Compressor Tech 01 2015

MAINTAINING BOIL-OFF
GAS COMPRESSORS
january-february 2015
EVOLUTION OF
LNG PLANTS
EPA TOUGHENS
METHANE LEAK REPORTING
Customer:
Challenge:
Result:
LNG producers throughout the world.
Select a compression partner to ensure years

of efficient, reliable production.
Elliott refrigeration compressors and unmatched experience

have been central to successful LNG projects for decades.
They turned to Elliott

for leadership in LNG compression.
From the first commercial LNG baseload plants to todays mega-plants in Russia, the
Middle East and Asia, LNG producers have chosen Elliott for efficient, reliable compressors
and matchless expertise. Elliotts proven experience with different processes and drivers is
supported by manufacturing centers in the US and Japan, and a global network of service
centers. Who will you turn to?
C O M P R E S S O R S
T U R B I N E S
G L O B A L
S E R V I C E
The world turns to Elliott.

www.elliott-turbo.com
They say American-Made

used to mean something.
We say it still does.
Having shipped over 50,000 units, Ariel is the worlds largest manufacturer
of reciprocating gas compressors. Every Ariel compressor represents
the pinnacle of what an American-Made product should be: engineered,
machined, and built to be the best. Ariel Equals Compression.
For more information about Ariel Compressors visit www.arielcorp.com
Page
CT2 Founder ........................... Joseph M. Kane
COMPRESSOR
A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group
PUBLICATION STAFF
Publisher ..................................... Brent Haight

Associate Publisher ...............Roberto Chellini
Managing Editor ........................ Angela Jarrell
Executive Editor ............................... DJ Slater
Deputy Editor .............................. Mark Thayer
Senior Editor .................. Michael J. Brezonick
Associate Editor ................................ Jack Burke
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Prepare For The New Norm
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Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications

President & CEO ..................... Michael J. Osenga
Executive Vice President .... Michael J. Brezonick
il prices continue to drop.

The degree of panic setting
in depends largely on where
you live and how much of your income is derived from the oil and gas
industry. In Houston, using a SaffirSimpson-inspired scale, folks are
reaching category-three panic.
Fueling the panic are preemptive
measures by industry-leading companies looking to protect their profit
margins.
Schlumberger, the worlds largest oil-services company by market
cap, announced in mid-January that
it would cut 9000 jobs, citing lower
commodity pricing and anticipated
lower exploration and production
spending in 2015.
Shortly thereafter, Baker Hughes
announced plans to cut 7000 jobs in
the first quarter of 2015 amid a crude
oil price slump and drilling slowdown
it expects to deepen.
Not to be left out, Halliburton has
anted up 1000 layoffs in the Eastern
Hemisphere.
More layoffs will follow, as low oil
prices are here for the foreseeable
future thanks to a standoff between
OPEC and non-OPEC nations over
who will curb production first.
A leading contributor to falling oil
prices has been increased production
in non-OPEC countries such as the
United States and Canada. New technologies have allowed these countries
to access previously untapped shale
oil and gas that has led to a steady rise
in production. In the U.S., for example,
crude oil production surpassed 8.5
MMbbl/d in 2014, up from 7.46 million
last year, according to Energy Information Administration reports. Output is
projected to climb to 9.42 MMbbl/d in

2015, the most since 1972.
As a result, OPECs share of the
global oil market has fallen, negatively
impacting nations such as Saudi Arabia. Production cuts by Saudi Arabia
to shore up prices would only result in
losing more market share. Supported
by OPEC, thats not going to happen.
The laws of supply and demand
have done the rest, bringing oil prices
to historic lows.
So whats next?
Saudi Arabia is giving up billions of
dollars of revenues in the short term in
an effort to retain market share in the
long term. It is betting that a period of
low prices will break some high-cost
producers and is willing to run up a
US$39 billion budget deficit in 2015.
The low price of oil will definitely
impact high-cost producers, which will
ultimately affect the entire oil and gas
industry. Some big firms are already
cutting capital budgets, in addition to
jobs, in response to lower oil prices.
In Canada, analysts report that
spending on conventional oil and gas
will fall nearly 25% in 2015 and expenditure on oil-sands projects will
decline by 40%. The total number of
wells drilled in Western Canada is
projected to drop 30% to 7350.
Ours is a boom and bust industry.
The market will stabilize eventually, but
prepare for a new norm. The days of
US$100 bbl oil may be long gone. CT2
Brent Haight, publisher

bhaight@dieselpub.com
January-February 2015
Featured Articles
16 Two-Shaft Microturbine Introduced
20 Evolution Of Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) Plants
24 Hicor Technologies New Compressor Ready For Field Trials
28 Upscale For Shale
30 Challenges With Surge Control Studies
38 The Impact Of Natural Gas Engine Oil
Cover Designed By
Amanda Ryan
42 Lubrication Rate Reduction In Engines And Compressors
Compressortech2 (ISSN 1085-2468)

Volume 20, No. 1 Published 10 issues/year
(January-February, March, April, May, June,
July, August-September, October, November,
December) by Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications,
20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, WI 531861873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per
year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals postage paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 and at additional mailing offices. Copyright 2015 Diesel &
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48 Monitoring System Keeps Small Fault From Becoming Catastrophic

60 Avoiding Liquid Carryover Problems In Recip Compressors
66 Maintaining Boil-Off Gas Compressors
TECHCorner
54 A Wear Map For Reciprocating Compressors
Departments

4 Page 4 Prepare For The New Norm
8 Global Perspective Middle East Bucks Supply And Demand
10 Meetings & Events

12 About The Business Compression Market Slowing Just As
Feds Plan More Regulations
14 Monitoring Government EPA Toughens Methane Leak Reporting
Follow Us @Compressortech
46 Prime Movers
64 Featured Products
68 Scheduled Downtime
MEMBER OF
69 Marketplace
70 Advertisers Index
72 Cornerstones Of Compression Cooper-Bessemer
GMX Integral Gas Engine Compressor
80
celebrating
years
MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDE

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C A N A D A
E U R O P E
Global Perspective
By Roberto Chellini
Associate Publisher
Middle East Bucks Supply

gas production increasing
And Demand > Oil,
despite low prices
to free up more oil for export. However, progress with gas

projects has been slow and lower oil prices could see even
less incentive to invest in gas.
Much of the gas in the Middle East is associated with oil,
and few countries have developed sufficient infrastructure
to collect and transport this resource to demand centers.
Flaring continues to be used heavily to deal with associated gas and is particularly abundant in Iran, Iraq and Saudi
Arabia. Many countries in the Middle East do not have separate regulations governing associated gas production, a
major constraint on gas production growth, because of the
lack of a clear reward for monetizing gas.
Non-associated gas will be the largest contributor to new
gas output, particularly in Iran, and to a lesser extent Israel and Iraq. Despite the hindrance of sanctions on Irans
oil and gas sector, Phase 12 development of the South
Pars field was successfully brought online in 2014. Phases
15 and 16 are expected in 2015/2016 with further stages
planned over the next six years, adding as much as 3.5 x
1010 cu.ft. (1 x 1011 m3) of new output by 2023.
Israel is close to beginning development on its vast Leviathan field, which could produce in excess of 5.6 x 108 cu.ft.
(1.6 x 1010 m3) per year by 2020. The Kurdistan region of Iraq
is progressing with a number of gas projects, which could
see exports to Turkey by 2017. BMI forecasts natural gas
production in the Middle East to increase 36% from 2014 to
2023, rising from 2.1 x 1010 cu.ft. (58.6 x 1011 m3) to 2.8 x
1010 cu.ft. (79.8 x 1011 m3).
While a strong growth in gas production is expected, BMI
forecasts gas consumption to increase at an even stronger rate. Driving consumption growth will be the regions
burgeoning downstream sector and reorientation of the
Middle East power sector toward gas-fired generation. Oil
continues to be used in some dual-fuel power plants due to
insufficient gas production, while some gas power facilities
are idle or working at low capacity due to undersupply. Gas
reinjection is also increasing to boost production from declining oil fields. BMI forecasts gas consumption to increase
from an estimated 1.9 x 1010 cu.ft. (5.26 x 108 m3) in 2014 to
around 2.6 x 1010 cu.ft. (7.5 x 1011 m3) by 2023, to support
these developments. CT2
ccording to Business Monitor International (BMI),

oil and gas production is forecasted to grow in the
Middle East region, with oil output increasing from
an estimated 26.9 x 106 bbl/d in 2014 to 29.9 x 106 bbl/d by
2023. The 13% increase comes despite the precipitous
fall in oil prices over the second half of 2014 and the
expected new era of lower oil prices. In fact, many of the
producers able to increase output, such as Saudi Arabia
and Iraq, are doing so in the short term to support falling
revenues from oil.
Over the longer term many of the big producers in the
Middle East are sticking to their production development
plans. Kuwait has reaffirmed its US$40 billion investment in
the oil sector and is committed to increasing its production
capacity to 4 million bbl/d by 2020. The UAE has not held
back its efforts to reach its 3.5 x 107 bbl/d target by 2019,
while Saudi Arabia continues to pump at near-record levels.
BMI has downgraded Iraqs long-term oil output based
on curbed enthusiasm about the operating environment
and profitability of the developments in Southern Iraq.
Expansion phases on major oil fields are expected to be
delayed at least until the security situation and price environment improve. However, Iraq has restarted exports
through Turkey via a pipeline link through the region of
Kurdistan. This could add as much as 500,000 bbl/d in
new exports from 2015 and opens up the potential to
export even more.
Iran remains a wildcard, with increased gas output boosting its condensate production, raising liquids exports. Lower oil prices could also put added pressure on Iran to broker
a deal regarding its alleged nuclear program. A lifting of
sanctions on oil exports after the next meeting in mid-2015
could quickly add around 300,000 to 500,000 bbl/d of oil to
international markets, with an increase of as much as 1 million bbl/d over the next four to five years.
However, it should also be noted that some of these
growth targets might be delayed or curtailed if OPEC decides to cut its production quotas over the coming years.
On the natural gas side, the Middle East gas production
is set for growth, as the region looks to substitute the more
costly and less efficient use of oil with gas. This is intended
JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2015
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BLUESTROKE
COMPRESSOR
SYSTEMS
E
im
www.hoerbiger.com
Meetings & Events
Hoerbiger.indd 1
1/20/15 10:24 AM
*Indicates shows and c

onferences in which Compressortech2 is participating
FEBRUARY
Feb. 15-18
*Middle East Turbomachinery
Symposium
Doha, Qatar
+1 (979) 845-7417
http://middleeastturbo.tamu.edu
Feb. 18-19
*Gas/Electric Partnership
Conference
Cypress, Texas
+1 (713) 529-3216
www.gaselectricpartnership.com
Feb. 22-25
Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference
Norman, Oklahoma
+1 (405) 325-3891
www.ou.edu/outreach/engr/lrgcc_
home.html
Feb. 23-24
Kazakhstan Oil & Gas Summit
Almaty, Kazakhstan
+44 207 127 4501
www.kazakhstanogs.com
MARCH
March 11-13
Australasian Oil & Gas Conference
January-february 2015
Perth, Western Australia

+61 3 9261 4500
www.aogexpo.com.au
March 16-19
Nigeria Oil & Gas Conference
Abuja, Nigeria
+234 706 911 7347
www.cwcnog.com
March 18-19
Turkish International
Oil and Gas Conference
Ankara, Turkey
44 020 7596 5000
www.turoge.com
March 22-26
*Sour Oil & Gas
Advanced Technology
Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
Tel: +971 2 674 4040
Web: www.sogat.org
March 23-24
*European Gas Transport &
Storage Summit
Munich
+44 20 7202 7690
www.gtsevent.com
10
March 25-27
*Offshore Mediterranean
Conference
Ravenna, Italy
+39 0544 219418
www.omc.it
March 25-26
Georgian International Oil, Gas,
Infrastructure & Energy Conference
Tbilisi, Georgia
+ 44 207 596 5000
www.giogie.com
March 26-28
*China International Offshore
Oil & Gas Exhibition
Beijing
+86 10 5823 6555
www.ciooe.com.cn/2014/en/
March 31-April 2
Offshore Asia Conference & Exhibition
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
+44 (0) 1992 656 651
http://10times.com/offshore-asia
APRIL
April 12-15
*Gas Processors Association
Annual Convention
Compressortech2
mission
possible.
XperSEAL - the unique pressure packing
for reciprocating compressors offers you:
Compliance with environmental legislation
Increased reliability
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Hoerbiger.indd 2
1/20/15 10:24 AM
For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com/events/
San Antonio
+1 (918) 493-3872
www.gpaglobal.org
April 20-22
*Gas Compressor Association
Expo & Conference
Galveston, Texas
+1 (972) 518-0019
www.gascompressor.org
April 27-30
*Gulf South Rotating
Machinery Symposium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
+1 (225) 578-4853
www.gsrms.org
April 28-30
*Southwest Energy Institute
Liberal, Kansas
+1 (620) 417-1170
www.swenergyinstitute.org/
MAY
May 4-7
*Offshore Technology Conference
Houston
+1 (972) 952-9494
www.otcnet.org
May 12-14
June 9-11
*Power-Gen Europe
Amsterdam
+44 1992 656 617
www.powergeneurope.com
May 19-21
*Eastern Gas Compression
Roundtable
Pittsburgh
+1 (412) 372-4301
www.egcr.org
June 9-11
*Global Petroleum Show
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
+1 (403) 209-3555
http://globalpetroleumshow.com
Oil & Gas Uzbekistan

Tashkent, Uzbekistan
+44 207 596 5144
www.oguzbekistan.com
May 19-21
*Sensor+Test
Nuremberg, Germany
+49 5033 9639-0
www.sensor-test.de
June 9-11
Sensors Expo & Conference
Long Beach, California
+1 (617) 219-8375
www.sensorsmag.com/sensors-expo
JUNE
June 1-5
*WGC World Gas Conference 2015
Paris
www.wgc-paris2015.com/
June 15-19
*Achema 2015
Frankfurt am Main, Germany
+49 69 7564-100
www.achema.de
June 2-5
Caspian Oil & Gas
Baku, Azerbaijan
+44 207 596 5000
www.caspianoil-gas.com
June 15-19
*ASME Turbo Expo
Montreal
+1 (404) 847-0072
http://www.asmeconferences.org/TE2015/
11
Compressortech2
About The Business
By Norm shade
Compression Market Slowing

Just As Feds Plan More
oil, gas and liquids prices
Regulations > Depressed
and potential new regulations dampen
2015 outlook
roduction of domestic oil, gas and natural gas liquids grew much faster than demand throughout
2014. Now, the oil and gas industry is suffering from
its outstanding success in developing shale resources as
prices plummet. Does this mean that the demand for gas
compression will fall off the cliff?
None of the indicators are encouraging. Crude oil prices,
which affect the demand for gas lift compressors, are down
more than 50% in the last six months, to the lowest level
in six years. Natural gas prices are down 36% in the same
period, dipping below US$3/MMBtu, the lowest price in two
years. And gas storage levels, which had been tracking well
below average for more than a year, caught up with the fiveyear average in early January. Production of natural gas
liquids is also below demand levels, as average daily field
condensate output has grown 166% since 2009.
Some drillers have already reduced budgets for 2015,
while others have borrowed for expansion, but are losing
money, said an early January report by Bloomberg. Drilling
was slowing down even before prices fell to US$70/bbl. One
report showed new well permits on 12 major shale plays fell
by 15% in October, with Eagle Ford down 22%. The most
current Texas Railroad Commission report showed new
drilling permits in November were down 46% for gas and
57% for oil from October. In December, a Wood Mackenzie
report said that new exploration and production initiatives
will be cut by at least 37% compared to 2014. With current
prices below US$50/bbl in mid-January, most analysts are
now predicting oil prices will stay below US$60/bbl through
most of 2015. This comes just as Gulf of Mexico production
was beginning to recover.
The industry enters 2015 with more uncertainty than it
has experienced since 2009. The low prices will reduce
demand for compressors for upstream wellhead and some
midstream gas processing applications; however, it may
not affect the demand for pipeline compressors unless prices stay low for an extended period.
Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI

Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio. A 45-year veteran of the gas
compression industry, he has written numerous papers and is
active in the major industry associations.
Adding to the angst, The Wall Street Journal reported at

year-end that at least nine federal regulations governing the
oil and natural gas industry are expected to be issued by
the Obama administration in the coming months. The impending rules would regulate methane emissions, hydraulic
fracturing, Arctic drilling, oil-by-rail transportation and offshore drilling technology, among other things. One that will
directly impact the gas compression industry is the initiative
to increase compressor efficiency. By the end of 2014, the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) was to determine what,
if any, regulations should be recommended.
The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 established an energy conservation program for certain commercial and industrial equipment. The DOE maintains that
this program authorizes them to issue standards, test procedures and labeling requirements for gas compressors.
Accordingly, DOE is exploring the energy-savings opportunities for natural gas compressors and is trying to establish which, if any, compressors could be regulated. It is also
investigating energy-saving opportunities throughout the
natural gas supply chain gathering, processing, transmission and storage.
If standards are adopted, manufacturers must use a
DOE-prescribed test procedure to establish compliance and
make representations of energy efficiency for gas compressors. DOE would also use the established test procedure to
subsequently verify the performance of covered equipment.
Moving quickly but without wide publicity within the gas
compression industry, DOE issued a request of information
on Aug. 5, 2014, and received comments from interested
parties (who were aware of the request). On Nov. 12-13, the
DOE held a Workshop on Natural Gas Infrastructure R&D
and Methane Emissions Mitigation, much of which focused
on compressors. Just before the holidays on Dec. 17, DOE
held a public meeting on the potential Energy Conservation
Program for Gas Compressors. At that meeting, further comments were invited by a Jan. 12, 2015, deadline.
The DOE initiative is progressing rapidly, and it could
significantly change the way the compression industry operates. Improving efficiency is a commendable objective,
but the industry needs to stay engaged to ensure that any
regulations are practical and not cost-prohibitive. CT2
january-february 2015 12
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Monitoring Government
EPA Toughens Methane

rules would improve data
Leak Reporting > New
on greenhouse gas emissions
BY PATRICK CROW
noted that its members have made great strides in reducing

methane releases, citing a study showing that the transmission industry had reduced the number of leaks 94% over
the past three decades.
INGAA President and CEO Don Santa stressed that
blowdowns are a critical and necessary component of pipeline construction and maintenance activities. He said the
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
should reduce the number of occasions when pipeline inspection requirements necessitate blowdowns.
We believe its important for EPA and all parties to get a
better idea of both the volume of methane being released
in the atmosphere and the sources of those releases, and
these additions to the subpart W reporting program could
help, depending on the methodology by which EPA collects
that information, Santa said.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) said GHGRP
data show that methane emissions from gas systems fell
17% from 1990 to 2012 while gas production grew 37%.
API said methane emissions requirements should not be
changed until existing rules can be fully implemented and
measurements can reflect tighter standards. If any changes are made, they need to ensure they do not compromise
safety and can be achieved cost effectively with adequate
lead times, API said.
Energy in Depth a public outreach campaign sponsored by the Independent Petroleum Association of America
said GHGRP data show that methane emissions from
some of the most prolific shale plays plunged between 2011
and 2013.
For example, in the basins that include the Utica and
Marcellus shales, methane emissions fell by 55 and 10%, respectively. The San Juan Basin an area that anti-fracking
activists have claimed has rising emissions actually reduced methane emissions by 6%, it said.
In the Anadarko Basin which includes portions of
western Oklahoma, one of the top oil and gas producing
states methane emissions decreased by 34%. Substantial reductions have also been achieved in Texas, which is
leading the United States in oil and gas production. In the
Permian and Gulf Coast basins, methane emissions decreased by 9 and 18% respectively. CT2
oth the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

and the Department of Energy (DOE) have initiatives
underway that would impact the compression sector.
As part of an effort to cut greenhouse emissions, EPA has
been exploring how it could reduce methane emissions by
requiring improved vapor recovery and the periodic replacement of piston rod packings (COMPRESSORtech2, July
2014, p. 12).
The DOE is planning a regulation to establish energy efficiency standards for new gas compressors and mandate the
upgrading of inefficient ones (COMPRESSORtech2, October
2014, p. 12).
Now the EPA has attacked the methane leak issue from
another angle, ordering tighter compliance in the reporting
of emissions.
Under the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP),
companies must detail their emissions. EPA just effectuated
a rule that revises 40 C.F.R. 98, subpart W. It requires companies to use more standardized monitoring methods and
retires the use of some best available monitoring methods
that critics had claimed were unreliable.
Rather than just report their cumulative greenhouse gas
emissions in carbon dioxide equivalent units, companies now
must also prepare separate reports for methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.
The reportable emissions would include those from engines, boilers, heaters, flares and separation and processing equipment. The revisions would allow the use of optical
gas imaging to detect compressor leaks.
The agency said the revisions, which it depicted as technical or clarifying, not only would provide greater flexibility but
also reduce the reporting burden on industry while improving the clarity of the calculation and reporting requirements.
Separately, EPA disclosed a proposed rule that would
mandate the reporting of even more GHGRP data. For the
first time, companies would report methane leaks from gas
gathering and boosting systems that move gas from the
wellhead to a pipeline or processing plant, and emissions
from pipeline blowdowns between compressor stations.
The agency will consider public comments on the planned
regulation and issue a final rule on Jan. 1, 2016.
The Interstate Natural Gas Association of America (INGAA)
14
Compressortech2
MACHINERY ANALYSIS
Keeping it running smoothly since 1967

BETAMACHINERY.COM
Two-Shaft Microturbine
seen for gas
Introduced > Advantages
compressor applications
By Ronald Porter
Exhaust
aged around the rotating machinery. Electronic inverters

are used to convert the single-shaft, high-frequency electricity to 60 Hz.
This microturbine will be called the single-shaft microturbine to distinguish it from the two-shaft configuration. It is
shown schematically in Figure 1.
Another configuration featured a two-shaft design with
one of the shafts driving a gear reducer which, in turn, drove
the generator. The two-shaft generator was of the conventional type. This type is shown schematically in Figure 2.
Direct-drive versions of these units to drive compressors,
etc., were not released, since the perceived market was
solely for electrical generation.
The engineering community considers any turbine less
than 300 hp (224 kW) to be a microturbine.
Combustor
Recuperator
High-Frequency
Generator
Compressor
Turbine
Air
n Figure 1. The single-shaft microturbine.
Product definition
The original microturbines were designed to address the
distributed generation electricity market. However, this market has been slow in developing due to delays by electric
utilities in allowing hookups to their electrical systems.
In searching for an alternate market, the combined heat
and power application was identified. If a use can be found
for the high exhaust gas temperature microturbine, overall efficiencies can approach 80%. This is another market that has
been slow in developing.
Meanwhile, the many companies that had developed
microturbines for the distributed generation market were
continued on page 18
istorically, compressor and pump units in the oil

and gas industry have been driven by reciprocating
internal combustion engines of many types. In the
last 50 years, gas turbines have become more common in
these markets.
In recent years, the microturbine has gained a toehold as
an electrical generator. This paper describes the advantages
of the two-shaft microturbine for direct-drive applications.
The original microturbine was introduced in the late
1980s. It featured a low-pressure ratio, single-stage centrifugal compressor, a radial-inflow turbine, a combustor, a
recuperator and an electrical generator.
A recuperator is a heat exchanger that uses exhaust gas
to heat compressor discharge air. Increasing the air temperature eliminates the fuel required to bring the compressor discharge air to combustion temperature.
One configuration is with the compressor, turbine and a
high-frequency generator on a single shaft. It also features
an annular combustor and an annular recuperator pack-
Recuperator
Exhaust
Compressor
Ronald Porter is a rotating machinery and equipment consultant

in business as Ron Porter LLC. He designs, develops and manufactures microturbines for the gas compression, micro combined heat and power and electrical generation markets. Porter
has bachelors and masters degrees in mechanical engineering
from the University of Kentucky. Contact him at: engineering@
ronporterllc.com.
Combustor
Air
Gasifier
Turbine
Power
Turbine
Gear
60 Hz
Generator
n Figure 2. The two-shaft microturbine.

16
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500
Safe Liquid Operation
Fuel Temperature
F
400
300
Unsafe Two-Phase Operation

200
100
Safe Gas Operation

0
0
-100
10
12
14
16
Microturbine Pressure Ratio
Bubble
Point Margin
Dew
Pointoperational
Dew Point Margin
n FigureBubble
3. Point
Allowable
microturbine
fuel
regions.
foundering due to lack of sales. As a result, the industry has

consolidated to just a handful of manufacturers worldwide.
In recent years, with the advent of fracking and increased
natural gas production, the microturbine has found a home
as a source of electricity in the oil and gas industry. However, the current equipment cannot drive the equipment directly per historical practice.
An electrical system is required to connect the current microturbines to the driven equipment. This requires additional expense for the equipment user in the form of an electric
motor to drive the load and wiring to connect the generator
and the load. In addition, some losses are incurred in converting mechanical power to electrical power and then back
to mechanical power.
There is an apparent need for a two-shaft, direct-drive
microturbine for the oil and gas market. This unit is similar
to that shown in Figure 2, except the generator is replaced
with a directly driven load. The load can be a compressor,
pump or any other device requiring shaft power.
The two-shaft arrangement has a key advantage for
compression, pump and other direct-drive applications. It
develops its peak torque when the power turbine is at rest
whereas the single-shaft arrangement does not develop its
peak torque until rated speed is reached.
On a single-shaft generator the load is not applied until
the unit is at full speed. This is why the two-shaft arrangement dominates the machinery drives whereas the singleshaft arrangement is used primarily for electrical generation.
The explanation is that the first of the two shafts sole
responsibility is to generate hot gas. Therefore, it only includes the compressor and the turbine required to drive the
compressor. The second of the two shafts is solely responsible for producing power to drive a load. These two shafts
are called the gasifier turbine shaft and the power turbine
shaft, respectively.
Description
The two-shaft, direct-drive microturbine described here is
available from 30 to 150 hp (22.4 to 112 kW) with plans to
grow the unit to 300 hp (224 kW) as the need arises.
Several microturbine sizes are available in the given

horsepower range so that the units can be substituted for
existing reciprocating engines.
The unit uses a two-stage output drive arrangement that
allows output speeds from 1200 to 10,000 rpm. The firststage speed reducer has a fixed ratio while the secondstage speed reducer is a quick-change unit.
If a centrifugal compressor is used, it is driven directly by
the power turbine output shaft at high rpm. Centrifugal compressors and radial inflow turbines are used for the gasifier section of the microturbine. The power turbine section
uses a radial inflow turbine. Hydrodynamic bearings are
used throughout the unit. The lubrication system features
a stainless-steel tank.
The unit will be packaged with all types of compressors,
pumps and generators. The digital control system is of the
full authority type. It automatically controls startup, continuous operation and shutdown. In addition, a gauge panel
showing key parameters, such as oil pressure, is provided.
The unit includes an onboard battery and a power turbine
shaft driven alternator to provide black start capability. Therefore, the unit can be remotely located from power lines.
Two performance-cycle arrangements are available. The
first arrangement uses a low compressor pressure ratio and
a recuperator. The second arrangement is a simple cycle
with a higher compressor pressure ratio without recuperator to achieve good thermal efficiency without the added
expense of the recuperator.
Both of these cycles can operate on liquid or gaseous fuels depending on the composition of the fuel. A gas analysis
is required to determine if liquid or vapor is the appropriate choice of fuel. A phase diagram similar to the example
shown in Figure 3 must be created for each fuel to determine whether the liquid or gas phases of a specific fuel hydrocarbon mixture can be used as fuel.
Gas fuels must be a minimum of 50F (10C) above
the fuel dew point. Liquid fuel temperature must be 100F
(38C) below the fuel bubble point. Operation of the microturbine is not allowed in the two-phase fuel regime. The fuel
either must be heated or cooled to stay in a safe singlephase operation regime.
Advantages
The microturbine has many applications, including gas
compressors, pumps, blowers and combined heat and power.
It promises improved operations. Since there are no metal-
to-metal rubbing parts, maintenance is greatly reduced
compared to a reciprocating engine. The operator only has
to change the air filter, igniter and oil periodically.
The unit promises long service life, high reliability
(since there are fewer moving parts), reliable starting and
low vibration.
The noise is high frequency, which is easy to attenuate.
The unit delivers high power per pound, with a quarter of
the weight and half the volume of natural gas engines.
Emissions are low, less than 25 ppm NOx at 15% O2. It can
use either natural gas or liquids for fuel. CT2
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Evolution Of Liquid Natural

gas turbine to
Gas (LNG) Plants > From
electric motor drives
By Roberto Chellini
n Pictured is an 81,802 hp (61 MW) motor at the GE Power Conversion facility in Paris, France.
raditionally, large liquid natural

gas (LNG) plants feature gas
turbine-driven refrigerating compressor trains. The only plant in operation pioneering the electric solution is
at Hammerfest on the Norwegian Isle
of Melkya, near the Arctic Circle.
However, a shift toward the electrical solution, for both offshore (floating liquefied natural gas [FLNG]) and
land-based plants is to be expected.
The selection of gas turbine drives,
at the beginning of the heavy-duty
type then paralleled with aeroderivative
units, was mainly dictated by the lack
of a referenced alternative solution due
to the unitary power requested by the
refrigerating compressor trains.
January-February 2015
Now, with the development of reliable high-power/high-speed variablespeed drive systems (VSDSs), the
bottleneck toward the all-electrical
solution has vanished. These VSDSs are composed of large variablefrequency drives (VFDs) that allow
speed variation of high-power/highspeed motors (up to 134,102 hp
[100 MW]) directly coupled to the
main refrigerant compressors.
Gas turbines dictate an LNG plants
capacity, since only certain sizes are
available on the market. However,
electric motors can be built to match
any power requirement, and they
have more flexibility and can be selected according to plant needs.
20
Gas turbines have to be operated

at rated speed (5%), whereas VFD
electric motors allow a wider speed
variation than that required by the
driven compressors. A gas turbines
efficiency seldom reaches 40%, but
VFDs can go over 90% with consequent pollution reduction. Considering the whole LNG plant, including the
power generation, a traditional gas
turbine-driven cycle performs at 25
to 30% of efficiency, while an eLNG
(electric LNG) operates at about 40%.
The electrical solution has the additional environmental advantage of having no NOx emissions. Also, by adopting the gas turbines in generation mode
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n GE Oil & Gas testing facilities in Massa, Italy, where

an LNG compressor is driven by an 81,802 hp (61 MW)
electric motor from GE Power Conversion.
(fixed speed, close to the full power

level), it is the most effective in terms of
pollution reduction.
Gas turbines have to be stopped for
maintenance at well-defined intervals
(every two years) while an electric motor can run continuously for five to six
years. Maintenance cost of a gas turbine is at least 10 times greater than
a variable speed electric motor. Also
operability, flexibility and reliability are
greater in an eLNG than in a conventional gas turbine-driven LNG plant.
Controls of an eLNG are simplified
and operating flexibility is increased.
In round figures, if a gas turbinedriven LNG plant of 5 MTA can produce down to 4.8 MTA with the speed
variation allowed by the motor-driven
compressors, it is possible to operate
the plant down to at least 4.2 MTA.
Another important feature is the start/
stop sequence. The all-electric solution
eliminates the use of a starting/helper
motor. The refrigerating trains can also
be started up at the settling out pressure without any addition to the plant
blowout preventer (BOP).
Development of the
electric hardware
GE Oil & Gas has been involved
in the Freeport eLNG project with
its power conversion division, which
has implemented the electric part,
as well as its oil and gas division,

