follows.
Implementation deviation results from a human or mechanical failure to achieve an
attainable outcome.
Prediction deviation results from errors in specifying the parameter values in decision
model.
Measurement deviation arises as a result of error in measuring the actual outcome
Model deviation arises as a result of an erroneous formulation in a decision model.
Random deviations due to chance fluctuations of a parameter for which no cause can
be assigned.
Variance

Favorable

Un favorable

A. Material price

*Unforeseen
discounts
received
*Greater care taken in
purchasing
*Change
in
material
standard
*Materials used of higher
quality than standard
*More effective use of
material
*Errors
in
allocating
material to jobs
*Use of apprentices or other
workers at a rate of pay
lower than standard

*Price increase
*Careless purchasing
*Change in materials
standard

B. Material usage

C .Labor rate pay

D. Idle time

E.Labour efficiency

Out put produced

more quickly than
expected, i.e. actual

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*Defective materials
*Excessive waste
*Thefts
*Stricter quality control
* Errors in allocating
material to jobs
*Wage
Rate increase
*Machine break down
Non availability of
material
Illness or injury to
worker
Lost time in excess
of standard allowed
Output lower than


F. Overhead expenditure

G. Overhead efficiency

H. Overhead volume

output in excess of
standard output set
for same number of
hours because of
work
motivation,
better quality of
equipment
or
material
Errors in allocating
time to jobs
Savings in costs
incurred
More economical use
of services.
The same reasons as
for
the
labour
efficiency variance
have
caused
overhead recovery to
b4e different from
standard.
Excess of actual time
worked over budget

standard set because

of
deliberate
restriction lack of
training
or
sub
standard
material
used
Errors in allocating
time to jobs
Increase in cost of
services used
Excessive use of
change in type of
services used.
The same reasons as
for
the
labour
efficiency variance
have
caused
overhead recovery to
be different standard
Excessive idle time
Shortage of plant
capacity

9.2.2 Controllable and Uncontrollable Variances

The variances may be categorized as controllable and uncontrollable .If a variance can be
regarded as a responsibility of a particular person it will be known as controllable variance.
The excessive use of materials or more labor hours than the standards can be assigned to
inefficiency or particular persons. In case the variances are not in the control of persons then
thee will be called uncontrollable variances. The rise in prices of materials or an increase in
wage rates will enhance material and labor costs. Thee increases cannot be assigned to the
inefficiency of any one. When variances arise due to outside factors then these will be known
as uncontrollable variances. A distinction between controllable and uncontrollable variances
will be essential for fixing responsibility.

9.2.3 Uses of Variance Analysis

The following are in uses of variances.

To provide a formal basis for assessing performance and efficiency

To control costs by establish standards and analysis of variances
To enable the principle of management by exception to be practiced at the detailed,
operational level
To assist in setting standard
The standard costs are readily available substitutes for actual average unit costs and
can be used for stock and work-in-progress valuation, profit planning and decision
making and as a basis of pricing where cost-plus system

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To assist in assigning responsibility for non-standard performance in order to correct

deficiencies or to capitalize on benefits.
To motivate staff and management
To provide a basis for estimating
To provide guidance on possible ways of improving performance

9.2.4 Types of Cost Variances

You remember the total cost includes material, labor and overheads. Material is to be a major
component in most products. Secondly labour and finally other expenses .the following are
classification of variances
1. Material variance
2. Labour variance
3. Overhead variance
1. Material Variance: Material variance also known as direct material variance. I have
explained in our discussion variance is difference between standards and actual results.
Material variance is mean by difference between standard material and actual materials used.
It is basically basing 1. Quantity of materials 2. Price of materials
Material Cost Variance: The variance is difference between standard material and actual
material used. The variance cause for change in price in material and quantity of materials
.Now you can calculate the variance is as follows
Material cost variance (MCV) = standard material cost - actual material cost
*Standard material cost = standard quantity X STD price per unit
*Actual material cost = actual quantity X actual price per unit
Note: If standard cost is less than the actual cost then it is favorable variance
If standard cost is more than the actual cost then it is UN favorable variance
Material Price Variance (MPV): It is a part of material cost variance. The price variance is
due to change in the following reasons
1. Change in the basic prices of material
2. Failure to purchase the quantities anticipated at the time when standards were set.
3. Failure to secure discount on purchases
4. Failure to make bulk purchases and incurring more on freight
5. Failure to purchase material at proper time.
6. Not taking cash discount when setting standards
7. Supply and demand of materials and price
8. Calculation of the variance
Material Price Variance: Standard Qty (Standard Price Actual Price) In the above the
answer is positive value then it is favorable variance .If it is negative then it is UN favorable
variance
Material Usage Variance /Quantity Variance: As you know it is also part of material cost
variance in this what we take is quantity difference such as standard quantity and actual
quantity. This is due to the following reasons.

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1. Lot of waste in material use

2. More negligence in use of material
3. Loss due to theft
4. Use of material mixes other than the standard mix
5. Normal and abnormal loss in the materials
6. Defective production methods
7. Change of processing
Calculation
Material Usage Variance (MUV) Standard price = (standard qty-actual qty).In the above
calculation the result is positive then it is favorable variance. If it is negative it is UN
favorable
Material Mix Variance (MMV) For instance some time we use more than one material for a
product it means we use a combination of materials it is called mix of materials. Which arises
due to changes in standard and actual composition of mix. It results forma variation in the
material mix used in cost of actual material mix will be more on the other hand, the use of
cheaper material in large proportions will means lower material cost than the standard.
Material mix is difference between standard price of standard mix and standard price of
actual mix. The standard price is used in calculating this variance. The variance is calculated
under two situations:

When actual mix is equal to standard weight mix

When actual weight mix and standard weight of mix are equal

Material Mix Variance

(Revised STD Qty Actual quantity) standard price per unit
Revised standard Qty = (Standard Qty/Total std Qty) Total actual qty
In the above the result is positive then it is favorable variance If it is negative then it is UN
favorable
Material Yield Variance (MYV)
Some times in some processing like oil refining petroleum and some other industries
normally the material is used for production we may not get cent percent of production. It is
known as normally loss. Some times there is an abnormal loss, which means that when actual
loss is more than the estimated loss it is known to be abnormal loss. Normal loss is recurring
nature and abnormal loss in non-recurring nature. There fore a standard output is expected
from the raw materials put in the actual output may be more or less than the estimated output.
The material yield variance as that portion of the direct material usage variance, which is due
to the standard yield specified and the actual yield obtained. This is very important for
processing industries in which final product of one process becomes the raw materials.
Calculation
Material yield variance
Standard Rate = (STD loss- actual loss) Average STD Price
Avg. Standard price = standard cost of STD mix/net standard out put
In the above the result is positive then favorable variance
In the above the result is negative then UN favorable variance

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2. Labor Variances
Labor is supposed to be second major cost element in any industry. The amount is paid to
labour force is called wages. It may be direct wages or indirect wages. The difference between
standard labour cost and actual amount paid to them is called as labour variance. The
deviation in cost of direct labour may occur because of two main factors.
1. Difference in actual rates and standard rages of labour
2. The variation in actual time taken by worker and the standard time allotted to them for
performing a job or an operation.
Labour variance is very similar to material variance and they can be very easily calculated.
Labor Cost Variance (LCV): IT is the difference between the standard direct wages and
actual wages. Labour cost variance is the function of labour rate of pay and labour time
variance it arises due to a change in either a wage rate or in time or in the labour cost variance
is calculated as follows:

Labour Cost Variance = (Standard labour cost actual labour cost)

Std labour cost = Std labour hours X std rate per hour
Actual labour cost = actual labour hours X actual labour rate

In the above calculation the result is positive then the variance is favorable. If it is negative
then it is UN favorable (Adverse)
Labor Rate Variance (LRV): Generally it is a part of labor cost variance. This is due to a
change in specified wage rate labour variance arising due to the following reasons:
1. Change in basic wage rate or piecework rate
2. Employing persons of different grade then specified
3. Payment of more over time than fixed earlier
4. New workers being paid to workers employed for seasonal work or excessive workload.
5. Different rates being paid different rates than the standard rates.
The labor rates are determined by demand and supply conditions of labour conditions in
labour market wage board a wards etc. the labour variance is uncontrollable expect if it arises
due to the development of wrong grade of labour for which production.
Calculation: Labor Rate Variance = Actual hours (standard rate per hour actual rate per
hour). IN the above calculation the result is positive the n it is favorable variance If it is
negative it is adverse result
Labor Efficiency (L EV)/Time Variance: It is also the part of labour cost variance which
arises due to the difference between standard labour hours specified and the actual labour
hours spent. This variance helps in controlling efficiency of workers. The reasons for this are:
1. Lack of proper supervision
2. Defective machinery and equipment
3. Insufficient training and incorrect instructions
4. Increase in labour turnover
5. Bad working conditions
6. Discontentment among workers due to unsatsification & relations

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Calculation: Labor efficiency variance = STD rate per Hour (Std Hours Actual hours)
In the above the result is positive it is favorable variance. If it is negative then it is adverse
variance
Idle Time Variance: You can see in situations production can stop due to some reasons. But
you need to pay labour payments with any productions. Normally labour engaged for
production some times power failure machinery problems low supply of raw materials
accidents in the factory etc. in this positions normally no production. There fore the number of
labors waste is known as idle time. As a result we get only adverse variance.
Calculation: Idle Time Variance = (Idle Hours) X (Std Rate Per Hour)
Labor Mix Variance (LMV): Basically labour force includes various grade of labour such as
skilled semi- skilled and UN skilled or men worker woman workers child workers basing on
nature of production and industry. The change in labour composition may be caused by the
shortage of one grade of labour necessitating the employment of another grade of labour. This
variance shows to the management how much labour cost variance is due to the change in
labour cost variance is due to the change in labour compositions. The labour mix variance and
material mix variance can be calculated in the same way. Labour mix variance = Revised
STD hours actual hours) STD rate per hour In the above calculations the result is positive
then favorable variance .If it is negative then it is adverse variance
3. Overhead Variance: The first is material cost second is labour cost and finally is other
expenses (over heads). Overhead costs are the operating costs of a business which cannot be
identified or allocated but which can be apportioned to, or absorbed by cost centers or cost
units. According to the terminology of cost accountancy (ICWA) overhead is defined as the
aggregate of indirect material cost, indirect wages (indirect labour cost) and indirect
expensed. Thus overhead costs are important for the management for the purposes of cost
control under cost accounting; cost units on some suitable basis absorb overhead costs. Under
standard costing, overhead rates are predetermined in terms of either labor hours production
units. The actual labour hours or actual units produced are multiplied by the standard
overhead rate to determine the standard overhead cost that to have been incurred. Standard
overhead cost so calculated is then compared with actual overhead cost to find out the
variance, if any, so as to take corrective measures. Overhead cost variance can, thus, be
defined, as the difference between the standard cost of overhead allowed for actual out put
and the actual overhead cost incurred.
Calculation: Overhead cost variance = Actual output X STD overhead Rate per unit actual
overhead cost
Types of Overhead Cost Variance: Overhead expenses change always depends of volume
of production. Some times change some time cannot change. The behavior cost. Again in the
overheads we have fixed and variable overheads. There are others, which remain unaffected
by variations in the volume of out put achieved or labor hours spent. The formed costs
represent the variable overhead and the latter fixed overheads. Thus, overhead cost variances
can be classified as Variable overhead very directly with the volume of output and hence, the
standard variable overhead rate remains uniform. Therefore, computation of variable
overhead variance, also known as variable overhead cost variance parallels the material and
labour cot variances. Thus, variable overhead cost variance (VOCA) is the difference between
the standard variable overhead cost for actual output and the actual variable overhead cost. It

