CH 7 Working Capital

7
Management of Working Capital

UNIT I : MEANING, CONCEPT AND POLICIES OF WORKING CAPITAL
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
Discuss in detail about working capital management, its meanings and its significance
to any business/firm.
Understand the concept of operating cycle and the estimation of working capital needs.
Understand the need for a business to invest in current assets.
Know why it is important to manage efficiently the current assets and current liabilities?
Discuss the financing of working capital.
Overview
This chapter introduces you to the concept of working capital management i.e. management
of the capital needed by a firm for its day-to-day activity. Here you also study the
management of cash, marketable securities, accounts receivables management, account
payable, accruals and different means of short-term financing.
Two most important points to remember while studying working capital management are:
(a)
(b)
The optimal level of investment in current assets, and

The appropriate mix of short-term and long-term financing used to support this
investment in current assets.
The chapter also delves upon the different approaches to management of working capital
with the objective of maintaining optimum balance of each of the working capital
components.
Similarly, the different forms of financing which you have gone through in Chapter Five on
Types of Financing also have an implication in this chapter. Here the sources of short term
financing are re-visited.
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
7.2
Financial Management
1.1 Introduction
Working Capital Management involves managing the balance between firms short-term assets
and its short-term liabilities. The goal of working capital management is to ensure that the firm
is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient cash flow to satisfy both maturing
short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. The interaction between current assets
and current liabilities is, therefore, the main theme of the theory of working capital
management.
There are many aspects of working capital management which makes it important function of
financial management.
Time: Working capital management requires much of the finance managers time.
Investment: Working capital represents a large portion of the total investment in assets.
Credibility: Working capital management has great significance for all firms but it is very
critical for small firms.
Growth: The need for working capital is directly related to the firms growth.
1.2 Meaning and Concept of Working Capital

The concept of working capital can also be explained through two angles.
Working Capital
Management
OR
Value
Gross Working
Capital
Time
Net Working
Capital
Permanent
Temporary
(a) Value : From the value point of view, Working Capital can be defined as Gross Working
Capital or Net Working Capital.
Gross working capital refers to the firms investment in current assets. Current assets are
those assets which can be converted into cash within an accounting year. Current Assets
include: Stocks of raw materials, Work-in-progress, Finished goods, Trade debtors,
Prepayments, Cash balances etc.
Net working capital refers to the difference between current assets and current liabilities.
Current liabilities are those claims of outsiders which are expected to mature for payment
within an accounting year. Current Liabilities include: Trade creditors, Accruals, Taxation
payable, Bills Payables, Outstanding expenses, Dividends payable, short term loans.
7.3
A positive working capital means that the company is able to payoff its short-term liabilities. A
negative working capital means that the company currently is unable to meet its short-term
liabilities.
(b) Time: From the point of view of time, the term working capital can be divided into two
categories viz., Permanent and temporary.
Permanent working capital refers to the hard core working capital. It is that minimum level of
investment in the current assets that is carried by the business at all times to carry out
minimum level of its activities.
Temporary working capital refers to that part of total working capital, which is required by a
business over and above permanent working capital. It is also called variable working capital.
Since the volume of temporary working capital keeps on fluctuating from time to time
according to the business activities it may be financed from short-term sources.
The following diagrams shows Permanent and Temporary or Fluctuating or variable working
capital:
Both kinds of working capital i.e. permanent and fluctuating (temporary) are necessary to
facilitate production and sales through the operating cycle.
1.2.1 Importance of Adequate Working Capital: Management of working capital is an

essential task of the finance manager. He has to ensure that the amount of working capital
available with his concern is neither too large nor too small for its requirements.
A large amount of working capital would mean that the company has idle funds. Since funds
have a cost, the company has to pay huge amount as interest on such funds.
7.4
If the firm has inadequate working capital, such firm runs the risk of insolvency. Paucity of
working capital may lead to a situation where the firm may not be able to meet its liabilities.
The various studies conducted by the Bureau of Public Enterprises have shown that one of the
reasons for the poor performance of public sector undertakings in our country has been the
large amount of funds locked up in working capital. This results in over capitalization. Over
capitalization implies that a company has too large funds for its requirements, resulting in a
low rate of return, a situation which implies a less than optimal use of resources. A firm,
therefore, has to be very careful in estimating its working capital requirements.
Maintaining adequate working capital is not just important in the short-term. Sufficient liquidity
must be maintained in order to ensure the survival of the business in the long-term as well.
When businesses make investment decisions they must not only consider the financial outlay
involved with acquiring the new machine or the new building, etc., but must also take account
of the additional current assets that are usually required with any expansion of activity. For
e.g.:
Increased production leads to holding of additional stocks of raw materials and work-inprogress.
An increased sale usually means that the level of debtors will increase.
A general increase in the firms scale of operations tends to imply a need for greater
levels of working capital.
A question then arises what is an optimum amount of working capital for a firm? We can say
that a firm should neither have too high an amount of working capital nor should the same be
too low. It is the job of the finance manager to estimate the requirements of working capital
carefully and determine the optimum level of investment in working capital.
1.2.2 Optimum Working Capital: If a companys current assets do not exceed its current
liabilities, then it may run into trouble with creditors that want their money quickly.
Current ratio (current assets/current liabilities) (along with acid test ratio to supplement it) has
traditionally been considered the best indicator of the working capital situation.
It is understood that a current ratio of 2 (two) for a manufacturing firm implies that the firm has
an optimum amount of working capital. This is supplemented by Acid Test Ratio (Quick
assets/Current liabilities) which should be at least 1 (one). Thus it is considered that there is a
comfortable liquidity position if liquid current assets are equal to current liabilities.
Bankers, financial institutions, financial analysts, investors and other people interested in
financial statements have, for years, considered the current ratio at two and the acid test ratio
at one as indicators of a good working capital situation. As a thumb rule, this may be quite
adequate.
However, it should be remembered that optimum working capital can be determined only with
reference to the particular circumstances of a specific situation. Thus, in a company where
7.5
the inventories are easily saleable and the sundry debtors are as good as liquid cash, the
current ratio may be lower than 2 and yet firm may be sound.
In nutshell, a firm should have adequate working capital to run its business operations. Both
excessive as well as inadequate working capital positions are dangerous.
1.3 Determinants of Working Capital

Working capital management is concerned with:a) Maintaining adequate working capital (management of the level of individual current
assets and the current liabilities) AND
b) Financing of the working capital.
For the point a) above, a Finance Manager needs to plan and compute the working capital
requirement for its business. And once the requirement has been computed he needs to
ensure that it is financed properly. This whole exercise is nothing but Working Capital
Management.
Sound financial and statistical techniques, supported by judgment should be used to predict
the quantum of working capital required at different times. Some of the factors which need to
be considered while planning for working capital requirement are:
Cash Identify the cash balance which allows for the business to meet day-to-day
expenses, but reduces cash holding costs.
Inventory Identify the level of inventory which allows for uninterrupted production but
reduces the investment in raw materials and hence increases cash flow; the techniques
like Just in Time (JIT) and Economic order quantity (EOQ) are used for this.
Debtors Identify the appropriate credit policy, i.e., credit terms which will attract
customers, such that any impact on cash flows and the cash conversion cycle will be
offset by increased revenue and hence Return on Capital (or vice versa). The tools like
Discounts and allowances are used for this.
Short-term Financing Options Inventory is ideally financed by credit granted by the

supplier; dependent on the cash conversion cycle, it may however, be necessary to
utilize a bank loan (or overdraft), or to convert debtors to cash through factoring in
order to finance working capital requirements.
Nature of Business - For e.g. in a business of restaurant, most of the sales are in Cash.
Therefore need for working capital is very less.
Market and Demand Conditions - For e.g. if an items demand far exceeds its production,
the working capital requirement would be less as investment in finished good inventory
would be very less.
Technology and Manufacturing Policies - For e.g. in some businesses the demand for
goods is seasonal, in that case a business may follow a policy for steady production
7.6
through out over the whole year or instead may choose policy of production only during
the demand season.
Operating Efficiency A company can reduce the working capital requirement by

eliminating waste, improving coordination etc.
Price Level Changes For e.g. rising prices necessitate the use of more funds for
maintaining an existing level of activity. For the same level of current assets, higher cash
outlays are required. Therefore the effect of rising prices is that a higher amount of
working capital is required.
1.4 Issues in the Working Capital Management

Working capital management entails the control and monitoring of all components of working
capital i.e. cash, marketable securities, debtors (receivables) and stocks (inventories) and
creditors (payables).
Finance manager has to pay particular attention to the levels of current assets and their
financing. To decide the levels and financing of current assets, the risk return trade off must
be taken into account.
1.4.1 Current Assets to Fixed Assets Ratio: The finance manager is required to
determine the optimum level of current assets so that the shareholders value is maximized.
A firm needs fixed and current assets to support a particular level of output.
As the firms output and sales increases, the need for current assets also increases. Generally,
current assets do not increase in direct proportion to output, current assets may increase at a
decreasing rate with output. As the output increases, the firm starts using its current asset more
efficiently.
The level of the current assets can be measured by creating a relationship between current assets
and fixed assets. Dividing current assets by fixed assets gives current assets/fixed assets ratio.
Assuming a constant level of fixed assets, a higher current assets/fixed assets ratio indicates
a conservative current assets policy and a lower current assets/fixed assets ratio means an
aggressive current assets policy assuming all factors to be constant.
A conservative policy implies greater liquidity and lower risk whereas an aggressive policy
indicates higher risk and poor liquidity. Moderate current assets policy will fall in the middle of
conservative and aggressive policies. The current assets policy of most of the firms may fall
between these two extreme policies.
7.7
The following diagram shows alternative current assets policies:
1.4.2 Liquidity versus Profitability: Risk return trade off A firm may follow a
conservative, aggressive or moderate policy as discussed earlier. However, these policies
involve risk-return trade off.
A conservative policy means lower return and risk. While an aggressive policy produces
higher return and risk.
The two important aims of the working capital management are profitability and solvency.
A liquid firm has less risk of insolvency that is, it will hardly experience a cash shortage or a
stock out situation. However, there is a cost associated with maintaining a sound liquidity
position. However, to have higher profitability the firm may have to sacrifice solvency and
maintain a relatively low level of current assets. This will improve firms profitability as fewer
funds will be tied up in idle current assets, but its solvency would be threatened and exposed
to greater risk of cash shortage and stock-outs.
The following illustration explains the risk-return trade off of various working capital
management policies, viz., conservative, aggressive and moderate.
Illustration 1 : A firm has the following data for the year ending 31st March, 2014:
`
Sales (1,00,000 @ ` 20/-)
Earning before Interest and Taxes
Fixed Assets
20,00,000
2,00,000
5,00,000
The three possible current assets holdings of the firm are ` 5,00,000/-, ` 4,00,000/- and
` 3,00,000. It is assumed that fixed assets level is constant and profits do not vary with
current assets levels. The effect of the three alternative current assets policies is as follows:
7.8
Effect of Alternative Working Capital Policies

(Amount in ` )
Working Capital Policy
Conservative
Sales
Moderate
Aggressive
20,00,000
20,00,000
20,00,000
Earnings before Interest and Taxes

(EBIT)
2,00,000
2,00,000
2,00,000
Current Assets
5,00,000
4,00,000
3,00,000
Fixed Assets
5,00,000
5,00,000
5,00,000
Total Assets
10,00,000
9,00,000
8,00,000
Return on Total Assets (EBIT/Total

Assets)
20%
22.22%
25%
Current Assets/Fixed Assets
1.00
0.80
0.60
The aforesaid calculations show that the conservative policy provides greater liquidity
(solvency) to the firm, but lower return on total assets. On the other hand, the aggressive
policy gives higher return, but low liquidity and thus is very risky. The moderate policy
generates return higher than Conservative policy but lower than aggressive policy. This is
less risky than aggressive policy but more risky than conservative policy.
In determining the optimum level of current assets, the firm should balance the profitability
solvency tangle by minimizing total costs Cost of liquidity and cost of illiquidity.
1.5 Estimating Working Capital Needs

Operating cycle is one of the most reliable methods of Computation of Working Capital.
However, other methods like ratio of sales and ratio of fixed investment may also be used to
determine the Working Capital requirements. These methods are briefly explained as follows:
(i)
Current Assets Holding Period: To estimate working capital needs based on the
average holding period of current assets and relating them to costs based on the
companys experience in the previous year. This method is essentially based on the
Operating Cycle Concept.
(ii) Ratio of Sales: To estimate working capital needs as a ratio of sales on the assumption
that current assets change with changes in sales.
(iii) Ratio of Fixed Investments:
percentage of fixed investments.
To estimate Working Capital requirements as a
A number of factors will, however, be impacting the choice of method of estimating Working
Capital. Factors such as seasonal fluctuations, accurate sales forecast, investment cost and
variability in sales price would generally be considered. The production cycle and credit and
7.9
collection policies of the firm will have an impact on Working Capital requirements. Therefore,
they should be given due weightage in projecting Working Capital requirements.
1.6 Operating or Working Capital Cycle

A useful tool for managing working capital is the operating cycle.
The operating cycle analyzes the accounts receivable, inventory and accounts payable cycles
in terms of number of days. For example:
Accounts receivables are analyzed by the average number of days it takes to collect an
account.
Inventory is analyzed by the average number of days it takes to turn over the sale of a
product (from the point it comes in the store to the point it is converted to cash or an
account receivable).
Accounts payables are analyzed by the average number of days it takes to pay a supplier
invoice.
Operating/Working Capital Cycle Definition

Working Capital cycle indicates the length of time between a companys paying for materials,
entering into stock and receiving the cash from sales of finished goods. It can be determined
by adding the number of days required for each stage in the cycle. For example, a company
holds raw materials on an average for 60 days, it gets credit from the supplier for 15 days,
production process needs 15 days, finished goods are held for 30 days and 30 days credit is
extended to debtors. The total of all these, 120 days, i.e., 60 15 + 15 + 30 + 30 days is the
total working capital cycle.
Working Capital Cycle
Cash
Debtors
Stock
Raw
Material
Labour
Overhead
WIP
Most businesses cannot finance the operating cycle (accounts receivable days + inventory
days) with accounts payable financing alone. Consequently, working capital financing is
needed. This shortfall is typically covered by the net profits generated internally or by
externally borrowed funds or by a combination of the two.
7.10
The faster a business expands the more cash it will need for working capital and investment.
The cheapest and best sources of cash exist as working capital right within business. Good
management of working capital will generate cash which will help improve profits and reduce
risks. Bear in mind that the cost of providing credit to customers and holding stocks can
represent a substantial proportion of a firms total profits.
Each component of working capital (namely inventory, receivables and payables) has two
dimensions TIME and MONEY, when it comes to managing working capital then
time is money. If you can get money to move faster around the cycle (e.g. collect monies due
from debtors more quickly) or reduce the amount of money tied up (e.g. reduce inventory
levels relative to sales), the business will generate more cash or it will need to borrow less
money to fund working capital. Similarly, if you can negotiate improved terms with suppliers
e.g. get longer credit or an increased credit limit; you are effectively creating free finance to
help fund future sales.
If you
Then .
Collect receivables (debtors) faster
You release cash from the cycle
Collect receivables (debtors) slower
Your receivables soak up cash.
Get better credit (in terms of duration or

amount) from suppliers.
You increase your cash resources.
Shift inventory (stocks) faster
You free up cash.
Move inventory (stocks) slower.
You consume more cash.
The determination of operating capital cycle helps in the forecast, control and management of
working capital. The length of operating cycle is the indicator of performance of management.
The net operating cycle represents the time interval for which the firm has to negotiate for
Working Capital from its bankers. It enables to determine accurately the amount of working
capital needed for the continuous operation of business activities.
The duration of working capital cycle may vary depending on the nature of the business.
In the form of an equation, the operating cycle process can be expressed as follows:
Operating Cycle
Where,
R =
W=
F =
D=
C=
R+W+F+DC
Raw material storage period

Work-in-progress holding period
Finished goods storage period
Debtors collection period.
Credit period availed.
7.11
The various components of operating cycle may be calculated as shown below:
Average stock of raw material

Average cost of raw material consumption per day
(1)
Raw material storage period =
(2)
Work - in - progress holding period =
(3)
Finished goods storage period =
(4)
Debtors collection period =
(5)
Credit period availed =
Average work - in - progress inventory

Average cost of production per day
Average stock of finished goods

Average cost of goods sold per day
Average book debts

Average Credit Sales per day
Average trade creditors

Average credit purchases per day
1.6.1 Working Capital Based on Operating Cycle: One of the methods for forecasting
working capital requirement is based on the concept of operating cycle. The calculation of
operating cycle and the formula for estimating working capital on its basis has been
demonstrated with the help of following illustration:
Illustration 2 : From the following information of XYZ Ltd., you are required to calculate :
(a) Net operating cycle period.
(b) Number of operating cycles in a year.
`
(i)
Raw material inventory consumed during the year
(ii)
(iii)
Work-in-progress inventory
(iv)
Average work-in-progress inventory
(v)
Finished goods inventory
(vi)
Average finished goods stock held
(vii)
Average collection period from debtors
45 days
(viii)
Average credit period availed
30 days
(ix)
No. of days in a year
6,00,000
50,000
5,00,000
30,000
8,00,000
40,000
360 days
7.12
Solution
Calculation of Net Operating Cycle period of XYZ Ltd.
Days
30
Raw material storage period: (a)
Average cost of raw material consumption per day
(` 50,000 / 1667*)
*(` 6,00,000 / 360 days)
W.I.P. holding period : (b)
22
Average work in progress inventory
Average cost of production per day

` 30,000 / 1,388)**
**(` 5,00,000 / 360 days)
Finished goods storage period : (c)
Average stock of finished goods
Average cost of goods sold per day

(` 40,000 / 2,222)***
***(` 8,00,000 / 360 days)
Debtors collection period: (d)
Total operating cycle period:
[(a) + (b) + (c) + (d)]
Less: Average credit period availed
(i) Net operating cycle period
(ii) Number of operating cycles in a year
18
45
115
30
85
4.2
(360 days / 85 days)
1.6.2 Estimation of Amount of Different Components of Current Assets and

Current Liabilities: The various constituents of current assets and current liabilities have a
direct bearing on the computation of working capital and the operating cycle. The holding
period of various constituents of Current Assets and Current Liabilities cycle may either
contract or expand the net operating cycle period.
Shorter the operating cycle period, lower will be the requirement of working capital and vice-versa.
7.13
Estimation of Current Assets
The estimates of various components of working capital may be made as follows:

(i) Raw Materials Inventory: The funds to be invested in raw materials inventory may be
estimated on the basis of production budget, the estimated cost per unit and average holding
period of raw material inventory by using the following formula:
Estimated production Estimated cost of raw material

(in units)
Average raw material holding period
per unit
(in months / in days)

12 months / 360 days
Note: 360 days in a year are generally assumed to facilitate calculation.