which has tailored its refrigerating
compressors to better match the variable speed motors.
From the motor design point of view
the solution was very easy. Construction of a motor is derived from the
construction of a turbogenerator of the
same size. What appears to be the
real breakthrough is the development
of high-power drives (VFDs), which,
assembled in a parallel arrangement,
allow electric motors to be powered
up to 134,102 hp (100 MW).
These high-power VFDs can be
assembled in a so-called E-house
formed by a cabinet containing the
switchgear and the motor control center (MCC). Such a package can be
transported fully assembled and can
be installed easily on site.
The 100,576 hp (75 MW) electric
motors and VFDs built for the Freeport eLNG are the largest built to date
in the oil and gas industry, claims GE
Oil and Gas.
Development of the
refrigerating compressors
Main refrigerant compression trains
developed by GE Oil & Gas have
been designed by making use of the
very large experience gained in the
last 35 years done with all existing liquefaction processes and drivers: from
gas turbines to steam turbines and

electric motors.
The key to success for these LNG
plants is the integration of the different components and the capability to
predict how each of them is going to
interact mutually. Through the years,
GE Oil & Gas has developed and
tuned its codes to predict the dynamic
behavior of these trains both on the
gas side and with mechanical interaction. This is particularly important for
electric motor-driven compressors (either as main drivers or as helpers) for
the well-known interharmonic effects
generated by the motor and the possible mechanical excitations resulting
on the train (subsynchronous interaction [SSI], subsynchronous torsional
interaction [SSTI]).
On the compressor side, GE Oil &
Gas has leveraged the huge experience gained along these 35 years.
Key elements for the success of these
machines are as follows:
Aerodynamic design and top performance are provided even in
the presence of very large side
streams (and associated flow distorsions) and high Mach numbers.
Very large performance curves
guarantee a high level of operability, even in the presence of very
limited speed variation (like with
heavy duty gas turbines).
January-February 2015 22
Compressortech2
Top predictability of performance

has been continuously tuned for
35 years, leveraging either string
tests or field data.
Robust rotordynamics are provided
by a long shaft and very large powers (above 134,102 hp [100 MW]).
Large impellers, diaphragms and
casings are well designed and manufactured (either horizontally split or
barrel type), with proven experience
at impeller diameters close to 78 in.
(2000 mm) and casing diameters
up to 141 in. (3600 mm).
No leakage is ensured from casings even on horizontally split configurations and with no gaskets.
There is full agreement between
drawings and manufactured pieces: single piece numerically controlled processes.
Unique testing capability provides
performance at type one string
tests above 147,512 hp (110 MW).
Freeport eLNG
For the earlier-mentioned reasons
and the presence of adequate electric
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infrastructure, the Freeport LNG Expansion LP (Freeport LNG) site has

been selected as the eLNG solution for
its three Freeport 4.64 MTA LNG lines.
Freeport LNG awarded contracts
to a joint venture between CB&I and
Zachry Industrial to construct the initial
two trains of the liquefaction project. Air
Products and Chemicals Inc. will provide the process license as well as two
main coil wound heat exchangers and
the associated equipment and technology. GE Power Conversion will provide
the whole electrical equipment including the motors, the variable frequency
drives and all the control systems. GE
Oil & Gas have been awarded with the
supply of the propane and mixed refrigerant centrifugal compressor trains.
The two GE businesses are working
in close cooperation to obtain the best
match between the two main components of the refrigerating trains.
The Freeport plant is located near
a petrochemical complex and not
far from a nuclear power plant. The
electric power is sourced from the
grid. GE Power Conversion has con-
sulted GE Power & Water to analyze

grid properties and suppression of
all harmonics produced by the VFD
that otherwise could create serious
issues to the surrounding plants. The
risk assessment was done in conjunction with the customer in a very
transparent way, and the customer
considered the analysis of the grid
stability issue as an added value to
the supply. In particular, the integration of the eLNG plant with the grid,
the evaluation and mitigation of the
pollution and the SSTI risk of the entire electromechanical system were
assessed. A full torsional analysis of
the shaft lines was also performed.
All these were done to ensure that
the production schedule of the eLNG
plants would not be interfered.
The whole production capacity of
the three liquefaction trains has been
contracted under use-or-pay liquefaction tolling agreements with Osaka
Gas Co. Ltd., Chubu Electric Power
Co., BP Energy Co., Toshiba Corp.
and SK E&S LNG LLC (a subsidiary
of SK Holdings Co. Ltd.). CT2
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Hicor Technologies New Compressor

technology emerges from
Ready For Field Trials > Rotary
five years of development
By Norm Shade
n A close up of a Hicor
third-generation prototype
compressor under test in
one of the companys fully
automated test cells.
ased on more than five years

of methodical research and
development, Hicor Technologies (formerly OsComp Systems Inc.)
reports that it is ready to test its innovative rotary compressor technology
in the field. In November 2009, Pedro Santos, a young engineer with an
idea for a better compressor, founded the company while still working
on his MBA at MIT. Incorporating as
OsComp Systems Inc. in mid-2010,
Santos secured investments for his
development from Energy Ventures
and in December 2011 from Chevron
Technology Ventures.
Hicor has developed and is in preparations for field trials of our multiphase
compressor technology, said Santos,
CEO of Hicor. We have multiple prototypes operational with compelling test
results. The compressors can operate
with a compression ratio greater than

30:1, with a temperature rise of less
than 10% of the temperature rise of a
single-stage adiabatic air compressor
with the same ratio, he said.
The design is capable of efficiently
and cost-effectively compressing both
wet and dry gas. The high-compression
ratio capability allows for dramatic simplification of the wellhead infrastructure
needed for gas compression, said Jeremy Pitts, vice president, engineering.
Hicors design utilizes two key elements: a novel rotary geometry and
atomized liquid-injection cooling. The
rotary geometry is a fundamentally simpler design than conventional reciprocating or rotary compressors, resulting
in higher energy density, reduced noise
and vibration, and fewer moving parts,
Pitts said. The geometry features a dynamically balanced and cam-shaped
24
rotor, which spins concentrically within

a circular compression chamber.
The rotor features a dwell seal section in which the outer radius matches
the inner radius of the casing for an
extended rotational period, effectively
sealing the high-pressure portion of
the chamber by creating a tortuous
path for the gas that is further sealed
by liquid wetting in the clearances. A
secondary reciprocating gate component utilizes an external cam drive
to stay in constant contact with the rotor, creating a second seal and separating the high- and low-pressure portions of the chamber.
Liquid coolant is injected directly
into the compression chamber at
numerous ports, absorbing heat and
keeping gas temperatures low. Since
the rate of heat transfer from the gas
is proportional to the surface area,
special nozzles are used to atomize
the coolant as it is injected. This dramatically increases the liquid surface
area and allows heat transfer to occur
at sufficiently rapid rates. This nearisothermal cooling allows the Hicor
compressor to achieve compression
ratios of 40:1 or higher with minimal
temperature rise, Pitts said.
The proprietary rotary compressor
geometry allows the liquid to be swept
out of the compression chamber with
each cycle. Since clearance volume
is minimal, all of the liquid is removed
each cycle, preventing pooling. Gravity aids in moving the liquid out of
the chamber since the outlets are located at the bottom of the compressor. In addition, the outlet valves are
specially designed to handle liquids
by maximizing effective orifice area,
minimizing changes in direction, and
minimizing valve clearance volumes.
Liquid can be processed as either
a small slug of liquid or as an even
distribution in the gas stream. This
Compressortech2
n Hicors compressor is a positive

capability also allows
the Hicor compressor
to function in wet gas
environments without
the need for complicated liquid removal
systems and large
storage tanks for the
removed liquids.
The cooling liquid
is removed from the
gas stream, cooled and
recirculated back into the
compressor in a closedloop system. The liquid can
be 100% water, 100% condensate, 100% oil or any combination of
water, condensate and oil. By placing
the injector nozzles at locations in the
compression chamber that do not see
the full pressure of the system, the
recirculation system does not require
an additional pump (and associated
parasitic load) to deliver the atomized
droplets. The system also lends itself
to a significantly simpler heat recovery
system than traditional compression
systems, since the entire heat load is
in the cooling liquid and does not have
to be removed from the gas stream.
The fledgling company took Santoss idea and designed and built a
prototype compressor that was first operational in March 2012. Initial lab tests
were performed with air as the working fluid and water as the coolant. The
first prototype was able to boost air
from ambient suction pressure to more
than 370 psig (25.5 bar) discharge, a
ratio of more than 25:1. Far exceeding what any commercially available
air compressor can achieve in a single
stage, this test resulted in a temperature rise of less than 167F (75C). In
a comparable isentropic compression
process, at that ratio, Hicor said that
gas temperature would rise by more
than 842F (450C). Additional testing
focused on the cooling system, showing some areas for improvement with
the design. Most notably, mechanical
losses were high because of an undersized flywheel, and internal leakage
was observed to be higher than desired in the initial prototype.
The findings from these tests were
used to guide the next-generation

design that included better seals and
an upgraded lubrication system to
reduce the mechanical losses and
leakage. Santos explained that with
the addition of Seshu Seshasai, PhD,
displacement machine with a hybrid rotary design. Gas enters the

cylinder at the inlet at the bottom
left. The clockwise rotor rotation
compresses the gas until it is
discharged through the exhaust
valves at the bottom right. In
the dwell seal section, the rotors outer radius matches the
inner radius of the casing for an
extended period, effectively sealing the high-pressure portion of
the chamber. An external cam drive
keeps a secondary reciprocating gate
in constant contact with the rotor, creating a second seal and separating the highand low-pressure portions of the chamber.
Liquid coolant is injected directly into the
compression chamber at numerous ports
to absorb heat, keeping gas temperatures
low. Since clearance volume is minimal,
the compressor geometry enables all of
the liquid to be swept out of the compressor during each cycle. Liquid for cooling is
recovered in a downstream separator.
Experience, Reliability, Integrity...
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Compressortech2
chief technology officer, in mid-2012,

the teams manufacturing and testing
competencies were upgraded. Having
previously led engineering and technology at several firms, including Textron, with subsidiaries Bell Helicopter
and Cessna Aircraft, Seshasai led the
development of the next-generation
Hicor compressor design.
New materials and surface finishes,
along with improved manufacturing
techniques, were also incorporated to
improve durability of the new design.
This second-generation prototype began testing in the spring of 2013 in the
companys new, fully instrumented
test facility in Houston, Texas. Monitoring every aspect of the compressors performance, many different
tests were run to allow the team to
learn as much as possible about its
performance. An additional test unit
was then built for enhanced design
and operational hour accumulation in
a second test stand.
Both test stands are rated for pressures to 1200 psig (82.7 bar) and are
fully automated with more than 40
channels of data acquisition, including torque sensors. Both stands are
driven by 500 hp (373 kW) motors
with variable-frequency drives (VFD)
that can vary operating speeds from
150 to 1800 rpm. One test stand can
operate with air as either an open or
closed loop, with water or water/glycol
injection for cooling. The other stand
can operate with nitrogen as a closed
loop with oil injection for cooling.
In addition to our sophisticated flow
loop testing facilities, Hicors in-house
design capabilities include Solidworks
3D CAD, Solidworks and ANSYS finite element analysis, and ANSYS
computational fluid dynamics, Seshasai said. We also have qualified
world-class production-ready manufacturing processes.
Hicor shared some second-generation prototype test results that were
validated by a third party, comparing
performance with a prevalent brand
of 3600 rpm multiphase twin-screw
pump. Compressing a stream having 99.7% gas volume fraction (GVF)
from 10 psig (0.69 bar) inlet to 220
n Hicor Technologies Houston facility includes two test stands rated at

1200 psig (82.7 bar). Both are fully automated with more than 40 channels of
data acquisition including torque sensors and are driven by 500 hp (373 kW)
motors with VFDs that can vary operating speeds from 150 to 1800 rpm.
One test stand can operate on air as
either an open or closed loop, with
water or water/glycol injection for
cooling. The other stand can operate
on nitrogen as a closed loop with oil
injection for cooling.
to 230 psig (15.17 to 15.86 bar) discharge, the Hicor compressor gained
27% in volumetric efficiency (from 54
to 69%) and 150% in mechanical efficiency (from 14 to 38%) compared to
the screw pump.
The 2013 and early 2014 testing
led to the development of a thirdgeneration (pre-commercial) unit prepared for endurance testing and field
trials. Its design specifications include
a suction flow rate of 230 acfm (6.51
m3/min) with 85 to 100% GVF capacity, 40:1 pressure ratio limit, 500 psi
(34.5 bar) maximum differential pressure, 1500 psig (103.4 bar) maximum
discharge pressure, 500 hp (373 kW)
maximum power rating, and a speed
range of 300 to 1800 rpm with an optimal operating speed of 900 rpm. The
compressor rotor shaft is of sufficient
diameter to through-drive up to three
additional compressors, permitting a
train of up to four compressors to be
driven by a single driver. This enables
Hicor to use one basic compressor to
configure a single-stage dual drive delivering 460 acfm (13 m3/min), a singlestage triple drive delivering 690 acfm
(19.5 m3/min), and a two-stage quad
drive configuration delivering 690 acfm
(19.5 m3/min). The wide speed range
capability can be used for capacity control, especially when an electric
motor drive is used with a VFD.
Two third-generation units were
26
built and in operation in the fall of 2014

and in January 2015, respectively.
Early 2015 tests are including thirdparty verification of lab performance,
multiweek field-simulated testing, and
full life-cycle cost validation. Anticipating a continuation of recent development success, Hicor plans to host
an open house event at its Houston
facility in March or April 2015 to demonstrate the new technology to potential customers. Wellhead tests are
expected to begin in the second half
of 2015, with full commercial trials in
early 2016.
The Hicor multiphase compressor
requires a relatively simple system
that typically includes an upstream
filter/separator to remove particulates
and trap large slugs of fluid. A downstream separator recovers some of
the liquid from the gas stream, which,
after cooling, is recirculated and injected back into the compressor for
internal gas cooling. The recirculation
system does not require an additional
pump to deliver the atomized coolant
droplets into the compressor. No gas
stream cooling is required since the
entire heat load is in the cooling liquid. Excess liquid is carried away in
a single pipeline with the gas stream.
Several application examples are
being discussed with customers for the
potential field trials. One is a new Bakken wellhead gas stream with 96.8%
Compressortech2
GVF compressed from an inlet of 100

psig (6.9 bar) to an outlet of 950 psig
(65.5 bar), producing 2 MMscfd (5.66
x 104 m3/d) of gas and 1500 bbl/d of
liquid. Another is a new Marcellus well
pad gas stream with 99.0% GVF compressed from an inlet of 200 psig (13.8
bar) to an outlet of 1200 psig (82.7 bar),
producing 12 MMscfd (3.4 x 105 m3/d) of
gas and 1500 bbl/d of liquid. Yet another
is an existing Eagle Ford wellhead gas
stream with 99.8% GVF compressed
from 5 to 400 psig (0.3 to 27.6 bar), producing 400 Mscfd (1.13 x 104 m3/d) and
90 bbl/d of liquid.
Hicor has received several awards
and grants for its innovation including U.S Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory Stripper Well Consortium (SWC)
grants in 2010 and 2012. Company
officials explained that the balanced
and concentric motion of its rotor
design results in a compressor with
extremely low vibration, which generates very little noise. The compact rotary design necessitates significantly
fewer moving parts than reciprocating machines, reducing complexity
and potentially improving the reliability of the machine. Incorporation
of reed-type outlet valves allows for
variable outlet pressures, eliminating the built-in pressure ratio that is
common in other types of rotary compressors, which often leads to overor under-compression and wasted
energy. The absence of inlet valves
also minimizes any inlet losses, leading to higher suction efficiency.
Hicor Technologies has developed
a breakthrough new compression
technology that has the ability to revolutionize the way natural gas is produced and transported, said Santos.
It promises enormous improvements
in efficiency, reliability and capital
costs. A single, small-diameter Hicor compressor, requiring no storage
tanks, pumps, etc., can be quickly installed to flow a complete well stream
through a single pipeline, retaining all
natural gas, liquids, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in one stream
without field processing or separation.
This eliminates the need for wellhead
flaring and increases the downstream

recovery of valuable liquids.
The technology is currently being
developed for wellhead compression
applications; however, the company
indicated that future applications
of the technology could potentially
cover the entire natural gas value
chain including wellhead, pipeline, and refinery, as well as subsea,
offshore, and even transportation
and fueling. The technology is also

relevant to other compression applications such as compressed air,
carbon dioxide (CO2), and other
process gases. With strong financial backing now in place, the Hicor
team is well-positioned to develop
this technology into a reliable, commercial product that will impact the
natural gas industry for many years
to come, Santos said. CT2
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Compressortech2
Oil & Gas releases