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can be calculated as follows: (Actual out put X STD variable overhead Rate per unit) actual
variable overheads
Variable Overhead Expenditure variance: This is the difference between the standard
variable overheads for the actual hours and the actual variable overheads incurred and can be
calculated as: (Actual out put X STD variable overhead Rate per unit) actual variable
overheads
Variable overhead efficiency variance: It represents the difference between the standard
hour allowed for actual production and the actual hours taken multiplied with the standard
variable overhead rate.
Calculation: STD variable overhead rate (STD hours) actual hours for actual output
Fixed Overhead Variance: Some times even in the over head also to extent some overheads
are fixed in the nature those are known as fixed over head variances.
Fixed Overhead Variance (Actual output X STD fixed over head Rate) Actual fixed
overheads Fixed overhead variance may be dived into expenditure and volume variances
Expenditure Variance: It is that part of fixed overhead variance, which is due to the
difference between, budgeted expenditure and actual expenditure
Calculation:

Budgeted fixed overheads actual fixed overheads

Volume Variance: This variance shows a variation in overhead recovery due to budgeted
production being more or less than the actual production. When actual production is more
than the standard production it will show an over recovery of fixed overheads and the
variance will be favorable. On the other hand, if actual production is less than the standard
production I twill show an under recovery and the variance will be un favarourable the
volume variance may arise due to change in capacity, variation in efficiency or change in
budgeted and actual number of working days. Volume variance is calculated as follows
Calculation: (Actual output X standard rate) Budgeted fixed overheads
The above volume variance is sub dived in to the following three varieties
Capacity Variance: It is that part of volume variance which arises due to over utilization or
under utilization of plant and equipment. The working in the factory is more or less than the
standard capacity. This variance arises due to idle time caused by strikes power failure, on
supply of materials, breakdown of machinery, absenteeism etc. capacity variance is calculated
as
Calculation: STD rate (Revised budgeted units budgeted units)
Calendar Variance: This variance arises due to the difference between actual number of
days and the budgeted days. It may arise due to more public holidays announced that
anticipated or working for more days because of change in holidays schedule etc. If actual
working days are more than budgeted, the variance will be favorable and it will be
unfavorable if actual working days are less than the budgeted number of days calendar
variance can be expressed

351

Calculation: STD rate per unit X decrease/ increase units to the difference of budged /actual
days
Efficiency Variance: This is that portion of the volume variance, which arises due to
increased or reduced output because of more or less efficiency that expected. It is signifies
deviation of standard quantity from the actual quantity produced. This variance is related to
the efficiency variance of labor.
Calculation: Standard rate (actual quantity standard quantity)
In the above calculation result is if actual quantity is more than the budgeted quaintly, the
variance will be favorable and it will be vice versa
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.3 MATERIAL COST VARIANCE ANALYSIS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Terminology for Material Variance Calculation:
SQ =Standard Quantity
SR = Standard Rate or SP=Standard Price
AQ = Actual Quantity
AP = Actual price or AR= Actual Rate
RSQ = Resaved STD Quantity
MCV = Material cost variance
MUV = Material usage variance
MPV = Material price variance
MMV = Material Mix variance
MYV = Material Yield variance
Problem: The following information is obtained from X Co. Ltd.
Product
SQ
SR
AQ
(Units)
(Rs.)
(Units)
A
1050
2.00
1100
B
1500
3.25
1400
C
2100
3.50
2000
Calculate:

1) Material Cost Variance

2) Material Price Variance
3) Material Usage Variance

352

AP
(Rs.)
2.25
3.50
3.75

Solution
1. MCV
A
B
C

2. MPV

(SQ X SR) (AQ X AP)

(1050 X 2.00) (1100 X 2.25)

=
2100 2475
=

Rs. 375 (A)

(1500 X 3.25) (1400 X 3.50)

=
4875 4900
=

25 (A)

=
=

(2100 X 3.50) (2000 X 7.25)

=
7350 7500
=

150 (A)
----------550 A
-----------

AQ (SR-AP)

1100(2.00 2.25) = 1100 X (0.25) = Rs. 275 (A)

1400(3.25 3.50) = 1400 X (-0.25) = Rs. 350 (A)

2000(3.50 3.75) = 2000 X (-0.25) = Rs. 500 (A)

----------1125 A
----------SR (SQ-AQ)

3. MUV

2 (1050-1100)

Rs. 100 (A)

3.25 (1500 1400) = 3.25 (100) =

Rs. 325 (F)

3.50 (2100-2000) = 3.50 (100) =

Rs. 350 (F)

= 2 (-50)

--------------575 (F)
--------------Verification
MCV =

MPV + MUV

Rs. 550 (A)

1125(A) + 575 F

550 (A)

550 (A)

353

Problem:
Product
A
B
C
TOTAL

SQ

SR

Total

AQ

AP

Total

10
20
20
50

2
3
6

20
60
120
200

5
10
15
30

3
6
5

15
60
75
150

Find out (1) MCV

(2) MPV

(3) MMV

(4) MUV

Solution
(1) MCV

(SQ X SR) (AQ X AP)

(10 X 2) (5 X 3)

5F

(20 X 3) (10 X 6)

NIL

(20 X 6) (15 X 5)

TOTAL

45 F
-----50 F
------

(2) MPV
A
B
C

=
=
=
=

TOTAL

(3) MMV

(SR AP) AQ
(2-3) 5
=
(3-6) 10
=
(6-5) 15
=

5A
30 A
15 F
-------20 (A)

(RSQ AQ) SP

In this total std. mix and total Actual mix is difference in proportion. Now you should
calculate revised STDs.
MMV

(RSQ AQ) TAQ

RSQ

SQ
---- X TAQ
TSQ
10
---- X 30
=
50

20
---- X 30
50

12

20

354

---- X 30
50

12

Now MMV
A
B
C

=
=
=

(6-5) X 2
(12-10) X 3
(12-15) X 6

=
=
=

2F
6F
18 A
-------10 (A)
--------

(4) MUV
A
B
C

=
=
=
=

(SQ AQ) SP
(10 5) X 2 =
(20 10) X 3 =
(20 15) X 6 =

10 F
30 F
30 F
-----70 F

Verification =
MCV =

MPV + MUV

50 F

20 A + 70 (F)

50 F

50 F

Problem: The standard cost of a certain Chemical Mixture is

40 % Material A at Rs. 200 per ton
60% Material B at Rs.300 Per ton
A standard loss of 10 % in Expected in Production. During a period there is used
90 Tons Material A at the Cost of Rs.180 Per ton
10 Tons Material B at the Cost of Rs.340 Per ton
Calculate : 1. Material Price Variance
2. Material Mix Variance
3. Material yield Variance.
Solution
Here you do one thing you make it a standard format like previous problem it would be easier
to calculate
Working Notes:
Total actual Quantity =

A
B

=
=

90 Tons
110 Tons
----------------200 Tons
-----------------

Standard Quantity is
A=
B=

200 X 40%
200 X 60%

=
=

80
120
--------

200
---------

355

Material
A
B
Less 10%
Normal loss

SQ
80
120
200

SP
200
300

Total
16,000
36,000
52,000

20
----180

Actual
Loss

AQ
90
110
200

=
=
=
=

(SP-AP) AQ
(200 180) 90
(300 340) 110

2. Material Mix Variance

RSQ =
SR
---- X TAQ
TSQ

(RSQ AQ) AP

MMV A
B

80
---- X 200
=
80
200
120
----- X 120
=
120
200
=
(80 90) 200
=
(120-110) 300

3. Material Yield Variance =

Avg. Std. Price

TOTAL
16200
37400
53600

18
---182

1. Material Price Variance

A
B
Total MPV

AP
180
340

=
=

1800 F
4400 A
2600 (A)

=
=

2000 (A)
3000 (F)
----------1000 (F)
(STD Loss Actual Loss) Avg. Std. Price

(20 18) X 2.88 = 577 (F)

Total STD cost

------------------Net Std. Output

52.000
--------- =
180

2.88

Problem: Rai industries Ltd produce an article by using two Materials. It operates a
standard costing and the following standards have been set for raw materials:
Material
Std. Mix
STD Price per kg
A
46 %
Rs 4.00
B
60%
3.00
The standard loss in processing is 15 % During April 2003 the company Produced Net
1700 Kg. Of Finished Product. The Position of stock and purchases for the month of April
2003 an as follows

356

Stock on
Material

Stock on
1-4-2003

Stock on
30-4-2003

A
35
5
B
40
50
Calculate the following 1. Material Usage Variance
2. Material Price Variance
3. Material Yield Variance
4. Material Mix Variance
5. Material Cost Variance.

Purchasing
during the
month
800
1200

Cost
3400
3000

Assume that material Issued on FIFO Method. The opening stock valued on standard Price.
Solution: In this problem all information is given indirectly. Now you find out one by one
WORKING NOTES:
a. Calculation of Actual Quantity Used:
Net Actual Product is 1700 Kg
It is extent to 85 %
100 % Actual quantity
=
1700 X 100 =
------ -----85
Material used
A
B
Standard Quantity

=
=
=
A

(Op. Stock + Purchase) - Cl. Stock

(95 + 800)
5
=
(40 + 1200) 50
=
=
2000 X 40
---=
100
=

2000 X 60
---100

2000

830
1190
830 Kgs

1200 Kgs

Calculation Actual cost of Material used

Material A:
Op. Stock
(+) Purchase

=
=

Material B
Op stock
(+)
Purchase

=
=

35 X 4
(Std. Rate)
=
795 X 4.25
(Actual cost) =
------830
-----Mat A: Actual Cost per unit =
3400
------ =
4.25
800 Kgs
40 Kgs. @ Rs.3 (Std.Rate) =
1150 Rs. 2.50 (Actual Rate) =

357

140.00
3378.75
---------3518.75
---------

120.00
2875.00

-----1190
Mat B
Actual Rate per unit =

1. MUV
A
B

=
=
=

----------6513.75

3000
-----1200 Kgs

2.50

(SQ X SR)
(830 X 4)
3320

(AC X AR)
{(35 X 4) + (795 X 4.25)}
3518.75 = 198.75 A =

(1190 X 3)
3570

{(40 X 3) + (1150 X 2.50)}

2995
=575. F
--------376.25 (F)

Total MUV
2. MPV
A
B

=SR (SQ-AQ)
=
4 (800-830)
=
3 (1200 1190)

=
=

Total

120 (A)
30 F
--------90 (A)
---------

3. Material Yield Variance =

Avg. Std. Price

Avg. Std. Price

Std Loss

(Stand. loss Actual loss) Avg. Std. Price

=
A
=
800 Kgs @ 4 =
B
=
1200 Kgs @ 3 =
------Total Cost
6800
6800
------- = 4
2000
Input
(-) 15% loss

=
=

Actual input

=For 2000 Std. input =

2020 =?
1700
------ X 2020 =
2000
=
2000

(-) Actual production =

Actual loss

2000
300
-----1700
------

Std. out put

Actual yield

Material Yield Variance

198.75 A

1700
1717

1717
-----283
-----=(300-283) 4 =

358

68(A)

3200
3600

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.4 LABOUR COST VARIANCE ANALYSIS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Terminology
SH
=
Std. Hours
SR
=
Std. Rate per Hour
AH
=
Actual Hour
AR
=
Actual Rate per Hour
RSH =
Revised Std. Hour
LCV =
Labor cost Variance
LRV =
Labour rate Variance
LTV =
Labour Efficiency Variance
LMV =
Labor mix Variance
LITV =
Labor Idle time Variance
Problem: The information regarding the composition and Weekly wages rates of Labor force
engaged on a particular Job.
Workers
Std. No. Of
Hour
75
45
60

Skilled
Semi-skilled
Unskilled

Calculate: 1.LCV

2. LRV

Solution
1. Labour cost Variance

Std. Rate per

hour

Actual no. Of
Hour

60
40
30

70
30
80

Actual rate per

Hour
70
50
20

3.LEV

(SH X SR)