(ii) Work-in-Progress Inventory: The funds to be invested in work-in-progress can be
estimated by the following formula:
Estimated production Estimated work in process
(in units)
cost per unit
Average holding period of

W.I.P. (months / days) )
(iii) Finished Goods: The funds to be invested in finished goods inventory can be estimated
with the help of following formula:
Estimated production Cost of production (Per unit
(in units)
excluding depreciation Average holding period of finished
goods inventory (months / days)
(iv) Debtors: Funds to be invested in trade debtors may be estimated with the help of
following formula:
Estimated credit sales Cost of sales (Per unit
( in units)
excluding depreciation Average debtors collection
period (months/days)
12 months/360 days
(v) Minimum desired Cash and Bank balances to be maintained by the firm has to be added
in the current assets for the computation of working capital.
Estimation of Current Liabilities
Current liabilities generally affect computation of working capital. Hence, the amount of
working capital is lowered to the extent of current liabilities (other than bank credit) arising in
7.14
the normal course of business. The important current liabilities like trade creditors, wages and
overheads can be estimated as follows:
(i)
Trade Creditors:
Raw material requirements

Estimated yearly
production (in units)
Credit period granted by
per unit
12 months/360 days
suppliers (months/days)
(ii) Direct Wages:
Estimated production Direct labour cost
(in units)
per unit Average time lag in payment
x
of wages (months/days)
12 months/360 days
(iii) Overheads (other than depreciation and amortization):
Overheadcost
Estimated yearly
production(inunits)
Average time laginpayment
per unit
12months / 360days
of overheads(months / days)
Note: The amount of overheads may be separately calculated for different types of overheads.
In the case of selling overheads, the relevant item would be sales volume instead of
production volume.
The following illustration shows the process of working capital estimation:

Illustration 3: On 1st January, the Managing Director of Naureen Ltd. wishes to know the
amount of working capital that will be required during the year. From the following information
prepare the working capital requirements forecast. Production during the previous year was
60,000 units. It is planned that this level of activity would be maintained during the present
year. The expected ratios of the cost to selling prices are Raw materials 60%, Direct wages
10% and Overheads 20%. Raw materials are expected to remain in store for an average of 2
months before issue to production. Each unit is expected to be in process for one month, the
raw materials being fed into the pipeline immediately and the labour and overhead costs
accruing evenly during the month. Finished goods will stay in the warehouse awaiting
dispatch to customers for approximately 3 months. Credit allowed by creditors is 2 months
from the date of delivery of raw material. Credit allowed to debtors is 3 months from the date
of dispatch. Selling price is ` 5 per unit. There is a regular production and sales cycle.
Wages and overheads are paid on the 1st of each month for the previous month. The company
normally keeps cash in hand to the extent of ` 20,000.
7.15
Solution
Working Notes:
1.
Raw material inventory: The cost of materials for the whole year is 60% of the Sales
value.
60
= ` 1,80,000 . The monthly consumption of raw
100
material would be ` 15,000. Raw material requirements would be for two months; hence
raw materials in stock would be ` 30,000.
Hence it is 60,000 units x ` 5 x
2.
Work-in-process: (Students may give special attention to this point). It is stated that
each unit of production is expected to be in process for one month).
3.
(a)
Raw materials in work-in-process (being one

months raw material requirements)
15,000
(b)
Labour costs in work-in-process

(It is stated that it accrues evenly during the month.
Thus, on the first day of each month it would be zero
and on the last day of month the work-in-process
would include one months labour costs. On an
average therefore, it would be equivalent to of the
months labour costs)
1,250
(c)
Overheads
(For month as explained above) Total work-inprocess
_2,500
18,750
Finished goods inventory:
(3 months cost of production)

Raw materials
Labour
Overheads
45,000
7,500
15,000
67,500
4.
Creditors: Suppliers allow a two months credit period. Hence, the average amount of
creditors would be ` 30,000 being two months purchase of raw materials.
5.
Direct Wages payable: The direct wages for the whole year is 60,000 units ` 5 x
10% = ` 30,000. The monthly direct wages would be ` 2,500 (` 30,000 12). Hence,
wages payable would be ` 2,500.
7.16
6.
Overheads Payable: The overheads for the whole year is 60,000 units ` 5 x 20% =
` 60,000. The monthly overheads will be ` 5,000 (` 60,000 12). Hence overheads
payable would be ` 5,000 p.m.
7.
Debtors: The total cost of sales = 2,70,000.
Therefore, debtors = 2,70,000 x
3
= 67,500.
12
Total Cost of Sales = RM + Wages + Overheads + Opening Finished goods

inventory Closing finished goods inventory.
= 1,80,000 + 30,000 + 60,000 + 67,500 67,500 = 2,70,000.
Here it has been assumed that inventory level is uniform throughout the year, therefore
opening inventory equals closing inventory.
Statement of Working Capital Required:
Current Assets
Raw materials inventory (Refer to working note 1)
30,000
Debtors (Refer to working note 2)
67,500
Workingin-process (Refer to working note 3)
18,750
Finished goods inventory (Refer to working note 4)
67,500
Cash
20,000
2,03,750
Current Liabilities
Creditors (Refer to working note 5)
30,000
Direct wages payable (Refer to working note 6)
2,500
Overheads payable (Refer to working note 7)
5,000
Estimated working capital requirements
37,500
1,66,250
1.6.3 Working Capital Requirement Estimation based on Cash Cost: We have

already seen that working capital is the difference between current assets and current
liabilities.
To estimate requirements of working capital, we have to forecast the amount required for each
item of current assets and current liabilities.
In practice another approach may also be useful in estimating working capital requirements.
This approach is based on the fact that in the case of current assets, like sundry debtors and
finished goods, etc., the exact amount of funds blocked is less than the amount of such
current assets. For example:
7.17
If we have sundry debtors worth ` 1 lakh and our cost of production is ` 75,000, the
actual amount of funds blocked in sundry debtors is ` 75,000 the cost of sundry debtors,
the rest (` 25,000) is profit.
Again some of the cost items also are non-cash costs; depreciation is a non-cash cost
item. Suppose out of ` 75,000, ` 5,000 is depreciation; then it is obvious that the actual
funds blocked in terms of sundry debtors totaling ` 1 lakh is only ` 70,000. In other
words, ` 70,000 is the amount of funds required to finance sundry debtors worth ` 1
lakh.
Similarly, in the case of finished goods which are valued at cost, non-cash costs may be
excluded to work out the amount of funds blocked.
Many experts, therefore, calculate the working capital requirements by working out the cash
costs of finished goods and sundry debtors. Under this approach, the debtors are calculated
not as a percentage of sales value but as a percentage of cash costs. Similarly, finished
goods are valued according to cash costs.
Illustration 4 : The following annual figures relate to XYZ Co.,
`
Sales (at two months credit)
Materials consumed (suppliers extend two months credit)
Wages paid (monthly in arrear)
Manufacturing expenses outstanding at the end of the year
(Cash expenses are paid one month in arrear)
Total administrative expenses, paid as above
Sales promotion expenses, paid quarterly in advance
36,00,000
9,00,000
7,20,000
80,000
2,40,000
1,20,000
The company sells its products on gross profit of 25% counting depreciation as part of the cost
of production. It keeps one months stock each of raw materials and finished goods, and a
cash balance of ` 1,00,000.
Assuming a 20% safety margin, work out the working capital requirements of the company on
cash cost basis. Ignore work-in-process.
Solution
Statement of Working Capital requirements (cash cost basis)
A. Current Asset
Materials
Finished Goods
Debtors
Cash
Prepaid expenses (Sales promotion)
(` 9,00,000 12)
(` 25,80,000 12)
(` 29,40,0006)
75,000
2,15,000
4,90,000
1,00,000
30,000
9,10,000
(` 1,20,0004)
7.18
B. Current Liabilities:
Creditors for materials
Wages outstanding
Manufacturing expenses
Administrative expenses
Net working capital (A-B)
Add: Safety margin @ 20%
Total working capital requirements
(` 9,00,0006)
(` 7,20,000 12)
(` 2,40,00012)
1,50,000
60,000
80,000
20,000
3,10,000
6,00,000
1,20,000
7,20,000
Working Notes:
(i)
(ii)
Computation of Annual Cash Cost of Production

Material consumed
Wages
Manufacturing expenses (` 80,000 x 12)
Total cash cost of production
Computation of Annual Cash Cost of Sales:
Cash cost of production as in (i) above
Administrative Expenses
Sales promotion expenses
Total cash cost of sales
`
9,00,000
7,20,000
_9,60,000
25,80,000
`
25,80,000
2,40,000
_1,20,000
29,40,000
Illustration 5 : PQ Ltd., a company newly commencing business in 2013 has the undermentioned projected Profit and Loss Account:
`
Sales
Cost of goods sold
Gross Profit
Administrative Expenses
Selling Expenses
Profit before tax
Provision for taxation
Profit after tax
The cost of goods sold has been arrived at as under:
Materials used
Wages and manufacturing Expenses
Depreciation
`
2,10,000
1,53,000
57,000
14,000
13,000
84,000
62,500
_23,500
1,70,000
27,000
30,000
10,000
20,000

Less: Stock of Finished goods
(10% of goods produced not yet sold)
7.19
17,000
1,53,000
The figure given above relate only to finished goods and not to work-in-progress. Goods
equal to 15% of the years production (in terms of physical units) will be in process on the
average requiring full materials but only 40% of the other expenses. The company believes in
keeping materials equal to two months consumption in stock.
Average time-lag in payment of all expenses is I month. Suppliers of materials will extend 11/2 months credit. Sales will be 20% for cash and the rest at two months credit. 70% of the
Income tax will be paid in advance in quarterly instalments. The company wishes to keep `
8,000 in cash. 10% has to be added to the estimated figure for unforeseen contingencies.
Prepare an estimate of working capital.
Note: All workings should form part of the answer.
Solution
Statement showing the requirements of Working Capital
Particulars
A.
Rs.
Current Assets:
Stock of Raw material

Stock of Work-in-progress
Stock of Finished goods
Debtors
96,600 x 2/12
16,100
As per Working Note
16,350
1,46,500 x 10/100
14,650
1,27,080 x 2/12
21,180
Cash in Hand
8,000
Prepaid Expenses:
Wages & Mfg. Expenses
66,250 x 1/12
5,521
Administrative expenses
14,000 x 1/12
1,167
Selling & Distribution Expenses
13,000 x 1/12
1,083
Total Current Assets

B.
Current Liabilities:
Creditors for Raw materials

Provision for Taxation (Net of Advance Tax)
C.
84,051
1,12,700 x 1.5/12
14,088
10,000 x 30/100
3,000
Total Current Laibilities
17,088
Net Working Capital (A B)
66,963
7.20
Working Notes:
(i)
Calculation of Stock of Work-in-progress

Particulars
Raw Material (84,000 x 15%)

Wages & Mfg. Expenses (62,500 x 15% x 40%)
Depreciation (23,500 x 15% x 40%)
Total
(ii)
Rs.
12,000
3,750
16,350
Calculation of Stock of Finished Goods and Cost of Sales

Particulars
Rs.
Direct material Cost [` 84,000 + ` 12,600]
96,600
Wages & Mfg. Expenses [` 62,500 + ` 3,750]
66,250
Depreciation [` 23,500 + ` 1,410]
Gross Factory Cost
1,62,850
Less: Closing W.I.P
(16,350)
Cost of goods produced
1,46,500
Less: Closing stock
(14,650)
Cost of goods sold
1,31,850
Add: Administrative Expenses
14,000
Add: Selling and Distribution Expenses
13,000
Total Cash Cost of Sales
1,58,850
Debtors (80% of cash cost of sales)
1,27,080
(iii) Calculation of Credit Purchase

Particulars
Rs.
Raw material consumed
96,600
Add: Closing Stock
16,100
Less: Opening Stock
Purchases
1,12,700
Illustration 6: M.A. Limited is commencing a new project for manufacture of a plastic

component. The following cost information has been ascertained for annual production of
12,000 units which is the full capacity:
7.21
Costs per unit (` )

40
20
6
10
_4
80
Materials
Direct labour and variable expenses
Fixed manufacturing expenses
Depreciation
Fixed administration expenses
The selling price per unit is expected to be ` 96 and the selling expenses ` 5 per unit. 80%
of which is variable.
In the first two years of operations, production and sales are expected to be as follows:
Year
Production
(No. of units)
Sales
(No.of units)
6,000
5,000
2.
9,000
8,500
To assess the working capital requirements, the following additional information is available:
(a)
Stock of materials
2.25 months average consumption
(b)
Work-in-process
Nil
(c)
Debtors
1 months average sales.
(d)
Cash balance
` 10,000
(e)
Creditors for supply of materials
1 months average purchase during the year.
(f)
Creditors for expenses
1 months average of all expenses during the

year.
Prepare, for the two years:

(i)
A projected statement of Profit/Loss (Ignoring taxation); and
(ii)
A projected statement of working capital requirements.
Solution
(i)
M.A. Limited
Projected Statement of Profit / Loss
(Ignoring Taxation)
Year 1
Year 2
Production (Units)
6,000
9,000
Sales (Units)
5,000
8,500
7.22
4,80,000
8,16,000
Materials @ ` 40 per unit
2,40,000
3,60,000
Direct labour and variable expenses @ ` 20 per unit
1,20,000
1,80,000
72,000
72,000
1,20,000
1,20,000
48,000
48,000
_6,00,000
7,80,000
Sales revenue @ ` 96 per unit: (A)

Cost of production:
Fixed manufacturing expenses

(Production Capacity: 12,000 units @ ` 6)
Depreciation
(Production Capacity : 12,000 units @ ` 10)
Fixed administration expenses
(Production Capacity : 12,000 units @ ` 4)
Total costs of production
Add: Opening stock of finished goods
1,00,000
(Year 1 : Nil; Year 2 : 1,000 units)

Cost of goods available
6,00,000
8,80,000
Less: Closing stock of finished goods at average cost

(year 1: 1000 units, year 2 : 1500 units)
1,00,000
1,32,000
Cost of goods sold
5,00,000
7,48,000
20,000
12,000
34,000
12,000
5,32,000
7,94,000
(-) 52,000
(+) 22,000
(Year 1: 6,000 units; Year 2: 10,000 units)
Add: Selling expenses Variable @ 4 per unit

Fixed (12,000 Re.1)
Cost of Sales : (B)

Profit (+) / Loss (-): (A-B)
Working Notes:
1.
Calculation of creditors for supply of materials:
Materials consumed during the year

Add: Closing stock (2.25 months average consumption)
Year 1
Year 2
2,40,000
3,60,000
45,000
67,500
2,85,000
4,27,500
Less: Opening Stock
Purchases during the year

Average purchases per month (Creditors)
45,000
2,85,000
3,82,500
23,750
31,875
2.
Creditors for expenses:

Total direct labour, manufacturing, administration and
selling expenses for the year
Average per month

(ii) Projected statement of working capital requirements
7.23
Year 1
Year 2
2,72,000
3,46,000
22,667
28,833
Year 1
Year 2
45,000
67,500
1,00,000
1,32,000
40,000
68,000
_10,000
_10,000
1,95,000
2,77,500
23,750
31,875
22,667
28,833
46,417
60,708
1,48,583
2,16,792
Current Assets:
Stock of materials (2.25 months average consumption)

Finished goods
Debtors (1 months average sales)
Cash
Total Current Assets (A)
Creditors for supply of materials

Refer to working note 1)
Creditors for expenses

(Refer to working note 2)
Total Current Liabilities: (B)

Estimated Working Capital Requirements: (A-B)
Projected Statement of Working Capital Requirement (Cash Cost Basis)

Year 1
Year 2
(A) Current Assets
(i) Stock of RM
45,000
67,500
(6000 units ` 40 2.25/12)
(9000 units ` 40 2.25 /12)
(ii) Finished Goods :
80,000 1,11,000
Cash Cost of Production
Year 1
Year 2
2,40,000 3,60,000
Materials @ ` 40 per unit
Labour & Variable Expenses
1,20,000 1,80,000
@ ` 20 per unit
Total Fixed & Adm. Expenses
1,20,000 1,20,000
(12,000 with @ ` 10)
7.24
Current Cost (Cash)

Add: Opening Stock at Average Cost
` 4,80,000 1,000
for year 2
6,000
4,80,000 6,60,000
80,000
80,000
Less : Closing Stock at Avg. Cost

` 7,40,000 1,500
10,000
1,11,000
Cost of Good Sold (Cash)

4,00,000 6,29,000
(iii) Debtors (4,32,000 1/12)
(6,75,000 1/12)
Cost of Goods Sold (Cash
Add : Variable Expenses @ ` 4)
Add : Total Fixed Selling expenses
(12,000 units x Re. 1)
(iv) Minimum Desired Cash
Total Investment in Current
Assets
(B) Current Liabilities
(i)
Creditors for supply of

Material
(2,85,000 x 1/12) (3,82,500 x 1/12)
Material consumed
Add : Closing Stock
(3 months avg. consumption)
Less : Opening Stock
Purchases
Creditors for Expenses
(2,72,000 x 1/12; 3,46,000 x 1/12)
Labour & Variable
Fixed Manuf. & Adm.
Selling (fixed & variable)
Total Expenses
Total Current Liabilities
Net Working Capital
4,00,000 6,29,000
20,000
34,000
12,000
12,000
4,32,000 6,75,000
Year 1
36,000
56,250
10,000
10,000
1,71,000
2,44,750
Yr 1
Yr 2
23,750
31,875
22,667
28,833
46,417
1,24,583
60,708
1,84,042
Year 2
2,40,000 3,60,000
45,000
67,500
(45,000)
2,85,000 3,82,500
1,20,000 1,80,000
1,20,000 1,20,000
32,000
46,000
2,72,000 3,46,000
7.25
Illustration 7
Theta Limited
Balance Sheets as on
`
31st March, 2013
31st March, 2012
3,49,600
1,60,000
3,05,400
2,35,200
7,600
3,00,000
4,83,600
4,20,000
3,08,600
1,84,600
9,200
14,400
24,07,200
4,43,400
42,22,800
14,400
7,13,600
4,28,200
25,62,200
1,15,200
30,000
17,400
1,93,000
40,000
1,08,400
25,000
18,400
1,67,400
Long term loans

Debentures, net of discount
1,60,000
9,60,000
2,00,000
Share capital, ` 10 per value

Share premium
Reserves and Surplus
Total Liabilities
6,70,000
13,40,000
6,97,200
42,22,800
6,00,000
9,50,000
4,93,000
25,62,200
Assets
Cash
Trade investments
Debtors
Stock
Prepaid expenses
Investment in A Ltd.
Land
Buildings, net of depreciation
Machinery, net of depreciation
Total Assets
Liabilities
Creditors
Bank overdraft
Accrued expenses
Income-tax payable
Current installment due on long-term loans
Theta Limited
Income Statement
for the year ended 31st March, 2013
(` )
Sales
Cost of goods sold and operating expenses including depreciation on
16,92,400
7.26
buildings of ` 26,400 and depreciation on machinery of ` 45,600

Operating profit
11,91,200
5,01,200
Gain on sale of trade investments
25,600
Gain on sale of machinery
7,400
Profit before taxes
5,34,200
Income taxes
2,09,400
Net Profit
3,24,800
Additional information:
(i)
Machinery with a net book value of ` 36,600 was sold during the year.
(ii)
The shares of A Ltd. were acquired upon a payment of ` 1,20,000 in cash and the
issuance of 3,000 shares of Theta Limited. The share of Theta Limited was selling for
` 60 a share at that time.
(iii) A new building was purchased at a cost of ` 17,20,000.