Upscale For Shale > Caterpillar
enhanced Cat G3600 series
gas compression engine
By DJ Slater
n Caterpillar Oil & Gas has

launched an updated version of its Cat G3600 engine
series to better handle gas
compression tasks. Pictured
is the G3616.
ith shale gas still playing

such a prominent role in
the compression industry,
Caterpillar Oil & Gas has launched an
updated version of its G3600 engine
series, which includes the G3606.
G3608, G3612 and G3616, for natural
gas applications.
According to Caterpillar, the updated model provides expanded fuel
flexibility, greater altitude and ambient temperature capabilities and a
5.6% power increase. It also incorporates the ADEM A4 engine control
unit. Caterpillar will be ready to accept orders for the upgraded engine
in March 2015.
The underlying reason for this update was to expand the fuel flexibility,
said Greg Carpenter, Caterpillar Oil &
Gas gas compression marketing manager. This engine is able to use hotter
fuels without any pretreatment or conditioning. Its got a much broader fuel
tolerance and can run on a wide array
of fuels.
The Cat G3600 was first introduced
in 1990 for natural gas applications.
Twenty-five years later, the upgraded
models are available in power ratings
ranging from 1875 bhp (1398 bkW)
at 1000 rpm to 5350 bhp (3990 bkW)
at 1000 rpm and 0.5 g/bhp-hr NOx

emissions.
Well have a 0.3 NOx rating later
in 2015 as well, giving us a 40% reduction in the NOx output from the engine, Carpenter said.
The engine platforms also feature
improved power at higher altitudes
and elevated ambient temperatures,
with ratings at 90F (32C) and 110F
(43C) aftercooler water temperatures in addition to the standard 130F
(54C) rating. Additional design improvements include a lower compression ratio, a two-stage aftercooler and
a new turbocharger, Caterpillar said.
We increased the engines ability to
work in higher elevations, Carpenter
said. The prior generation would have
de-rated at 2000 ft. (610 m). We have
a full rating up to 5000 ft. (1524 m).
The ambient-based rating allows
for higher power in cooler ambient
temperatures, Carpenter said. As
ambient temperature decreases seasonally or daily, the engine will adjust
itself and customer can take action to
increase compressor load. The engine will be able to function at a higher
power level. Its an important feature
that lets users get more out of their
compression assets.
28
The engine design also simplifies

packaging as it includes standard
compressor oil cooler ports, standard
JW heater ports, standard coolant
and oil sample ports, as well as engine-mounted thermostats. The new
exhaust insulation system features a
stainless-steel, sheet-metal structure
with grab handles and an inner insulation layer, according to Caterpillar.
The ADEM A4 engine control module (ECM) provides two options for
the operator interface OCP 4.3 and
Cat HMI. The OCP 4.3 has a 5.5 in.
(140 mm) monochrome display, allowing access to engine controls, ADEM
A4 ECM parameters and includes
Modbus and Ethernet interface capabilities. It also comes with configurable analog and digital I/O.
The Cat HMI system features a 15 in.
(381 mm) color touchscreen with the
same capabilities as the OCP 4.3.
When the Cat HMI system is integrated into the package control system through development software, it
can be an operators single interface
for the entire compressor package,
Caterpillar said.
Im excited for this product, Carpenter said. Its timed well to match
whats happening in the industry. CT2
Compressortech2
this changes everything
innovative compressor valve performance

sf valve
module technology
straight flowpath
The Straightflo valve is a revolutionary and unique

valve. Designed for easy service and as a direct
replacement sized to an existing valve, the SF valve
delivers performance improvements never before
seen in the compressor industry.
Replaceable modules with straight gas flow

Quick and easy to service
Energy efficient and reliable
Minimizes - costs, downtime and inventory
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redefining the compressor valve

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Challenges With Surge

analysis recommended
Control Studies > Dynamic
during design phase
By dr. Kamal Botros
and Kelly Eberle
t is widely known that in certain

situations, a centrifugal compressor system could go into surge.
What is less widely known is why
specific surge control valves and piping characteristics still allow severe
surge events to occur, and how to
ensure these situations are properly
addressed in a surge control design.
This article provides an example of
how incomplete analysis could result
in costly surge events and the best
way to prevent them.
Vibrations created
Compression systems are designed
and operated to eliminate or minimize
the potential for compressor surge, a
dynamic instability detrimental to the
integrity of the unit.
Compressor surge can occur when
compressors are subjected to rapid
transients, such as an emergency shutdown (ESD) or power failure. To prevent surge, compressor stations and
their associated piping and equipment
ought to be designed in a way to avoid
surge, or to bring the unit out of surge
quickly if it occurs. The problem is particularly accentuated when a large volume of high-pressure gas is retained in
the yard piping, including gas coolers.
Once unstable, the unit will experience large flow reversals and pressure transients that cause violent
vibration of the compressor rotor,
bearings, seals and casing.
n Figure 1. This centrifugal

compressor rotor was damaged during a surge event.
Thus, a surge event is harmful to

the compressor system and should
be avoided at all costs. Figure 1 illustrates a compressor rotor first-stage
failure, one of many compressor problems that the authors have investigated. In this case, the compressor
damage was extensive and caused
considerable downtime.
Figure 2 illustrates results from a
dynamic simulation of a centrifugal
compressor system that experienced
surge cycles during operation. The
figure shows the unit operating at
point A, near the surge control line. After the ESD process was initiated the
units performance followed the path
toward point B.
Notice that the flow reversed signifying deep surge due to the effect
of high perturbation energy travel-
Dr. Kamal Botros is a research fellow with NOVA Chemicals and an advisor to the surge
control team at Beta Machinery Analysis. Dr. Botros is an authority on surge control design and analysis, and has focused his research on transient flow problems in complex
systems including centrifugal compressor surge phenomenon, pressure relief system
dynamics, and transients of two phase stratified flows. He is the author of more than 170
technical papers. Contact him at: kbotros@betamachinery.com. Kelly Eberle is a principal engineer in the Beta design group. He leads acoustical (pulsation) and mechanical
vibration analysis projects on compressor packages and pump installations. He also
leads many dynamic analysis projects involving machines, foundations, offshore structures, piping, and transients. Contact him at: keberle@betamachinery.com.
30
ing back towards the compressor on

the discharge side. The units performance followed the line back and
forth many times (from point C to D).
As shown in the chart, the gas
flowed forward (positive x axis), and
changed direction to reverse flow
(negative x axis), and back again to
forward, resulting in violent motion of
the compressor. This cycle repeated
until the pressure equalized across the
compressor with no flow through it.
While this event only lasts a few seconds, it generates violent and potentially disastrous shaking and vibration
on the compressor and components.
To avoid damage occurring from
upset events such as ESD, a dynamic
analysis is performed. In this example,
the recommended modifications were
implemented and the customer has
reported successful results with no
surge-related problems with the unit.
Influencing factors
The compressor system parameters will determine the dynamic response to compressor instability. The
likelihood and magnitude of a surge
event is based on the compressors interactions with the following four factors:
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thermal analysis, suction and bypass

valve design and selection criteria.
The surge control dynamic analysis
(or surge study) evaluates, optimizes,
and validates the overall system design by simulating the system dynamic response to the above parameters
and operating scenarios.
n Figure 2. An ESD surge event illustrating 5633 rpm compressor instability during surge.
Physical components, such as
piping geometries, vessel volumes, fittings, recycle and check
valve parameters
System inertias (fluid and compressor/driver inertias) because
they play an important role in either stabilizing or destabilizing the
system dynamics
Compressor performance characteristics, including the OEM-supplied surge line
Surge control strategy and timing.
Furthermore, the recycle system
around the centrifugal compressor
unit is an essential component in the
units operation. It is necessary for
startup, shutdown, surge protection,
and flow control (turndown capability)
and needs to be assessed with respect to the compressor wheel map.
The most damaging surge events
tend to occur during an ESD. As
these events are transient in nature,
all dynamic parameters from gas flow,
equipment, and control, play an important role and impact the system
instabilities, performance and safety.
The parameters that affect the potential for the compressor to undergo
surge during ESD are the recycle valve
attributes such as maximum capacity,
flow versus opening characteristics,
opening delay and valve travel time.
Additionally, timing of the compres-
sor ESD signal, the fuel gas shutoff

signal, fuel gas manifold size (in the
case of gas turbine drivers), powertrain inertias, and compressor aerodynamic characteristics close to surge
point, all contribute to the complexity
of the problem.
Finally, gas and equipment dynamic
interactions of other elements employed in compression systems such
as check valves, relief valves, and
blowdown systems, are also important and have to be investigated. This
leads to mechanical stress analysis,
Case study
The following example includes
two new centrifugal compressors that
were to be installed in an existing
compressor station. The station piping was designed to operate the new
compressors in series, or in parallel.
Each compressor was driven by a
20,115 hp (15 MW) gas turbine.
For this application there is one
anti-surge recycle valve downstream
of an aerial cooler and two fast stop
(hot recycle) valves around each of
the compressors. Given the risks involved, the owner specified that a
dynamic surge analysis be completed of the piping system around the
two compressors, including the three
valves and the various dynamics occurring during gas recycling around
the two compressor units in both parallel and series operations.
A very simplified surge study was
provided as part of the design. This
simplified approach used generic
software tools and assumptions. The
n Figure 3. An ESD event when compressors operate in parallel configuration (original design).
Compressortech2
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ommended for the high-pressure

system check valve
One of the fast stop valves would
not be adequate even with the recommended piping layout design
This is primarily due to the valve
trim characteristics. Recommendations were provided to change
the trim characteristics
The other fast stop valve was found
to be adequate when operated in
the series configuration, but not
adequate for parallel operation.
The recommendations were evaluated in the surge control dynamic
analysis. As shown above, the units
will operate reliably and avoid going
into surge, even under the worst-case
ESD transient events.
n Figure 4. An ESD event when compressors operate in series

configuration (original design).
design was almost completed and

components were being ordered, including 24 in. (61 cm) valves.
The owner was concerned about
potential surge events that could damage the new compressors and whether the system was properly evaluated.
A more detailed surge study of the
system was undertaken to assess the
effectiveness of the surge protection
system using the proposed valves
and the original piping layout.
Using the field-proven Centran sim
ulation software (a proprietary software solution), the authors discover
ed that under an ESD event, surge
would occur in both the parallel and
series operations.
This result was a surprise to the
team, especially given the initial design work and completion of (what
they thought was) an appropriate
surge study. After further investigation
the deficiency in the simplified analysis was identified and recommendations were made to circumvent it.
The following charts summarize
the results from Centrans dynamic
simulations. The first two charts,
Figure 3 and Figure 4, illustrate the
original design during an ESD transient event. Notice that both units will
go into surge (area to the left of the
surge line).
Recommended solution
The surge control dynamic analysis
identified four main findings and provided detailed recommendations to
the owner. The specific project details
and recommendations are not disclosed to ensure confidentiality.
The selected anti-surge valve for
the cold recycle was adequate
The 24 in. (61 cm) check valve on
the low-pressure compressor was
relocated and changes were rec-
Conclusions
During the design phase, it is prudent
to evaluate the surge control system by
performing a surge study. The analysis
is not expensive and will save the owner from costly field modifications such
as piping and/or valve changes.
The analysis includes all the parameters mentioned above, including valve
characteristics, timing, compressor inertias and performance curves, piping
geometries and operating scenarios.
It is important to understand what
type of surge analysis is being done
and the level of detail included. Not all
n Figure 5. Simulation results for parallel operation, with the recommended

modification to valve size and trim. Note that the units do not go into surge.
34
Compressortech2
n Figure 6. Simulation results for series operation with the recommended

modifications. As noted earlier, the units do not go into surge.
surge studies accurately predict surge

events such as fast-stop scenarios.
Some firms use commercially available process analysis software for this
dynamic application, but, as this ex-
ample illustrates, designs based upon

simplified surge calculations are inadequate in preventing surge events. It
is important to recognize the (potentially costly) limitations and errors as-
sociated with using generic software

and assumptions.
For more critical applications, including multiple compressors in parallel or series, the correct scope and
approach is important for transient
surge analysis. As always, The devil
is in the details.
Valve and piping details become
critical when simulating fast transients.
Consult experts in dynamics who have
the applicable field-proven modeling
techniques, experience and tools to
accurately assess the surge dynamics.
It is up to the owners to specify a
surge control dynamic analysis. Otherwise, there is uncertainty about
how the surge control system will behave under fast transient conditions.
For sample specifications, contact
the authors.
It is recommended that the analysis
occur during the front-end engineering
and design stage to highlight detailed
constraints, or at least early in the detailed design stage. This provides sufficient time to review the design and
provide recommended modifications
to the EPC and owner. CT2
The Impact Of Natural

cleanliness, durability heavily
Gas Engine Oil > Engine
determined by oil type, usage
By David Dragert
reliable and well-maintained

natural gas-powered engine
performs consistently and continuously, which can lead to a healthier bottom line for plant operators.
This article studies the impact of
natural gas engine oil (NGEO) on an
engines reliability. It specifically examines extended drain intervals and
deposit control, confirming the critical
role NGEOs play in engine cleanliness and durability.
This article also raises awareness
of the need for service and plant managers to carefully select an NGEO to
achieve ideal engine performance and
minimum downtime.
To achieve strong plant efficiencies
and profits, operations and service managers of natural gas-powered engines
need to be focused on how to minimize
engine downtime, maximize drain in
tervals and optimize performance.
The NGEO used to lubricate the engine is one key component that can address each of these objectives. In fact,
the lubricant can be viewed as part of
the engine design. It is sometimes referred to as the life blood of the engine because it circulates throughout,
performing critical functions necessary to maximize engine performance.
It also carries information about the
engine condition that can be seen
through an oil analysis.
By going beyond todays standards
with lubricants that maximize service
life, engine cleanliness and wear protection, engine operators can reduce
unnecessary maintenance costs and
downtime. Additional savings can be
realized by taking a proactive approach to consolidating a plants lubricant product offering.
In contrast to other fuel types (such
David Dragert is the product specialist, research and development, core products
at Petro-Canada Lubricants, a Suncor Energy business; dragert@petro-canada.ca.
as low- and high-quality diesel fuels),

natural gas engines traditionally burn
cleaner and hotter, and operate at
a constant speed. As such, NGEOs
must be specially formulated to address these unique characteristics.
n This photo depicts an engine that is very

clean, without any sludge or lacquer. Minimal deposits and varnish can be seen on the
lands and ring grooves.
n Minimal excess ash deposits are

shown on the top of the piston/cylinder
head fireface.
38
Drain intervals
Drain interval or oil change frequency is closely linked to engine
reliability. NGEOs with extended drain
capability can withstand factors that
break down the oil and cause it to
degrade. Longer oil life allows the engine to perform consistently, reduces
maintenance cycles and provides
cost savings.
Drain service intervals are designed
to provide maximum engine protection
under various conditions. Also referred
to as drain time, it is measured as
the number of hours an engine can efficiently run before the oil needs to be
changed. The timing of the oil drain is
determined by the results of a usedoil analysis. The limits for the used oil
are defined by the original equipment
manufacturer (OEM) of the gas engine.
These intervals vary due to factors such
as mechanical design of equipment,
application, environment and condition
of gas. Optimal drain intervals allow the
engine to run for an extended period
before oil change is necessary without
compromising engine durability.
NGEOs that offer extended drain intervals reduce the need to change oil
as frequently, which results in reduced
downtime/increased uptime. Because
there is a strong correlation between
continuously operating engines and a
plants bottom line, minimizing downtime is a key objective for operators of
natural gas-powered engines.
Drain intervals are dictated by the
rate of oil degradation. As the oil degrades, it takes on certain characteristics; as it reaches specific maximum
levels that are dictated by the OEMs,
the oil is condemned and needs to be
Compressortech2
Increased viscosity and sludge