Semi skilled

=
4500
=

Unskilled

(75 X 60)
(45 X40)
1800
(60 X 30)
1800

(70 X 70)
4900
= 400(A)
(30 X 50)
=
1500
=300 F
(80 X 20)
1600
=200 F
-------100 F
-------

Skilled

Total LCV
2.
LRV
Skilled
=
Semi-Skill
=
Un-Skilled
=

=
AH (SR AR)
70 (60 70)
=
30 (40 -50)
=
80 (30-20)
=

Total LRV
3.
Skilled

LEV

70X (-10)
30 X (-10)
80 X (-10)

=
=
=
=

=
=

(AH X AR)

60 (75-70)

700 (A)
300 (A)
8000 (F)
----------200 A
----------

SR (SH AH)
=

60 X 5

359

300 F

Semi-Skilled =
Un-Skilled
=

40 (45-30)
30 (60-80)

=
=

40X15
30 X (-20)

Verification

LCV
100 (F)
100 (F)

=
=
=

LRV + LEV
200 (A) + 300 (F)
100 (F)

=
=

600 F
600 A
--------300 (F)
----------

Problem
The Budgeted Labor force for producing 1000 articles is
Particulars
30 men @ Rs. 40Per Hour
For 50 Hrs

Total Std Hour

1500

Total Std. Cost

600

20 women @ Rs. 30 per

Hour For 30 Hrs

600

1800

10 Boys @ Rs. 20 per Hour

For 20 Hrs

200

40

2300
The Actual data for producing 1000 articles is
25 Men @ 45 per How for 1250
50 Hrs
30 Women @ 30 per How
900
for 30 Hrs
10 boys @ 30 Per How for 150
15 Hrs
2300

820
562.50
270.00
30.00
86250

Calculate 1. LCV 2. LRV 3. LEV 4. LMV

Solution
1. LCV
Men
Women
Boys

=
=
=
=

SH X SR
1500 X 40
600 X 30
200 x 20

AH X AR
1250 X 45
900 x 30
150 x 20

Total
2. LRV
Men
Women
Boys

=
=
=
=

=
(SR AR) AH
(40 45) 1250
(30 30) 900
(20-20) 150

(SH AH) SR

Total
3. LEV

=
=
=

360

=
=
=

3750 F
9000 A
1000 F
---------4250 (A)
----------

6250 A
Nil
nil
---------6250 (A)
-----------

Men
Women
Boys

=
=
=

(1500 1250) 40
(600 900) 30
(200-150) 20

=
=
=

1000 (F)
900 (A)
100 F
---------6250 (A)
-----------

Total

4. Labour Mix Variance

=
(RSH-AH) SR
Note: Revised standard proportions are same as standard Hour because the Actual total Hour
is equal to total std. Hour. Hence there is no mix variance.
Problem: Standard Labor Hour and Rate for production of an Article
Particulars
Hour
5
8

Rate per hour

15
5

Total
70
30

Semi-skilled

4
17
Actual date for 1000 units

7.50

30.00
145

Skilled Worked 4500

Unskilled
10,000
Semi skilled
4200
700700.

20-00
4.50
7.50

90, 00
45.000
31,500
166500

Skilled
Unskilled

Calculate: 1. LCV 2. LRV 3. LEV 4. LMV

Solution
1. LCV
Skilled Worked

= (SH X SR) - (AH X AR)

= (500 X 15) (4500 X20) =75000 90000 =

15,000 (A)

Unskilled

= (8000 X5) (10.000 X 45) =40,000 45.000=

5000 (A)

Semi skilled

= (4000 X 750) =

31500 =

1500 (A)
21,500

2. LRV
Skilled Worked
Unskilled
Semi skilled

=
=
=
=

(SR AR) AH
(15-20) 4500
(750-750) 4200
(50- 450) 1000

=
=
=

22500 (A)
Nil
500 (F)
22.000 (A)

3. LEV
Skilled Worked
Unskilled
Semi skilled

=
=
=
=

(SH AH) SR
(5000-5500) 15
(8000-8800) 5
(4000- 4400) 75

361

=
=
=

7500 (A)
4000 (A)
300 (A)

22.000 (A)
3.LMV
For calculate, Labor variance mix we have to calculate Revised Std. Mix sine Std. labour and
Total Actual Labor are different
LMV
RSH
Skilled

=
=

Unskilled

Semi skilled
LMV Skilled
Unskilled
Semi-skilled

=
=
=
=

(RSH AH) SR
5000
------- X 18700
17000
8000
------ X 18700
17000
4000
------ X 18700
17000
(5500-4500) 15
(10.000-8800) 5
(4400-4200) 7.5

Working Notes
Calculating Std. Hour for actual Products
For
1
Unit
=
5 Hour
Skilled Worked
=
1000units X 5 Hour
Unskilled
=
1000units X 8 Hour
Semi skilled
=
1000units X4 -Hour

5500

8800

4400

=
=
=

15000 (F)
6000 (A)
1500 (G)
-----------10500 (F)
------------

=
=
=

5000 Hour
8000 Hour
4000 Hour
-----------17.000 Hour

Overhead Variance
Problem: You are required to calculate various overhead variances
Particulars
Budget
Actual
Out put in Units
12.000
14.000
20
22
No. Of Working days
Fixed over Heads
36.000
49.our
Variable over Heads
24.000
35.our
There was an increase of 5% in capacity
Solution:
First Calculate Std Fixed O.H Rate per Unit
Std Fixed over Head Rate
=
36.000
-------=
3 per unit
12.000 units
Std Variable over Head Rate =
1.

24100
--------=
2 Per unit
12.000
Total overhead cost variance
=
(Actual out put) X9 STD Rate) Actual Over Head
14000 X (3+2)
(49.000+35)

362

70.000 - 84.000
2.
3.

4.
5.

14000(A)

Variable over Heads Variance

=
=
(Actual output X Std variable O.H Rate) (Actual Variance O.H)
=
14000x2-35.000=28000-35.000=7000(A)
Fixed overhead Variance
(Actual output X Std Fixed O.H Rate) --- Actual O.H
14000X3-49.000=42.00=7000(A)
Expenditure variance =
(Budget Fixed OH)-(Actual Fixed O.H)
=
36.000-49.000=13000(A)
Volume variance
=
Actual output X STD Rate- budgeted Fixed O.H
=
=
Capacity Variance
=
Budgeted Units for 20 days
Budgeted Units for 22 days

(14000X3) - (36.000)
42.000 - 36.000
=
6.000(F)
6.
Std. Rate (Revised Budget Units Budget Units)
=
12.000
=
12.000 X 22
----- =
13.200
20
Revised Budget Units =
13.200 + (13,200 + 5) (After Increase 5% Capacity)
---100
=
13.200 + 660 =
13.860
Capacity Variance
=
3(13860 13200)
=
1980 (F)
7. Calendar Variance =
Change in No. of Units by change in Actual and Standard No. of days X Standard Rate
Change in No. of Day =
2
Increase in Units in 2 days =
12.000 X 2 = 1200
-------20
Calendar Variance
=
8. Efficiency Variance

1200 X 3
=
3600 (F)
=
Standard Rate (Actual Qty. Revised Budgeted Units)
=
3 (14.000 13.860)
=
3 (140) = 420 (F)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.5 SALES VARIANCE ANALYSIS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------You may recall our previous discussion regarding cost variance analysis where we covered
cost variance analysis such material, labor and overhead variance analysis. We already
understand controlling of business through cost controlling but on the other hand sales also is
an important element of getting maximum revenue for survival. The analysis of sales
variances is important to study profit variances. The analysis of variances will be complete
only when the difference between the actual profit and standard profit is fully analyzed. It is
necessary to make an analysis of sales variances to have a complete analysis of profit
variance because profit variance because profit is the difference between sales and cost. Thus,
in addition to the analysis of cost variances. That means cost variance, labor cost variance
and overheads cost variance, an analysis of sales variances should be made. Sales variances

363

may be calculated in two different ways. These may be computed so as to show he effect on
profit or these may be calculated to show the effect on sales value.

9.5.1 Sales Variance Calculation Methods

VALUE METHOD SALE VARIANCE
This is calculated according to value method show he effect on sales value and enable the
sales manager to know the effect of the various sales efforts on his overall sales value figures.
1. SALES VALUE VARIANCE (SVV)
It is difference between the standard value and the actual value of sales affected during a
period. It is you can calculate like this
S VV =
(STANDARD SALES ACTUAL SALES)
After calculation you should know why this variance occurs. I may say that the following
reasons
1. Actual sales price may be higher or lower than the budgeted sales
2. Actual sales quantity may be higher or lower than the budget sales
3. You are selling different products its called sales mix with different quantity, but the
budgeted sales mix and quantity is differ
4. Some revised sales quantity may be more or less than the budgeted sales quantity
2. SALES PRICE VARIANCE (SPV)
IN this variance due to sales price means actual sales price change due to so many reasons
like discounts free offers etc. The simple formula you can follow for its calculation
SPV = ACTUAL QUANTITY (STANDARD PRICE ACTUAL PRICE)
3. SALES VOLUME VARIANCE (SVV)
Some times you may not sale the quantity that wanted to sell due to so many causes like
market trends competition demand and supply of goods or manufacturing problems etc. This
variance occurs due to actual quantity sold and standard quantity. You can find out like this
SVV = STANDARD PRICE (STANDARD QTY ACTUAL QTY)
We can sub divide the sales volume variance in to
SALES MIX VARIANCE (SMV)
It is the difference in the proportion in which various articles are sold and the standard
proportion in which various article we to be sold. You can find as the following
SMV = STD VALUE OF ACTUAL MIX STD VALUE OR REVISED STD MIX
SALES QUANITY VARIANCE (SQV)
IT is the difference between revised standard sales quantity and budgeted sales quantity. This
you can calculate
SQV = STD SELLING PRICE (REVISED SALES QTY BUDGETED SALE QTY)

9.5.2 Profit or Margin Method

This is we can calculate basing the profit and its margin. The sales according to this method
can be calculated as

364

1. Total Sales Margin Variance (TSMV)

TSMV = ACTUAL PROFIT BUDGET PROFIT
OR
(ACTUAL QUANTITY OF SALES) (ACTUAL PROFIT PER UNIT BUDGED
QUANTITY OF SALES) (BUDGETED PROFIT PER UNIT)
2. Sales Margin Variance (SMV) Due To Selling Price
IT is due to selling price. It is that portion of total sales margin variance, which is due to the
difference between the actual price of quantity of sales affected and the standard price of
articles sold being more or less than the budgeted quantity of sales. It is you can calculate
SMV = actual qty of sales (actual selling price per unit std selling price per unit)
3. Sales Margin Variance (SMV) Due To Volume
IT is that portion of total sales margin variance, which arises due to the number of articles
sold being more or les than the budgeted quantity of sales. It is calculated as
SMV = Std profit per unit (actual qty of sales budgeted qty of sales)
Again the sales margin variance due to volume can be divided into two parts as given below.
A. Sales Margin Variance Due To Sales Mixture (SMV SM)
It is that portion of sales margin variance d to volume, which arises because of different
proportion of actual sales mix. It is taken as the difference between the actual and budgeted
quantities of each product of which the sales mixture is composed valuing the difference of
quantities at standard profit this you can calculate
SMV SM = STANDARD PROFIT REVISED STD PROFIT
B. Sales Margin Variance Due To Sales Qty (SMV SQ)
It is portion of sales margin variance due to volume, which arises due to the difference
between the actual, and budgeted quantity sold of each product. It is calculated as
SMV SQ = REVISED STD PROFT BUDGETED PROFIT