(iv) Debentures having a face value of ` 100 each were issued in January 2013, at 96.
(v) The cost of trade investments sold was ` 2,60,000.
(vi) The company issued 4,000 shares for ` 2,80,000.
(vii) Cash dividends of ` 1.80 a share were paid on 67,000 outstanding shares.
Prepare a statement of changes in financial position on working capital basis as well as cash
basis of Theta Limited for the year ended 31st March, 2013.
Solution
Theta Limited
Statement of Changes in Financial Position (Working Capital Basis)
`
Sources
Working capital from operations:

Net income after tax
Add: Depreciation
3,24,800
72,000
3,96,800
Less: Gain on sale of machinery
7,400
3,89,400
Sale of machinery (` 36,600 + ` 7,400)
44,000
7.27
Debentures issued
9,60,000
Share capital issued for cash (including share premium)
2,80,000
Financial transaction not affecting working capital
Shares issued in partial payment for investments in A Ltd.
1,80,000
Financial Resources Provided
18,53,400
Purchase of buildings
17,20,000
Uses
Purchase of machinery
97,400
Instalment currently due on long-term loans
40,000
Payment of cash dividends
1,20,600
Purchase of investments in A Ltd. for cash
1,20,000
Financial transaction not affecting working capital

Purchase of investments in A Ltd. in exchange of issue of 3,000
shares @ ` 60 each
Financial Resources Applied
Net decrease in working capital
1,80,000
22,78,000
4,24,600
The amount of machinery sold is found out as follows:

Machinery
`
Opening Balance (given)
Purchases (plugs)
4,28,200
97,400
_______
`
Sale of machinery (given)
36,000
Depreciation (given)
45,600
Closing balance (given)
5,25,600
4,43,400
5,25,600
Theta Limited
Statement of Changes in Financial Position (Cash Basis)
`
Sources
Cash from operations:
Net income after tax
3,24,800
Add: Depreciation
72,000
Decrease in debtors
3,200
Decrease in prepaid expenses
1,600
7.28
Increase in creditors
Increase in income tax payable
6,800
25,600
Less: Gain on sale of machinery
7,400
Increase in stock
50,600
Decrease in accrued expenses
1,000
4,34,000
59,000
3,75,000
Sale of trade investment

Increase in bank overdraft
2,60,000
5,000
Sale of machinery
44,000
Debentures issued
9,60,000
Shares issued
2,80,000
Financial transaction not affecting cash

Share issued in partial payment for investment in A Ltd.
Financial Resources Provided
Uses
Purchase of buildings
Purchase of machinery
Payment of cash dividend
Purchase of investments in A Ltd. for cash
Financial transaction not affecting cash
Purchase of investments in A Ltd. in exchange of issue of 3,000
shares @ ` 60 each
Net decrease in cash
1,80,000
40,000
21,44,000
17,20,000
97,400
1,20,600
1,20,000
1,80,000
40,000
22,78,000
1,34,000
Notes:
1.
Funds from operations are shown net of taxes. Alternatively, payment of tax may be
separately treated as use of funds. In that case, tax would be added to net profit.
2.
If tax shown in Profit and Loss Account is assumed to be a provision, then the amount of
cash paid for tax has to be calculated. In the present problem if this procedure is
followed, then cash paid for tax is: ` 1,67,400 + ` 2,09,400 ` 1,93,000 = ` 1,83,800.
7.29
Illustration 8: Aneja Limited, a newly formed company, has applied to the commercial bank
for the first time for financing its working capital requirements. The following information is
available about the projections for the current year:
Estimated level of activity: 1,04,000 completed units of production plus 4,000 units of work-inprogress. Based on the above activity, estimated cost per unit is:
` 80 per unit
` 30 per unit
` 60 per unit
` 170 per unit
` 200 per unit
Raw material
Direct wages
Overheads (exclusive of depreciation)
Total cost
Selling price
Raw materials in stock: Average 4 weeks consumption, work-in-progress (assume 50% completion
stage in respect of conversion cost) (materials issued at the start of the processing).
Finished goods in stock
8,000 units
Credit allowed by suppliers
Average 4 weeks
Credit allowed to debtors/receivables
Average 8 weeks
Lag in payment of wages
Average 1
1
weeks
2
Cash at banks (for smooth operation) is expected to be ` 25,000.

Assume that production is carried on evenly throughout the year (52 weeks) and wages and
overheads accrue similarly. All sales are on credit basis only.
You are required to calculate the net working capital required.
Solution
Estimate of the Requirement of Working Capital
`
A.
Current Assets:
Raw material stock
6,64,615
(Refer to Working note 3)

Work in progress stock
5,00,000

Finished goods stock
13,60,000

Debtors
29,53,846
7.30
Cash and Bank balance

B.
25,000
55,03,461
Creditors for raw materials
7,15,740

Creditors for wages
91,731
8,07,471
________
Net Working Capital (A-B)

Working Notes:
46,95,990
1.
Annual cost of production
`
Raw material requirements (1,04,000 units ` 80)+ 3,20,000
86,40,000
Direct wages (1,04,000 units ` 30) + 60,000
31,80,000
Overheads (exclusive of depreciation) (1,04,000 ` 60)+

1,20,000
63,60,000
Gross Factory Cost
Less: Closing W.I.P.
2.
1,81,80,000
(5,00,000)
Cost of Goods Produced
1,76,80,000
Less: Closing Stock of Finished Goods (1,76,80,000 x 8,000/1,04,000)
(13,60,000)
Total Cash Cost of Sales

Work in progress stock
1,63,20,000
`
Raw material requirements (4,000 units ` 80)
Direct wages (50% 4,000 units ` 30)
Overheads (50% 4,000 units ` 60)
3.
3,20,000
60,000
1,20,000
5,00,000
Raw material stock

It is given that raw material in stock is average 4 weeks consumption. Since, the
company is newly formed, the raw material requirement for production and work in
progress will be issued and consumed during the year.
Hence, the raw material consumption for the year (52 weeks) is as follows:
`
For Finished goods
For Work in progress
83,20,000
3,20,000
86,40,000
Raw material stock
4.
` 86,40,000
4 weeks
52 weeks
7.31
i.e. ` 6,64,615
Finished goods stock

8,000 units @ ` 170 per unit = ` 13,60,000
5.
Debtors for sale

1,63,20,000
6.
8
= ` 25,10,769
52
Creditors for raw material

Credit allowed by suppliers
Purchases during the year (52 weeks) i.e.
(` 83,20,000 + ` 3,20,000 + ` 6,64,615)
(Refer to Working notes 1,2 and 3 above)
Creditors
7.
Average 4 weeks
` 93,04,615
` 93,04,615
4 weeks
52 weeks
i.e ` 7,15,740
Creditors for wages

Lag in payment of wages
Direct wages for the year (52 weeks) i.e.
(` 31,20,000 + ` 60,000)
(Refer to Working notes 1 and 2 above)
Creditors
1
weeks
2
` 31,80,000
Average 1
` 31,80,000
1
1 weeks
52 weeks
2
i.e. ` 91,731
1.6.4 Effect of Double Shift Working on Working Capital Requirements: The

greatest economy in introducing double shift is the greater use of fixed assets. Though
production increases but little or very marginal funds may be required for additional assets.
But increase in the number of hours of production has an effect on the working capital
requirements. Lets see the impact of double shift on some of the components of working capital:
It is obvious that in double shift working, an increase in stocks will be required as the
production rises. However, it is quite possible that the increase may not be proportionate
to the rise in production since the minimum level of stocks may not be very much higher.
Thus, it is quite likely that the level of stocks may not be required to be doubled as the
production goes up two-fold.
The amount of materials in process will not change due to double shift working since work
7.32
started in the first shift will be completed in the second; hence, capital tied up in materials in
process will be the same as with single shift working. As such the cost of work-in-process will
not change unless the second shifts workers are paid at a higher rate.
However, in examinations the students may increase the amount of stocks of raw materials
proportionately unless instructions are to the contrary.
Illustration 9: Samreen Enterprises has been operating its manufacturing facilities till
31.3.2013 on a single shift working with the following cost structure:
Per Unit
`
Cost of Materials
Wages (out of which 40% fixed)
Overheads (out of which 80% fixed)
Profit
Selling Price
Sales during 2012-13 ` 4,32,000. As at 31.3.2013 the company held:
6.00
5.00
5.00
2.00
18.00
`
Stock of raw materials (at cost)
Work-in-progress (valued at prime cost)
Finished goods (valued at total cost)
Sundry debtors
36,000
22,000
72,000
1,08,000
In view of increased market demand, it is proposed to double production by working an extra shift. It
is expected that a 10% discount will be available from suppliers of raw materials in view of increased
volume of business. Selling price will remain the same. The credit period allowed to customers will
remain unaltered. Credit availed of from suppliers will continue to remain at the present level i.e., 2
months. Lag in payment of wages and expenses will continue to remain half a month.
You are required to assess the additional working capital requirements, if the policy to
increase output is implemented.
Solution
Statement of cost at single shift and double shift working
24,000 units
48,000 Units
Per Unit
Total
Per unit
Total
Raw materials
1,44,000
5.40
2,59,200
Wages - Variable
72,000
3.00
1,44,000
Fixed
48,000
1.00
48,000
7.33
Overheads - Variable
24,000
1.00
48,000
Fixed
96,000
2.00
96,000
16
3,84,000
12.40
5,95,200
48,000
5.60
2,68,800
18
4,32,000
18.00
8,64,000
Total cost
Profit
Sales in units 2012-13 =
Sales
` 4,32,000
=
= 24,000 units
Unit selling price
` 18
Value of stock
` 36,000
=
= 6,000 units
Cost per unit
6
Stock of Raw Materials in units on 31.3.2013 =
Stock of work-in-progress in units on 31.3.2013

=
Value of work in progress ` 22,000

=
= 2,000units
Cost per unit
(` 6 + ` 5)
Stock of finished goods in units 2012-13 =
Value of stock ` 72,000

=
= 4,500 units.
Cost per unit
` 16
Comparative Statement of Working Capital Requirement
Current Assets
Inventories Raw Materials
Work-in-Progress
Finished Goods
Sundry Debtors
Total Current Assets: (A)
Current Liabilities
Creditors for Materials
Creditors for Wages
Creditors for Expenses
Total Current Liabilities: (B)
Working Capital: (A) (B)
Single Shift
Unit Rate
Amount
Double Shift
Unit Rate
Amount
6000
2000
4500
6000
6
11
16
16
36,000
22,000
72,000
96,000
2,26,000
12000
2000
9000
12000
5.40
9.40
12.40
12.40
64,800
18,800
1,11,600
1,48,800
3,44,000
4000
1000
1000
6
5
5
24,000
5,000
5,000
34,000
1,92,000
8000
2000
2000
5.40
4.00
3.00
43,200
8,000
_6,000
57,200
2,86,800
Increase in Working Capital requirement is (` 2,86,800 ` 1,92,000) or ` 94,800
7.34
Notes:
(i)
The quantity of material in process will not change due to double shift working since work
started in the first shift will be completed in the second shift.
(ii) The valuation of work-in-progress based on prime cost as per the policy of the company
is as under.
Materials
Wages Variable
Fixed
Single shift
Double shift
`
6.00
3.00
_2.00
11.00
`
5.40
3.00
1.00
9.40
7.35
UNIT II : TREASURY AND CASH MANAGEMENT
2.1 Treasury Management: Meaning

In the wake of the competitive business environment resulting from the liberalization of the
economy, there is a pressure to manage cash scientifically. The demand for funds for
expansions coupled with high interest rates, foreign exchange volatility and the growing
volume of financial transactions have necessitated efficient management of money.
Treasury management is defined as the corporate handling of all financial matters, the
generation of external and internal funds for business, the management of currencies and
cash flows and the complex, strategies, policies and procedures of corporate finance.
The treasury management mainly deals with:
Working capital management; and
Financial risk management (It includes forex and interest rate management).
The key goals of treasury management are:
Maximize the return on the available cash;
Minimize interest cost on borrowings;
Mobilise as much cash as possible for corporate ventures (in case of need); and
Effective dealing in forex, money and commodity markets to reduce risks arising because
of fluctuating exchange rates, interest rates and prices which can affect the profitability of
the organization.
2.2 Functions of Treasury Department

1.
Cash Management: It involves efficient cash collection process and managing payment
of cash both inside the organisation and to third parties.
There may be complete centralization within a group treasury or the treasury may simply
advise subsidiaries and divisions on policy matter viz., collection/payment periods,
discounts, etc.
Treasury will also manage surplus funds in an investment portfolio. Investment policy will
consider future needs for liquid funds and acceptable levels of risk as determined by
company policy.
2.
Currency Management: The treasury department manages the foreign currency risk
exposure of the company. In a large multinational company (MNC) the first step will
usually be to set off intra-group indebtedness. The use of matching receipts and
payments in the same currency will save transaction costs. Treasury might advise on the
currency to be used when invoicing overseas sales.
7.36
The treasury will manage any net exchange exposures in accordance with company
policy. If risks are to be minimized then forward contracts can be used either to buy or
sell currency forward.
3.
Funding Management: Treasury department is responsible for planning and sourcing

the companys short, medium and long-term cash needs. Treasury department will also
participate in the decision on capital structure and forecast future interest and foreign
currency rates.
4.
Banking: It is important that a company maintains a good relationship with its bankers.
Treasury department carry out negotiations with bankers and act as the initial point of
contact with them. Short-term finance can come in the form of bank loans or through the
sale of commercial paper in the money market.
5.
Corporate Finance: Treasury department is involved with both acquisition and divestment
activities within the group. In addition it will often have responsibility for investor relations.
The latter activity has assumed increased importance in markets where share-price
performance is regarded as crucial and may affect the companys ability to undertake
acquisition activity or, if the price falls drastically, render it vulnerable to a hostile bid.
2.3 Management of Cash

Management of cash is an important function of the finance manager. It is concerned with the
managing of:(i)
Cash flows into and out of the firm;
(ii)
Cash flows within the firm; and
(iii) Cash balances held by the firm at a point of time by financing deficit or investing surplus
cash.
The main objectives of cash management for a business are:
Provide adequate cash to each of its units;
No funds are blocked in idle cash; and
The surplus cash (if any) should be invested in order to maximize returns for the
business.
A cash management scheme therefore, is a delicate balance between the twin objectives of
liquidity and costs.
2.3.1 The Need for Cash: The following are three basic considerations in determining the
amount of cash or liquidity as have been outlined by Lord Keynes:
Transaction need: Cash facilitates the meeting of the day-to-day expenses and other
debt payments. Normally, inflows of cash from operations should be sufficient for this
purpose. But sometimes this inflow may be temporarily blocked. In such cases, it is only
the reserve cash balance that can enable the firm to make its payments in time.
7.37
Speculative needs: Cash may be held in order to take advantage of profitable

opportunities that may present themselves and which may be lost for want of ready
cash/settlement.
Precautionary needs: Cash may be held to act as for providing safety against
unexpected events. Safety as is explained by the saying that a man has only three
friends an old wife, an old dog and money at bank.
2.3.2 Cash Planning: Cash Planning is a technique to plan and control the use of cash.
This protects the financial conditions of the firm by developing a projected cash statement
from a forecast of expected cash inflows and outflows for a given period. This may be done
periodically either on daily, weekly or monthly basis. The period and frequency of cash
planning generally depends upon the size of the firm and philosophy of management. As
firms grows and business operations become complex, cash planning becomes inevitable for
continuing success.
The very first step in this direction is to estimate the requirement of cash. For this purpose
cash flow statements and cash budget are required to be prepared. The technique of
preparing cash flow and funds flow statements have already been discussed in this book. The
preparation of cash budget has however, been demonstrated here.
2.3.3 Cash Budget: Cash Budget is the most significant device to plan for and control cash
receipts and payments. This represents cash requirements of business during the budget
period.
The various purposes of cash budgets are:
Coordinate the timings of cash needs. It identifies the period(s) when thre might either be
a shortage of cash or an abnormally large cash requirement;
It also helps to pinpoint period(s) when there is likely to be excess cash;
It enables firm which has sufficient cash to take advantage like cash discounts on its
accounts payable; and
Lastly it helps to plan/arrange adequately needed funds (avoiding excess/shortage of

cash) on favorable terms.
On the basis of cash budget, the firm can decide to invest surplus cash in marketable
securities and earn profits.
Main Components of Cash Budget
Preparation of cash budget involves the following steps:-
(a) Selection of the period of time to be covered by the budget. It is also defining the planning
horizon.
(b) Selection of factors that have a bearing on cash flows. The factors that generate cash
flows are generally divided into following two categories:-
7.38
i.
Operating (cash flows generated by operations of the firm); and
ii.
Financial (cash flows generated by financial activities of the firm).
The following figure highlights the cash surplus and cash shortage position over the period of
cash budget for preplanning to take corrective and necessary steps.
2.4 Methods of Cash Flow Budgeting

A cash budget can be prepared in the following ways:
1.
Receipts and Payments Method: In this method all the expected receipts and
payments for budget period are considered. All the cash inflow and outflow of all
functional budgets including capital expenditure budgets are considered. Accruals and
adjustments in accounts will not affect the cash flow budget. Anticipated cash inflow is
added to the opening balance of cash and all cash payments are deducted from this to
arrive at the closing balance of cash. This method is commonly used in business
organizations.
2.
Adjusted Income Method: In this method the annual cash flows are calculated by
adjusting the sales revenues and cost figures for delays in receipts and payments
(change in debtors and creditors) and eliminating non-cash items such as depreciation.
3.
Adjusted Balance Sheet Method: In this method, the budgeted balance sheet is
predicted by expressing each type of asset and short-term liabilities as percentage of the
expected sales. The profit is also calculated as a percentage of sales, so that the
7.39
increase in owners equity can be forecasted. Known adjustments, may be made to longterm liabilities and the balance sheet will then show if additional finance is needed.
It is important to note that the capital budget will also be considered in the preparation of cash
flow budget because the annual budget may disclose a need for new capital investments and
also, the costs and revenues of any new projects coming on stream will need to be
incorporated in the short-term budgets.
The Cash Budget can be prepared for short period or for long period.
2.4.1 Cash budget for short period: Preparation of cash budget month by month would
require the following estimates:
(a) As regards receipts:
1.
Receipts from debtors;
2.
Cash Sales; and
3.
Any other source of receipts of cash (say, dividend from a subsidiary company)
(b) As regards payments:

1.
Payments to be made for purchases;
2.
Payments to be made for expenses;
3.
Payments that are made periodically but not every month;

(i)
Debenture interest;
(ii) Income tax paid in advance;

(iii) Sales tax etc.
4.
Special payments to be made in a particular month, for example, dividends to

shareholders, redemption of debentures, repayments of loan, payment of assets
acquired, etc.
Format of Cash Budget

Co. Ltd.
Cash Budget
Period
Month
1
Receipts:
1. Opening balance
2. Collection from debtors
3. Cash sales
Month
2
Month
3
Month
12
7.40
4. Loans from banks