buildup
Corrosive attack
Reduced drain intervals
For these reasons, the majority of
new engines today require oil with
higher oxidation resistance (the oils
ability to resist breakdown).
n Pictured is the combustion chamber (no valves). There is very little residue, full seating
and minimal excess deposits.
changed. Several factors cause oil to

degrade, including:
Oxidation of the oil
Acids that form in the oil
Base reserve in the oil to neutralize the acids
Nitration of the oil
Trace metals and other contaminants found in used oil
Oxidation
Oxidation occurs in engine oils when
oxygen molecules chemically join with
oil molecules. This causes the oil to
thicken, form acids and lose fresh oil
qualities. Oxidized oil can lead to deposits on pistons and valves, threatening engine life.
As with most chemical reactions, oil
oxidation is accelerated by heat and
pressure. Hence, oxidation is an issue
for natural gas-powered engines
both older engine types and new lean
burning engines in high-temperature,
high-pressure operations.
Heat, in particular, will speed up the
oxidation process. In addition, engine
loads influence the levels of oxygen
and pressure within the engine, which
can accelerate acid formation, corrosion, viscosity (oil thickening), deposit

formation and, ultimately, wear.
High levels of oxidation impede optimal engine performance as a result of:
Increased deposits and varnish
that will affect wear rates of contacting surfaces
Acid formation
The concept of oxidation is closely
tied to acid, which forms as a result
of the combustion process. Oxidation reduces the oil life and its ability
to neutralize acid. If not neutralized,
acid can attack metal engine parts,
threatening service life and durability. As such, NGEOs need strong acid
neutralization capability (total acid
number or TAN) and good base retention (total base number or TBN). As it
relates to engine reliability, increased
acid control contributes to longer drain
intervals and minimizes wear.
The greater the TBN retention is, the
greater the ability of the oil to neutralize acid. By neutralizing the amount of
acid attacking the metal of the engine,
the formation of deposits could be minimized as could pitting and corrosion.
Nitration
Nitration is another factor that con
tributes to oil life and drain interval.
This naturally occurring process results
n This photo shows minimal varnishing on the valve stems. They are also free of excess
ash deposits and the symmetric patterns on the valve stem indicate free movement.
JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2015 39
Compressortech2
n These spark plugs are free of excess deposits.
when oil is exposed to heat, oxygen

and nitrogen oxides (NOx). In natural
gas-fueled engines, nitration occurs
when the oil comes in contact with
nitrogen oxide compounds. The result is the formation of sludge, varnish
and deposits, which could cause wear
and reduce engine efficiency. These
deposits also cause oil rings to stick,
increase oil consumption, and shorten
engine component life.
Similar to the effects of oxidation,
high nitration levels do not allow for
optimal engine performance due to:
Increased viscosity
Change in TAN, which leads to
corrosive wear
Formation of harmful varnish and
deposits on engine parts
Reduced drain intervals
Since oil type can define nitration
resistance, it is important to select a
high-quality oil that can resist breakdown caused by temperature, nitrogen
oxides and other contaminants.
In some engine designs, the NOx
created in combustion is much higher
since there is stricter air/fuel ratio control (stoichiometric conditions). This
leads to a greater creation of NOx and
nitrates (less free oxygen). As a result, there is greater likelihood of condemnation based on nitration of nitric
acid (HNO3) formation.
Trace metals, coolant leaks, dust,
dirt and contaminants in the fuel found
in used oil also affect drain interval.
Metals such as iron, lead and copper
come from metal-to-metal contact or
metal corrosion/erosion attack of the
engine. A high-performing lubricant
protects the engine from these harmful
contaminants, which can reduce drain
intervals and minimize downtime.
Any excessive levels of contaminant
ingress need to be addressed as soon

as possible; steps taken to control,
reduce or potentially eliminate this ingress ensure longevity of the engine.
Deposit control
As discussed previously, the formation of deposits (including sludge
and varnish) leads to reduced engine
efficiency and increased wear. These
deposits can also increase oil consumption, and shorten engine component life.
A top-performing NGEO can play a
significant role in minimizing deposits
and wear on valves, ports, pistons, liners and rings. It can also help to control
valve recession. This can lead to:
Extended engine life with reduced maintenance cycles and
cost savings
Engine cleanliness for optimal

engine efficiency and reduced oil
consumption
Minimized de-rating of engines for
top performance and maximum
profit potential
Natural gas-powered engines are
designed to run at 100% under optimal pressures and temperatures. As
they work, however, deposits inevitably grow in the engine. This occurs
as a result of many things, including
the oxidation and nitration processes
mentioned earlier. Because natural
gas engines operate at a constant
speed and temperature, they are also
prone to creating deposits. The type
of engine duty cycle and the environment it operates in also play a role in
deposit formation.
It is essential to reduce excessive
n Shown is the piston undercrown, which is immaculate.

40
Compressortech2
Not all deposits are unwanted and harmful. Some deposits, in the form of ash, are needed to protect valves
and prevent valve recession (the premature compression
and wear of the valve seat in the cylinder head and valve
tulip). Ash residue, which remains after the oil is burned
during operation, helps to prevent premature valve recession by forming a protective, sacrificial layer on the valve
seat and valve tulip to absorb the impact of the two coming
into contact.
In summary, the severe operating conditions common to
natural gas-fueled engines demand an NGEO that delivers
performance and extended oil life while helping maintain
excellent control of engine deposits. CT2
n Shown is the cylinder liner, which has negligible

bore polish with cross-hatching intact.
deposit formation to operate at the
highest efficiency and gain minimal
downtime and maximum profit. When
engines are burdened with deposits, engine efficiencies are impacted,
which could result in:
Even higher engine temperatures
Loss of energy to either create
power or compress gas
Pre-detonation
Engine damage
Because of this potential engine
damage, operations de-rate the engine and reduce loads. This reduction
of load will reduce engine outputs and
may affect the bottom line. Deposits
can also lead to higher wear when
they form in the groove rings so that
the rings can no longer move.
Deposits can cause pre-combustion,
which creates instability in the engine.
This robs an engine of its efficiency.
For example, if pistons cannot move
up and down freely, more energy is
utilized. The result is that the engine
has to work harder to achieve the
same result, consuming more energy
in the process, which could add to operating costs.
When an engine is de-rated, it is
not performing at optimal levels. This
is often because of the presence of
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Call Now (918) 710-3664

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Compressortech2
Lubrication Rate Reduction In Engines

delivers evidence for
And Compressors > History
reduction program
By Walter Sloan
ncreasing environmental and economical pressures demand that the conscientious engine and/or compressor
operator look carefully at lubricant consumption. Proper
volumetric delivery ensures maximum equipment life, minimizes waste, provides efficient operation and causes minimal impact on the environment.
Many gas transmission, distribution, refinery and chemical processing operations using reciprocating engines and
compressors are finding that their lubrication rates to compressor cylinders, rods, power cylinders and valves can
and should be drastically reduced.
In the past, reciprocating machinery has been overlubricated because of inefficiencies in oil delivery systems,
lack of proper attention, or even the users inability to calculate actual lube rate requirements. The more is better
theory was always considered the preferred choice over
not enough.
Possible reductions in lubricant delivery today and the
subsequent cost savings that can be realized are made
possible by any or all of the following factors:
Vastly improved quality and various types of todays lubricating oils and additives
Similar improvements in wear surface materials used
in rider and compression bands, rings, packing glands,
valve guides, cylinder liners, etc.
Increased accuracy and reliability of lubricating system
hydraulic components and monitoring systems
Greater emphasis at the management and operations
levels on responsibility for cost-efficiency and environmental compatibility
This paper deals with lube rate reduction from the lube
systems perspective and what must be addressed to guarantee accurate and reliable lubrication, even at ever-decreasing rates of delivery.
n A Cooper GMWA 10-3 gas transmission engine/compressor with the dual zone lubrication
system installed on the end. This provides the
operator easy access to monitor and adjust the
lubrication system as needed during rounds.
History
A brief review from a historical perspective provides a
better understanding of where and when the industry started with engine and compressor lubrication, what equipment
was used, and how it has been improved over the years.
The typical integral reciprocating engine-driven compressor used in the gas transmission industry may have been
installed before or during the early 1960s. The standard

for lubrication system design at that time was the pumpto-point mechanical lubricator, which required constant attention to filling and adjustment. Each feed point had its
own adjustable stroke pump, and protection or monitoring
of delivery was impossible. Each pump had a practical minimum stroke adjustment and could not be adjusted to the
lower desired flow rates. Many smaller compressors with
these types of systems are still in operation today, so there
is much room for improvement.
Units installed in the mid-to-late 1960s, older units more
recently equipped with newer systems, and newer highspeed, shaft-driven compressors commonly used the more
Walter Sloan is the president and CEO of Sloan Lubrication

Systems, based in Freeport, Pennsylvania. He has more than
40 years of experience in the design, manufacturing, and maintenance of lubrication systems, specifically for compressors and
engines in the energy industry.
42
Compressortech2
n Prior to the divider block style of lubrication, compressors were lubricated using the pump-to-point design.
There is an individual lubrication pump for each point
requiring oil. Each individual pump required attention to
maintain proper lubrication rates.
We Manufacture and
Remanufacture the
Worlds Largest
Crankshafts
Ellwood Crankshaft Group
modern divider block or feeder-type systems. In this type

of lubrication system, a single pump and monitoring arrangement delivers oil to many feed points through a series
of positive displacement divider valves. The oil deliveries
made by these systems are monitored with mechanical
counters and protected with main line flow switches that
provide for alarm or shutdown in the event of lubrication
failure. The shortcoming here is that the protection is afforded by a main line switch, not by actually watching the
volumetric delivery of the divider system.
The next improvement was the electronic monitor, which
used a magnetic reed switch to pick up divider cycles to index an electrical counter and timer. Lube delivery was electrically protected by ensuring divider cycles within a time
limit. Automatic alarm or shutdown was initiated on lubrication failure. This was a definite improvement in the delivery
protection system since it was based on actual volumetric
delivery. There was room still for improvement, however,
due to the fact that personnel needed to be familiar with
calculating lube rates based on divider cycles.
Lubrication systems today use similar type divider networks with much-improved dividers. Piston fit tolerances
are excellent for reliable deliveries; even at the lower flow
rates and higher back pressures. These still use the proximity switch pickup, but new processor-based monitors,
programmable logic controllers (PLCs), or battery-powered
devices now display the actual lubricant delivery rate. This
eliminates all calculation error and permits simple and accurate flow rate adjustments. These monitors also track
total oil deliveries over time to aid in the preparation of oil
consumption records.
Irvine, PA, USA 16329

Hermitage, PA, USA 16148
1-800-247-1326
or 724-347-0250
ecgsales@elwd.com
www.ellwoodcrankshaftgroup.com
A cautionary note
Before jumping into a lube rate reduction program, consider for a moment the following questions:
January-february 2015 43
Compressortech2
Of what vintage are the lubrication system components? Are they still hydraulically capable of delivering
lower flow rates without sacrificing reliability?
How was the lube system pump originally designed? If it
was designed to deliver 100 pints (47 L) of oil per day, it
is probably not adjustable down to the 10 pints (5 L) or so
you may really need. Many of the existing high-capacity
pumps in use today are already at their minimum stroke
while still delivering higher volumes than are required.
If you think you are now delivering too much, then how
much is enough?
What about injection intervals? At roughly 0.002 in.
(0.0508 mm), will lubricant film thickness be regenerated and dispersed often enough at the lower rates? If
secondary divider pistons are too large, intervals can be
stretched to five minutes or more much longer than is
adequate to do so.
Is the engine/compressor in good operating condition?
Is it possible that higher lube rates may be necessary to
compensate for abnormal wear or a long overdue maintenance requirement?
If the basic theory is to deliver only enough oil to replenish the film thickness, which is being carried away
by various factors, what are those factors and can they
be reduced or eliminated? These factors could include
contamination, liquids, water or a host of others.
All of the prior points indicate the requirement for a little
homework before getting started. Testing, maintenance
n This Superior compressor lubrication system is a retrofit

design that provides a divider block assembly and flow rate
monitor with easy access to the pumps for adjustment and
monitoring of current flow rates.
or repairs might need to be performed before considering lube rate reduction. Then, as rates are actually reduced, a comprehensive inspection program must be carried out to verify that wear surfaces are indeed still being
adequately lubricated.
Identifying existing lubrication rates
For pump-to-point lubricators with vacuum sight glasses:
1 drop = 0.002 cu.in. (32.774 mm3) 10 drops/min =
1 pint (473 mL)/24 hr 14,114 drops = 1 pint
For divider block systems with mechanical counters:
Trabon MV lube meter: 168 counts per 1 pint delivered

o 516/s per count = pints/24 hr
Manzel L Series lube meter: 155 counts = 1 pint

Mccord/Lincoln modular lube: 200 counts = 1 pint
Lubriquip MH lube meter: 200 counts = 1 pint

n Pictured is an electronic Wizard monitor that displays the

total flow rate per lubrication zone and monitors for low-flow/
no-flow conditions, alerting operators if a critical lubrication
condition fault requiring attention occurs. Flow rate adjustments to each zone are made easily while watching the actual
total flow rate on an easy-to-read monitor screen.
For electronic monitors with proximity switches:

Total divider displacement in cubic inches x 3000 = constant K
K/s per cycle = pints/24 hr currently delivered
For most processor-based monitors: current flow rates
are constantly displayed.
44
Compressortech2
Recognized
Leader
Calculating required lubrication rates

Power cylinder requirements for two-cycle engines:
Engine horsepower x 8 x 24/brake hp hr/gal. = pints per
24 hr required to ALL power cylinders
Use the following brake horsepower h/gal. that matches
the engine type. These values should be considered as the
maximum amount of oil required. Consider reducing lube
rates down toward the target value.
COOPER
Maximum
Target
GMW 7500
10,000
12,000
GMWA & C
7000
10,000 - 12,000
All other Cooper
10,000
12,000 - 15,000
HSRA and HRA-T
4500
7000 - 9000
HMA, HMB, TMB, RA
5000
7000 - 9000
HRA, TRA, TCV, BA
6000
8000 - 10,000
HBA, HLA, TLA, TCV
7000
9000 - 11,000
CLARK
Scavenging air cylinders start at 2-3 pints (946-1420

mL)/24 hr and reduce by one-half.
Power valve requirements: four stroke engines:
Each valve guide requires 0.05 pints (24 mL) per 24 hr
period.
Innovator in State-of-the-Art
Pipe Supports & Clamps
Inventor of Flywheel Lock
Leaders in Field Machine Work
Pioneers in Casting Rapair
Compressor cylinder requirements based on swept area

calculations:
Stroke x Bore x rpm = pints/24 hr required to cylinder wall
K
For 1 pint/2 mil. sq.ft., K = 32,000
PRODUCTS:
n Pipe Supports & Clamps
n Epoxy Grout
n Anchor Bolts
n Flywheel Locks
n Temperature & Vibration
Sensors
n Spark Plugs
Use 1 pint/2 mil. sq.ft. as maximum lube rate required.