9.5.3 Causes of Variance and Disposition

Dear Students in the long explanation you are able to understand standards variances of cost
and profit. After analysis you should able to guide the management where by identify the
causes of each variance and responsible persons and take remedial measures. Then the
purpose controlling is getting served.
Analysis of variances highlights the areas of strength and weakness in the operation of a firm,
but in itself, it does not indicate what corrective action, if any, should be taken. Thus, it is
very important to identify and report quickly the causes of variances to the management so
that remedial measures may be taken. The following are some of the possible causes for
different cost variances indicating the persons responsible for the same. The cause of one
variance may be wholly or party dependent upon the cause of another variance. You can find
the variance causes and responsible persons

365

VARIANCE

POSSIBLE CAUSE

PERSON RESPONIBLE

1.Material price variance

1.change in market price

2.inefficient buying
3.emergency purchases
4.loss of discounts
5.non-availability of std
qty
1.excessive wastage
2.careless handling
3.wroing specification
4.poor quality of material
5.wrong mixture of materials
6.incorrect setting of
material
1.wrong grade of labor
2.general rise in wages
3.overtime for urgent work
1.ineffective supervision
2.poor quality of materials
3.poor working conditions
1.shortage of materials
2.break- down of machinery
3.power failure
4.time lost in instructions
1.rise in general price level
2.changes in production
methods
3.ineffective control

Uncontrollable purchase
Officer
production/sale/accounts in
charge

1. Lock or orders
2. Ineffective supervision
3. Poor efficiency of
machinery
4. Poor efficiency or
workers
5. More or less working days

Sales manager
Departmental manager
Maintenance manager

8.Sales price variance

1. Unexpected completion
2. Rise in general price level
3. Poor quality of products

Uncontrollable
Uncontrollable

9.Sale volume

1. Unexpected competition
2. Ineffective sales
promotion
3. Ineffective supervision
and control of sales man

2. Material usage
variance

3.Rate pay variance

4.Labour efficiency
variable
5.Idle time variance

6.expenditure variance

7.Volume variance

366

Fore man
Store keeper
Purchase officer
Planning engineer
Production manager
Cost accountant
Foreman
Uncontrollable
Production manager
Fore man
Purchase officer
Personnel manager
Purchase officer
Maintenance engineer
Electrical engineer
Production manager
Uncontrollable
Production manager
Departmental manager

Foreman
Uncontrollable

Production manager
Uncontrollable
Publicity manger
Sales manager

The analysis of variances should be reported to the management, so that corrective action
may be taken. The cost accountant cannot take corrective action. The management can only
take it. So reporting of variances to the management becom3s essential. To make variances
reporting effective, it is essential .to make variances reporting effective, it is essential that
following conditions be fulfilled:
1. The variances arising out of each factor should be correct segregated so that their ma is
correct reporting to the management. For example volume variance arising on account of
change in production should be correctly segregated into capacity variance, calendar variance
and efficiency variance.
2. Authority and responsibility of each employee should be clearly laid down so that
responsibility for negative variances may be fixed and corrective action may be taken. This
will avoid shirking of responsibility.
3. Variances should be divided into controllable variances. Uncontrollable variances are
beyond the control of the organization; so on employee can be help responsible for these
variances. But controllable variances should be reported with no loss of times so that
responsibility may be fixed and action may be taken against the individuals who are
responsible for such variances.
4.Reporting of variances to the top management should contain broad details only where as
reporting of variances to the lower levels of management should be a detailed one showing
the causes of each variances along with the persons who may be held responsible for each
variance
Practical Problem
Problem: From the following particulars calculate all sales variances according to (A) Profit
Method and (B) Value Method.

Standard
Quantity
Units
3,000

Cost
Per unit
Rs. 10

2,000

Rs. 15

Product

Price
Per unit
Rs. 12

Actual
Quantity
Units
3,200

Cost
Per unit
Rs. 10.50

Price
Per unit
Rs. 13

Rs. 18

1,600

Rs. 14.00

Rs. 17

Solution:
A Profit Method
1. Total sales Margin Variance = Actual Profit Budgeted Profit
= Rs. 12, 8000 Rs 12,000 = Rs. 800 (F)
2. Sales Margin Variance due to selling price
= Actual Qty. of Sales (actual sale price per unit-Budget sales price per cent)
X = 3,200 (Rs. 13 Rs.12)
3

Sale Margin Variance due to Sales Mix

= Standard profit per unit (Actual Qty. of sales-Standard Proportion for Actual Sales)
X = Rs. 2(3,200 2,880) = Rs. 640 (F)
Y = Rs.3 (1,600 1,920) = Rs.960 (A)
1. Sale Margin Variance due to Sales Quantity
= Standard profit per unit (STANDARD Proportion for Actual sales Budgeted
Quantity of Sales

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X = Rs. 2(2,880 3,000) = Rs. 240 (A)

Y = Rs.3 (1,920 2,000) = Rs. 2460 (A)
B Value Method
1. Sales Value Variance = Actual Value of Sales Budgeted Value of sales)
= Rs.68, 800 Rs. 72,000=Rs3, 200 (A)
2. Sales Price Variance =Actual Quantity of Sales (Actual Price-Budgeted Price)
= X=3,200 (Rs. 13- Rs. 12) = Rs.3, 200 (F)
= Y=1,600 (Rs. 17- Rs. 18) = Rs.1, 600 (A)
-----------1,600 (F)
3. Sales Value Variance = Standard Price (Actual Quantity of Sales- Budgeted Qty. sales)
= X= Rs. 12(3,200- 3000) = Rs.2, 400 (F)
= Y= Rs. 18(1,000-2,000) = Rs.7, 200 (A)
----------4,800 (A)
----------4. Sales Mix Variance =(Standard Value of Mix) - (Standard Value of revise standard
Mix.)
= Rs.67, 200 Rs.69, 120 = Rs.(1,920) (A)
5. Sales Quantity Variance = Standard selling price (Revised sales Qty. Budgeted Qty.
X= Rs. 12(2,880- 3000) = Rs. 1,440 (A)
Y= Rs. 18(1,920-2,000) = Rs. 1,440 (A)
-----------2,880 (A)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.6 BUDGETARY CONTROL AND MONITORING

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Now we are going to deal with the actual control over the costing part. Generally, the
management forecast that how much has to be produced? What would be the requirement of
raw materials at the verge of production? How much money is to be required? For answering
all these questions the management prepares budgets? You might have heard about financial
budget of the country which every year is been prepared and presented in the parliament.
Generally it is in deficit? Here we would be talking about the budgets prepared by the
company.

9.6.1 Importance of Budgetary Control

A manager may have many good ideas but implementation of those ideas requires proper
planning. You would understand that it is not a one-time exercise. The planning horizon
varies from one day to many years, depending on the objectives of the organization and the
uncertainties involved. An organization may be well equipped in advanced technology and
resourceful for having a galaxy of intelligent managers but it may not achieve success unless
it sets its objectives clearly and plans its activities accordingly. Even if the objectives are set,
an organization may not be able to achieve them for want of a proper plan. A budget is the
quantitative expression of plans - it expresses the plan in terms of physical units or monetary
units. Budget gives the target to be achieved. Not only a big business entity or government of
the country needs a budget, it is essential for a very small business unit or even for a family.

368

In the context of a business organization, budget is the integral part of strategy and tactics'.
Strategies mean designing objectives and tactics are the ways of achieving the strategic goals.
The term 'Budget's defined as a financial and/or quantitative statement, prepared prior to a
defined period of time, of the policy to be pursued during that period for the purpose of
attaining a given objective.
The analysis of this definition reveals the following characteristics of the budget.
It may be prepared in terms of quantity or money or both.
It is prepared for a fixed or set period of time.
It is prepared before the defined period of time commences.
It spells out the objects to be attained and the policies to be pursued to achieve that
objective.
The term 'Budgetary Control' is defined as the establishment of budgets, relating the
responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy and the continuous comparison
of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by individual action the objective of that
policy or to provide the basis for its revision.
The analysis of this definition reveals the following facts about budgetary control
It deals with the establishment of the budgets.
It deals with the comparison of budgeted results with the actual results.
It deals with computation of the variations and the actions to be taken for maintaining
the favorable variations, removing the adverse variation or revising the Budgets
themselves.

9.6.2 Essentials of Budgetary Control

If the organization decides to install the Budgetary Control system as a cost control
technique, it will have to comply with the following preliminaries.
Deciding the Budget Centre: A Budget Centre is that section of the organization with
respect to which the budgets will be prepared. A Budget centre may be in the form of a
product or a department or a branch of the company and so on. Budget centre should be
clearly defined and established, as the budgets will be prepared with respect to each and
every Budget Centre.
Deciding the Budget Period: A Budget Period is that period of time for which the budget
will be prepared and operated. The selection of the Budget Period should be made very
carefully- too long a budget period makes the correct estimation more difficult while too
short a budget period may prove to be more costly. The selection of Budget Period may
depend upon the nature of operations and the purpose of preparing the budget {'As such, in
case of industries like the ones engaged in generation and distribution of electricity, transport
operations etc. where capital expenditure is too high, budgets may be prepared even for a
period of 5 to 10 years, while in case of industries like the ones engaged in manufacturing of
motor vehicles or radios etc., where the customer demand may change more frequently, the
budget period may be shorter. Similarly, a sales budget may be prepared for a period of 5
years, whereas the short-term cash budget may be prepared on weekly or even daily basis.
Establishment of Accounting Records: There should be an efficient and proper system of
accounting so that the information and data as required for the efficient implementation of the
Budgetary Control system will be available in time.

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Organization for Budgetary Control: A property prepared organization chart may make the
duties and responsibilities of each level of executive very clear to himself. A senior executive
in the form of budget controller or budget officer will head the budgetary control
organization. In small or medium sized organizations, he himself will be involved in all types
of works involved with the budgetary control system. However, in case of large
organizations, be may have a budge committee under him, which may consist of Chief
Executive, budge officer himself and heads of main departments. The role of budge
committee may be only advisory and its decision may become binding only if accepted by the
Chief Executive. The functions performed by the budget committee can be broadly stated as
below.

To receive and scrutinize the functional budgets.

To revise the functional budgets, if necessary.
To approve the revised budgets.
To receive the budget reports and comparative statements.
To locate the responsibilities and recommend the corrective and remedial action.

9.6.3 Budget Manual

A budget manual is a document setting out the responsibilities of the persons engaged in and
the forms and procedures required for the budgetary control. A budget manual enables the
standardization of the methods and procedures in relation to the budgetary control. It should
be well written, indexed and divided into the sections. It may be in bound book form or
loose-leaf form. A budget manual may contain the following particulars.
(a) Introduction of principles and objectives of budgetary control and the definitions and brief
explanations.
(b) Duties and responsibilities of the various executives and the organization chart, Functions
and duties of budget officer and budget committee.
(c) Scope of the budget and areas to be covered, whether budget will be a fixed budget or
flexible budget
(d) Accounts codes, budget center codes and other codes operated.
Determination of Budget Key Factor
A budget key factor is that the impact of which should be assessed first before other
functional budgets are prepared to ensure that other functional budgets are capable of
fulfillment. The key factor may take various forms e.g. Sales, Raw material, Labor,
Production capacity, availability of funds and Government restrictions. Once the key factor is
established, the budget with respect to that function will be prepared first and the other
budgets will be prepared to conform to that E.g. If sales are the key factor, the sales manager
will prepare and submit sales forecast first. The production manager will then decide whether
it is possible to produce the quantity to meet sales demand. In case of the situations where
there is more than one key factor, the importance of key factors themselves will be assessed
first. The problem of multiplicity of key factors may be solved with the help of techniques
like linear programming, operations research etc.