5. Share capital
6. Miscellaneous receipts
7. Other items
Total
Payments:
1. Payments to creditors
2. Wages
3. Overheads
(a)
(b)
(c)
4. Interest
5. Dividend
6. Corporate tax
7. Capital expenditure
8. Other items
Total
Closing balance
[Surplus (+)/Shortfall (-)]
Students are required to do good practice in preparing the cash budgets. The following
illustration will show how short term cash budgets can be prepared.
Illustration 1 : Prepare monthly cash budget for six months beginning from April 2014 on the
basis of the following information:-
(i)
Estimated monthly sales are as follows:-
(ii)
January
1,00,000
June
February
1,20,000
July
March
1,40,000
August
80,000
60,000
April
80,000
September
May
60,000
October
Wages and salaries are estimated to be payable as follows:-
80,000
1,00,000
1,00,000
7.41
April
9,000 July
May
8,000
June
10,000
10,000
August
9,000
September
9,000
(iii) Of the sales, 80% is on credit and 20% for cash. 75% of the credit sales are collected
within one month and the balance in two months. There are no bad debt losses.
(iv) Purchases amount to 80% of sales and are made and paid for in the month preceding the
sales.
(v) The firm has 10% debentures of ` 1,20,000. Interest on these has to be paid quarterly in
January, April and so on.
(vi) The firm is to make an advance payment of tax of ` 5,000 in July, 2014.
(vii) The firm had a cash balance of ` 20,000 on April 1, 2014, which is the minimum desired
level of cash balance. Any cash surplus/deficit above/below this level is made up by
temporary investments/liquidation of temporary investments or temporary borrowings at
the end of each month (interest on these to be ignored).
Solution
Workings:
Collection from debtors:

(Amount in ` )
Total sales
Credit sales
(80% of total
sales)
Collections:
One month
Two months
Total
collections
February
1,20,000
March
1,40,000
April
80,000
May
60,000
June
80,000
July
1,00,000
August
80,000
September
60,000
96,000
1,12,000
64,000
48,000
64,000
80,000
64,000
48,000
72,000
84,000
24,000
48,000
28,000
36,000
16,000
48,000
12,000
60,000
16,000
48,000
20,000
1,08,000
76,000
52,000
60,000
76,000
68,000
Monthly Cash Budget for Six months, April to September, 2014
(Amount in ` )
Receipts:
April
May
June
July
August
September
Opening balance
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
Cash sales
16,000
12,000
16,000
20,000
16,000
12,000
7.42
Collection from debtors
1,08,000
76,000
52,000
60,000
76,000
68,000
Total cash available (A)
1,44,000
1,08,000
88,000
1,00,000
1,12,000
1,00,000
48,000
64,000
80,000
64,000
48,000
80,000
Wages & salaries
9,000
8,000
10,000
10,000
9,000
9,000
Interest on debentures
3,000
---
----
3,000
---
----
---
----
5,000
----
----
Payments:
Purchases
Tax payment
---
Total payments (B)
60,000
72,000
90,000
82,000
57,000
89,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
Total cash needed (C)
80,000
92,000
1,10,000
1,02,000
77,000
1,09,000
Surplus - deficit (A-C)
64,000
16,000
(22,000)
(2,000)
35,000
(9,000)
(64,000)
(16,000)
----
Minimum
desired
cash
balance
Investment/financing
Temporary Investments
Liquidation of temporary
investments or temporary
borrowings
----
(35,000)
----
22,000
2,000
----
-----
9,000
Total
effect
of
investment/financing (D)
(64,000)
(16,000)
22,000
2,000
(35,000)
9,000
Closing cash balance (A+DB)
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
Illustration 2 : From the following information relating to a departmental store, you are
required to prepare for the three months ending 31st March, 2014:-
(a) Month-wise cash budget on receipts and payments basis; and

(b) Statement of Sources and uses of funds for the three months period.
It is anticipated that the working capital at 1st January, 2014 will be as follows:-
` in 000s
Cash in hand and at bank
545
Short term investments
300
Debtors
2,570
Stock
1,300
Trade creditors
2,110
Other creditors
200
7.43
Dividends payable
485
Tax due
320
Plant
800
Budgeted Profit Statement:
` in 000s
January
February
March
Sales
2,100
1,800
1,700
Cost of sales
1,635
1,405
1,330
465
395
370
315
270
255
150
125
115
Gross Profit
Administrative,
Expenses
Selling
and
Distribution
Net Profit before tax

Budgeted balances at the end of each months:
` in 000s
31st
Jan.
28th Feb.
31st March
700
---
200
Debtors
2,600
2,500
2,350
Stock
1,200
1,100
1,000
Trade creditors
2,000
1,950
1,900
Other creditors
200
200
200
Dividends payable
485
--
--
Tax due
320
320
320
Plant (depreciation ignored)
800
1,600
1,550
Short term investments
Depreciation amount to ` 60,000 is included in the budgeted expenditure for each month.
Solution
Workings:
(1)
` in 000
Jan. 2014
Feb.2014
March, 2014
Cost of Sales
1,635
1,405
1,330
Add Closing Stocks
1,200
1,100
1,000
2,835
2,505
2,330
Less: Opening Stocks
1,300
1,200
1,100
Purchases
1,535
1,305
1,230
Add: Trade Creditors, Opening balance
2,110
2,000
1,950
3,645
3,305
3,180
Payments to creditors:
7.44
(2)
Less: Trade Creditors, closing balance
2,000
1,950
1,900
Payment
1,645
1,355
1,280
Debtors, Opening balances
2,570
2,600
2,500
Add: Sales
2,100
1,800
1,700
4,670
4,400
4,200
Less: Debtors, closing balance
2,600
2,500
2,350
Receipt
2,070
1,900
1,850
Receipts from debtors:
CASH BUDGET
(a) 3 months ending 31st March, 2014
(`, in 000s)
January, 2014
Feb. 2014
March, 2014
545
315
65
2,070
1,900
1,850
Sale of Investments
---
700
----
Sale of Plant
---
---
50
2,615
2,915
1,965
Creditors
1,645
1,355
1,280
Expenses
255
210
195
Capital Expenditure
---
800
---
Payment of dividend
---
485
---
400
---
200
2,300
2,850
1,675
315
65
290
Opening cash balances

Add: Receipts:
From Debtors
Total (A)
Deduct: Payments
Purchase of investments
Total payments (B)
Closing cash balance (A - B)
(b) Statement of Sources and uses of Funds for the Three Month Period Ending 31st
March, 2014
Sources:
Funds from operation:
Net profit
` 000
390
` 000
Add: Depreciation
Sale of plant
7.45
180
570
50
620
665
1,285
Decrease in Working Capital

Total
Uses:
Purchase of plant
Payment by dividends
Total
Statement of Changes in Working Capital
800
485
1,285
January,14
March, 14
Increase
Decrease
` 000
` 000
` 000
` 000
Cash in hand and at Bank
545
290
255
Short term Investments
300
200
100
Debtors
2,570
2,350
220
Stock
1,300
1,000
300
4,715
3,840
Trade Creditors
2,110
1,900
210
---
Other Creditors
200
200
---
---
Tax Due
320
320
---
---
2,630
2,420
2,085
1,420
Current Assets
Current Liabilities
Working Capital
Decrease
2,085
665
665
2,085
875
875
Illustration 3 : The following information relates to Zeta Limited, a publishing company:
The selling price of a book is ` 15, and sales are made on credit through a book club and
invoiced on the last day of the month.
Variable costs of production per book are materials (` 5), labour (` 4), and overhead (` 2)
The sales manager has forecasted the following volumes:
Nov
No. of Books 1,000
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
1,000
1,000
1,250
1,500
2,000
1,900
2,200
2,200
2,300
7.46
Customers are expected to pay as follows:

One month after the sale
40%
Two months after the sale

60%
The company produces the books two months before they are sold and the creditors for
materials are paid two months after production.
Variable overheads are paid in the month following production and are expected to increase
by 25% in April; 75% of wages are paid in the month of production and 25% in the following
month. A wage increase of 12.5% will take place on 1st March.
The company is going through a restructuring and will sell one of its freehold properties in May
for ` 25,000, but it is also planning to buy a new printing press in May for ` 10,000.
Depreciation is currently ` 1,000 per month, and will rise to ` 1,500 after the purchase of the
new machine.
The companys corporation tax (of ` 10,000) is due for payment in March.
The company presently has a cash balance at bank on 31 December 2013, of ` 1,500.
You are required to prepare a cash budget for the six months from January to June.
Solution
Workings:
1.
Sale receipts
Month
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,250
1,500
2,000
1,900
2,200
15,000
15,000
15,000
18,750
22,500
30,000
28,500
33,000
1 month 40%
6,000
6,000
6,000
7,500
9,000
12,000
11,400
2 month 60%
9,000
9,000
9,000
11,250
13,500
18,000
15,000
May
Jun
Forecast sales (S)
S15
Debtors pay:
2.
Month
Payment for materials books produced two months before sale

Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
Qty produced (Q)
Materials (Q5)
Paid
after)
3.
(2
1,000
1,250
1,500
2,000
1,900
2,200
2,200
2,300
5,000
6,250
7,500
10,000
9,500
11,000
11,000
11,500
5,000
6,250
7,500
10,000
9,500
11,000
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
1,000
1,250
1,500
2,000
1,900
2,200
2,200
2,300
2,000
2,500
3,000
4,000
3,800
5,500
5,500
5,750
3,800
5,500
5,500
months
Variable overheads
Month
Qty produced (Q)
Var. overhead (Q2)

Var. overhead (Q2.50)
Paid one month later
4.
7.47
2,000
2,500
3,000
4,000
Wages payments
Month
Qty produced (Q)
Wages (Q 4)
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
1,250
1,500
2,000
1,900
2,200
2,200
2,300
5,000
6,000
8,000
8,550
9,900
9,900
10,350
Wages (Q 4.50)
75% this month
3,750
25% this month
4,500
6,000
6,412
7,425
7,425
7,762
1,250
1,500
2,000
2,137
2,475
2,475
5,750
7,500
8,412
9,562
9,900
10,237
Cash budget six months ended June
Receipts:
Credit sales
Premises disposal
Payments:
Materials
Var. overheads
Wages
Fixed assets
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
15,000
15,000
15,000
15,000
16,500
16,500
20,250
20,250
25,500
25,000
50,500
29,400
29,400
5,000
2,500
5,750
-
6,250
3,000
7,500
-
7,500
4,000
8,412
-
10,000
3,800
9,562
-
9,500
5,500
9,900
10,000
11,000
5,500
10,237
-
7.48
Corporation tax
13,250
16,750
10,000
29,912
23,362
34,900
26,737
Net cash flow

Balance b/f
Cumulative cash flow
1,750
1,500
3,250
(1,750)
3,250
1,500
(13,412)
1,500
(11,912)
(3,112)
(11,912)
(15,024)
15,600
(15,024)
576
2,663
576
3,239
2.4.2 Cash Budget for long period: Long-range cash forecast often resemble the
projected sources and application of funds statement. The following procedure may be
adopted to prepare long-range cash forecasts:
(i)
Take the cash at bank and in the beginning of the year:
(ii)
Add:
(a) Trading profit (before tax) expected to be earned;

(b) Depreciation and other development expenses incurred to be written off;
(c) Sale proceeds of assets;
(d) Proceeds of fresh issue of shares or debentures; and
(e) Reduction in working capital that is current assets (except cash) less current
liabilities.
(iii) Deduct:
(a) Dividends to be paid.
(b) Cost of assets to be purchased.
(c) Taxes to be paid.
(d) Debentures or shares to be redeemed.
(e) Increase in working capital.
Illustration 4 : You are given below the Profit & Loss Accounts for two years for a company:
Profit and Loss Account
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
To Opening stock
80,00,000
1,00,00,000 By Sales
8,00,00,000 10,00,00,000
To Raw materials
3,00,00,000
4,00,00,000 By Closing stock
1,00,00,000
1,50,00,000
To Stores
1,00,00,000
1,20,00,000 By Misc. Income
10,00,000
10,00,000
To Manufacturing Expenses 1,00,00,000
1,60,00,000
To Other Expenses
1,00,00,000
1,00,00,000

To Depreciation
1,00,00,000
1,00,00,000
To Net Profit
1,30,00,000
1,80,00,000
9,10,00,000 11,60,00,000
7.49
9,10,00,000 11,60,00,000
Sales are expected to be ` 12,00,00,000 in year 3.

As a result, other expenses will increase by ` 50,00,000 besides other charges. Only raw
materials are in stock. Assume sales and purchases are in cash terms and the closing stock is
expected to go up by the same amount as between year 1 and 2. You may assume that no
dividend is being paid. The Company can use 75% of the cash generated to service a loan.
How much cash from operations will be available in year 3 for the purpose? Ignore income tax.
Solution
Projected Profit and Loss Account for the year 3
Year 2
Actual
(` in
lakhs)
Year 3
Projected
(` in
lakhs)
To Materials consumed
350
420 By Sales
To Stores
120
144 By Misc. Income
To Mfg. Expenses
160
192
To Other expenses
100
150
To Depreciation
100
100
To Net profit
180
204
1,010
1,210
Year 2
Actual
(` in
lakhs)
Year 3
Projected
(` in
lakhs)
1,000
1,200
10
10
1,010
1,210
Cash Flow:
(` in lakhs)
Profit
204
Add: Depreciation
100
304
Less: Cash required for increase in stock
Net cash inflow

Available for servicing the loan: 75% of ` 2,54,00,000 or ` 1,90,50,000
Working Notes:
(i)
Material consumed in year 2: 35% of sales.
50
254
7.50
Likely consumption in year 3 : ` 1,200
35
or ` 420 (lakhs)
100
(ii) Stores are 12% of sales, as in year 2.

(iii) Manufacturing expenses are 16% of sales.
Note: The above also shows how a projected profit and loss account is prepared.
Illustration 5 : From the information and the assumption that the cash balance in hand on 1st
January 2014 is ` 72,500 prepare a cash budget.
Assume that 50 per cent of total sales are cash sales. Assets are to be acquired in the months
of February and April. Therefore, provisions should be made for the payment of ` 8,000 and
` 25,000 for the same. An application has been made to the bank for the grant of a loan of `
30,000 and it is hoped that the loan amount will be received in the month of May.
It is anticipated that a dividend of ` 35,000 will be paid in June. Debtors are allowed one
months credit. Creditors for materials purchased and overheads grant one months credit.
Sales commission at 3 per cent on sales is paid to the salesman each month.
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
Sales
(` )
72,000
97,000
86,000
88,600
1,02,500
1,08,700
Materials
Purchases
(` )
25,000
31,000
25,500
30,600
37,000
38,800
Salaries & Production

Wages Overheads
(` )
(` )
10,000
6,000
12,100
6,300
10,600
6,000
25,000
6,500
22,000
8,000
23,000
8,200
Office and Selling

Overheads
(` )
5,500
6,700
7,500
8,900
11,000
11,500
Solution
Cash Budget
Receipts
Cash sales
Collections from debtors
Bank loan
Total
Payments
Materials
Salaries and wages
Production overheads
Office & selling overheads
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
Total
36,000
36,000
48,500
36,000
84,500
43,000
48,500
91,500
44,300
43,000
87,300
51,250
44,300
30,000
1,25,550
54,350
51,250
1,05,600
2,77,400
2,23,050
30,000
5,30,450
10,000
-
25,000
12,100
6,000
5,500
31,000
10,600
6,300
6,700
25,500
25,000
6,000
7,500
30,600
22,000
6,500
8,900
37,000
23,000
8,000
11,000
1,49,100
1,02,700
32,800
39,600

Sales commission
Capital expenditure
Dividend
Total
Net cash flow
Balance, beginning of month
Balance, end of month
2,160
12,160
23,840
72,500
96,340
2,910
8,000
59,510
24,990
96,340
1,21,330
2,580
57,180
34,320
1,21,330
1,55,650
2,658
25,000
91,658
(4,358)
1,55,650
1,51,292
3,075
71,075
54,475
1,51,292
2,05,767
3,261
35,000
1,17,261
(11,661)
2,05,767
1,94,106
7.51
16,644
33,000
35,000
4,08,844
1,21,606
1,94,106
3,15,712
Illustration 6 : Consider the balance sheet of Maya Limited at December 31 (in thousands).
The company has received a large order and anticipates the need to go to its bank to increase
its borrowings. As a result, it has to forecast its cash requirements for January, February and
March. Typically, the company collects 20 per cent of its sales in the month of sale, 70 per
cent in the subsequent month, and 10 per cent in the second month after the sale. All sales
are credit sales.
`
Cash
Accounts receivable
Inventories
Current assets
Net fixed assets
50 Accounts payable
530 Bank loan
545 Accruals
1,125
Current liabilities
1,836 Long-term debt
Common stock
_____ Retained earnings
2,961 Total liabilities and equity
Total assets
360
400
212
972
450
100
1,439
2,961
Purchases of raw materials are made in the month prior to the sale and amount to 60 per cent of
sales in the subsequent month. Payments for these purchases occur in the month after the
purchase. Labour costs, including overtime, are expected to be ` 1,50,000 in January, ` 2,00,000
in February, and ` 1,60,000 in March. Selling, administrative, taxes, and other cash expenses are
expected to be ` 1,00,000 per month for January through March. Actual sales in November and
December and projected sales for January through April are as follows (in thousands):
`
November
December
500
600
`
January
February
600 March
1,000 April
`
650
750
On the basis of this information:

(a) Prepare a cash budget for the months of January, February, and March.
(b) Determine the amount of additional bank borrowings necessary to maintain a cash
balance of ` 50,000 at all times.
(c) Prepare a pro forma balance sheet for March 31.
Solution
7.52
(in thousands)
Cash Budget
(a)
Sales
Collections, current months sales
Collections, previous months sales
Collections, previous 2 months sales
Total cash receipts
Purchases
Payment for purchases
Labour costs
Other expenses
Total cash disbursements
Receipts less disbursements
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
`
500
`
600
`
600
120
420
50
590
600
360
150
100
610
(20)
`
1,000
200
420
60
680
390
600
200
100
900
(220
`
650
130
700
60
890
450
390
160
100
650
240
`
750
360
(b)
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Additional borrowings
20
220
(240)
Cumulative borrowings
420
640
400
The amount of financing peaks in February owing to the need to pay for purchases made
the previous month and higher labour costs. In March, substantial collections are made
on the prior months billings, causing large net cash inflow sufficient to pay off the
additional borrowings.
(c)
Pro forma Balance Sheet, March 31 (in thousands):
Cash
Accounts receivable
Inventories
Current assets
Net fixed assets
Total assets
`
50
620
635
1,305
1,836
Accounts payable
Bank loan
Accruals
Current liabilities
Long-term debt
Common stock
_____ Retained earnings
3,141 Total liabilities and equity
Accounts receivable = Sales in March 0.8 + Sales in February 0.1
`
450
400
212
1,062
450
100
1,529
3,141
7.53
Inventories = ` 545 + Total purchases January through March Total sales January
through March 0.6
Accounts payable =
Purchases in March
Retained earnings = ` 1,439 + Sales Payment for purchases Labour costs and
Other expenses, all for January through March
2.4.3 Managing Cash Collection and Disbursements

Having prepared the cash budget, the finance manager should ensure that there is not a
significant deviation between projected cash flows and actual cash flows.
To achieve this cash management efficiency will have to be improved through a proper control
of cash collection and disbursement.
The twin objectives in managing the cash flows should be:
Accelerate cash collections as much as possible; and
Decelerate or delay cash disbursements.
Lets discuss each of the two objectives individually.
2.4.4 Accelerating Cash Collections