Use 1 pint/5 mil. sq.ft. as target rate.
Lubrication reduction a success story
A mainline gas compressor station in the northeastern
United States has reported great operational savings by reducing lubrication rates. Fourteen integral engine/compressors in operation provide 34,600 hp (25.8 MW). They are
all Clark 2 cycle engines BA, TLA and TCV units. The
lubricant being used is a high-quality popular mineral oil formulated especially for two-cycle engines.
The primary attention has been focused on lube rate
reduction to the power cylinders, though the smaller units
have single-zone lubrication systems, so compressor lube
rates are reduced proportionately with the power.
Engine manufacturer-recommended power lube rates
SERVICES:
n Field Machining
n Casting Repair
n Crankshaft Machining
n Machine Shop
n Broken Bolt Removal
n Frame Reinforcement
n Alignment Services
918-252-7545
www.r-f.com
info@r-f.com
Tulsa, OK
45
Compressortech2
are at 7000 or 7500 brake horsepower hours per gallon, and the above
units have been operated for several
years at between 10,000 and 12,000.
Along with persistent attention to
crankcase leaks and consumption,
the station reported a lube oil savings
of 24,000 gal. (90,850 L) per year.
Operating hours between major
overhauls used to be estimated at
40,000 hr. With these lower lube rates,
this is projected to be extended to between 80,000 and 120,000 hr. This is
attributed primarily to significant reduction of carbon buildup in the ring
and port areas. Visual inspection of
power cylinder walls shows no cuts or
scratches, just a bright, smooth polish.
How much lubrication is enough?
A simple, low-tech approach requires
removal of a cylinder head with a piston at the bottom travel. A quick wipe
of the finger on the wall is all that is
required. If oil is visible on the finger,
lube rates are still too high. If it feels
dry to the touch, but oil still barely appears when wiped with a tissue, the
lube rates are improving. If persistent
stuck rings are still a problem, rates
can be reduced even further, very
small amounts at a time.
Here are some recommendations
by the station personnel for conducting a responsible lube rate reduction
program:
Consistency is the key: the same
person must inspect the cylinder
condition each time. Take pictures
for comparison at each inspection.
Use only good quality oil, formulated and recommended for your
engine service.
Reduce rates by small amounts
only. Operate under normal conditions for several weeks before
next inspection.
Another story
At another mainline gas compression station, there are four Cooper
Bessemer GMWA8-2 engine-driven
compressors. These eight-cylinder
units each develop 2000 hp (1.49
MW) at 250 rpm and drive two 18
in. (457 mm) bore x 20 in. (508 mm)
stroke compressor cylinders. Managements primary concern was regarding carbon buildup in the power
cylinder ports and oil carryover to the

downstream pipeline.
Solution
All lubrication system components,
particularly the divider blocks, were
pressure- and volume-tested to verify
that they were in good condition. The
divider blocks are metering devices
that must make extremely specific
and accurate lube deliveries at lower
volumes. Many older blocks were replaced, ensuring the most accurate
deliveries possible. Terminal check
valves were replaced with positive
sealing types. Then, the pump adjustments were checked to verify current
lube rates were 55 pints (26 L) per 24
hr to all power cylinders, and 14 pints
(7 L) per 24 hours to compressor cylinders and rod packing.
Result
Oil deliveries were reduced to 38
pints (18 L) per day to power and 6 pints
(3 L) per day to compressor, resulting
in yearly oil savings of US$3707. Originally designed in 1964, recommended
lubrication rates were 64 pints (30 L)
per 24 hr. to the power cylinders, and
24 pints (11 L) per 24 hr to the compressor throws. Compared with todays lube rates, lube rate reductions
are saving just this one station more
than 5 gal. (19 L) of oil each day oil
that is not burned and spewed out the
exhaust stack as smoke or sent down
the pipeline as hazardous waste. In
addition, as a result of the protection of
accurate lubrication, all cylinder liners,
rings, riders and various other wear
components now last much longer
between overhauls, reducing system
maintenance cost and time.
Conclusions
The two examples were from one
and two decades ago. Even today,
those principles apply, though rarely
pursued. Lubricating oil costs for
both purchase and disposal are often
considered fixed, rather than looking at those reduced costs positively
affecting the bottom line. Consider
implementing a lube rate reduction
program as soon as possible. It will
be good for you, your customers and
the environment. CT2
46
PRIME
Movers
SwRI
Southwest Research Institute (SwRI)
has opened a high-horsepower engine dynamometer facility, allowing
it to improve its engine research and
evaluation services to industries that
use engines up to 7000 hp (5220 kW)
for applications in transportation, pipelines and power generation.
SwRI performs large-engine services
including alternative fuel evaluations,
emissions research, control system
development, engine performance im
provement, engine and component
design services, fuel injection system
development, standardized testing,
modeling and noise evaluation.
The facilitys centerpiece is a
Froude Hofmann model F63RE dynamometer rated to 8985 hp (6700 kW)
and a maximum speed of 2500 rpm.
The test cells support equipment
(conditioned combustion air, cooling
system, fuel mass-flow measurement
and exhaust system) was designed
to comfortably support 7000 hp (5220
kW) engines.
The first cell was completed in September and the second cell is to be
available in early 2015. All cells accommodate engines that use a variety
of fuels, including natural gas, diesel
and biodiesel, liquefied petroleum gas,
dimethyl ether or Fischer-Tropsch
gas-to-liquid fuels.
Prftechnik
Dr. Thomas Rohe joined Prf
technik Dieter Busch AG as a member of the management board and
has been named chief operating
officer with responsibility for
development,
production and
supply chain
divisions.
Before joining Prftechnik
located close
Dr. T. Rohe
to Munich, Germany Rohe held several executive
positions in organizations in the fields
of research and industry.
Compressortech2
PRIME
Movers
Cummins
Cummins Inc. has named Tracy Embree president of its Components Group,
effective Jan 1. Embree is a member
of the Cummins Leadership Team,
reporting to Chief Operating Officer
Rich Freeland.
Embree succeeded Anant Talaulicar,
who was serving as both both president
of the Components Group while leading
the companys India Area Business Organization. Talaulicar now serves solely
as chairman and managing director of
the India Area Business Organization.
Prior to serving as president of
CTT, Embree worked in the midrange
engine business where she was responsible for the on-highway line of
business. She has also held marketing and sales positions in Cummins
Emission Solutions and Filtration businesses and was executive director of
the Chrysler business. Embree also
spent two years in the power generation business as general manager for
Cummins Energy Solutions Business
in Kent, U.K.
Motortech
Motortech has opened a training and
technical center at its headquarters in
Celle, Germany.
The company, which makes ignition
components, air/fuel ratio controllers
and engine management systems for
stationary gas engines, also is constructing a research and development
(R&D) center at the Celle factory.
The training center has workbenches equipped with tools for working on
gas regulation systems, including the
companys VariFuel2, and simulating
the functions of the VariFuel2 and the
EmCon5. There is also an engine simulator and pickup tester.
The R&D building will provide extra space and equipment for various
departments, including electronic and
software development, mechatronics
and construction. It will have a separate laboratory for ignition tests.
tain limited partner interests that tointernational contract operations, intergether represent a 37% ownership innational aftermarket services and global
terest in Exterran Partners, as well as
fabrication businesses into a freestandall of the incentive distribution rights in
ing, publicly traded company (SpinCo).
Exterran Partners.
Upon completion of the transaction,
RemainCo will own and operate the
Exterran Holdings will be a pure-play
remaining U.S. contract operations and
U.S. compression services business
U.S. aftermarket services businesses
named RemainCo. It will retain the
Carryover
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Exterran
Exterran Holdings Inc. is separating its
47
Compressortech2
Monitoring System Keeps Small Fault From

vibration analysis
Becoming Catastrophic > Segmented
triggers timely shutdown
By Skip Morrison
fective response of MarkWests maintenance team. This incident illustrates
how effective advanced conditionmonitoring systems can be, especially
in terms of their sensitivity to minute
changes in normal operating behavior, their accurate diagnosis of what
those changes mean, and their ability to activate a proper automatic response all within a few revolutions
of a crankshaft.
n The compressor deck at MarkWest

Javelina, Corpus Christi, Texas.
n the 200 ms it takes for one revolution of a crankshaft, everything

can change. In that brief span
of time, the structural integrity of a
single, concealed bolt can reach the
breaking point, beginning a cascading
series of events that causes the catastrophic failure of an entire machine.
Consequences may include not only
hundreds of thousands of dollars in
equipment damage, maintenance expenses and lost productivity, but also
possible emissions releases and serious threats to the safety of nearby
personnel.
Sound unlikely? Its precisely the
scenario encountered by MarkWest
Javelina, an off-gas processing plant
in Corpus Christi, Texas, owned by
MarkWest Energy Partners LP. However, the outcome was not failure, but
triumph for the plants foresight and
Skip Morrison is president and general

manager at Prognost Systems Inc., overseeing Prognost System sales, project
realization and customer support.
protective measures. Impending disaster was averted by an advanced

condition-monitoring system installed
on a critical compressor and by the ef-
Plant, compression system and

monitoring technology
The MarkWest Javelina plant pro
cesses off-gas from six Corpus Christiarea refineries. A byproduct once used
as boiler and heater fuel, off-gas contains ethylene (C2H4), ethane (C2H6),
hydrogen and other components that
are now more valuable when recovered for use as basic petrochemicals
and feedstocks. By collecting off-gas
from multiple refineries, MarkWest attains sufficient volumes to make pro-
n Figure 1. Two-revolution plot shows moment of bolt failure. In the first revolution
(left side), the vibration signal is normal. In the second revolution (right side), the stepchange impact is shown. Shutdown was triggered within three revolutions.
48
Compressortech2
cessing and separating these components economically viable. With all six
refineries online, MarkWest Javelina
can process roughly 1.38 x 108 scfd (3 x
106 Nm3/d) of off-gas. From this supply,
the plant generates more than 28,000
bbl/d of liquid hydrocarbons, including
ethylene, ethane, propylene (C3H6),
propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10) and
natural gasoline, as well as 3 x 107 scfd
(849,000 Nm3/d) of hydrogen.
The process at MarkWest Javelina
begins by running off-gas through an
amine unit and Sulferox unit to scrub
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Then, an inlet gas compression system boosts gas pressure
to send it to a dehydrator unit and cryo
genic plant for separation into each hy
drocarbon component.
The massive gas compression system consists of four Cooper-Bessemer
LM-8 reciprocating compressors, each
with eight throws and two stages. A
synchronous electric drive operates
at a maximum speed of 257 rpm and
8173 hp (6010 kW). Inlet pressure is
60 psia (4 bar) and discharge pressure is 575 psia (39 bar).
Off-gas is a notoriously unpredictable and challenging application for a
compressor. The presence of incompressible substances and the composition and molecular weight of gas
received by MarkWest Javelina can
change significantly from hour to hour
depending upon operating conditions
at each of the six refineries. Nevertheless, the reliability of the compression
system is crucial to operations.
When the plant first opened in 1990,
the compressors were protected by
simple mechanical vibration switches
(earthquake switches), which met
American Petroleum Institute (API)
[1] standards at the time. Although
these switches provided some basic
shutdown protection, they offered no
indication of the source or severity
of a problem. With large, eight-throw
machines, finding the cause of a trip
was often time-consuming and costly.
The reliability of the switches was also
questioned as plant personnel experienced frequent nuisance (false)
trips, as well as some switches that
failed to activate when needed.
The critical importance of the compressor units led to a decision in 2005

to improve protection and add predictive maintenance capabilities with an
advanced condition-monitoring system. The technology selected was a
Prognost-NT system providing safety
protection, early failure detection, wear
monitoring (for first-stage cylinders)
and process data integration. Sensor hardware on the compressors in
cluded a phase-angle trigger on the
flywheel, acceleration sensors on all

crosshead guides, velocity sensors on
all rear pedestal bearings, and eddycurrent piston rod position sensors on
the first-stage cylinders.
The Prognost-NT system uses a
unique segmented crank angle (root
mean square [RMS]) vibration analysis
for extreme precision. This capability
subdivides each time waveform into 36
individual, 10-degree segments, treating
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We focus on one thing and one thing only providing you
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Compressortech2
n Figure 2. Online plot of crossheads five, six and seven in time domain
shows impacts occurring simultaneously (i.e., caused by same source).
each segment as a separate data
point. Each segment has a safety limit
value that can be set independently
to account for normal events, such as
high valve impacts or increased vibration events at rod load reversal points.
The system also calculates the peakto-peak value of the segmented pistonrod-position (run out) signal, providing
additional information regarding the
condition of motion works components.
The monitoring system has proven
its worth many times, but none more
dramatically than the day in February
2014, when a single bolt failure threatened dire consequences. MarkWest
Javelina maintenance manager Kelly
Lockard describes the experience.
Sequence of events
Our machines had been in service
for 24 years without major overhauls,
Lockard said. The work on this machine, compressor C, was recently
completed and it had been back in
service for less than a month.
On February 12, the Prognost-NT
system tripped the compressor offline
based on two alerts detecting vibration in crossheads five, six and seven.
Trend data from the system on all
crossheads indicated no increase in
the minute-to-minute vibration trend prior to the trip. Ring buffer data showed
that a step-change impact occurred
at three segments (27, 28 and 29) on
crossheads five and six, three revolutions before the trip.

High-speed, full-waveform data reveals details of the first impact. Figure
1 shows data from the crosshead five
acceleration sensor over two revolutions. During the first revolution (left
side) the vibration signal is normal,
but the increase in amplitude during
the next revolution (right side) shows
the moment of impact. As was later
discovered, this was the instant in
which a connecting rod bolt sheared
and hit the top cover.
Viewing ring buffer data in the
time domain showed impacts were
also recorded on crossheads six,
seven and eight (Figure 2), indicating that each impact was caused by
the same source.
Based on this analysis and input
from the systems support team, we
decided to pull the crosshead slide
doors and inspect crossheads five,
six and seven, Lockard said. There

were no visible abnormalities. Pin to
bushing clearances and fit were all
within tolerances. We then barred
over the compressor for approximately 30 min., but nothing was knocking
or binding. There were no audible
or visual indications of a mechanical
failure. At this point, we decided to
re-start the compressor, but the system immediately tripped it again. We
had personnel on-site this time who
heard banging noises coming from
the crankcase, but the system had already shut down the unit before they
could stop it manually.
Consulting with Prognost support,
we found that the restart ring buffer
delivered similar data as on the first
trip. They explained that the issue was
most likely related to the big end connecting rod bearing at the crankshaft.
Since there were no impacts when
the machine was barred over, they
suspected a loose or broken component. We decided to do a thorough
inspection during daylight hours the
next day.
The next morning, we removed the
crankcase side covers to inspect connecting rod bearings for throws five,
six, seven and eight, as well as the
side covers for the crossheads and
top doors. Again, there were no visible
indications of any problems.
So we decided to conduct a torque
check on each of the connecting rod
bolts and main bearing bolts. Almost
immediately, we found a broken bolt
on the big end con rod of throw five.
The bolt was snapped completely in
two. But since that bolt is inserted
through the top of the connecting rod,
it looked normal when doing a visual
inspection. During operation, centrifu-
n Figure 3. Log entries reveal the sudden nature of the event, with
only two seconds between the first alert and the shutdown alarm.
50
Compressortech2
apart and there was a major wreck

of the machine. The costs of materials and labor would have been huge.
Downtime is a factor too. If it destroyed the crankshaft, it would take a
year for a replacement.
In terms of productivity, an outage for this compressor would reduce
plant capacity by a third until we could
bring a spare compressor online. We
were just beginning another overhaul
at the time, so we would have been at
least three months away from having

a compressor available.
Of course, we cant measure the
most serious consequence of all,
which is the threat to personnel safety.
A catastrophic failure could put anyone
nearby in danger. MarkWest Javelina
has gone 14 years without a lost-time
accident. Thats the result of our commitment to do whatever it takes to protect our people. The extra measure of
GAS COMPRESSION
SERVICES
n Kelly Lockard shows
location of sheared bolt
on the connecting rod at
MarkWest Javelina.
gal force caused the top of the bolt
to slide out far enough to hit the top
cover of the compressor and then
drop back into the con rod. That cycle
repeating itself was the impact noise
we heard when we attempted restart.
Because of the immediate shutdown of the machine by the PrognostNT system, there was no other damage. As a precaution, we installed a
spare con rod and sent out the original
one for analysis. The con rod was determined to be in proper condition. We
also sent the bolt for analysis, but no
definitive cause has been determined
for the break. The important thing is
that we were able to quickly isolate
the problem before any additional
damage occurred and restore normal
operations in less than two days.
Benefits of timely shutdown
Timely shutdown of the compressor
avoided substantial costs and potentially tragic consequences.
The bolt sheared from the end of
the con rod that has only two bolts,
Lockard said. That meant we had a
very limited amount of time before the
other bolt broke, the con rod came
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Compressortech2
n This photo shows the big end of a connecting rod