9.6.4 Budget Monitoring

Friends you have learned what is all about budget in our earlier discussion. I am sure that we
have strong conceptual foundation on budgets. Just remained you that budget is a financial
plan expects in financial terms prepared well in advance before commercial operation is
undertaken. Actually speaking, budget is a target, which should be accomplished in defined

370

future, say, during the operational period. Actual results in terms of profitability and growth
is ascertained and the same is required to be comported against the budgeted estimates and
we should find out any deviation between the budgeted estimate and actual results. If actual
results corresponds with the budgets then management of an entity express its satisfaction
and extends rewards in terms of different kinds of incentives to the functional managers. On
the contrary if the budgeted results is not achieved, then critical analysis and review of the
entire commercial operation is undertaken by the management and the reasons for deviations
between budgeted estimate and actual results is worked out in judicious manner and the most
possible and feasible remedial measures are prescribed by the management in order to
achieve the target of the organization.
Friends, we may therefore be able to say that comparison between budgeted estimate and
actual result is of periodical exercise. The importance of comparison of the actual results
against the budgeted benchmark is the key function of the middle level management of an
organization. Top management of the firm is generally busy with strategic planning and
policy formulation. The necessary feedback of financial control and monitoring of
commercial monitoring is transmitted to the top management from time to time on the basis
of which top management issues necessary guide lines and instructions to the middle level
management and middle level management circulate the same through out the length and
breadth of the organization that obviously includes operational level of management. Dear
learner youre there fore instructed to do some practical problems from the referred standard
text books as well as follow the problems solve in the class. Simply speaking comparison
between budgeted estimate and actual results is technically known as budget monitoring in
industries.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9.7 COST AUDIT

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dear learner you understand that management accounting is concerned with decision-making
accounting. It looks in to planning, organizing and controlling. In the previous lessons we
have been discussing about various controlling techniques for cost and sales Variances. For
proper controlling check your accounts in all the relevant areas and accounting efficiency. In
the lesson you are appreciate to learn the auditing system for cost and management. Meaning
of Audit: The term audit means examination of books of accounts and vouchers so as to
establish their accuracy. Audit is defined as a systematic examination of financial statements,
records and related operations to determine adherence to generally accepted accounting
principles, management policies or stated requirements. According to the International
Federation of Accountants, an audit is the independent examination of financial information
of an entity whether profit oriented or not and irrespective of its size or legal form, when such
an examination is conducted with a view to expressing an opinion thereon. The essential
feature of auditing as per the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India (ICWAI) are
as follows
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Making a critical review of the systems and procedures in an organization;

Making such tests and enquires into the results as well as the operation of such
systems and procedures, as the auditor may consider necessary to form an
opinion;
Expressing that opinion in the accepted phraseology that has been developed;
Ensuring that the opinion covers all aspects, which are required to be covered
by law or accepted professional norms.

371

9.7.1 Cost Audit: Types, Advantages

The Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India (ICWAI) has defined cost audit as
verification of cost accounts and a check on the adherence to the cost accounting plan. THE
ICWAI further states that cost audit is the audit of efficiency in minute details of expenditure
while the work is in progress and not a post-mortem examination, financial audit is fait
accompli. Cost audit is mainly preventive measure, a guide for management policy and
decision, in addition to being barometer of performance. Thus the main functions of cost
audit are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

To verify that the cost accounts are correctly kept in accordance with the
generally accepted cost accounting principles applicable to the industry
concerned;
To ensure that the cost accounting routine laid down by the business is
properly carried out;
To detect errors and prevent frauds and possible misappropriation.

Types of Cost Audit

You may cost includes so many cost factors. Since total cost includes materials labour and
other expenses thats why we do cost audit separately. The following are the main types of
cost audit:
(i)
Cost Audit to Assist Management. The main object of this type of cost audit is
to make available accurate, relevant and prompt information to management to
assist it in taking important managerial decisions. The function of this audit is
to ensure management the accuracy of cost accounts. In this type of audit, a
cost auditor suggests ways to reduce the cost of production and make an
improvement in the cost accounting plan.
(ii)
Cost Audit on behalf of the Government. The Government may appoint a cost
auditor to conduct cost audit where it is necessary
(a)
To do so in the opinion of the Government under section 233-B of the
Companies Act, 1956;
(b)
To ascertain correct cost of certain units when Government is approached for
protection or financial help;
(c)
To ascertain correct cost of contract given to private firms under cost plus
basis;
(d)
To fix reasonable prices of certain items of production so as to prevent undue
profiteering.
(iii)
Cost Audit on behalf of a Customer. Sometimes, cost audit may be conducted
on behalf of a customer when he agrees to pay price for a certain product on
cost plus basis. The customer in such a case gets cost accounts of the product
concerned audited to establish correct cost so that he may be able to pay price
on the basis of correct cost price an agreed margin of profit.
(iii)
Cost Audit on behalf of Trade Association. Sometimes a trade association may
appoint a cost auditor to conduct cost audit
(a)
To ascertain comparative profitability of its members;
(b)
To determine minimum price to avoid cut throat competition among its
members;
(c)
To maintain prices at a certain level so as to prevent undue profiteering.
(iv)
Cost Audit on behalf of Tribunals. Sometimes, Labor Tribunals may direct the
audit of cost accounts to settle trade disputes for more wages, bonuses share in

372

(v)

profits etc. Similarly Income Tax tribunals may direct the audit of cost
accounts to assess correct profit for assessment purposes.
Cost Audit under statute: The Central Government may, under section 233-B
of the Companies Act 1956 order that certain classes of companies which are
required to maintain proper records regarding materials consumed, labor and
other expenses under section 209 are required to get their cost accounts
audited. The aim of such type of audit is that the Government wants to
ascertain the relationship of costs and prices.

Advantages of Cost Audit

You can observe when we analyze each cost element where by we surely can control the cost
and eliminate the waste cost .The following are the main advantages of cost audit to
management, cost accountant, shareholders, taxpayers, government and consumers:
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

8.

Cost audit will establish the accuracy and will assist in prevention of errors
and frauds. It will also help to improve cost accounting methods and
techniques to facilitate prompt and reliable information to management. It
creates cost consciousness, results in improved cost accounting methods and
help to have better internal control.
It will help management in taking important decisions because prompt,
accurate and reliable information is made available to management with the
help o cost audit.
It will help in reducing cost of production because a close check will be
maintained on all wastages relating to materials, labor and overheads,
Wastages will be promptly reported to management so that there may not be
recurrence of those wastages.
It will bring more reliability on the costing data and hence can be more
effectively used for inter-firm comparison.
Management by exception is possible since cost audit separates efficient from
inefficient operations and fixes individual responsibility for inefficient
operations.
Analysis of variances is facilitated with cost audit because a comparison of
actual with standard production and sales is made. Hence, the systems of
standard costing and budgetary control will be gainfully applied with cost
audit. It improves the effectiveness of cost control and cost presentation by
introducing efficient routines, reducing expenditure and ensuring promptness.
Cost audit assists the financial auditor because he can safely rely on many
important costing data such as cost of closing stock of raw materials, work in
progress and finished goods. In financial accounts closing stock in valued at
cost or market price whichever is lower. The actual cost of closing stock can
be reliably taken from costing books. In other matters, like payment of
commission on gross profit, production bonus to staff etc. the date supplied by
cost accounts audited by cost auditor can be taken as correct by the financial
auditor. Thus the task of the financial auditor is greatly facilitated if cost
accounts are audited.
Cost audit is very useful in public undertakings because it pinpoints the
inefficiency of the employees. Thus it will help in reducing cost o production
of goods produced by such organizations. Making goods available to the
masses at cheaper rates is the prime need of the day and cost audit will help in
this direction.

373

9.

Cost audit will promote better understanding between persons at the help of
affairs and persons at the bottom. The cost data audited by the cost auditor will
prove useful settling trade disputes for wage, bonus share in profit etc.
10.
The existence of cost audit has a great moral influence on the employees as a
result of which the efficiency is increased.
11.
The government and the trade associations may require cost audit for the
purpose of fixing ceiling prices to prevent excessive profit making. The
Government may also require cost audit to give protection to certain industries
in public interest. It contributes to the betterment of the economy by
increasing productivity and performance.
12.
Cost audit reports raise the status of Cost Accountant. Being external it helps
in improving costing methods and can solve specific problems, which
ultimately raises the status of costing department.
It provides information relating to weak, inefficient or mismanaged units for taking proper
corrective action. It also helps to identify the symptoms of sickness in a unit.

9.7.2 Cost Audit and Financial Audit

I can distinguish the general auditing and cost auditing the basic function o both cost audit
and financial audit is the same i.e. to carry out independent scrutiny of the accounts of an
organization. The basic principles adopted are also common though the approach and the
objective with which they are carried out are quite different. The following are the main
points of difference between cost audit and financial audit.
Sr.
No.

Basic of
Distinction

Cost Audit

01.

Coverage

It covers cost accounts

02.

Meaning and
Aim

It is the verification of cost

accounts and a check on the
adherence of cost accounting
plan. It stresses propriety of
expenditure and efficiency of
performance through analysis
of expenditure incurred.

03.

Approach

Financial Audit
It covers financial accounts

It is to verify the financial

accounts
and
report
whether. Balance Sheet and
Profit & Loss Account have
been drawn properly and
whether they exhibit a true
and fair view of the state of
affairs of the concern. Its
aim is to prevent the errors
and frauds and prevention
of their recurrence. It is
more of a honesty audit
.
It imparts a forward-looking It is generally a postmortem
approach besides checking of check to see that the
cost records.
expenditure recorded has
been actually incurred. It is
concerned with the past and
historical in nature.

374

It is concerned with totality

of the picture in respect of
profit and financial position.
A financial auditor is not to
arrive at what the cost
should have been and is
merely concerned with the
detection or errors and
frauds and improvement in
the accounting system.

04.

Concerned
with

It is to very the accuracy of

cost of each job, product
process, unit etc. and is
concerned with the analysis
of information and its prompt
presentation
to
the
management
for
taking
managerial decisions i.e.
price fixing make or buy etc.
A cost auditor is to find out
what the cost should be.

05.

Reports

Cost Auditor reports to the Financial auditor reports to

management except in case of the shareholders of the
statutory audit in which case company
he reports to the Government.

6.

Difference in There is a difference in

treatment
treatment of certain cost
factor as valuation of stock,
depreciation
interest
on
capital etc. in cost audit as
compared to financial audit.

Financial
audit
treat
valuation
of
stock
depreciation, interest on
capital etc. in a different
way as compared to cost
audit.

9.7.3 Cost Auditor

In a cost ledger accounting system, the responsibility of a cost auditor can be from that of the
financial auditor. Financial accounts are maintained separately. In an integrated system of
accounts, the responsibility of cost audit and financial audit cannot be separated since both
the cost accounts and financial accounts are maintained in one set of accounts and both the
financial and cost accounts are audited by one person.
Appointment of Cost Auditor: The Cost Auditor has to be appointed by the Board of
Directors under section 233B of the Companies Act subject to prior approval of the company
Law Board. This will be done on receipt of specific order from the company Law Board for
getting audited the Cost Accounting Records of a particular year for specified products. For
appointment of cost auditor, the Board of Directors is required to pass a resolution either in
its meeting or by circulation with a condition that the same is subject to approval of the
Central Government. Appointment of cost auditor is made on the receipt for an order from
Central Government within a specified period. The person to be appointed as auditor must
hold a certificate of practice from the Institute of Cost & Works Accountants of India.
Consent of the cost auditor should be obtained before making an appointment. Application in
prescribed form (23-C) is submitted to the central Government with the prescribed fee along
with a copy of the Boards resolution.
Approval for appointment is communicated by the Central Government to the company after
considering the application and the name of the auditor proposed subject to the condition that
the cost auditor is not disqualified under section 233-B (5) of the Companies Act, 1956 as
amended. A copy of this communication will also be sent by the Central Government to the
cost Auditor giving the time limits, submission of Report in triplicate the date of
commencement and completion of audit. The company should issue a formal letter of

375

appointment to the concerned auditor, after receiving the approval of the Central Government
so that he can start the work of this assignment.
After receiving the letter of his appointment, the cost auditor should communicate with the
previous auditor, if any, for his reaction. He must send his formal acceptance of the
assignment to the company.
Eligibility for Appointment: The following persons are eligible to be appointed as cost
auditor under section 233-B.
(1)
(2)
(3)

Cost Accountant within the meaning of the Cost and Works Accountants Act,
1959 or
Any such Chartered Accountant within the meaning of the Chartered
Accountants Act 1949 and has passed Part I of the Management Accountancy
Examination of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India or
Other person, as may posses and prescribed qualification.