A firm can conserve cash and reduce its requirements for cash balances if it can speed up its
cash collections by issuing invoices quickly or by reducing the time lag between a customer
pays bill and the cheque is collected and funds become available for the firms use.
A firm can use decentralized collection system known as concentration banking and lock box
system to speed up cash collection and reduce float time.
(i)
Concentration Banking: In concentration banking the company establishes a number

of strategic collection centres in different regions instead of a single collection centre at
the head office. This system reduces the period between the time a customer mails in
his remittances and the time when they become spendable funds with the company.
Payments received by the different collection centers are deposited with their respective
local banks which in turn transfer all surplus funds to the concentration bank of head
office. The concentration bank with which the company has its major bank account is
generally located at the headquarters. Concentration banking is one important and
popular way of reducing the size of the float.
(ii) Lock Box System: Another means to accelerate the flow of funds is a lock box system.
While concentration banking, remittances are received by a collection centre and
deposited in the bank after processing. The purpose of lock box system is to eliminate
the time between the receipts of remittances by the company and deposited in the bank.
A lock box arrangement usually is on regional basis which a company chooses according
to its billing patterns.
7.54
Under this arrangement, the company rents the local post-office box and authorizes its
bank at each of the locations to pick up remittances in the boxes. Customers are billed
with instructions to mail their remittances to the lock boxes. The bank picks up the mail
several times a day and deposits the cheques in the companys account. The cheques
may be micro-filmed for record purposes and cleared for collection. The company
receives a deposit slip and lists all payments together with any other material in the
envelope. This procedure frees the company from handling and depositing the cheques.
The main advantage of lock box system is that cheques are deposited with the banks
sooner and become collected funds sooner than if they were processed by the company
prior to deposit. In other words lag between the time cheques are received by the
company and the time they are actually deposited in the bank is eliminated.
The main drawback of lock box system is the cost of its operation. The bank provides a
number of services in addition to usual clearing of cheques and requires compensation
for them. Since the cost is almost directly proportional to the number of cheques
deposited. Lock box arrangements are usually not profitable if the average remittance is
small. The appropriate rule for deciding whether or not to use a lock box system or for
that matter, concentration banking, is simply to compare the added cost of the most
efficient system with the marginal income that can be generated from the released funds.
If costs are less than income, the system is profitable, if the system is not profitable, it is
not worth undertaking.
Different Kinds of Float with reference to Management of Cash: The term float is used to
refer to the periods that affect cash as it moves through the different stages of the collection
process. Four kinds of float with reference to management of cash are:
Billing float: An invoice is the formal document that a seller prepares and sends to the
purchaser as the payment request for goods sold or services provided. The time
between the sale and the mailing of the invoice is the billing float.
Mail float: This is the time when a cheque is being processed by post office, messenger
service or other means of delivery.
Cheque processing float: This is the time required for the seller to sort, record and
deposit the cheque after it has been received by the company.
Banking processing float: This is the time from the deposit of the cheque to the crediting
of funds in the sellers account.
2.4.5 Controlling Payments

An effective control over payments can also cause faster turnover of cash. This is possible
only by making payments on the due date, making excessive use of draft (bill of exchange)
instead of cheques.
Availability of cash can be maximized by playing the float. In this, a firm estimates accurately
the time when the cheques issued will be presented for encashment and thus utilizes the float
7.55
period to its advantage by issuing more cheques but having in the bank account only so much
cash balance as will be sufficient to honour those cheques which are actually expected to be
presented on a particular date.
Also company may make payment to its outstation suppliers by a cheque and send it through
mail. The delay in transit and collection of the cheque, will be used to increase the float.
Illustration 7 : Prachi Ltd is a manufacturing company producing and selling a range of
cleaning products to wholesale customers. It has three suppliers and two customers. Prachi
Ltd relies on its cleared funds forecast to manage its cash.
You are an accounting technician for the company and have been asked to prepare a cleared
funds forecast for the period Monday 7 January to Friday 11 January 2014 inclusive. You have
been provided with the following information:
(1) Receipts from customers
Customer name
Credit
terms
Payment
method
7 Jan 2014
sales
7 Dec 2013 sales
W Ltd
1 calendar month
BACS
` 150,000
` 130,000
X Ltd
None
Cheque
` 180,000
` 160,000
(a) Receipt of money by BACS (Bankers' Automated Clearing Services) is instantaneous.

(b) X Ltds cheque will be paid into Prachi Ltds bank account on the same day as the
sale is made and will clear on the third day following this (excluding day of
payment).
(2) Payments to suppliers
Supplier
Credit
Payment
7 Jan 2014
7 Dec 2013
7 Nov 2013
name
terms
method
purchases
purchases
purchases
1 calendar month Standing order
` 65,000
` 55,000
` 45,000
A Ltd
B Ltd
2 calendar months
Cheque
` 85,000
` 80,000
` 75,000
C Ltd
None
Cheque
` 95,000
` 90,000
` 85,000
(a) Prachi Ltd has set up a standing order for ` 45,000 a month to pay for supplies from
A Ltd. This will leave Prachis bank account on 7 January. Every few months, an
adjustment is made to reflect the actual cost of supplies purchased (you do NOT
need to make this adjustment).
(b) Prachi Ltd will send out, by post, cheques to B Ltd and C Ltd on 7 January. The
amounts will leave its bank account on the second day following this (excluding the
day of posting).
7.56
(3) Wages and salaries
December 2013
January 2014
` 12,000
` 56,000
` 13,000
` 59,000
Weekly wages
Monthly salaries
(a) Factory workers are paid cash wages (weekly). They will be paid one weeks wages, on
11 January, for the last weeks work done in December (i.e. they work a week in hand).
(b) All the office workers are paid salaries (monthly) by BACS. Salaries for December
will be paid on 7 January.
(4) Other miscellaneous payments
(a) Every Monday morning, the petty cashier withdraws ` 200 from the company bank
account for the petty cash. The money leaves Prachis bank account straight away.
(b) The room cleaner is paid ` 30 from petty cash every Wednesday morning.
(c) Office stationery will be ordered by telephone on Tuesday 8 January to the value of
` 300. This is paid for by company debit card. Such payments are generally seen to
leave the company account on the next working day.
(d) Five new softwares will be ordered over the Internet on 10 January at a total cost of
` 6,500. A cheque will be sent out on the same day. The amount will leave Prachi
Ltds bank account on the second day following this (excluding the day of posting).
(5) Other information
The balance on Prachis bank account will be ` 200,000 on 7 January 2014. This
represents both the book balance and the cleared funds.
Required:
Prepare a cleared funds forecast for the period Monday 7 January to Friday 7 January 2014
inclusive using the information provided. Show clearly the uncleared funds float each day.
Solution:
Cleared Funds Forecast
7 Jan 14
(Monday)
`
Receipts
W Ltd
X Ltd
(a)
Payments
A Ltd
B Ltd
8 Jan 14
9 Jan 14
(Tuesday) (Wednesday)
`
`
10 Jan 14 11 Jan 14
(Thursday)
(Friday)
`
`
1,30,000
0
1,30,000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,80,000
1,80,000
0
0
0
45,000
0
0
0
0
75,000
0
0
0
0
C Ltd
Wages
Salaries
Petty Cash
Stationery
(b)
0
0
56,000
200
0
1,01,200
Cleared excess Receipts

over payments (a) (b)
28,800
Cleared balance b/f
200,000
Cleared balance c/f (c) 2,28,800
Uncleared funds float
Receipts
180,000
Payments
(170,000)
(d)
10,000
Total book balance c/f
2,38,800
7.57
0
0
0
0
0
0
95,000
0
0
0
300
1,70,300
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12,000
0
0
0
12,000
0
228,800
2,28,800
(170,300)
228,800
58,500
80,000
58,500
2,38,500
(12,000)
238,500
2,26,500
180,000
(170,300)
9,700
2,38,500
180,000
0
180,000
2,38,500
0
(6,500)
(6,500)
2,32,000
0
(6,500)
(6,500)
2,20,000
(c) + (d)
2.4.6 Determining the Optimum Cash Balance

A firm should maintain optimum cash balance to cater to the day-to-day operations. It may
also carry additional cash as a buffer or safety stock. The amount of cash balance will depend
on the risk-return trade off. The firm should maintain an optimum level i.e. just enough, i.e.
neither too much nor too little cash balance. This, however, poses a question. How to
determine the optimum cash balance if cash flows are predictable and if they are not
predictable?
2.5 Cash Management Models

In recent years several types of mathematical models have been developed which helps to
determine the optimum cash balance to be carried by a business organization.
The purpose of all these models is to ensure that cash does not remain idle unnecessarily and
at the same time the firm is not confronted with a situation of cash shortage.
All these models can be put in two categories:
Inventory type models; and
Stochastic models.
Inventory type models have been constructed to aid the finance manager to determine
optimum cash balance of his firm. William J. Baumols economic order quantity model applies
equally to cash management problems under conditions of certainty or where the cash flows
are predictable.
7.58
However, in a situation where the EOQ Model is not applicable, stochastic model of cash
management helps in determining the optimum level of cash balance. It happens when the
demand for cash is stochastic and not known in advance.
2.5.1 William J. Baumols Economic Order Quantity Model, (1952)

According to this model, optimum cash level is that level of cash where the carrying costs and
transactions costs are the minimum.
The carrying costs refer to the cost of holding cash, namely, the interest foregone on
marketable securities. The transaction costs refer to the cost involved in getting the
marketable securities converted into cash. This happens when the firm falls short of cash and
has to sell the securities resulting in clerical, brokerage, registration and other costs.
The optimum cash balance according to this model will be that point where these two costs
are minimum. The formula for determining optimum cash balance is:
Where,
C=
2U P
S
C =
Optimum cash balance
U =
Annual (or monthly) cash disbursement
P =
Fixed cost per transaction.
S =
Opportunity cost of one rupee p.a. (or p.m.)
This can be explained with the following diagram:

Total Cost
Holding Cost
Cost
(Rs.)
Transaction Cost
Optimum Cash Balance

The model is based on the following assumptions:
(i)
Cash needs of the firm are known with certainty.
(ii)
The cash is used uniformly over a period of time and it is also known with certainty.
(iii) The holding cost is known and it is constant.
7.59
(iv) The transaction cost also remains constant.

Illustration 8 : A firm maintains a separate account for cash disbursement. Total
disbursement are ` 1,05,000 per month or ` 12,60,000 per year. Administrative and
transaction cost of transferring cash to disbursement account is ` 20 per transfer. Marketable
securities yield is 8% per annum.
Determine the optimum cash balance according to William J. Baumol model.

Solution
The optimum cash balance C =
2 ` 12,60,000 ` 20
= ` 25,100
0.08
The limitation of the Baumols model is that it does not allow the cash flows to fluctuate. Firms
in practice do not use their cash balance uniformly nor are they able to predict daily cash
inflows and outflows. The Miller-Orr (MO) model overcomes this shortcoming and allows for
daily cash flow variation.
2.5.2 Miller-Orr Cash Management Model (1966)

According to this model the net cash flow is completely stochastic.
When changes in cash balance occur randomly the application of control theory serves a
useful purpose. The Miller-Orr model is one of such control limit models.
This model is designed to determine the time and size of transfers between an investment
account and cash account. In this model control limits are set for cash balances. These limits
may consist of h as upper limit, z as the return point; and zero as the lower limit.
When the cash balance reaches the upper limit, the transfer of cash equal to h z is
invested in marketable securities account.
When it touches the lower limit, a transfer from marketable securities account to cash
account is made.
7.60
During the period when cash balance stays between (h, z) and (z, 0) i.e. high and low
limits no transactions between cash and marketable securities account is made.
The high and low limits of cash balance are set up on the basis of fixed cost associated with
the securities transactions, the opportunity cost of holding cash and the degree of likely
fluctuations in cash balances. These limits satisfy the demands for cash at the lowest
possible total costs. The following diagram illustrates the Miller-Orr model.
Upper control limit
Z
Cash Balance (Rs.)
Return point
0
Time
Lower control limit
The MO Model is more realistic since it allows variations in cash balance within lower and
upper limits. The finance manager can set the limits according to the firms liquidity
requirements i.e., maintaining minimum and maximum cash balance.
2.6 Recent Developments in Cash Management

It is important to understand the latest developments in the field of cash management, since it
has a great impact on how we manage our cash. Both technological advancement and desire
to reduce cost of operations has led to some innovative techniques in managing cash. Some
of them are:-
2.6.1 Electronic Fund Transfer

With the developments which took place in the Information technology, the present banking
system is switching over to the computerisation of banks branches to offer efficient banking
services and cash management services to their customers. The network will be linked to the
different branches, banks. This will help the customers in the following ways:
Instant updation of accounts.
The quick transfer of funds.
Instant information about foreign exchange rates.
7.61
2.6.2 Zero Balance Account

For efficient cash management some firms employ an extensive policy of substituting
marketable securities for cash by the use of zero balance accounts. Every day the firm totals
the cheques presented for payment against the account. The firm transfers the balance
amount of cash in the account if any, for buying marketable securities. In case of shortage of
cash the firm sells the marketable securities.
2.6.3 Money Market Operations

One of the tasks of treasury function of larger companies is the investment of surplus funds in the
money market. The chief characteristic of money market banking is one of size. Banks obtain
funds by competing in the money market for the deposits by the companies, public authorities,
High Net worth Investors (HNI), and other banks. Deposits are made for specific periods ranging
from overnight to one year; highly competitive rates which reflect supply and demand on a daily,
even hourly basis are quoted. Consequently, the rates can fluctuate quite dramatically, especially
for the shorter-term deposits. Surplus funds can thus be invested in money market easily.
2.6.4 Petty Cash Imprest System

For better control on cash, generally the companies use petty cash imprest system wherein
the day-to-day petty expenses are estimated taking into account past experience and future
needs and generally a weeks requirement of cash will be kept separate for making petty
expenses. Again, the next week will commence with the pre-determined balance. This will
reduce the strain of the management in managing petty cash expenses and help in the
managing cash efficiently.
2.6.5 Management of Temporary Cash Surplus

Temporary cash surpluses can be profitably invested in the following:
Short-term deposits in Banks and financial institutions.
Short-term debt market instruments.
Long-term debt instruments.
Shares of Blue chip listed companies.
2.6.6 Electronic Cash Management System

Most of the cash management systems now-a-days are electronically based, since speed is
the essence of any cash management system. Electronically, transfer of data as well as funds
play a key role in any cash management system. Various elements in the process of cash
management are linked through a satellite. Various places that are interlinked may be the
place where the instrument is collected, the place where cash is to be transferred in
companys account, the place where the payment is to be transferred etc.
7.62
Certain networked cash management system may also provide a very limited access to third
parties like parties having very regular dealings of receipts and payments with the company
etc. A finance company accepting deposits from public through sub-brokers may give a
limited access to sub-brokers to verify the collections made through him for determination of
his commission among other things.
Electronic-scientific cash management results in:
Significant saving in time.
Decrease in interest costs.
Less paper work.
Greater accounting accuracy.
More control over time and funds.
Supports electronic payments.
Faster transfer of funds from one location to another, where required.
Speedy conversion of various instruments into cash.
Making available funds wherever required, whenever required.
Reduction in the amount of idle float to the maximum possible extent.
Ensures no idle funds are placed at any place in the organization.
It makes inter-bank balancing of funds much easier.
It is a true form of centralised Cash Management.
Produces faster electronic reconciliation.
Allows for detection of book-keeping errors.
Reduces the number of cheques issued.
Earns interest income or reduce interest expense.
2.6.7 Virtual Banking

The practice of banking has undergone a significant change in the nineties. While banks are
striving to strengthen customer base and relationship and move towards relationship banking,
customers are increasingly moving away from the confines of traditional branch banking and
are seeking the convenience of remote electronic banking services. And even within the
broad spectrum of electronic banking the virtual banking has gained prominence
Broadly virtual banking denotes the provision of banking and related services through
extensive use of information technology without direct recourse to the bank by the customer.
The origin of virtual banking in the developed countries can be traced back to the seventies
with the installation of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs). Subsequently, driven by the
competitive market environment as well as various technological and customer pressures,
other types of virtual banking services have grown in prominence throughout the world.
7.63
The Reserve Bank of India has been taking a number of initiatives, which will facilitate the
active involvement of commercial banks in the sophisticated cash management system. One
of the pre-requisites to ensure faster and reliable mobility of funds in a country is to have an
efficient payment system. Considering the importance of speed in payment system to the
economy, the RBI has taken numerous measures since mid-Eighties to strengthen the
payments mechanism in the country.
Introduction of computerized settlement of clearing transactions, use of Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR) technology, provision of inter-city clearing facilities and high
value clearing facilities, Electronic Clearing Service Scheme (ECSS), Electronic Funds
Transfer (EFT) scheme, Delivery vs. Payment (DVP) for Government securities transactions,
setting up of Indian Financial Network (INFINET) are some of the significant developments.
Introduction of Centralised Funds Management System (CFMS), Securities Services System
(SSS), Real Time Gross Settlement System (RTGS) and Structured Financial Messaging
System (SFMS) are the other top priority items on the agenda to transform the existing system
into a state-of-the art payment infrastructure in India.
The current vision envisaged for the payment systems reforms is one, which contemplates
linking up of at least all important bank branches with the domestic payment systems network
thereby facilitating cross border connectivity. With the help of the systems already put in
place in India and which are coming into being, both banks and corporates can exercise
effective control over the cash management.
Advantages
The advantages of virtual banking services are as follows:
Lower cost of handling a transaction.
The increased speed of response to customer requirements.
The lower cost of operating branch network along with reduced staff costs leads to cost
efficiency.
Virtual banking allows the possibility of improved and a range of services being made
available to the customer rapidly, accurately and at his convenience.
The popularity which virtual banking services have won among customers is due to the speed,
convenience and round the clock access they offer.
2.7 Management of Marketable Securities

Management of marketable securities is an integral part of investment of cash as this may
serve both the purposes of liquidity and cash, provided choice of investment is made correctly.
As the working capital needs are fluctuating, it is possible to park excess funds in some short
term securities, which can be liquidated when need for cash is felt. The selection of securities
should be guided by three principles.
Safety: Return and risks go hand in hand. As the objective in this investment is ensuring
7.64
liquidity, minimum risk is the criterion of selection.
Maturity: Matching of maturity and forecasted cash needs is essential. Prices of long term
securities fluctuate more with changes in interest rates and are therefore, more risky.
Marketability: It refers to the convenience, speed and cost at which a security can be
converted into cash. If the security can be sold quickly without loss of time and price it is
highly liquid or marketable.
The choice of marketable securities is mainly limited to Government treasury bills, Deposits
with banks and Inter-corporate deposits. Units of Unit Trust of India and commercial papers of
corporates are other attractive means of parking surplus funds for companies along with
deposits with sister concerns or associate companies.
Besides this Money Market Mutual Funds (MMMFs) have also emerged as one of the avenues
of short-term investment. They focus on short-term marketable securities such as Treasury
bills, commercial papers certificate of deposits or call money market. There is a lock in period
of 30 days after which the investment may be converted into cash. They offer attractive
yields, and are popular with institutional investors and some big companies.
Illustration 9 : The following information is available in respect of Saitrading company:
(i)
On an average, debtors are collected after 45 days; inventories have an average holding
period of 75 days and creditors payment period on an average is 30 days.
(ii)
The firm spends a total of ` 120 lakhs annually at a constant rate.
(iii) It can earn 10 per cent on investments.

From the above information, you are required to calculate:
(a)
The cash cycle and cash turnover,
(b)
Minimum amounts of cash to be maintained to meet payments as they become due,
(c)
Savings by reducing the average inventory holding period by 30 days.
Solution
(a) Cash cycle = 45 days + 75 days 30 days = 90 days (3 months)
Cash turnover = 12 months (360 days)/3 months (90 days) = 4.

(b) Minimum operating cash = Total operating annual outlay/cash turnover, that is, ` 120
lakhs/4 = ` 30 lakhs.
(c) Cash cycle = 45 days + 45 days 30 days = 60 days (2 months).
Cash turnover = 12 months (360 days)/2 months (60 days) = 6.