with a sheared bolt embedded.
safety we get from our monitoring system is another reason why we have
implemented the Prognost-NT system
on our newest compressor.
The state of machine monitoring
MarkWest Javelina benefited from
the ability of their monitoring system to
detect a relatively small fault at an early
stage and the speed with which the system was able to take proper action (i.e.,
shut down the machine). The shearing
of the bolt was literally a single-cycle
failure. There was no gradual increase
or trend to indicate an impending problem. Still, the system was able to shut
off power to the electric drive within two
seconds of the failure (Figure 3).
To avoid false trips from brief transient events, the Prognost-NT system
requires high vibration amplitude in a
number of segments (typically, a minimum of five segments). It must be a
high value across a wide span of crank
angle degrees to distinguish a significant impact. Additionally, vibration values must exceed established safety
limits for a preset number of consecutive revolutions to generate a trip alarm.
In this case, however, the bolt failure resulted in such a strong impact
that the system recognized a violation
of safety limits on both the throw-five
crosshead sensor, as well as on the
sensor on the opposite throw. For
these conditions, shutdown is activated after only three revolutions. This

additional level of sensitivity shortened
the length of time the machine operated with a single bolt, keeping that side
of the big end con rod together.
Conclusions
Since being commissioned in 2005
on these four critical compressors,
the Prognost-NT system has provided significant return on investment
by detecting multiple failures of drivetrain components at an early stage
and successfully interlocking the machine before consequential damages

could occur.
The bolt failure incident at MarkWest Javelina demonstrates the value of advanced condition monitoring
in detecting the smallest of faults and
avoiding the consequences of both
routine and catastrophic failures. CT2
Reference
[1] American Petroleum Institute
(API), 1220 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005-4070; www.api.org.
n A sheared bolt is shown.
52
Compressortech2
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01/15 1511621
A Wear Map For Reciprocating

Compressors > Volumetric charts provide best picture
By Luis Infante
corner
TECH
eciprocating compressors in oil and gas applications are subject to stringent operating conditions
that may lead to accelerated wear on the pressure
seals. It also applies to combustion engines.
Compressor performance maps are a graphic model of the
thermodynamic behavior of the machine, usually in as new
condition, and methodologies to graphically account for wear
in such maps are not abundant in the energy industry.
Some operators of reciprocating compressors in remote
areas or areas with little support and service availability can
have difficulties in finding the correct setting for the variable
volume clearance pockets (VVCP) in a performance map
because both engine and compressor have accumulated
a significant amount of wear. This is particularly true in the
presence of network pressure fluctuations.
Field analysts of reciprocating compressors may have
difficulties in matching the gas flow obtained from the performance map with the one obtained with an electronic analyzer or a meter. It also applies to field people with nothing
but a performance map at hand.
Several reciprocating compressor map formats are available in the energy industry, some more practical than others.
Here we present useful formats that can be of interest for
those linked with the field analysis for this type of machinery.
Another idea behind this paper is to let the reader evaluate the suitability of the map formats presented here, and
provide feedback if desired.
Self-explaining graphs are presented in order to reduce
this narrative to a minimum. Verbal clarifications will be provided to the reader.
n Figure 1. Typical triple performance map. RPM = fixed, Pd

= constant
Triple performance map

Having power and flow curves together with a VVCP setting as a function of suction pressure is a convenient way to
help operators to find the recommended setting for the VVCP.
Figures 1 and 2 are the so-designated basic performance maps (BPM) or match available power maps in as
Luis Infante is chief engineering officer for Turbodina C.A. in Caracas, Venezuela. He has a bachelors degree in mechanical
engineering from Simon Bolivar University and 30 years of experience in rotating equipment engineering, operations, maintenance and training. He focuses on reliability engineering for
gas compressors. Contact him at: mando@turbodina.com
n Figure 2. Typical triple performance map. Pd = varying, RPM

= fixed
54
Compressortech2
new condition. The key points for the

three curves are the vertices where
the curves break. Of course the three
curves break at the same Ps where the
driver becomes overloaded.
Operation outside
performance map
Figures 3 and 4 help an operator in
the field to estimate the performance
for an arbitrary VVCP setting.
Lets suppose the operator sets
the VVCP in the S (sensitive) setting shown in Figure 3. Resultant
flow can be estimated by linear extrapolation based upon the dotted
flow line extending from the vertice.
X, Y and X can be determined from
the vertical axes scales or with a
measuring tape on the graph. Y flow
change can be cleared from the proportionality relationship:
X/X = Y/Y
Use the same approach for power.
In such a way one can skip the use of
a PC on the field.
n Figure 3. Sensitive operating-point

estimation.
A sensitive (S) setting can be either
a result of an incorrect adjustment
from the operator or a result from a
pressure fluctuation.
Figure 4 illustrates how to deal with S
settings. The slope of the brown power
n Figure 4. What if? performance map.

Variations in Ps and VVCP setting.
line, the result of suction pressure
fluctuations, is between the slopes of
the lines at vertices. At its own, the
slope of the brown flow line is fairly
parallel to the lines at vertices.
n Figure 5. Performance map with wear only in the engine side.
n Figure 6. Performance map with wear only in the compressor side.
Engine wear map

Figure 5 shows the BPM with wear only in the engine
side. The wear in the compressor is kept at 0% in this analysis. The blue lines represent the performance with the engine in as new 0% wear condition, whereas the light
blue lines represent the performance with the engine in the
worn out 100% wear condition.
Wear level on the engine side can be conveniently linked
to the measured cold compression (or with elapsed time) in
power cylinders. As cold compression drops (from 240 to
150 lb. [109 to 68 kg]), the HP and Q curves drop from the
blue lines to the light blue ones. At its own, the VVCP setting line rises from the blue line to the light blue one. Focus
on the vertices of the performance curves.
Incidentally, the behavior of the VVCP curves is acting as
a pivoting stick, with the pivot located somewhere down
the Y axis.
By having the blue and light blue lines, corresponding to
0 and 100%, respectively, one can figure out the current
VVCP line for any intermediate wear level by just drawing
the corresponding VVCP line (lets say 80% wear) in the
appropriate angular location of the pivoting stick. See the
black line in the bottom VVCP part of Figure 5.
Next, the flow and power curves can be easily located by
extending a vertical line from the intersection of the pivoting stick with the X axis. See the red line in Figure 5 for
80% engine wear alone. Red circles show the location of
vertices. Black lines represent the resultant BPM with 80%
wear in the engine side.
Field operators can quickly update a BPM without any
software by knowing/guessing the amount of wear in the

engine side. Use this setup also for fuel/ambient deration.
Compressor wear map

Figure 6 shows the BPM with wear only in the compressor side. The blue lines represent compressor performance
in as new condition, whereas the red lines represent performance in worn out 100% wear condition.
Wear levels can be conveniently linked to the measured
or current lumped volumetric efficiency (VE) of the compressor. By comparing current lumped VE against as new, one
can elaborate a percentage wear indicator for compressor
cylinders. Such indicator needs further elaboration not provided in this paper, but certainly can be handled with the
help of an electronic analyzer.
For the purpose of this proposal, a 50-point drop in the
as new suction volumetric efficiency SVE is considered
100% wear. Two industry-accepted thresholds for low SVE
do exist: one is 30% (alarm), when thermodynamic formulae starts losing accuracy due to the amount of hot gas
trapped (and ready to mix with cold gas at the end of reexpansion event) at the end of discharge event. The other
is 15% (trip) when flow reversal plays a major role in the
discharge valve plate dynamic, shortening its life by means
of high impact velocities against the seat. These values
should be adjusted in a case-by-case basis, taking into account the gas handled and the maximum VE attainable by
a given cylinder design.
Lumped VE can be derived from the electronic analyzer
readings and arithmetically elaborated depending on the
56
Compressortech2
number of stages and cylinders. In a multistage compressor the key VE is the one associated to the first stage. In a
multicylinder stage one can use a (weighted) average.
In Figure 6, 100% means the lumped VE dropped 50
points from the as new value, whatever it is. The performance curves move from the blue lines to the red ones. The
same pivoting stick effect as stated above applies here for
the three curves.
The green line in Figure 6 together with the green circles
depicts the location of the vertices in order to sketch arbitrary 80% wear curves for this map. Black lines depict the
resultant BPM with 80% wear only in the compressor side.
Wear of 80% represents a drop of 40 points (80 x 50/100)
in the as new VE, whatever it is.
Equal wear map
Figure 7 shows the BPM with equal wear for both engine
and compressor sides. The blue lines depict the location
of the vertices for both the 100% wear engine and 100%
wear compressor. The vertices for the HP and Q curves
drop vertically in location along the red line, whereas the
VVCP curve stays always on the as new blue line.
For adjusting both HP and Q curves for a given common
wear level (lets say 80%), one drops proportionally the
vertices down along the vertical red line. Red circles show
n Figure 7. Performance map with equal wear in both sides.
FOR MORE INFORMATION AND TO REGISTER VISIT:

WWW.GASCOMPRESSOR.ORG/MEETINGS
GCA.indd 1
january-february
2015
57
1/21/15 8:27 AM 2
Compressortech
lustrative engine-compressor set that reports 50% wear on

the engine side and 25% wear on the compressor. Such a
case has a differential wear of 50% - 25% = 25% toward the
engine side (engine has 25% more wear than compressor).
First, one draws the vertical line denoted as A, and
drops both the HP and Q curves half way (50%) along A.
Secondly, one draws lines C and D parallel to original HP
and Q curves. Next, one draws another vertical line denoted as B starting at a point on the X axis corresponding to
25% differential wear on the engine side.
One finds the derated HP and Q vertices on the intersections between lines B, C and D. The derated vertice for
VVCP curve is located on the intersection between B and
the X axis. One finds the approximate slope for the VVCP
curve following the grey lines spectrum.
The final de-rated BPM is comprised of the black lines.
Constant volumetric efficiency map for recips
Figures 9 and 10 show head-end constant SVE lines C1
HE in as new condition on the bottom portion of the BPM
for a four-stage reciprocating compressor.
Nominal values are:
n Figure 8. Performance map with combined wear.
Ps = 60 psig (4.1 bar)

Pd = 1350 psig (83 bar)
VVCP setting = 3.8 in. (9.7 cm)
HE SVE = 29% (approximate interpolated value)
the approximate position of the vertices for the HP and Q

curves having 80% wear in the engine and 80% wear in the
compressor. Again, the VVCP curve is the blue line. Black
lines show the resultant BPM.
By opening VVCP to 13.3 cm, SVE yields 18%.

Figure 10 shows a more complete picture with VE lines
for different discharge pressures: from Nominal values, if
Pd increases to 1450 psig (100 bar). then the 18% SVE line
drops slightly, thus increasing the SVE to 29.25% (interpolate value, approximate).
Performance map with combined wear

Figure 8 shows the BPM with combined wear (wear map)
with the full spectrum of the effect of combined wear on
both engine and compressor sides. Blue lines show the
BPM with both engine and compressor in as new 0%
wear condition and also in worn out 100% wear condition. Light blue lines show the BPM with 100% wear only
in the engine side, whereas red lines show the BPM with
100% wear only in the compressor side.
The objective of this map is to de-rate the BPM for an il-
n Figure 10. Head-end constant volumetric efficiency map for a

recip compressor.
A characteristic map for crank-end constant suction volumetric efficiency (DVE) is shown in Figure 11. This cylinder
has a VVCP in the head end side, which setting lines are
also shown. DVE changes with VVCP setting because interstage pressures change with it.
n Figure 9. Head-end constant volumetric efficiency map for a recip compressor.

58
Compressortech2
pressor (and engine) side. As proposed above, percentage

wear can be estimated once both current and as new VEs
are at hand.
Figure 12 shows a multistage compressor (same depicted in Figures 9 and 10) with a VVCP setting of 3 in. (7.6 cm)
and a current SVE of 40%, as measured by an electronic
analyzer. The theoretical as new value for SVE is 41% according to constant VE lines. Percentage wear can then be
deducted arithmetically as follows:
VE Drop (Wear):
Current wear: 100 (41 40)/50 = 2%
Alarm: 100 (41 30)/50 = 22%
Trip: 100 (41 15)/50 = 52%
n Figure 11. CE suction volumetric efficiency map

for a recip compressor.
Where 50 is the maximum SVE allowable drop, 30 is

alarm level and 15 is trip level as proposed earlier in the
compressor wear map discussion.
The above analysis is valid only for theoretical SVEs
greater than 30%. In the event theoretical SVE is less than
30%, then the cylinder is poorly designed, and alarm and
trip levels do not apply (would be negative).
In order to estimate the lumped current VE for characterizing wear in a given cylinder, a set of four values should be
available, namely:
HE SVE
HE DVE
CE SVE
CE DVE
n Figure 12. Measuring wear using volumetric

efficiency maps.
However, DVE should be used with caution, because discharge valve malfunctions can cause flow reversal and can
virtually and erroneously increase DVE readings taken with
an electronic analyzer.
Mathematical manipulation of such parameters in order
to obtain a lumped value is a challenge beyond of the scope
of this paper.
Nominal values are:

Ps = 60 psig (4.1 bar)
Pd = 800 psig (5.5 bar)
VVCP setting = 4.6 in. (11.7 cm)
CE SVE = 81.9%
Conclusion
Updating performance maps according to accumulated
wear can help field operators and analysts to estimate the
recommended VVCP settings due to changing process
conditions (Ps, Pd) and to match flow readings either from
electronic analyzers or meters.
Electronic analyzers commonly provide theoretical
VEs, the same as VE maps in Figures 9 through 12, but
VE maps provide the analyst with a more complete picture of the cylinder characteristic behavior in a wide operating range.
Modern reciprocating compressor modelers can be of
paramount help in order to produce the VE maps required
to estimate percentage wear in the cylinder.
Further refinement of the algorithm suggested in this paper can produce useful tools to account for wear in the reciprocating compressor performance maps. CT2
If discharge pressure decreases to 700 psig (48.2 bar),

then CE SVE decreases to 79.5% (interpolate value). In
the event suction pressure increases to 65 lb. (29 kg), then
CE SVE decreases further to 77.8% (interpolate value).
It is apparent from Figure 11 that volumetric efficiency
maps, as shown, are capable of estimating accurately to
one decimal value.
But what if this cylinder has some wear in it? How can
one determine the percentage of wear from an electronic
analyzer reading?
Measuring wear with electronic analyzers
Electronic analyzers provide volumetric efficiency readings, which can help in determining current wear in the comjanuary-february 2015
59
Compressortech2
Avoiding Liquid Carryover Problems In

Recip Compressors > EFRC guidelines offer solutions
Type Of Separators
Slug
Handlingc
Droplet
Handling
Turndown
Ratiod
Pressure Dropd
Fouling
Tolerance
Vertical Knockout-Drums
++
--
++
Horizontal Knockout-Drums
++
++
--
++
Cyclone With Tangential Inlet
++
Cyclone With Straight Line And Swirler
++
Horizontal Vane-Type
-/--e
Vertical Vane-Type (Inline)a
--
-/--e
Vertical Vane-Type (Vertical)a
-/--e
Horizontal Wire Mesha
++
++
-/--e
Vertical Wire Mesha
++
-/--e
Cyclone Packs With Wire Mesha
++
++
0/-
Cyclone Packs With Vane Pack
++
++
0/-
--
++
++
++
--
Coalescers
These demisters are combined with a knockout drum.

b
Limited by droplet size and entrainment onset.
c
Slug handling of each device can be improved with a suitable inlet device.
d
See Annex A in the full presentation for values of turndown ratio and approximated pressure drop.
e
Depends on the type of wire mesh or vane pack.
a
n Table 1. Comparison of the characteristics of gas/liquid separators. Explanation of used symbols: -- is very low, - is low, 0 is moderate,
+ is high, ++ is very high.
Editors Note: This paper summarizes a presentation that P.S. Omrani
and Andre Eijk, both with TNO, made
at the Ninth Conference of the European Forum for Reciprocating Compressors on Sept. 12 in Vienna. Contact the
authors at: pejman.shoeibiomrani@
tno.nl or andre.eijk@tno.nl.
he working principle of a recip

rocating compressor is based
on the compression of gas.
Due to incompressibility of the liquid
phase, the compressor is incapable
of handling the liquid carryover inside
the compressor cylinders.
Liquid is harmful to a compressor
not only because it imposes signifi
cant hydraulic forces, which may re
sult in loss of containment (typically
head cover dislodged), but it also liter
ally washes away any protective and
lubricating effects of compressor oil
and rider materials.
Thus, it is desired to design and oper
ate a reciprocating compressor system
to prevent liquid problems in the system.