Duties and Responsibilities of a Cost Auditor

The duties and responsibilities of the Cost Auditor have not been clearly given in the
Companies Act. The cost auditor is also required to perform the duties as are expected from
auditors in general. The main duties and responsibilities of a cost audit are:
(i)
He is liable to the Company if he does not perform his duties properly or is guilty of
negligence.
(ii)
He also owes a legal responsibility to third parties who might have been misled by his
audit certificate and acted in reliance thereon.
(iii)
He should maintain his working papers as an evidence of his having carried out his
duties.
(iv)
He should not disclose any confidential information which he might have acquired in
the course of his work and should not use such information for personal gain or gain
of a third party.
(v)
He is responsible to answer any quarry or clarification required by the Central
Government on a scrutiny of the cost audit report submitted by him.
Cost Audit Programme: No standard patters can be laid down for the cost audit programme.
The nature and size of business, attitude of the management and existing system will affect it.
The cost auditor should have a cost audit programme which should be specific to the unit
concerned. In drawing up such a programme, the guiding factors should be:
Functions of a Cost Auditor: The cost auditor has to plan his activities and is required to
make out a suitable audit programme. The procedure and programme to be adopted for audit
the various forms and documents used for it should be laid down in an Audit Manual. The
audit programme should be drawn in such a way as to over the various areas of audit as
illustrated below:
1. Inventory: The cost Auditor should examine the following regarding inventory:
(a)
Is the size of the inventory adequate or excessive compared with the
production programme?
(b)
Is the provisioning drill most economical?
(c)
Does it ensure optimum order size?
(d)
Does it take into account the storage cost on the one hand, and carrying cost
on the other hand?

376

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

2.

Does it take note of lead-time of the various items or group of items?

Does the receipt and issue system cause any bottleneck in production?
Does it involve too many forms and too much paper work?
It there any room for reduction of inventory cost consistent with production
needs?
(i)
Does the Management certify the inventory as per the priced store ledger and
as physically correct?
(j)
Is the same amount of attention and care given to monies translated into
materials things, like raw materials, stores and supplies of all kinds as is given
to liquid cash?
(k)
Does the issue of raw materials make the production in accordance with the
standard of schedule or otherwise, or covered by authorized schedule?
(l)
Is the expenditure of consumable stores within the standard? If not, why not?
Opening and Closing Stock: The cost Auditor should examine the following regarding
opening and closing stock.
a)
That the opening stock is not unduly large compared with the volume of
production during the year.
b)
That the opening stock against various jobs does really represent the actual
physical stock in the production shop and is not merely an accounting figure:
c)
That the responsibility of the Shop Foreman in charge of the stock held in the
production shop is clear and properly documented that he maintains proper
record of actual consumption vis--vis the actual withdrawal from the stock.
(i)
Valuation and correct indication of closing stock in the Trading and Profit and
Loss Account and in Balance Sheet is important. The Cost Auditor should also
examine and certify:
(a)
That the physical verification is correctly carried out;
(b)
That the valuation is correct with reference to the actual cost of production and
recognized policy for valuation;
(c)
That the volume of closing stock is commensurate with the volume of
production and that it does not reflect any failure or bottleneck in sales budget
or production budget:
(d)
That the volume of unmoved stores is not abnormal in comparison with
normal rate of yearly consumption. The Cost Auditor will recommend
disposal of such unmoved stores with consequent, release of capital
unnecessarily locked up to the advantage o the financial resources of the
concern.
3. Stores Issue Procedure: The Cost Auditor should consider the following:
(a)
That withdrawal of materials from stores to production shop is scientific or
covered by authorized schedule and permits receipts to be located.
(b)
That there is no possibility of loss or pilferage of stock lying in the production
sections;
(c)
That surplus materials and scraps arising in production shops are returned to
stores correctly and without delay for which necessary credit is given to unit
cost of production. If transferred to other jobs, proper transfer voucher has
been prepared and copies sent to the accounts, stores etc.
4. Work-in-progress: The cost auditor should consider the following:
(a)
That the work-in-progress has been physically verified and that it agrees with
the balance in the incomplete cost cards;

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(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(i)

(ii)

That the valuation of the work-in-progress is correct with reference to the state
of completion of each job process and the value job cost cards or process cost
sheet;
That there is no over valuation or under valuation of work in progress, thereby
artificially pushing up or down net profits or net assets as the case;
That the volume or value of work in progress is not disproportionate as
compared with the finished out-turn.
Labor. The following points are to be considered.
Proper utilization of labor and increase in productivity are receiving attention.
Several productivity teams have emphasized its importance to higher
productivity. It is therefore, essential to assess the performance efficiency of
the labor and compare it with the standard performance, so that labor
utilization could be progressively improved. The labor force in India
Industries is generally very high compared to similar type of industries in
other developed countries, our aim should be to reach that level, though not
immediately but over some time. A study of this nature would give an idea
where that inefficiency lies so that timely and adequate steps could be taken to
ensure maximum utilization of labor and to reduce the labor cost.
Cost of labor is allocated to different jobs with reference to time or job cards.

5. Capacity utilization: The Cost Auditor should consider the following:

(a)
That the idle capacity in any production shop or of transport facilities for
distribution is not excessive.
(b)
That production volume and overall machine hours utilised are commensurate.
In other words, the machine hours utilised have given the optimum out-turn.
6. Overheads: The cost auditor will consider and certify the following:
(a)
That allocation of indirect expenditure over production, sales or distribution is
logical and correct;
(b)
That compared with volume of production in a production shop, the over head
charges are not excessive;
(c)
That the actual indirect expenditure does not exceed budgets or standard
expenditure significantly and that any variations are satisfactorily explained
and accounted for;
(d)
That relation of indirect expenditure in keeping with the load on individual
production shop is appropriate;
(e)
Correctness of appropriate allocation of overhead expenditure (both
production and sales) will be certified by the Cost Auditors;
(f)
That allocation of overheads between finished products and unfinished
products is in accordance with correct principles.
(i)
The impact of different elements of cost on total cost
(ii)
Comparison of actual with budgeted production and sales.
(iii)
Analysis of variances.
(iv)
Drawing up a list of priorities if more than one alternative was to be followed
up.
(v)
Critical examination of all statements to the presented to management for
taking managerial decisions.
(vi)
Frequently reviewing every system laid down or action taken.
(vii)
Discussion of queries arised while conducting cost audit.
(viii) The effect of all abnormal factors should be separated.

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(ix)
(x)

The same procedure of financial audit i.e. vouching, checking and ticking, test
checks, audit notes and questionnaire should be followed to establish the
verification of correctness of cost accounts.
Profit as per cost accounts should be reconciled with that as per financial
accounts.

9.7.4 Cost Accounting Records

Section 209(1)(d) provides that a company, pertaining to any class of companies engaged in
production, processing, manufacturing or mining activities should keep proper books of
accounts showing such particulars relating to utilization of materials or labor or to other items
of cost as may be prescribed, if such class of company is required by the Central Government
to include such particulars in the books of account. Provided that all or any of the books of
account aforesaid may be kept at such other place in India as the Board of Directors may
decide and when the Board of Directors so decides, the company shall, within seven days of
the decision, file with the Registrar a notice in writing giving the full address of that other
place. In pursuance of this provision, the Central Government has notified Cost Accounting
Record Rules for two dozen industries. Many more industries will be covered in course of
time under cost audit. These rules prescribe the manner in which Cost Accounting Records
should be maintained and also specify the particulars which should be entered in the books of
accounts. These rules follow more or less a common pattern.
General Features of Cost Accounting Records
The following are some of the main heads in which costs are generally required to be
complied:
(1) Materials: Adequate records of receipts, issues and balances and the required to be
maintained both in quantities and value. The cost of loss of material in transit during
storage or for other reasons is to be worked out separately and the treatment of such
losses in the accounts indicated. The cost shall include all direct charges up to works. If
the quantity and value of material consumed are determined on any basis other than
actual, the method adopted shall be indicated in the cost records. The overall
reconciliation of such values of material with the actual and the treatment of such
variations shall also be kept as record.
(2) Consumable Stores, small tools and machinery, spare etc. Adequate records showing the
receipts, issues and balance including consumption of each item are to be maintained in
the same manner as for materials. Losses are also to be similarly dealt with. Items, which
have not been moved at all for 24 months, are reported separately.
(3) Services (i.e., power, fuel, steam etc.) Adequate records are to be maintained to ascertain
the cost of power, fuel, steam etc. If power of steam is purchased, purchase cost is
required to be shown separately. The allocation of power bill or generation cost to
departments and products is also to be shown.
(4) Wages and Salaries: Proper records shall be maintained to show the attendance and
earnings of all employees and the departments or cost centers and the work on which they
are employed. The system of remuneration and incentives paid, if any, is also to be
indicated. Idle time cost is calculated and recorded separately. If wages are charged on a
basis other than actual, reconciliation is to be made and the treatment of the actual is to be
suitably indicated.
(5) Service Department Expenditure: Expenses for these departments are to be calculated
separately. The allocation and/or apportionment of expenses to these departments are
required to be shown.
(6) Depreciation: The amount of depreciation to be charged to cost should not be less than
the amount worked out in accordance with Companies Act, 1956. Proper and suitable

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records should be maintained in respect of depreciable fixed assets. It can be included as

part of manufacturing overheads of the concerned departments or manufacturing units.
(7) Royalty and payment of technical aid. Basis of calculating the amount of royalty and
charging royalty and other allied payments to production costs are to be recorded.
(8) Overheads: These must be segregated into works, administration, selling and distribution
overheads. The method of their collection, allocation, apportionment and recovery in
output are to be indicated. The accounting of variances is to be explained if overheads are
charged on the basis of other than actual.
(9) Work-in-progress. The value of work-in-progress should include materials, wages,
overheads and depreciation. The records should also show the quantities of work-inprogress.
(10) Reconciliation of cost and financial accounts. In order to ensure accuracy, this is to
be done periodically.
(11) Stock Verification. Records of stock verification should be maintained in respect of
all raw materials, components stores, spare-parts including loose tools and other materials
kept in stocks. The cost records should also indicate the method of dealing with
discrepancies arising out of such verifications.
A perusal of Cost Accounting Records Rules of different industries reveal that the proper
accounting records are to be maintained in respect of raw materials, stores and spare parts,
services-power, fuel etc. wages, salaries, overheads, depreciation, packing expense,
production; work-in-progress, stock valuation and other statistical records as relevant to the
industries. The records should be kept in such a way so as to reveal the business operation
and valuation of stocks should be done on realistic basis and that a reconciliation of the
results obtained through cost records are to be made with that of financial accounts. The
standard cost sheets have been prescribed for different industries. The cost auditor is required
to send his audit report to the Company Law Board in accordance with the procedure laid
down in the schedule annexed to these Rules and at the same time forward a copy of the
report to thee company. The Cost Audit (Report) Rules, 1968, are given below:

9.7.5 Cost Audit Report

Cost Audit Report Rules, 1968
In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (4) of Section 223-B read with sub-section
(1) of section 227 and clause (6) of sub-section (1) of Section 642 of the Companies Act,
1956 (1 of 1956) the Central Government makes the following rules, namely:
1. Short title and commencement. (a) These rules may be called the Cost Audit (Report)
Rules, 1968.
2. Application. These rules shall apply to every company in respect of which an audit of the
cost accounting records has be4en ordered by the Central Government under subsection
(1) of section 223 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956).
3. Form of Report. Every auditor (hereinafter called the Cost Auditor) who conducts an
audit of the cost accounting records of the company shall make a report to the Company
Law Board [in the form and in accordance with the procedure] laid down in the Schedule
annexed to these rules and at the same time forward a copy of the report to the Company.
[He shall also reply to any clarification sought by the Company Law Board on the Cost
Audit Report submitted by him, within such period as may be specified in the
communication addressed to the Cost Auditor calling for clarification].