Minimum operating cash = ` 120 lakhs/6 = ` 20 lakhs.
Reduction in investments = ` 30 lakhs ` 20 lakhs = ` 10 lakhs.
Savings = 0.10 ` 10 lakhs = ` 1 lakh.
7.65
UNIT III : MANAGEMENT OF INVENTORY
3.1 Inventory Management

Inventories constitute a major element of working capital. It is, therefore, important that
investment in inventory is property controlled. The objectives of inventory management are, to
a great extent, similar to the objectives of cash management. Inventory management covers a
large number of problems including fixation of minimum and maximum levels, determining the
size of inventory to be carried, deciding about the issues, receipts and inspection procedures,
determining the economic order quantity, proper storage facilities, keeping check over
obsolescence and ensuring control over movement of inventories.
The aspects concerning control over inventories have been discussed in Paper 3 : Part 1 Cost Accounting.
Some illustrations are given for your practice.
Illustration 1 : A companys requirements for ten days are 6,300 units. The ordering cost per
order is ` 10 and the carrying cost per unit is ` 0.26. You are required to calculate the
economic order quantity.
Solution
The economic order quantity is:

EOQ =
2 6,300 10
=
0.26
1,26,000
= 700 units (approx).
0.26
Illustration 2 : Marvel Limited uses a large quantity of salt in its production process. Annual
consumption is 60,000 tonnes over a 50-week working year. It costs ` 100 to initiate and
process an order and delivery follow two weeks later. Storage costs for the salt are estimated
at 10 paise per tonne per annum. The current practice is to order twice a year when the stock
falls to 10,000 tonnes. Recommend an appropriate ordering policy for Marvel Limited, and
contrast it with the cost of the current policy.
Solution
The recommended policy should be based on the EOQ model.

F = ` 100 per order
S = 60,000 tonnes per year
H = ` 0.10 per tonne per year
Substituting :
EOQ =
2 100 60,000
= 10,954 tonnes per order
0.10
Number of orders per year = 60,000/10,954 = 5.5 orders
7.66
Re-order level = 260,000/50 = 2,400 tonnes

Total cost of optimum policy = holding costs + ordering costs
= (0.110954)/2 + (10060,000)/10,954
= 547.70 + 547.74 = ` 1,095
To compare the optimum policy with the current policy, the average level of stock under the
current policy must be found. An order is placed when stock falls to 10,000 tonnes, but the
lead time is two weeks. The stock used in that time is (60,0002)/50 = 2,400 tonnes. Before
delivery, inventory has fallen to (10,000 2,400) = 7,600 tonnes. Orders are made twice per
year, and so the order size = 60,000/2 = 30,000 tonnes. The order will increase stock level to
30,000 + 7,600 = 37,600 tonnes. Hence the average stock level = 7,600 + (30,000/2) =
22,600 tonnes. Total costs of current policy = (0.122,600) + (1002) = ` 2,460 per year.
Advise: The recommended policy should be adopted as the costs (` 1,365 per year) are less
than the current policy.
Illustration 3 : Pureair Company is a distributor of air filters to retail stores. It buys its filters
from several manufacturers. Filters are ordered in lot sizes of 1,000 and each order costs `
40 to place. Demand from retail stores is 20,000 filters per month, and carrying cost is ` 0.10
a filter per month.
(a)
What is the optimal order quantity with respect to so many lot sizes?
(b)
What would be the optimal order quantity if the carrying cost were ` 0.05 a filter per
month?
(c)
What would be the optimal order quantity if ordering costs were ` 10?
Solution
(a)
EOQ * =
2(20)(40)
100
=4
Carrying costs = ` 0.10 1,000 = ` 100. The optimal order size would be 4,000 filters,
which represents five orders a month.
(b)
EOQ * =
2(20)(40)
= 5.66
50
Since the lot size is 1,000 filters, the company would order 6,000 filters each time. The
lower the carrying cost, the more important ordering costs become relatively, and the
larger the optimal order size.
(c)
EOQ * =
2(20)(10)
100
=2
The lower the order cost, the more important carrying costs become relatively and the
smaller the optimal order size.
7.67
UNIT IV : MANAGEMENT OF RECEIVABLES
4.1 Introduction
The basic objective of management of sundry debtors is to optimise the return on investment
on these assets known as receivables.
Large amounts are tied up in sundry debtors, there are chances of bad debts and there will be cost
of collection of debts. On the contrary, if the investment in sundry debtors is low, the sales may be
restricted, since the competitors may offer more liberal terms. Therefore, management of sundry
debtors is an important issue and requires proper policies and their implementation.
4.2 Aspects of Management of Debtors

There are basically three aspects of management of sundry debtors:
1.
Credit Policy: The credit policy is to be determined. It involves a trade off between the
profits on additional sales that arise due to credit being extended on the one hand and
the cost of carrying those debtors and bad debt losses on the other. This seeks to
decide credit period, cash discount and other relevant matters. The credit period is
generally stated in terms of net days. For example if the firms credit terms are net 50.
It is expected that customers will repay credit obligations not later than 50 days.
Further, the cash discount policy of the firm specifies:

(a) The rate of cash discount.
(b) The cash discount period; and
(c) The net credit period.
For example, the credit terms may be expressed as 3/15 net 60. This means that a 3%
discount will be granted if the customer pays within 15 days; if he does not avail the offer
he must make payment within 60 days.
2.
Credit Analysis: This requires the finance manager to determine as to how risky it is to
advance credit to a particular party.
3.
Control of Receivable: This requires finance manager to follow up debtors and decide
about a suitable credit collection policy. It involves both laying down of credit policies
and execution of such policies.
There is always cost of maintaining receivables which comprises of following costs:

(i)
The company requires additional funds as resources are blocked in receivables

which involves a cost in the form of interest (loan funds) or opportunity cost (own
funds)
(ii) Administrative costs which include record keeping, investigation of credit worthiness
etc.
7.68
(iii) Collection costs.

(iv) Defaulting costs.
4.3 Factors Determining Credit Policy

The credit policy is an important factor determining both the quantity and the quality of
accounts receivables. Various factors determine the size of the investment a company makes
in accounts receivables. They are, for instance:
(i)
The effect of credit on the volume of sales;
(ii) Credit terms;

(iii) Cash discount;
(iv) Policies and practices of the firm for selecting credit customers;
(v) Paying practices and habits of the customers;
(vi) The firms policy and practice of collection; and
(vii) The degree of operating efficiency in the billing, record keeping and adjustment function,
other costs such as interest, collection costs and bad debts etc., would also have an
impact on the size of the investment in receivables. The rising trend in these costs would
depress the size of investment in receivables.
The firm may follow a lenient or a stringent credit policy. The firm which follows a lenient
credit policy sells on credit to customers on very liberal terms and standards. On the contrary
a firm following a stringent credit policy sells on credit on a highly selective basis only to those
customers who have proper credit worthiness and who are financially sound.
Any increase in accounts receivables that is, additional extension of trade credit not only
results in higher sales but also requires additional financing to support the increased
investment in accounts receivables. The costs of credit investigations and collection efforts
and the chances of bad debts are also increased.
4.4 Factors under the Control of the Finance Manager

The finance manager has operating responsibility for the management of the investment in
receivables. His involvement includes:(a) Supervising the administration of credit;
(b) Contribute to top management decisions relating to the best credit policies of the firm;
(c ) Deciding the criteria for selection of credit applications; and
(d) Speed up the conversion of receivables into cash by aggressive collection policy.
In summary the finance manager has to strike a balance between the cost of increased
investment in receivables and profits from the higher levels of sales.
7.69
4.5 Approaches to Evaluation of Credit Policies

There are basically two methods of evaluating the credit policies to be adopted by a Company
Total Approach and Incremental Approach. The formats for the two approaches are given
as under:
Statement showing the Evaluation of Credit Policies (based on Total Approach)
Particulars
Present Proposed Proposed Proposed

Policy
Policy I
Policy II Policy III
..
(i) Variable Costs
(ii) Fixed Costs
..
Bad Debts
Expected Net Profit before Tax
...
..
Less: Tax
...
..
Expected Profit after Tax
...
B. Opportunity Cost of Investments in

Receivables locked up in Collection
Period
..
A. Expected Profit:
Credit Sales
Total Cost other than Bad Debts and
Cash Discount
Net Benefits (A B)
Advise: The Policy. should be adopted since the net benefits under this policy are higher
as compared to other policies.
Working Notes:
(i)
Total Fixed Cost = [Average Cost per unit Variable Cost per unit] x No. of units sold on credit
under Present Policy
(ii)
Opportunity Cost = Total Cost of Credit Sales x
Collection period (Days)

365 (or 360)
Required Rate of Return

100
7.70
Statement showing the Evaluation of Credit Policies (based on Incremental Approach)

Particulars
Present Proposed Proposed Proposed

Policy Policy I
Policy II Policy III
days
days
days
days
`
A. Incremental Expected Profit:
Credit Sales
Incremental Credit Sales
Less: Incremental Costs of Credit Sales
(i) Variable Costs
(ii) Fixed Costs
Incremental Bad Debt Losses
Incremental Cash Discount
Incremental Expected Profit
Less: Tax
Incremental Expected Profit after Tax
B. Required
Return
on
Incremental
Investments:
(a) Cost of Credit Sales
(b) Collection Period (in days)
(c) Investment in Receivable (a x b/365 or 360)
(d) Incremental Investment in Receivables
(e) Required Rate of Return (in %)
(f) Required Return on Incremental Investments
(d x e)
Incremental Net Benefits (A B)
. .
. .
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
..
Advise: The Policy .should be adopted since net benefits under this policy are higher
as compared to other policies.
Working Notes:
(i)
Total Fixed Cost = [Average Cost per unit Variable Cost per unit] x No. of units sold on credit
under Present Policy
(ii)
Collection period (Days)

365 (or 360)

100
7.71
Illustration 1 : A trader whose current sales are in the region of ` 6 lakhs per annum and an
average collection period of 30 days wants to pursue a more liberal policy to improve sales. A
study made by a management consultant reveals the following information:-
Credit Policy
Increase in collection
period
10 days
20 days
30 days
45 days
Increase in sales
`
`
`
`
Present default
anticipated
30,000
1.5%
48,000
2%
75,000
3%
90,000
4%
The selling price per unit is ` 3. Average cost per unit is ` 2.25 and variable costs per unit are
` 2.
The current bad debt loss is 1%. Required return on additional investment is 20%. Assume a
360 days year.
Which of the above policies would you recommend for adoption?
Solution
A.
Statement showing the Evaluation of Debtors Policies (Total Approach)
Particulars
Present
Policy
30 days
Proposed Proposed Proposed Proposed

Policy A Policy B Policy C Policy D
40 days
50 days
60 days
75 days
6,00,000
6,30,000
6,48,000
6,75,000
6,90,000
4,00,000
4,20,000
4,32,000
4,50,000
4,60,000
A. Expected Profit:
(a) Credit Sales
(b) Total Cost other than Bad Debts
(i) Variable Costs
[Sales x ` 2/` 3]
(ii) Fixed Costs
50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
4,50,000
4,70,000
4,82,000
5,00,000
5,10,000
6,000
9,450
12,960
20,250
27,600
1,44,000
1,50,550
1,53,040
1,54,750
1,52,400
7,500
10,444
13,389
16,667
21,250
1,36,500
1,40,106
1,39,651
1,38,083
1,31,150
(c) Bad Debts

(d) Expected Profit [(a) (b) (c)]
B. Opportunity Cost of Investments in
Receivables
C. Net Benefits (A B)
Recommendation: The Proposed Policy A (40 days) should be adopted since the net benefits
under this policy are higher as compared to other policies.
7.72
Working Notes:
(i)
Calculation of Fixed Cost = [Average Cost per unit Variable Cost per unit] x No. of Units sold
= [` 2.25 - ` 2.00] x (` 6,00,000/3)

= ` 0.25 x 2,00,000 = ` 50,000
(ii)
Calculation of Opportunity Cost of Average Investments
Opportunity Cost = Total Cost x
B.
Collection period
360
Rate of Return
100
Present Policy
= 4,50,000 x
30 20
= 7,500
360 100
Policy A
= 4,70,000 x
40 20
= 10,444
360 100
Policy B
= 4,82,000 x
50 20
= 13,389
360 100
Policy C
= 5,00,000 x
60 20
= 16,667
360 100
Policy D
= 5,10,000 x
75 20
= 21,250
360 100
Another method of solving the problem is Incremental Approach. Here we assume that
sales are all credit sales.
Particulars
Present Proposed Proposed Proposed Proposed

Policy 30 Policy A Policy B Policy C Policy D
days 40 days 50 days 60 days 75 days
30,000
48,000
75,000
90,000
4,00,000
20,000
32,000
50,000
60,000
50,000
6,000
3,450
6,960
14,250
21,600
6,550
9,040
10,750
8,400
A. Incremental Expected Profit:

(a) Incremental Credit Sales
(b) Incremental Costs
(i) Variable Costs
(ii) Fixed Costs
(c) Incremental Bad Debt Losses
(d) Incremental Expected Profit
(a b c)]
7.73
B. Required Return on Incremental

Investments:
(a) Cost of Credit Sales
4,50,000 4,70,000 4,82,000 5,00,000 5,10,000
(b) Collection period
30
40
50
(c) Investment in Receivable

(a x b/360)
37,500
52,222
66,944
83,333 1,06,250
(d) Incremental Investment in

Receivables
14,722
29,444
45,833
68,750
20
20
20
20
2,944
5,889
9,167
13,750
3,606
3,151
1,583
5,350
(e) Required Rate of Return (in %)

(f) Required Return on Incremental
Investments (d x e)
60
75
Recommendation: The Proposed Policy A should be adopted since the net benefits
under this policy are higher than those under other policies.
C.
Another method of solving the problem is by computing the Expected Rate of Return.
Incremental Expected Profit
Expected Rate of Return
For Policy A
` 6,550
x 100 = 44.49%
` 14,722
For Policy B
` 9,040
x 100 = 30.70%
` 29,444
For Policy C
` 10,750
x 100 = 23.45%
` 45,833
For Policy D
` 8,400
x 100 = 12.22%
` 68,750
Incremental Investment in Receivables
x 100
Recommendation: The Proposed Policy A should be adopted since the Expected Rate of
Return (44.49%) is more than the Required Rate of Return (20%) and is highest among the
given policies compared.
Illustration 2 : XYZ Corporation is considering relaxing its present credit policy and is in the
process of evaluating two proposed policies. Currently, the firm has annual credit sales of
` 50 lakhs and accounts receivable turnover ratio of 4 times a year. The current level of loss
due to bad debts is ` 1,50,000. The firm is required to give a return of 25% on the investment
in new accounts receivables. The companys variable costs are 70% of the selling price.
Given the following information, which is the better option?
7.74
(Amount in ` )
Annual credit sales

Accounts receivable turnover ratio
Bad debt losses
Policy
Option I
60,00,000
3 times
3,00,000
Present
Policy
50,00,000
4 times
1,50,000
Policy
Option I
67,50,000
2.4 times
4,50,000
Solution
Statement showing the Evaluation of Debtors Policies
Particulars
Present
Policy
Proposed Proposed
Policy I
Policy II
`
A Expected Profit:
(a) Credit Sales
(b) Total Cost other than Bad Debts:
(i) Variable Costs
(c) Bad Debts
B Opportunity Cost of Investments
Receivables
C Net Benefits (A B)
50,00,000 60,00,000
67,50,000
35,00,000 42,00,000
1,50,000 3,00,000
13,50,000 15,00,000
in 2,18,750 3,50,000
47,25,000
4,50,000
15,75,000
4,92,188
11,31,250 11,50,000
10,82,812
Recommendation: The Proposed Policy I should be adopted since the net benefits under this
policy are higher as compared to other policies.
Working Note: Calculation of Opportunity Cost of Average Investments
Collection period Rate of Return

x
12
100
= ` 35,00,000 x 3/12 x 25%
= ` 2,18,750
Proposed Policy I = ` 42,00,000 x 4/12 x 25%
= ` 3,50,000
Proposed Policy II = ` 47,25,000 x 5/12 x 25%
= ` 4,92,188
Present Policy
Illustration 3 : As a part of the strategy to increase sales and profits, the sales manager of a
company proposes to sell goods to a group of new customers with 10% risk of non-payment.
This group would require one and a half months credit and is likely to increase sales by
` 1,00,000 p.a. Production and Selling expenses amount to 80% of sales and the income-tax
rate is 50%. The companys minimum required rate of return (after tax) is 25%.
Should the sales managers proposal be accepted?
7.75
Also find the degree of risk of non-payment that the company should be willing to assume if
the required rate of return (after tax) were (i) 30%, (ii) 40% and (iii) 60%.
Solution
Statement showing the Evaluation of Proposal
Particulars
A. Expected Profit:
Net Sales
Less: Production and Selling Expenses @ 80%
Profit before providing for Bad Debts
Less: Bad Debts @10%
Profit before Tax
Less: Tax @ 50%
Profit after Tax
B. Opportunity Cost of Investment in Receivables
`
1,00,000
80,000
20,000
10,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
2,500
2,500
Advise: The sales managers proposal should be accepted.