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4. Time limit for submission of report. The cost auditor shall make his report to the
Company Law Board and at the same time forward a copy of the report to the company
within sixty days before the date fixed for the Annual General Meeting of the company.
5. Cost Auditor to be furnished with Cost Accounting Records etc. Without prejudice to the
powers and duties the Cost Auditor under sub-section (4) of section 233-B of the
Companies Act, 1956 the Company and every officer thereof, including the person
referred to in sub-section (6) of section 209 of the said Act, shall make available to the
Cost Auditor within ninety days from the end of financial year of the Company such cost
accounting records, Cost Statement and other books and papers that would be required for
conducting the Cost Audit, and shall render necessary assistance to the Cost Auditor so as
to enable him to complete the Cost Audit and send his report within the time limit
specified in rule 4.
6. Penalties. (I) If default is made by any Cost Auditor in complying with the provision of
rules 3 and 4 he shall be punishable with fine, which may extend to five hundred rupees.
(ii) If default is made by the Company in complying with the provisions of rule 5, the
Company and every officer of the Company including the persons referred in sub-section
(6) of section 209 of the Companies Act, 1956 who is in default, shall be punishable with
fine which may extend to five hundred rupees.
Cost Audit Report
I/We*.. Having been appointed as auditor(s) under section 223-B of the
Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956)(hereinafter referred to as the Cost Auditor(s) of Messrs
Ltd., (hereinafter referred to as the company), have examined the books of accounts
prescribed under clause (d) of sub-section (1) of section 209 of the said Act and other
relevant records for the year ended .relating to .maintained by the company and report subject
to my/our*cements undue the heading Auditors Observations and Conclusions contained in
the Annexure to this report that
(a) I/we*have/have not*obtained all the information and explanations which to the best of
my/our*knowledge and belief is necessary for the purpose of this audit;
(b) Proper cost accounting records as required under clause (d) of sub-section (1) of Section
209 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956) have/have not* been kept by the company;
(c) Proper returns adequate for the purpose of my/our cot audit have/have not* been received
from branches not visited by me/us*;
(d) The said books and records give/do not give* the information required by the Companies
Act, 1956 (1 of 1956) in the manner so required; and
(e) In my/our* opinion the companys cost accounting records have/have not* been properly
kept as t give a true and fair view of the cost of production, processing, manufacturing of
mining activities, as the case may be, and marketing of the product under reference.
The matters contained in the Annexure to this report form part of this report which is also
subject to my/our* observation made therein
Dated this..day of19 at*
Cost Auditor(s)
Annexure to the Cost Audit Report
1. General.
(i) Name and address of the registered office of the Company whose accounts are audited.
(ii) Name and address of the Cost Auditor.
(iii) Reference No. And date of Government Order under which the audit is conducted.

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(iv) Reference number and date of Government letter appointing the appointment of the Cost
Auditor.
(v) The Companys financial year for which the audit report is rendered.
(vi) Date of incorporation of the company, and its status (i.e. whether it is public
company/private Company which is a subsidiary of a public company etc.)
(vii) Location where accounts are maintained.
(viii) Location of Factory/Factories.
(ix) If there is any foreign technical collaboration for the product under reference, attach a
copy of the collaboration agreement. If this is not possible prepare a brief note indicating:
(a) Name and address of the foreign collaborators.
(b) Main terms of agreement
(c) Amount of Royalty/Technical aid fee payable and the basis calculating the same.
(d) Whether the technical collaborator has contributed to the share capital. If so, the
paid-up value of shares so held.
(x) Date of first commencement of commercial production of the product under reference. (If
more than one factory under the same company produce the product under reference,
particulars in respect of each may be given).
(xi) If the company is engaged in other activities besides the manufacture of the product
under reference, give a brief note on the nature of such other activities.
(xii) Whether the Company is registered or has applied for registration under Monopolies and
Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 and/or governs by the Foreign Exchange
Regulations Act, 1973.
2. Cost Accounting System. Briefly describe and comment on the Cost Accounting System
and its adequacy or otherwise to determine correctly the cost of the product under
reference.
3. Financial Position. (Relating the product under reference if possible otherwise for the
company as a whole). Indicate the particulars of accounts included in terms of 1 (a), (2)
and 3 (a) below duly recorded with financial accounts of the company for the relevant
period.
(1) Capital employed:
Capital Employed defined as fixed assets at net book value (excluding the investment
outside the business, capital work-in-progress, misc. expenditure and losses) and current
assets minus current liabilities.
(a) For the Company as a Whole;
(b) For the product under reference,
(2) Net worth:
Net worth i.e. shares capital plus reserves and surplus less accumulated losses and
intangible assets. If there is any change in the composition of the net worth during the
year, special attention may be made along with reasons therefore.
(3) Profit after providing for depreciation and all other expenses excluding interest on
borrowings including debentures but before providing for taxes income
(a) For Company as a whole
(4)Income to be specified:
(a) Interest received on investments outside the business.
(b) Capital gains
(c) Any other income which is neither normal nor of a recurring nature.
(5) Ratios:
(a) Profit arrived at as per 3 (3) (a) and 3(3) (b) above expressed as a percentage of:
(i)
Capital employed as per 3 (1)(a) and 3 (1)(b) respectively.

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(ii)

Net sales for the company as a whole and for the product under reference
respectively.
(b) (i)
Current assets expressed as a percentage of current liabilities.
(ii) Net worth expressed as a percentage of long-term borrowings and liabilities
(excluding current liabilities)
(iii)
Net worth expressed as a percentage of a capital employed as per 3(1)(a)
above.
(iv) Cost of sales of the product under reference as a percentage of capital
employed as per 3 (1)(b) above.
(v) Cost of sales excluding depreciation of the product under reference as a
percentage of working capital (i.e. Current Assets less Current Liabilities) for
the product under reference.
4. Production. The following information is to be given for each type of product under
reference and for each factory.
(1) Licensed capacity (gives reference and license no. etc)
(2) Installed capacity.
(3) Actual production.
(4) Percentage of production in relation to installed capacity
Notes. (1) In order to have meaningful comparison of production and installed capacity
wherever necessary, these should also be expressed in appropriate units e.g. standard hours or
equipment/plant/vessel occupancy hours, crushing hours, spindle/loom shifts etc. If there is
any shortfall in production of the product under reference as compared to installed capacity
brief comments should be furnished as to the reasons for the shortfall bringing out clearly the
extent to which they are controllable both in short term as well as long term.(2) It should be
clarified whether the installed capacity is on single shift or multiple shift bases.
5. Process of Manufacture. A brief note regarding the process of manufacture of the product
under reference may be given.
6. Raw Materials. (I) Show the cost of major raw materials consumed both in terms of
quantity and value. Where the cost of transport etc. of raw materials is significant, specify
the same separately. In the case of major imported raw materials, F.O.B. value, oceanfreight, insurance, customs duty and inland freight charges may be indicated. If both
indigenous and imported materials are consumed, the percentage mix of the same may be
indicated for each item. (a) Quantity of consumption of major raw materials per unit of
production. (b) Standard requirement/theoretical norms per unit of production in terms of
quantity; (c)Explanations for variations, if any, in the quantity of consumption of major
raw materials per unit of production s compared to standard consumption/theoretical
requirement and also of the consumption of the preceding two years; Indicate the value of
raw materials and components, finished and semi-finished which have not moved for one
year and above and indicate their proportion to the value of stock at the end of the year.
7. Power and Fuel. Quantity, rate per unit and total cost separately for each major form of
power and fuel used in production e.g. coal, furnace, oil, electricity and other utilities
separately. Compare the actual physical consumption per unit of production with standard
or theoretical norms; if any and with the preceding two years consumption. Special
feature, if any, may also be indicated.
In case, the company generates power, a comparison of the cost per unit generated with
that purchased may be indicated for three years.

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8. Wages and Salaries

(i) Total wages and salaries paid for all categories of employees, separately in respect of
each of the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Direct labor costs of production.

An indirect employee costs of production.
Employees costs on administration.
Employees costs on selling and distribution.
Other employees costs, if any (specify purpose).
Total employees costs [total of items (a) to (e) above].

(ii) Total man-days of direct labor available and actually worked for the year,
(iii) Average number of workers employed for the year
(iv) Direct Labor cost per unit of output of the product under reference (if more than one
type of product, give information in respect of each).
(v) Brief explanation for variations in (4) above, if any, as compared to the previous two
years.
(vi) Comments on the incentive schemes, if any, particular reference to its contributions
towards increasing productivity and its effects on cost of production.
9. Stores and Spare Parts.
10.
(i)
The expenditure per unit on output on stores etc.
(ii)
Indicate the amount and also the proportion of closing inventory of stores and
spare-parts representing items which have not moved for over 24 months.
11. Depreciation.
(i) State the method of depreciation adopted by the company e.g. straight line or
diminishing balance etc. State whether the depreciation provided by the company
is more or less than the amount of depreciation worked out in accordance with
provisions of sub-section (2) of Section 205 of the Companies Act, 1956. In the
case of assets or group of assets on which depreciation is written off at the rate of
100% in the relevant year, and the benefits from such assets is likely to be derived
over a period beyond the relevant year, the depreciation should be notionally
spread over the economic life of the assets. The impact of charging additional
depreciation at the rate of 100% in the relevant year vis--vis the depreciation
chargeable on the basis of economic life of the assets shall be indicated in total as
well as for the product manufactured.
(ii)
State the basis of allocation of depreciation on common assets to the different
departments.
12. Overheads. Give separately the total amount of the following overheads and a break-up
for the company factor as a whole:
(a) Factory overheads.
(b) Administration overheads.
(c) Selling and distribution overheads.
(d) Annual bonus to employees (the amount of minimum bonus under the Payment of
Bonus Act to be furnished separately).
(e) Interest on borrowings including debentures.
(f) Bad debts

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(g) Donations of all kinds

(h) Retrenchment or other compensation to employees excluding premium on account of
workmens compensation insurance.
(i) Lay-off wages.
(j) Expenditure on special exhibitions etc. other than normal trade advertisements.
(k) Commission based on profit to Managerial Personnel.
(l) Any other item of expenditure the incidence of which is neither normal nor of a
recurring nature.
(m) Prior period charges.
(n) Other expenses or portion thereof which are not admissible under Income Tax Act
like:
(i)
Perquisites of executives
(ii)
Guest house expenses
(iii)
Advertisement expenses.
(iv)
Ex gratia payment to staff.
(v)
Donation and charities.
(vi)
Loss on exchange.
(vii) Others (to be specified,)
In respect of items (a), (b) and (c) above give the amounts relating to the products under
reference along with the break up and state whether any amounts in respect of (d) to (n)
above have been included in the total amounts of item (a), (b) and (c) relating to the products
and the extent to which included.
Note. Indicate reasons for any significant variations in the expenditure-incurred against the
items of overhead viz. (a), (b) and (c) as compared with the pervious two years particularly
for the product under reference.
13. Royalty/Technical Aid Payments. Shall the total amount of Royalty/Technical Aid Fees
payable for the year and the amount chargeable per unit of the product.
14. Sales.
(i)
Indicate the sales in quantities and net sales realization of the products under
reference showing the average sales realization per unit (If more than one type of
product is sold, information to be given in respect of each).
(ii)
If product under reference is exported indicate quantity exported, net realisation per
unit, countries to which exported- details may be given. Indicate the profit/loss
incurred in exports.
(iii)
Any packaging charges not included in the price charged to the customers, may be
indicated with the incidence of cost and amount recovered from the customer.
(iv)
The actual incidence of delivery and freight charges incurred for the quantity sold and
the freight recovered from customers directly and/or from the freight pool may be
indicated separately.
(v)
Where the product is sold at different prices in accordance with Government policy as
in the case of sugar, cement etc. sales realization at different prices shall be shown
separately along with quantity and value.
15. Abnormal Non-recurring Costs, If there were any abnormal features affecting production
during the year e.g., strikes, lockouts major breakdowns in the plan, substantial power
cuts, serious accidents etc., wherever practicable, be briefly mentioned indicating their
effect on the unit cost of production.
16. Other Items. If there are any special expenses, which have been directly, allocated to
products under reference the total amount, as also the unit incidence shall be shown.