Working Note: Calculation of Opportunity Cost of Funds

= ` 80,000 x
Collection period Required Rate of Return

x
12
100
1.5 25
x
=` 2,500
12 100
Statement showing the Acceptable Degree of Risk of Non-payment

Particulars
Sales
Less: Production and Sales Expenses
Profit before providing for Bad Debts
Less: Bad Debts (assume X)
Profit before tax
Less: Tax @ 50%
Profit after Tax
Required Return (given)

30%
40%
60%
1,00,000
1,00,000
1,00,000
80,000
80,000
80,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
X
X
X
20,000 X
20,000 X
20,000 X
(20,000 X) 0.5 (20,000 X) 0.5 (20,000 X) 0.5
10,000 0.5X
10,000 0.5X
10,000 0.5X
30% of 10,000* 40% of 10,000* 60% of 10,000*
= ` 3,000
= ` 4,000
= ` 6,000
7.76
*Average Debtors
= Total Cost of Credit Sales x

= ` 80,000 x
Collection period
12
1.5
= ` 10,000
12
Computation of the value and percentage of X in each case is as follows:
Case I
10,000 0.5x
= 3,000
0.5x
= 7,000
= ` 14,000/`1,00,000 x 100 = 14%
Bad Debts as % of sales

Case II
10,000 0.5x
= 4,000
0.5x
= 6,000
= 6,000/0.5 = ` 12,000
= ` 12,000/`1,00,000 x 100 = 12%

Case III
= 7,000/0.5 = ` 14,000
10,000 0.5x
= 6,000
0.5x
= 4,000
X
= 4,000/0.5 = ` 8,000
= ` 8,000/`1,00,000 x 100 = 8%
Thus, it is found that the Acceptable Degree of risk of non-payment is 14%, 12% and 8% if
required rate of return (after tax) is 30%, 40% and 60% respectively.
Illustration 4 : Slow Payers are regular customers of Goods Dealers Ltd., Calcutta and have
approached the sellers for extension of a credit facility for enabling them to purchase goods
from Goods Dealers Ltd. On an analysis of past performance and on the basis of information
supplied, the following pattern of payment schedule emerges in regard to Slow Payers:
Pattern of Payment Schedule
At the end of 30 days
15% of the bill
34% of the bill.
30% of the bill.
20% of the bill.
Non-recovery
1% of the bill.
Slow Payers want to enter into a firm commitment for purchase of goods of ` 15 lakhs in
2013, deliveries to be made in equal quantities on the first day of each quarter in the calendar
year. The price per unit of commodity is ` 150 on which a profit of ` 5 per unit is expected to
7.77
be made. It is anticipated by Goods Dealers Ltd., that taking up of this contract would mean
an extra recurring expenditure of ` 5,000 per annum. If the opportunity cost of funds in the
hands of Goods Dealers is 24% per annum, would you as the finance manager of the seller
recommend the grant of credit to Slow Payers? Workings should form part of your answer.
Assume year of 360 days.
Solution
Statement showing the Evaluation of Debtors Policies
Particulars
Proposed Policy `
A. Expected Profit:
(a) Credit Sales
15,00,000
(b) Total Cost

(i) Variable Costs
14,50,000
(ii) Recurring Costs
5,000
14,55,000
(c) Bad Debts
15,000
30,000
68,787
B. Opportunity Cost of Investments in Receivables
(38,787)
Recommendation: The Proposed Policy should not be adopted since the net benefits under
this policy are negative
Working Note: Calculation of Opportunity Cost of Average Investments

Particulars
A. Total Cost
B. Collection period
C. Required Rate of Return
D. Opportunity Cost
(A x B x C)
Collection period
365
Rate of Return
100
15%
34%
2,18,250 4,94,700
30/365 60/365
30%
4,36,500
90/365
24%
24%
24%
24%
4,305
19,517
25,831
19,134
20%
Total
2,91,000 14,40,450
100/365
68,787
7.78
4.6 Financing Receivables

Pledging of accounts receivables and Factoring have emerged as the important sources of
financing of accounts receivables now-a-days.
(i)
Pledging: This refers to the use of a firms receivable to secure a short term loan. A
firms receivables can be termed as its most liquid assets and this serve as prime
collateral for a secured loan. The lender scrutinizes the quality of the accounts
receivables, selects acceptable accounts, creates a lien on the collateral and fixes the
percentage of financing receivables which ranges around 50 to 90%. The major
advantage of pledging accounts receivables is the ease and flexibility it provides to the
borrower. Moreover, financing is done regularly. This, however, suffers on account of
high cost of financing.
(ii) Factoring: Factoring is a new concept in financing of accounts receivables. This refers
to out right sale of accounts receivables to a factor or a financial agency. A factor is a
firm that acquires the receivables of other firms. The factoring lays down the conditions
of the sale in a factoring agreement. The factoring agency bears the right of collection
and services the accounts for a fee.
Factor
The factor pays an agreed-upon
percentage of the accounts
receivable to the firm.
Customers send
payment to the factor
Customer
Firm
Goods
Normally, factoring is the arrangement on a non-recourse basis where in the event of default
the loss is borne by this factor. However, in a factoring arrangement with recourse, in such
situation, the accounts receivables will be turned back to the firm by the factor for resolution.
There are a number of financial distributors providing factoring services in India. Some
commercial banks and other financial agencies provide this service. The biggest advantages
of factoring are the immediate conversion of receivables into cash and predicted pattern of
7.79
cash flows. Financing receivables with the help of factoring can help a company having
liquidity without creating a net liability on its financial condition. Besides, factoring is a flexible
financial tool providing timely funds, efficient record keepings and effective management of the
collection process. This is not considered to be as a loan. There is no debt repayment, no
compromise to balance sheet, no long term agreements or delays associated with other
methods of raising capital. Factoring allows the firm to use cash for the growth needs of
business.
Illustration 5: A Factoring firm has credit sales of ` 360 lakhs and its average collection
period is 30 days. The financial controller estimates, bad debt losses are around 2% of credit
sales. The firm spends ` 1,40,000 annually on debtors administration. This cost comprises of
telephonic and fax bills along with salaries of staff members. These are the avoidable costs.
A Factoring firm has offered to buy the firms receivables. The factor will charge 1%
commission and will pay an advance against receivables on an interest @15% p.a. after
withholding 10% as reserve. What should the firm do?
Assume 360 days in a year.

Solution
Average level of receivables = ` 360 lakhs
30
= 30 lakhs
360
Factoring Commission = 1% of ` 30,00,000

Reserve = 10% of ` 30,00,000
Total (i)
Thus, the amount available for advance is
Average level of receivables
Less: Total (i) from above
(ii)
Less: Interest @ 15% p.a. for 30 days
Net Amount of Advance available.
=
=
=
` 30,000
` 3,00,000
` 3,30,000
` 30,00,000
` 3,30,000
` 26,70,000
` 33,375
` 26,36,625
Evaluation of Factoring Proposal

Cost to the Firm
360
=
30
360
=
Interest charges = ` 33,375
30
Factoring Commission = ` 30,00,000
Savings to the firm
` 3,60,000
` 4,00,500
` 7,60,500
7.80
Cost of credit administration

Cost of bad-debt losses, 0.02 360 lakhs
`
1,40,000
7,20,000
8,60,000
The Net benefit to the firm
Savings to the firm

- Cost to the firm
Net Savings
`
8,60,000
7,60,500
99,500
Conclusion: Since the savings to the firm exceeds the cost to the firm on account of
factoring, therefore, the proposal is acceptable.
4.7 Innovations in Receivable Management

During the recent years, a number of tools, techniques, practices and measures have been
invented to increase effectiveness in accounts receivable management.
Following are the major determinants for significant innovations in accounts receivable
management and process efficiency.
1.
Re-engineering Receivable Process: In some of the organizations real cost reductions

and performance improvements have been achieved by re-engineering in accounts
receivable process. Re-engineering is a fundamental re-think and re-design of business
processes by incorporating modern business approaches. The nature of accounts
receivables is such that decisions made elsewhere in the organization are likely to affect
the level of resources that are expended on the management of accounts receivables.
The following aspects provide an opportunity to improve the management of accounts

receivables:
(a) Centralisation: Centralisation of high nature transactions of accounts receivables
and payable is one of the practice for better efficiency. This focuses attention on
specialized groups for speedy recovery.
(b) Alternative Payment Strategies: Alternative payment strategies in addition to
traditional practices result into efficiencies in the management of accounts
receivables. It is observed that payment of accounts outstanding is likely to be
quicker where a number of payment alternatives are made available to customers.
Besides, this convenient payment method is a marketing tool that is of benefit in
attracting and retaining customers. The following alternative modes of payment
may also be used alongwith traditional methods like Cheque Book etc., for making
timely payment, added customer service, reducing remittance processing costs and
improved cash flows and better debtor turnover.
(i)
Direct debit: I.e., authorization for the transfer of funds from the purchasers
7.81
bank account.
(ii) Integrated Voice Response: This system uses human operators and a
computer based system to allow customers to make payment over phone,
generally by credit card. This system has proved to be beneficial in the
orgnisations processing a large number of payments regularly.
(iii) Collection by a third party: The payment can be collected by an authorized
external firm. The payments can be made by cash, cheque, credit card or
Electronic fund transfer. Banks may also be acting as collecting agents of their
customers and directly depositing the collections in customers bank accounts.
(iv) Lock Box Processing: Under this system an outsourced partner captures
cheques and invoice data and transmits the file to the client firm for processing
in that firms systems.
(v) Payments via Internet.
(c) Customer Orientation: Where individual customers or a group of customers have
some strategic importance to the firm a case study approach may be followed to
develop good customer relations. A critical study of this group may lead to
formation of a strategy for prompt settlement of debt.
2.
Evaluation of Risk: Risk evaluation is a major component in the establishment of an

effective control mechanism. Once risks have been properly assessed controls can be
introduced to either contain the risk to an acceptable level or to eliminate them entirely.
This also provides an opportunity for removing inefficient practices. This involves a rethink of processes and questioning the way that tasks are performed. This also opens
the way for efficiency and effectiveness benefits in the management of accounts
receivables.
3.
Use of Latest Technology: Technological developments now-a-days provides an

opportunity for improvement in accounts receivables process. The major innovations
available are the integration of systems used in the management of accounts
receivables, the automation and the use of e-commerce.
(a) E-commerce refers to the use of computer and electronic telecommunication
technologies, particularly on an inter-organisational level, to support trading in
goods and services. It uses technologies such as Electronic Data Inter-change
(EDI), Electronic Mail, Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) and Electronic Catalogue
Systems to allow the buyer and seller to transact business by exchange of
information between computer application systems.
(b) Automated Accounts Receivable Management Systems: Now-a-days all the big
companies develop and maintain automated receivable management systems.
Manual systems of recording the transactions and managing receivables are not
only cumbersome but ultimately costly also.
These integrated systems
automatically update all the accounting records affected by a transaction. For
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example, if a transaction of credit sale is to be recorded, the system increases the

amount the customer owes to the firm, reduces the inventory for the item
purchased, and records the sale. This system of a company allows the application
and tracking of receivables and collections, using the automated receivables system
allows the company to store important information for an unlimited number of
customers and transactions, and accommodate efficient processing of customer
payments and adjustments.
4.
Receivable Collection Practices: The aim of debtors collection should be to reduce,

monitor and control the accounts receivable at the same time maintain customer
goodwill. The fundamental rule of sound receivable management should be to reduce
the time lag between the sale and collection. Any delays that lengthen this span causes
receivables to unnecessary build up and increase the risk of bad debts. This is equally
true for the delays caused by billing and collection procedures as it is for delays caused
by the customer.
The following are major receivable collection procedures and practices:

(i)
Issue of Invoice.
(ii) Open account or open-end credit.

(iii) Credit terms or time limits.
(iv) Periodic statements.
(v) Use of payment incentives and penalties.
(vi) Record keeping and Continuous Audit.
(vii) Export Factoring: Factors provide comprehensive credit management, loss
protection collection services and provision of working capital to the firms exporting
internationally.
(viii) Business Process Outsourcing: This refers to a strategic business tool whereby an
outside agency takes over the entire responsibility for managing a business process.
5.
Use of Financial tools/techniques: The finance manager while managing accounts

receivables uses a number of financial tools and techniques. Some of them have been
described hereby as follows:
(i)
Credit analysis: While determining the credit terms, the firm has to evaluate
individual customers in respect of their credit worthiness and the possibility of bad
debts. For this purpose, the firm has to ascertain credit rating of prospective
customers.
Credit rating: An important task for the finance manager is to rate the various
debtors who seek credit facility. This involves decisions regarding individual parties
so as to ascertain how much credit can be extended and for how long. In foreign
countries specialized agencies are engaged in the task of providing rating
information regarding individual parties. Dun and Broadstreet is one such source.
Managemen
nt of Workingg Capital
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Thhe finance maanager has too look into the credit-worthhiness of a pparty and sanction
credit limit onlyy after he is convinced
c
that the party is sound. Thiss would involvve an
annalysis of thee financial staatus of the party,
p
its repuutation and pprevious record of
meeeting commitments.
Thhe credit maanager here has to employ a number of sourcess to obtain credit
c
infformation. Thhe following are
a the importtant sources:
Trrade referencces; Bank references;
r
Credit
C
bureaau reports; P
Past experieence;
Puublished finanncial statements; and Saleesmans intervview and repoorts.
Onnce the crediit-worthiness of a client iss ascertained, the next quuestion is to set
s a
lim
mit of the credit. In all suuch enquiries, the credit manager
m
musst be discreett and
shhould always have the interest of high sales
s
in view.
(ii)
Deecision tree analysis of granting

g
cred
dit: The decision whetherr to grant creddit or
noot is a decisioon involving costs and beenefits. Wheen a customeer pays, the seller
s
maakes profit buut when he faails to pay thhe amount of cost going innto the produuct is
alsso gone. If the relative chances
c
of reecovering thee dues can bbe decided itt can
form a probabbility distributtion of paym
ment or non-payment. Iff the chancees of
recovery are 9 out of 10 then probability of recovery iss 0.9 and thatt of default is 0.1.
Crredit evaluation of a custoomer shows that the probbability of reccovery is 0.9 and
that of default is
i 0.1. the reevenue from the order is ` 5 lakhs and cost is ` 4 laakhs.
Thhe decision iss whether creddit should be granted or noot.
Thhe analysis iss presented inn the followingg diagram.
Pays Proobability
(0.99)
`1,00,000
Does noot Pay

Probabiliity (0.1)
`4,00,000
Grant
Credit
Evaluation
Do not Grant
The weighted
w
net benefit
b
is ` [1,00,000 0.9 i.e. 90,0000 0.1 4,000,000 i.e. 40,,000]
= 50,0000. So crediit should be granted.
g
(iii) Controll of receivab
bles: Another aspect of managemennt of debtors is the contrrol of
receivabbles. Merely setting of staandards and framing
f
a creedit policy is nnot sufficient; it is,
equally important to control receivvables.
(iv) Collection policy: Efficient andd timely collecction of debtoors ensures tthat the bad debt
losses are
a reduced to
t the minimuum and the avverage collection period iss shorter. If a firm
spends more resourrces on colleection of debbts, it is likelyy to have sm
maller bad deebts.
Thus, a firm must work
w
out the optimum am
mount that it should
s
spendd on collectioon of
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debtors. This involves a trade off between the level of expenditure on the one hand and
decrease in bad debt losses and investment in debtors on the other.
The collection cell of a firm has to work in a manner that it does not create too much
resentment amongst the customers. On the other hand, it has to keep the amount of the
outstanding in check. Hence, it has to work in a very smoothen manner and diplomatically.
It is important that clear-cut procedures regarding credit collection are set up. Such
procedures must answer questions like the following:
(a) How long should a debtor balance be allowed to exist before collection process is
started?
(b) What should be the procedure of follow up with defaulting customer? How
reminders are to be sent and how should each successive reminder be drafted?
(c) Should there be collection machinery whereby personal calls by companys
representatives are made?
(d) What should be the procedure for dealing with doubtful accounts? Is legal action to
be instituted? How should account be handled?
4.8 Monitoring of Receivables

Computation of average age of receivables: It involves computation of average
collection period.
(ii) Ageing Schedule: When receivables are analysed according to their age, the process is
known as preparing the ageing schedules of receivables. The computation of average
age of receivables is a quick and effective method of comparing the liquidity of
receivables with the liquidity of receivables in the past and also comparing liquidity of one
firm with the liquidity of the other competitive firm. It also helps the firm to predict
collection pattern of receivables in future. This comparison can be made periodically.
The purpose of classifying receivables by age groups is to have a closer control over the
quality of individual accounts. It requires going back to the receivables ledger where the
dates of each customers purchases and payments are available. The ageing schedule,
by indicating a tendency for old accounts to accumulate, provides a useful supplement to
average collection period of receivables/sales analysis. Because an analysis of receivables
in terms of associated dates of sales enables the firm to recognise the recent increases, and
slumps in sales. To ascertain the condition of receivables for control purposes, it may be
considered desirable to compare the current ageing schedule with an earlier ageing schedule
in the same firm and also to compare this information with the experience of other firms. The
following is an illustration of the ageing schedule of receivables:(i)
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Ageing Schedule
Age
Classes
(Days)
As on 30th June, 2014
As on 30th September, 2014
Month Balance of Percentage Month of Balance of Percentage

of
Receivables
to total Sale
Receivables
to total
Sale
(` )
(` )
1-30
June
41,500
11.9 September
1,00,000
22.7
31-60
May
74,200
21.4 August
2,50,000
56.8
61-90
April
1,85,600
53.4 July
48,000
10.9
91-120
March
35,300
10.2 June
40,000
9.1
121 and more Earlier
10,800
3.1 Earlier
2,000
0.5
3,47,400
100
4,40,000
100
The above ageing schedule shows a substantial improvement in the liquidity of

receivables for the quarter ending September, 2014 as compared with the liquidity of
receivables for the quarter ending June, 2014. It could be possible due to greater
collection efforts of the firm.
(iii) Collection Programme:
(a) Monitoring the state of receivables.

(b) Intimation to customers when due date approaches.
(c) Telegraphic and telephonic advice to customers on the due date.
(d) Threat of legal action on overdue A/cs.
(e) Legal action on overdue A/cs.
The following diagram shows the relationship between collection expenses and bad debt
losses which have to be established as initial increase in collection expenses may have
only a small impact on bad debt losses.
7.86
Illustration 6 : Mosaic Limited has current sales of ` 15 lakhs per year. Cost of sales is 75
per cent of sales and bad debts are one per cent of sales. Cost of sales comprises 80 per
cent variable costs and 20 per cent fixed costs, while the companys required rate of return is
12 per cent. Mosaic Limited currently allows customers 30 days credit, but is considering
increasing this to 60 days credit in order to increase sales.
It has been estimated that this change in policy will increase sales by 15 per cent, while bad
debts will increase from one per cent to four per cent. It is not expected that the policy change
will result in an increase in fixed costs and creditors and stock will be unchanged.
Should Mosaic Limited introduce the proposed policy?
Solution
New level of sales will be 15,00,0001.15 = ` 17,25,000

Variable costs are 80% 75% = 60% of sales
Contribution from sales is therefore 40% of sales
`
Proposed investment in debtors = 17,25,00060/365 =
`
2,83,562
Current investment in debtors = 15,00,00030/365
1,23,288
Increase in investment in debtors
1,60,274
90,000
Increase in contribution = 15% 15,00,00040% =

New level of bad debts = 17,25,0004% =
69,000
Current level of bad debts
15,000
Increase in bad debts
(54,000)
Additional financing costs = 1,60,27412% =
(19,233)
Savings by introducing change in policy
16,767
Advise: The financing policy is financially acceptable, although the savings are not great.
Illustration 7: Misha Limited presently gives terms of net 30 days. It has ` 6 crores in sales,
and its average collection period is 45 days. To stimulate demand, the company may give
terms of net 60 days. If it does instigate these terms, sales are expected to increase by 15
per cent. After the change, the average collection period is expected to be 75 days, with no
difference in payment habits between old and new customers. Variable costs are ` 0.80 for
every ` 1.00 of sales, and the companys required rate of return on investment in receivables
is 20 per cent. Should the company extend its credit period? (Assume a 360 days year).
Solution
Receivable turnover =
360
= 4.8
75
7.87
Profitability of additional sales = ` 90,00,000 0.2 = ` 18,00,000.

Additional receivables associated with the new sales =
` 90,00,000
= ` 18,75,000
4.8
Additional investment in receivables associated with the new sales

= ` 18,75,000 0.8 = ` 15,00,000
New level of receivables associated with the original sales
=
` 6,00,00,000
= ` 1,25,00,000
4.8
Old level of receivables associated with the original sales

=
` 6,00,00,000
= ` 75,00,000
8
Incremental receivable investment, original sales = ` 50,00,000.