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17. Auditors Observations and Conclusions.

(i)
The cost auditor may here report on
(a) Matters which appear to him to be clearly wrong in principle or apparently
unjustifiable;
(b) Cases where the companys funds have been used in negligent or inefficient
manner;
(c) Factors which could have been controlled, but have not been done resulting in
increase in the cost of production;
(d) Contracts or agreements, if any, between the company and other parties
relating to selling, purchasing [bringing out any peculiar features, undue
benefits];
(e) (I) The adequacy or otherwise of budgetary control system, if any, in vogue in
the company; (ii) the scope and performance of internal audit, if any;
(f) Suggestions for improvement in performance, if any e.g., by;
(1) Rectification of general imbalance in production facilities;
(2) Fuller utilization of installed capacity;
(3) Concentration on areas offering scope for:
(i)
Cost reduction;
(ii)
Increased productivity;
(iii)
Key/limiting factors causing production bottle-necks
(4) Improved inventory policies:
(i) The opinion expressed shall be based on verified date, reference to which shall
be made here and shall, wherever practicable, be included after the company
has been afforded an opportunity to comment on them.
(ii) Copies of the cost statements in respect of intermediate and completed
products as given in Schedule II of the relevant notification issued under
clause (b) of sub-section (1) of Section 209 of the Companies Act, 1956 duly
completed and audited shall be appended to the report. However, the
Company Law Board may at its discretion order the discontinuation or
modification either permanently or temporarily of the submission of the
detailed cost statement in respect of whole or part of the items referred in this
Para.
(iii) If as a result of examination of the books of account, the auditor desires to
give a qualified report he shall indicate the extent to which he has to
qualify the report and the reasons therefore.
(iv)
A statement showing the reconciliation of the profit or loss as indicated
under 3 (3)(a) above with the profit or loss relating to the product under
reference as arrived on the basis of the cost statements annexed to the
report and the net sales realization as indicated in 13(1) above shall be
appended to the report.
(v) After the auditor appointed under Section 224 of the Companies Act, 1956
(1 of 1956) submit his report, the cost auditor may, if he considers it
necessary, submit a supplementary report to the Company Law Board
before the date fixed for holding the Annual General Meeting of the
Company. The supplementary report shall be limited to the extent of
reconciling the statements annexed to the cost audit report with the
financial accounts and the company.

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Notes: 1. Figures to be given for the year under audit and to the extent practicable for the
two preceding years in respect of 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 and 13.
2. If the company has more than one factory producing the product under reference, details
indicated in the annexure may be given separately for each factory, if such details are
available.
3. If different varieties/types of products under reference are manufactured by the company,
details of cost in respect of each shall be given. 4. The matters contained in the annexure shall
be duly authenticated by the cost auditor. 5. The report should be neatly stitched and bound in
a file and should be sent by Registered Post acknowledgement due, or otherwise delivered in
person through messenger and acknowledgement obtained.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.8 MANAGEMENT AUDIT

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Due to rapid changes in the economic, social and political fields, it has become difficult for
the management to take decisions. Moreover, careful observation, verification and detailed
study in areas beyond the scope of conventional business audit have become necessary due to
changed circumstances. This has given birth to a new type of audit known as Management
Audit. Management Audit is a comprehensive and constructive review and appraisal of
management methods and performances. It is an important tool for and the continuous
evaluation of the methods and performances of an enterprise covers all areas of an
undertaking as administration, accounts, human and physical facilities. William P, Leonard, a
noted author has defined management audit as a comprehensive and constructive
examination of an organizational structure of a company, institution or branch or Government
or of any components thereof, such as division of department and its plans or objectives, its
means of operations and its use of human and physical facilities. It is a comprehensive
definition and covers audit of the operations as well as audit over plans and objectives of the
entity, which is essentially a management function. It covers all the areas of an undertaking
viz., Administration, Accounts, human and physical facilities etc.

9.8.1 Objectives and Scope of Management Audit

A comprehensive critical review of all aspects or process of management is broadly a concept
of management audit. The basic objective of management audit is to help management to
manage better, improve organizational profitability and ensure that management objectives
are being met. To achieve the basic objectives, other objectives may be stated as under:
(i)
To ensure optimum utilization of human resources and available physical facilities.
(ii)
To point out deficiencies in objective, policies and plans.
(iii)
To suggest better and improve methods of operation.
(iv)
To point out weak links in organization structure and in internal control system and
suggesting possible improvements.
(v)
To point out any changes of potential danger arising out of weak financial position
thereby help the management by providing early signals of sickness and the ways to
avoid the same.
(vi)
To anticipate problems and suggest remedies to solve them in time.
Management audit is a potent tool for managerial control and reduction of costs. Management
audit, as the eyes and ears of the management, can bring to focus the weak areas of the
operations, bring in the operational efficiency by interaction with the functionaries and highlight those areas to the top management for improvement in the system, procedures and
methods of internal control. It is, therefore, a potent tool of managerial control. Cost of

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production is directly related with the operational efficiency and continuous efforts to
improve operational efficiency will result in the reduction of costs and increase the
profitability.
The scope of management audit is very wide. The area of review is largely determined by the
objectives or a predetermined scope. Some important areas which management audit probes
to evaluate the performance efficiency and to ascertain the drawbacks in the methods of
internal control, are stated as under: Production programme (ii) Inspection (iii) Sales
programme (iv) Capacity utilization (v) Inventory holding (vi) Liquidity position (vii)
Consumption efficiencies (viii) Cost of production (ix) Purchases (x) Receivables (xi)
Overtime (xii) Controllable expenses and (xiii) Industrial relations.

9.8.2 Areas of Management Audit

The main areas covered by the Management Audit are inventory control, personnel
administration, production management, finance control, sales function and general
organization. A brief description is given as under relating to the different aspects of
management audit giving a line of demarcation between transaction audit, systems audit and
policy audit. Completeness of the two primary audits is to be ensured for the purpose of the
policy audit.
A. Stores
1. Transaction Audit
Check Stores Ledger postings with primary documents for receipts and issues.
Compare for selected items, Stores Ledger, Bin Card and Physical Balances and
reconcile the differences.
Link up all bills paid against stores accounts with the corresponding store receipts
note.
Check for selected items, the rates adopted for pricing the issues.
Check for selected items, the rate at which stocks are priced.
2. Systems Audit
Check the purchasing routine starting from the preparation of stores indent to the
passing of the bills for payment.
Check the inspection notes for any three months with regard to inspecting authority
follow up of rejections, recovery of amounts and action against unreliable suppliers.
Check the routine for disposal of used and damages stores. Check the routine for
receipt of goods and preparation of stores receipt notes,
Check the routine for ensuring that the stocks are not issued in excess of standards
fixed and that the total value of stores consumed is absorbed in costs.
3. Policy Audit
Ensure that the maximum levels fixed for stock are correct and require no revision.
Ensure that the minimum and ordering levels fixed for stock are correct and require
no revision.
Check and confirm that the standards for stores consumption are correct and required
no revision.
In cases where items re made in the works in preference to purchase from outside,
check up whether this continues to be advantageous.
Confirm that the present specifications for raw materials represent the minimum costs
for the required standard of finished goods.

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Ensure that ordering quantities in use represent the optimum quantity for purchases.

B. Labor
1. Transaction Audit
Check the cash disbursements with the certified copies of pay roll.
Test checks of the pay-roll preparations with primary records like attendance,
production, overtime sheets, etc.
Test check of bonus calculations to ensure that they have been correctly computed.
Check the unpaid and prepaid wages account.
Check leaves payment and holiday wages payment sheets.
2. System Audit
Carry out periodically a physical check on the attendance of selected departments and
be personally present at some wages payments.
Reconcile the wages paid with attendance or production records and ensure that the
system for recording attendance and/or production is foolproof.
Compare the actual labor cost with standards and ensure that variances are being
correctly analyzed and acted upon.
Confirm that the analysis of labor costs between direct and indirect is correctly done
and that labor costs are fully absorbed in costs.
3. Policy Audit
Confirm that the incentive bonus systems in operation are yielding the results
anticipated and that the savings in costs are being achieved.
Confirm that the present policy in respect of labor recruitment, training gradations
etc., is yielding beneficial results.
C. Overhead Expenses
Transaction Audit
Check all items of expenditure charged in costs with the primary records and ensure
that they are correctly charged to the period concerned.
Reconcile total overheads recovered in costs with those charged to the period.
Check how the under or over absorption has been dealt with.
Check the plan Register for its completeness and verify the accuracy of depreciation
charges.
System Audit
Check the accuracy of the various bases used for apportionment of expenditure over
different cost centers.
Check whether ascertainment, allocations, apportionment and absorption methods
under use are basically correct.
Investigate why or how under/over recovery occurs and ensures that steps taken to
adjust them are correct.
Policy Audit
Check all specific increases of overhead expenditure particularly those due to
expansion of sale territories, alternative channels of distribution, mechanization of
clerical work and ensure that the resultant benefits have been as anticipated.

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Check every case where overhead costs have not been charged as a matter of policy,
e.g., the work-in-progress valuations, items of own manufacture etc., and confirm that
the method adopted is correct.

D. Production
Transaction Audit
Check all production record to ensure that quantities of work-in-process and the
quantities transferred to finished goods has been correctly arrived at.
Ensure that defectives, wastages, scrap etc., are collected, disposed of and accounted
for.
Link up production records with cost records, whenever possible, and ensure that unit
costs are correctly compiled.
Check all sale or issue of processed or semi-processed or material to staff members
particularly when it is done at confessional rates.
Where sub-contracts exist for production of components check all dispatches to and
receipts from the sub-contractor and reconcile the amounts paid with quantities
received.
Systems Audit
Check how production is arrived at in cases where it is not directly weighed or
measured, i.e., the accuracy of conversion ratios, formulae etc.
Where production is measured or weighted, check the scales, tares etc. to ensure that
production is being correctly recorded.
Test check of finished goods ready for dispatch, for production standards, packing
specifications etc.
Calculate output and yield variances and ensure that these are periodically being
worked out, investigated and acted upon.
Policy Audit
Investigate into all charges recently made in the production programme, methods of
lines of production etc., and measure their profitable
E. Sales
Transaction Audit
Check all dispatches from finished goods to go down with invoices.
Check the stock of selected items in the finished goods go down and compare with
book balance.
Check all postings in Sundry Debtors Ledger and ensure that credit collections are
being properly accounted.
Check invoices to ensure that prices, discounts, sales tax, commission etc. have all
been correctly computed.
System Audit
Ensure that cost of selling and distribution are correctly charged to each territory.
Examine whether the incidents of selling and distribution expenses on each product
has been correctly arrived at.
Examine whether sales variances are being correctly computed, investigated and acted
upon.
Check upon the system of sales commission and to confirm whether or not it offers
enough incentive.

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