Total increase in receivable investment = ` 15,00,000 + ` 50,00,000= ` 65,00,000.
Carrying cost of additional investment = .20 ` 65,00,000 = ` 13,00,000.
Advise : As the incremental carrying cost is less than the incremental profitability, the
company should lengthen its credit period from 30 to 60 days.
Illustration 8: The Megatherm Corporation has just acquired a large account. As a result, it
needs an additional ` 75,000 in working capital immediately. It has been determined that
there are three feasible sources of funds:
(a) Trade credit: The company buys about ` 50,000 of materials per month on terms of 3/30,
net 90. Discounts are taken.
(b) Bank loan: The firms bank will lend ` 1,00,000 at 13 per cent. A 10 per cent compensating
balance will be required, which otherwise would not be maintained by the company.
(c)
A factor will buy the companys receivables (` 1,00,000 per month), which have a collection
period of 60 days. The factor will advance up to 75 per cent of the face value of the
receivables at 12 per cent on an annual basis. The factor will also charge a 2 per cent fee on
all receivables purchased. It has been estimated that the factors services will save the
company a credit department expense and bad-debt expenses of ` 1,500 per month.
On the basis of annual percentage cost, which alternative should the company select?
Solution
(a) Cost of trade credit: If discounts are not taken, upto ` 97,000 can be raised after the
second month. The real cost of not taking advantage of the discount would be
7.88
3 365
= 18.81%
97 60
(b) Cost of bank loan: Assuming the compensating balance would not otherwise be
maintained, the real cost of not taking advantage of the discount would be
13
= 14.44%
90
(c) Cost of factoring: The factor fee for the year would be
2% ` 12,00,000 = ` 24,000
The savings effected, however, would be ` 18,000, giving a net factoring cost of ` 6,000.
Borrowing ` 75,000 on the receivables would thus cost
(12% ) ( ` 75,000 )
+ ` 6,000
` 75,000
` 9,000 + ` 6,000
= 20.00%
` 75,000
Advise: Bank borrowing would be the cheapest source of funds.

Illustration 9: The Dolce Company purchases raw materials on terms of 2/10, net 30. A
review of the companys records by the owner, Mr. Gupta, revealed that payments are usually
made 15 days after purchases are received. When asked why the firm did not take advantage
of its discounts, the accountant, Mr. Ram, replied that it cost only 2 per cent for these funds,
whereas a bank loan would cost the company 12 per cent.
(a) What mistake is Ram making?

(b) What is the real cost of not taking advantage of the discount?
(c) If the firm could not borrow from the bank and was forced to resort to the use of trade
credit funds, what suggestion might be made to Ram that would reduce the annual
interest cost?
Solution
(a) Ram is confusing the percentage cost of using funds for 5 days with the cost of using
funds for a year. These costs are clearly not comparable. One must be converted to the
time scale of the other.
(b)
2 365
= 149.0%
98 5
(c) Assuming that the firm has made the decision not to take the cash discount, it makes no
sense to pay before the due date. In this case, payment 30 days after purchases are
received rather than 15 would reduce the annual interest cost to 37.2 per cent.
7.89
UNIT V : MANAGEMENT OF PAYABLES (CREDITORS)
5.1 Introduction
There is an old age saying in business that if you can buy well then you can sell well. Management
of your creditors and suppliers is just as important as the management of your debtors.
Trade creditor is a spontaneous source of finance in the sense that it arises from ordinary
business transaction. But it is also important to look after your creditors - slow payment by you
may create ill-feeling and your supplies could be disrupted and also create a bad image for
your company.
Creditors are a vital part of effective cash management and should be managed carefully to
enhance the cash position.
5.2 Cost and Benefits of Trade Credit

(a) Cost of Availing Trade Credit
Normally it is considered that the trade credit does not carry any cost. However, it carries
the following costs:
(i)
Price: There is often a discount on the price that the firm undergoes when it uses
trade credit, since it can take advantage of the discount only if it pays immediately.
This discount can translate into a high implicit cost.
(ii)
Loss of goodwill: If the credit is overstepped, suppliers may discriminate against

delinquent customers if supplies become short. As with the effect of any loss of
goodwill, it depends very much on the relative market strengths of the parties
involved.
(iii) Cost of managing: Management of creditors involves administrative and

accounting costs that would otherwise be incurred.
(iv) Conditions: Sometimes most of the suppliers insist that for availing the credit
facility the order should be of some minimum size or even on regular basis.
(b) Cost of Not Taking Trade Credit
On the other hand the costs of not availing credit facilities are as under:
(i)
Impact of Inflation: If inflation persists then the borrowers are favoured over the
lenders with the levels of interest rates not seeming totally to redress the balance.
(ii) Interest: Trade credit is a type of interest free loan, therefore failure to avail this
facility has an interest cost. This cost is further increased if interest rates are higher.
(iii) Inconvenience: Sometimes it may also cause inconvenience to the supplier if the
supplier is geared to the deferred payment.
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5.3 Computation of Cost of Payables

By using the trade credit judiciously, a firm can reduce the effect of growth or burden on
investments in Working Capital.
Now question arises how to calculate the cost of not taking the discount.
The following equation can be used to calculate nominal cost, on an annual basis of not taking
the discount:
365 days
d
100 d
t
However the above formula does not take into account the compounding effect and therefore,
the cost of credit shall be even higher. The cost of lost cash discount can be estimated by the
formula:
100
100 d
365
t
Where,
d=
Size of discount i.e. for 6% discount, d=6
t =
The reduction in the payment period in days, necessary to obtain the early
discount or Days Credit Outstanding Discount Period.
Illustration: Suppose ABC Ltd. has been offered credit terms from its major supplier of 2/10,
net 45. Hence the company has the choice of paying ` 10 per ` 100 or to invest ` 98 for an
additional 35 days and eventually pay the supplier ` 100 per ` 100. The decision as to
whether the discount should be accepted depends on the opportunity cost of investing ` 98
for 35 days. What should the company do?
Solution
If the company does not avail the cash discount and pays the amount after 45 days, the
implied cost of interest per annum would be approximately:
365
100 35
1 = 23.5%
100 2
Now let us assume that ABC Ltd. can invest the additional cash and can obtain an annual
return of 25% and if the amount of invoice is ` 10,000. The alternatives are as follows:
Payment to supplier
7.91
Refuse
discount
Accept
discount
10,000
9,800
Return from investing ` 9,800 between day 10 and day 45:

35
` 9,800 25%
365
(235)
Net Cost
9,765
9,800
Advise : Thus it is better for the company to refuse the discount, as return on cash retained is
more than the saving on account of discount.
7.92
UNIT VI: FINANCING OF WORKING CAPITAL
6.1 Introduction
After determining the amount of working capital required, the next step to be taken by the
finance manager is to arrange the funds.
As discussed earlier, it is advisable that the finance manager bifurcates the working capital
requirements between the permanent working capital and temporary working capital.
The permanent working capital is always needed irrespective of sales fluctuations, hence
should be financed by the long-term sources such as debt and equity. On the contrary the
temporary working capital may be financed by the short-term sources of finance.
Broadly speaking, the working capital finance may be classified between the two categories:
(i)
(ii)
Spontaneous sources; and

Negotiable sources.
Spontaneous Sources: Spontaneous sources of finance are those which naturally arise in
the course of business operations. Trade credit, credit from employees, credit from suppliers
of services, etc. are some of the examples which may be quoted in this respect.
Negotiated Sources: On the other hand the negotiated sources, as the name implies, are
those which have to be specifically negotiated with lenders say, commercial banks, financial
institutions, general public etc.
The finance manager has to be very careful while selecting a particular source, or a
combination thereof for financing of working capital. Generally, the following parameters will
guide his decisions in this respect:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Cost factor
Impact on credit rating
Feasibility
Reliability
Restrictions
Hedging approach or matching approach i.e., Financing of assets with the same maturity
as of assets.
6.2 Sources of Finance

6.2.1 Spontaneous Sources of Finance
(a) Trade Credit: As outlined above trade credit is a spontaneous source of finance which is
normally extended to the purchaser organization by the sellers or services providers. This source
of financing working capital is more important since it contributes to about one-third of the total
7.93
short-term requirements. The dependence on this source is higher due to lesser cost of finance as
compared with other sources. Trade credit is guaranteed when a company acquires supplies,
merchandise or materials and does not pay immediately. If a buyer is able to get the credit without
completing much formality, it is termed as open account trade credit.
(b) Bills Payable: On the other hand in the case of Bills Payable the purchaser will have to
give a written promise to pay the amount of the bill/invoice either on demand or at a fixed
future date to the seller or the bearer of the note.
Due to its simplicity, easy availability and lesser explicit cost, the dependence on this source is
much more in all small or big organizations. Especially, for small enterprises this form of
credit is more helpful to small and medium enterprises. The amount of such financing
depends on the volume of purchases and the payment timing.
(c) Accrued Expenses: Another spontaneous source of short-term financing is the accrued
expenses or the outstanding expenses liabilities. The accrued expenses refer to the services
availed by the firm, but the payment for which has yet to be made. It is a built in and an
automatic source of finance as most of the services like wages, salaries, taxes, duties etc., are
paid at the end of the period. The accrued expenses represent an interest free source of
finance. There is no explicit or implicit cost associated with the accrued expenses and the firm
can ensure liquidity by accruing these expenses.
6.2.2 Inter-corporate Loans and Deposits: Sometimes, organizations having surplus

funds invest for shot-term period with other organizations. The rate of interest will be higher
than the bank rate of interest and depends on the financial soundness of the borrower
company. This source of finance reduces dependence on bank financing.
6.2.3 Commercial Papers: Commercial Paper (CP) is an unsecured promissory note
issued by a firm to raise funds for a short period. This is an instrument that enables highly
rated corporate borrowers for short-term borrowings and provides an additional financial
instrument to investors with a freely negotiable interest rate. The maturity period ranges from
minimum 7 days to less than 1 year from the date of issue. CP can be issued in denomination
of ` 5 lakhs or multiples thereof.
Advantages of CP: From the point of the issuing company, CP provides the following benefits:
(a) CP is sold on an unsecured basis and does not contain any restrictive conditions.
(b) Maturing CP can be repaid by selling new CP and thus can provide a continuous source
of funds.
(c) Maturity of CP can be tailored to suit the requirement of the issuing firm.
(d) CP can be issued as a source of fund even when money market is tight.
(e) Generally, the cost of CP to the issuing firm is lower than the cost of commercial bank loans.
7.94
However, CP as a source of financing has its own limitations:

(i)
Only highly credit rating firms can use it. New and moderately rated firm generally are
not in a position to issue CP.
(ii) CP can neither be redeemed before maturity nor can be extended beyond maturity.
6.2.4 Funds Generated from Operations: Funds generated from operations, during an
accounting period, increase working capital by an equivalent amount. The two main
components of funds generated from operations are profit and depreciation. Working capital
will increase by the extent of funds generated from operations. Students may refer to funds
flow statement given earlier in this chapter.
6.2.5 Public Deposits: Deposits from the public are one of the important sources of
finance particularly for well established big companies with huge capital base for short and
medium-term.
6.2.6 Bills Discounting: Bill discounting is recognized as an important short term Financial
Instrument and it is widely used method of short term financing. In a process of bill
discounting, the supplier of goods draws a bill of exchange with direction to the buyer to pay a
certain amount of money after a certain period, and gets its acceptance from the buyer or
drawee of the bill.
6.2.7 Bill Rediscounting Scheme: The Bill rediscounting Scheme was introduced by
Reserve Bank of India with effect from 1st November, 1970 in order to extend the use of the
bill of exchange as an instrument for providing credit and the creation of a bill market in India
with a facility for the rediscounting of eligible bills by banks. Under the bills rediscounting
scheme, all licensed scheduled banks are eligible to offer bills of exchange to the Reserve
Bank for rediscount.
6.2.8 Factoring: Students may refer to the unit on Receivable Management wherein the
concept of factoring has been discussed. Factoring is a method of financing whereby a firm
sells its trade debts at a discount to a financial institution. In other words, factoring is a
continuous arrangement between a financial institution, (namely the factor) and a firm (namely
the client) which sells goods and services to trade customers on credit. As per this
arrangement, the factor purchases the clients trade debts including accounts receivables
either with or without recourse to the client, and thus, exercises control over the credit
extended to the customers and administers the sales ledger of his client. To put it in a
laymans language, a factor is an agent who collects the dues of his client for a certain fee.
The differences between Factoring and Bills discounting are as follows:
(i)
Factoring is called as Invoice factoring whereas bills discounting is known as Invoice

discounting.
(ii) In factoring the parties are known as client, factor and debtor whereas in bills discounting
they are known as Drawer, Drawee and Payee.
7.95
(iii) Factoring is a sort of management of book debts whereas bills discounting is a sort of
borrowing from commercial banks.
(iv) For factoring there is no specific Act; whereas in the case of bills discounting, the
Negotiable Instrument Act is applicable.
6.3 Working Capital Finance from Banks

Banks in India today constitute the major suppliers of working capital credit to any business
activity. Recently, some term lending financial institutions have also announced schemes for
working capital financing. The two committees viz., Tandon Committee and Chore Committee
have evolved definite guidelines and parameters in working capital financing, which have laid
the foundations for development and innovation in the area.
6.3.1 Instructions on Working Capital Finance by Banks

Assessment of Working Capital
Reserve Bank of India has withdrawn the prescription, in regard to assessment of

working capital needs, based on the concept of Maximum Permissible Bank Finance, in
April 1997. Banks are now free to evolve, with the approval of their Boards, methods for
assessing the working capital requirements of borrowers, within the prudential guidelines
and exposure norms prescribed. Banks, however, have to take into account Reserve
Banks instructions relating to directed credit (such as priority sector, export, etc.), and
prohibition of credit (such as bridge finance, rediscounting of bills earlier discounted by
NBFCs) while formulating their lending policies.
With the above liberalizations, all the instructions relating to MPBF issued by RBI from
time to time stand withdrawn. Further, various instructions/guidelines issued to banks
with objective of ensuring lending discipline in appraisal, sanction, monitoring and
utilization of bank finance cease to be mandatory. However, banks have the option of
incorporating such of the instructions/guidelines as are considered necessary in their
lending policies/procedures.
6.4 Forms of Bank Credit

The bank credit will generally be in the following forms:
Cash Credit: This facility will be given by the banker to the customers by giving certain
amount of credit facility on continuous basis. The borrower will not be allowed to exceed
the limits sanctioned by the bank.
Bank Overdraft: It is a short-term borrowing facility made available to the companies in

case of urgent need of funds. The banks will impose limits on the amount they can lend.
When the borrowed funds are no longer required they can quickly and easily be repaid.
The banks issue overdrafts with a right to call them in at short notice.
7.96
Bills Discounting: The Company which sells goods on credit will normally draw a bill on
the buyer who will accept it and sends it to the seller of goods. The seller, in turn
discounts the bill with his banker. The banker will generally earmark the discounting bill
limit.
Bills Acceptance: To obtain finance under this type of arrangement a company draws a
bill of exchange on bank. The bank accepts the bill thereby promising to pay out the
amount of the bill at some specified future date.
Line of Credit: Line of Credit is a commitment by a bank to lend a certain amount of

funds on demand specifying the maximum amount.
Letter of Credit: It is an arrangement by which the issuing bank on the instructions of a

customer or on its own behalf undertakes to pay or accept or negotiate or authorizes
another bank to do so against stipulated documents subject to compliance with specified
terms and conditions.
Bank Guarantees: Bank guarantee is one of the facilities that the commercial banks
extend on behalf of their clients in favour of third parties who will be the beneficiaries of
the guarantees.
SUMMARY
Working Capital Management involves managing the balance between firms short-term
assets and its short-term liabilities.
From the value point of view, Working Capital can be defined as Gross Working Capital
or Net Working Capital.
From the point of view of time, the term working capital can be divided into two
categories viz., Permanent and temporary.
A large amount of working capital would mean that the company has idle funds. Since
funds have a cost, the company has to pay huge amount as interest on such funds. If
the firm has inadequate working capital, such firm runs the risk of insolvency.
Some of the items/factors which need to be considered while planning for working capital
requirement are nature of business, market and demand conditions, operating efficiency,
credit policy etc.
Finance manager has to pay particular attention to the levels of current assets and their
financing. To decide the levels and financing of current assets, the risk return trade off
must be taken into account.
In determining the optimum level of current assets, the firm should balance the
profitability Solvency tangle by minimizing total costs.
Working Capital cycle indicates the length of time between a companys paying for
materials, entering into stock and receiving the cash from sales of finished goods. It can
be determined by adding the number of days required for each stage in the cycle.
7.97
Treasury management is defined as the corporate handling of all financial matters, the
generation of external and internal funds for business, the management of currencies and
cash flows and the complex, strategies, policies and procedures of corporate finance
The main objectives of cash management for a business are:-
i.
Provide adequate cash to each of its units;
ii.
No funds are blocked in idle cash; and
iii.
The surplus cash (if any) should be invested in order to maximize returns for the
business.
Cash Budget is the most significant device to plan for and control cash receipts and
payments.
This represents cash requirements of business during the budget period. The various
purposes of cash budgets are:i.
Coordinate the timings of cash needs. It identifies the period(s) when there might
either be shortage of cash or an abnormally large cash requirement;
ii.
It also helps to pinpoint period(s) when there is likely to be excess cash;
iii.
It enables firm which has sufficient cash to take advantage like cash discounts on its
accounts payable;
iv.
Lastly it helps to plan/arrange adequately needed funds (avoiding excess/ shortage of

cash) on favorable terms.
Large amounts are tied up in sundry debtors, there are chances of bad debts and there will
be cost of collection of debts. On the contrary, if the investment in sundry debtors is low, the
sales may be restricted, since the competitors may offer more liberal terms. Therefore,
management of sundry debtors is an important issue and requires proper policies and their
implementation.
There are basically three aspects of management of sundry debtors: Credit policy, Credit
Analysis and Control of receivable
Trade creditor is a spontaneous source of finance in the sense that it arises from ordinary
business transaction. But it is also important to look after your creditors - slow payment by
you may create ill-feeling and your supplies could be disrupted and also create a bad image
for your company.
Creditors are a vital part of effective cash management and should be managed carefully to
enhance the cash position.
As discussed earlier, it is advisable that the finance manager bifurcates the working capital
requirements between the permanent working capital and temporary working capital.
The permanent working capital is always needed irrespective of sales fluctuations, hence
should be financed by the long-term sources such as debt and equity. On the contrary
the temporary working capital may be financed by the short-term sources of finance.

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7

Management of Working Capital

Understand the need for a business to invest in current assets.

Discuss the financing of working capital.

The optimal level of investment in current assets, and

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

1.2 Meaning and Concept of Working Capital

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Management of Working Capital

1.2.1 Importance of Adequate Working Capital: Management of working capital is an

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Management of Working Capital

1.3 Determinants of Working Capital

Short-term Financing Options Inventory is ideally financed by credit granted by the

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Operating Efficiency A company can reduce the working capital requirement by

1.4 Issues in the Working Capital Management

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Management of Working Capital

The following diagram shows alternative current assets policies:

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Effect of Alternative Working Capital Policies

Earnings before Interest and Taxes

Return on Total Assets (EBIT/Total

Current Assets/Fixed Assets

1.5 Estimating Working Capital Needs

To estimate Working Capital requirements as a

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Management of Working Capital

1.6 Operating or Working Capital Cycle

Operating/Working Capital Cycle Definition

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Collect receivables (debtors) faster

You release cash from the cycle

Collect receivables (debtors) slower

Your receivables soak up cash.

Get better credit (in terms of duration or

You increase your cash resources.

Shift inventory (stocks) faster

You free up cash.

Move inventory (stocks) slower.

You consume more cash.

Raw material storage period

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Management of Working Capital

The various components of operating cycle may be calculated as shown below:

Average stock of raw material

Raw material storage period =

Work - in - progress holding period =

Finished goods storage period =

Debtors collection period =

Credit period availed =

Average work - in - progress inventory

Average stock of finished goods

Average book debts

Average trade creditors

Raw material inventory consumed during the year

Average stock of raw material