This was also concluded from a reli
ability survey conducted by the R&D
group of the European Forum for Re
ciprocating Compressors (EFRC).
For these reasons, EFRC decided
to start an R&D project on the devel
opment of guidelines on how to avoid
liquid problems in reciprocating com
pressor systems.
Liquid carryover to compressor cy
l
inders could be due to inefficient
separation, condensation in upstream
components or excessive cylinder lu
brication for the lubricated machine.
Additionally, the amount and the
form of liquid entering the compressor
cylinder have an effect on the extent
of the damage, which can ultimately
be a catastrophic failure and loss of
process containment.
Until now, there were no standard
and detailed guidelines on how to pre
vent liquid problems in compressor
systems, especially for reciprocating
compressors.
60
There are some design rules indi

cated in section 7.7.1.4, API Standard
618, Fifth Edition, which are summa
rized as follows:
Liquid separator shall be as close
as possible to the compressor
suction side
Separator efficiency over the oper
ating flow rates shall be maintained
Sufficient separator volume to
handle incoming slugs
Sufficient gas velocity in the line
from the separator to the cylinder
to minimize liquid dropout
Elimination of low points between
the separator and cylinder
Sloping of the piping system
Insulation to minimize heat losses
Heat tracing to maintain the gas tem
perature at or above the dew point.
It is of general opinion that the API
618 guidelines on preventing liquid
carryover problems give too little in
formation and guidance for this spe
cific problem.
Compressortech2
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The EFRC R&D team conducted

a number of interviews and decided
that API 618, together with some internal guidelines from the interviewed
companies, could be used to prevent
liquid carryover problems.
The team also concluded that during
the design of a complete compressor
system, components such as dampers
and piping are not chosen with respect
to avoiding liquid problems. For that
reason, more detailed and quantitative
rules and guidelines are required for the
basic design and operation of reciprocating compressor systems to ensure a
safe, reliable and efficient operation of
the complete system for the long term
with respect to liquid carryover.
For instance, guidelines in choosing an appropriate type of a separator,
pipe layout with an adequate sloping,
etc., should be addressed and explained in the guidelines. Thus, developing guidelines on how to prevent
liquid carryover is essential.
Scope of guidelines
The EFRC guidelines are divided
into two main parts.
The first part focuses on the design
of compressor components with respect to liquid carryover prevention.
The second part details the operation of
the reciprocating compressor system.
In these guidelines, each component in the system is discussed in order to decrease the chance of liquid
related problems. Engineering rules
are given to increase the awareness
on the design and operation of different compressor systems components.
It is recommended that the EFRC
guidelines be used in conjunction with
the more detailed guidelines, which
are specifically developed for each
component of the reciprocating compressor system, such as separator,
pulsation damper, etc.
The system components which are
covered by these guidelines are:
Separators and their auxiliaries,
such as demisters, level control, etc.
Pulsation dampers
Upstream, downstream and interstage piping
Miscellaneous.
The guidelines can be applied to
various reciprocating compressor systems including:

Horizontal, vertical, V-, W- and Ltype compressor systems
Constant and variable speed compressors
Compressors driven by electric
motors, gas and diesel engines,
steam turbines, with or without a
gearbox, flexible or rigid coupling
Dry running and lubricated reciprocating compressors
Compressor systems for all types
of gases
Diaphragm compressors
Labyrinth compressors.
Separator
This section of the guidelines focuses on the design check and operation of separators with respect to
liquid carryover prevention and is one
of the most important chapters. The
following topics are discussed in the
separator section:
E
ngineering guidelines for pre-selection of separators and demisters
Rules on how to check the vendors design of a separator and its
auxiliaries
Additional engineering rules for the
design and operation of separators.
Table1 compares the different characteristics of gas/liquid separators.
Pulsation dampers
This section of the guidelines focuses on the design considerations of pulsation dampers with respect to liquid
carryover prevention.
The main function of pulsation dampers is to reduce the pulsations in the
system to acceptable levels. Thus, the
pulsation dampers are not designed to
work as a separator. However, these
devices are ideal spots for liquid to accumulate and lead to liquid carryover.
Piping
In this section, rules on the design
of different parts of the piping are detailed to avoid liquid problems.
The design of the suction piping up
and downstream of the inlet separator
is critical. It should always be sloped
toward the separator, and low points
or pockets should be avoided.
Process gas dew point should be

calculated accurately at each compression stage and a dew point margin
should be considered to account for
possible uncertainties in the models
and process gas sampling accuracies.
Heat tracing, including insulation
of the suction piping, should be considered to ensure the process gas
temperature always will be avoid the
dew point.
The design of the discharge piping
with respect to liquid problems is less
crucial, but it also must be considered. In general, the pipe configuration
should be designed in such a way to
avoid liquid accumulation in low points
and blocked points (dead end).
Miscellaneous
In this part, some design and operational guidelines on other systems
components are given to mitigate liquid carryover problems.
Different topics such as compressor valves, cylinder lubrication, valve
unloaders, coolers and compressor
recycle operation are discussed.
Operations
Since most of the liquid carryover
problems are initiated during the
start-up or cold restart of the compressor, a procedure was developed
to give a step-by-step approach to
prevent liquid carryover problems
during these conditions.
Conclusions
Previously, there were no engineering guidelines and standards on how
to prevent liquid carryover problems
in reciprocating compressor systems.
That prompted EFRCs research
and development group to develop
such guidelines to ensure the longterm reliability, safety and efficiency
of reciprocating compressors. It is
believed that applying these recommendations will considerably reduce
the chances of liquid problems in reciprocating compressor systems. CT2
The guidelines can
be downloaded from the
EFRC website: www.recip.org.
Compressortech2
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Instructional Video
Blackmer has produced a video
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reliability and production of the system while also reducing costly downtime and
maintenance, the company said. The video can be found at: www.psgdover.com/
en/psgtv/item/5148-does-your-vru-compressor-vibrate-it-shouldnt.
The company said its video explains the proper way to eliminate vibration in
the compressor: anchoring it to a suitable baseplate that is at least four times
the weight of the compressor, and then bolting the baseplate to a concrete slab,
which should be placed on a graded, level surface.
www.blackmer.com
64
GE Measurement & Control has unveiled its DPI 611 handheld pressure
calibrator designed for use in the process, oil and gas, power generation
and general engineering sectors.
The DPI 611 is twice as efficient
at generating pressure, half the size,
has twice the pressure accuracy and
three times better electrical accuracy
than its DPI 610 predecessor, the
company said.
The instrument is the first dedicated pressure calibrator to feature
swipe screen touch technology, GE
said, and its intuitive screen interface
displays a comprehensive application dashboard. A task menu allows
simple, three-touch setup for any
pressure test or calibration. A Favorites facility also enables quick access
to frequently used tasks and custom configurations, which are easily
stored. Results are displayed on the
large screen and can be documented
in 8 GB of user memory.
The instrument can automate processes to significantly reduce calibration times by running pre-defined
procedures, calculating errors and re
porting PASS/FAIL errors. The DPI
611 integrates with leading calibration
and maintenance software, including
4Sight from GE, to help maintain compliance with industry standards and
regulations and improve process and
operational efficiency.
www.ge-mcs.com
Compressortech2
PRIME
Movers
continued from page 47

currently owned by Exterran Holdings.
The operations of Exterran Partners
will not be affected by the transaction.
SpinCos businesses will consist of
Exterran Holdings current international contract operations and aftermarket
services businesses, with operations
in Latin America and parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, and its global fabrication business.
Caterpillar/Solar Turbines
Caterpillar Inc. has named Pablo
Koziner as vice president and president of San Diego, California-based
Solar Turbines, effective Jan. 1. Koziner
previously served as vice president with
responsibility for Cats Americas Distribution Services Division.
Tom Pellette, currently a Cat vice
president and the president of Solar Turbines, was named group president for
Cats Construction Industries group, effective Jan. 1.
Koziner, a native of Buenos Aires,

joined Caterpillars Legal Services di
vision in 2001 within the organizations
Latin American Commercial division. In
2005, he became Power Systems regional manager in
Monterey, Mexico,
and was responsible for Caterpillars electric power,
petroleum, marine
and industrial engine businesses.
In 2013, Koziner
P. Koziner
was named vice
president with responsibility for the
Americas Distribution Services division.
T.F. Hudgins
T.F. Hudgins Inc. has completed
the acquisition of Jamison Products,
a Houston-based provider of engineered pipeline and filtration products used in a wide range of gas and
fluid-handling applications including

strainers, separators, filter vessels,
pig launchers and closures.
The addition of Jamison is T.F.
Hudgins first acquisition and adds
complementary engineered products
and broadens the companys customer
base, the company said.
Founded in 1947 and headquartered in Houston, T.F. Hudgins pro
vides engineered products and service
solutions that improve the reliability, efficiency and performance of
compressors, engines and other industrial machinery. T.F. Hudgins has
locations in Houston, New Orleans and
Venezuela, as well as a sales office
in Australia.
The acquisition of Jamison continues our multifaceted growth strategy
and diversifies our customer base as
we expand further into adjacent end
markets and product categories, T.F.
Hudgins CEO Ted Edwards said.
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1/22/15 8:20 AM 2
Compressortech
n The 1033 ft. (315 m) Al Ruwais was one of the first liquefied
natural gas tankers to enter the N-KOM dry docks in 2012.
Maintaining Boil-Off
reliquefy gas aboard
Gas Compressors > Units
Q-Flex LNG carriers
By Roberto Chellini
he State of Qatar owns 15% of

the worlds liquefied natural gas
(LNG) carriers, including 31 QFlex vessels all rated at 7.6 x 106 cu.ft.
(216,000 m3).
In order to minimize their maintenance times, the major equipment
aboard the vessels is regularly serv
iced at the two N-KOM dry docks of
the Erhama Bin Jabel Al Jalahma
Shipyard in the port of Ras Laffan.
Each vessel is powered by a slowspeed, two-stroke diesel and has a
plant on board to reliquefy all boiloff gas (BOG) produced during voyages. The system, rated at 6.6 tph
(6.0 T/hr), prevents wasted gas and
preserves the environment by not
venting the BOG.
At the dry docks, all maintenance
has to be concluded within a 20day window by teams specialized in
servicing the different equipment in-
stalled on board. About 300 workers

from different companies are simultaneously on the job at each dry dock.
The repair and maintenance process
is scheduled in cycles. Fifteen LNG
carriers were repaired and maintained
during the last seven months of 2013.
The BOG reliquefaction system is
the Mark III type from Hamworthy Gas
Systems, now part of the Wrtsil
Group. The system is based on the
operation of a BOG compressor and
a nitrogen compander, both supplied
by Atlas Copco Gas and Process Division of Cologne, Germany, which is
also responsible for the maintenance
of their equipment.
The Mark III process features an integrally geared, three-stage compressor that can convert up to 160 Mcfh
(4500 m3/hr) of BOG from 15 to 116
psi (1.03 to 8 bara). Before compression, the cold gas is transferred from
66
the BOG into the N2 loop. After each

compression stage, water-cooled heat
exchangers remove the heat generated from the compression process.
The addition of a third compressor
stage (the Mark I had only two compressor stages) allows the process to
condensate the BOG at higher pressure and temperature. This effect,
coupled with earlier removal of compression heat, are the main reasons
for 15% reduction in power consumption is reduced by some 15% (Hamworthy patent).
The compander compresses 290
Mcfh (8200 m3/hr) of nitrogen from
145 to 638 psi (10 to 44 bar) in three
stages. The nitrogen is then expanded to 162 psi (11.2 bar) in the fourth
stage of the integrally geared compander to create the low temperatures
necessary to reliquefy the BOG inside
the cold box, which has the pressure
Compressortech2
n The Atlas Copco BOG compressor and nitrogen compander play key roles in transforming boil-off gas into a liquid so it can be recovered for storage on the ship.
necessary to flow back to the LNG
tanks. The expander stage is mounted on the same gear as the three nitrogen compressor stages and recovers part of the energy needed to drive
the whole compander.
The BOG compressor capacity is
adjusted automatically in accordance
with the boil off to be recovered. Increasing and decreasing the nitrogen filling and thus the compressor mass flow is the basic control
mechanism for the cooling capacity of
the nitrogen cycle.
Sensors and transmitters provide
the required input signals to a programmable logic controller that is part
of the main vessel control system and
enables 0 to 100% capacity control.
The reliquefied gas is free from its nitrogen content, which is vented from
the BOG collecting vessel before it is
piped to the cryogenic tanks.
In order to comply with International
Gas Code criteria requiring full redundancy of all the on board equipment,
each plant is equipped with two BOG
compressors and two nitrogen companders, normally working on one line
with the other in standby.
This is standard equipment from
Atlas Copco, mounted on skids with
their auxiliaries placed on deck and
hooked up to the rest of the plant in a
plug-and play system.
In 2012, before the first Q-Flex entered the yard, the Atlas Copco Aftermarket Service team began preparing
for an ongoing job intended to cover
the entire lifespan of the fleet. The team
arranged for transportation to Qatar of
the specialized tools and spare parts
vital to the projects success.
The machines were inspected
months before the dry-dock work and
orders were placed for spare parts that

were not yet available. Those parts
were shipped to the yard or stored
aboard the vessels coming in for repair.
Atlas Copcos specialized crew
working aboard the Q-Flex typically
consists of four members, explained
Ahmed Nour, Atlas Copco aftersales
consultant in Dubai.
We started performing maintenance work en route, augmenting the
work done at the shipyard. Service
crews aboard the vessels from Asian
or European ports complete roughly
half of the servicing before they even
enter the dry docks, he said.
The service team inspects both
the nitrogen compander and BOG
compressor drivetrains, including the
bearings, rotors and gears that enable
them to perform high compression.
They check for wear and tear, swapping out or servicing components
when necessary.
The technicians also replace dry
and liquid-film seals, which lose elasticity over time. These seals play an
essential role onboard the LNG vessel. They separate the cooling process from the oil system, ensuring
that BOG doesnt escape the closed
loop system. CT2
n A technician inspects the alignment of a gear train in the

Mark III compressor.
Compressortech2
2
3
4
6
Scheduled Downtime
Visit www.compressortech2.com/scheduled-downtime/ for answers
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Activate
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EXPLOSION PROOF
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2015 CLASSIFIED AD RATES
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to Simulate Vibrations in Drive Systems

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steady-state and time-transient simulation
simulation software (ARMD 5.8)
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69
Compressortech2
11:06
Advertisers Index
*Further information on this companys products can be found in the 2014 Edition of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Sourcing Guide
(at www.Dieselandgasturbineguide.net) and/or 2014 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).
ACI Services Inc. .....................................................................................23
*HOERBIGER .......................................................................................10-11
*ARIEL CORPORATION .............................................................................1
*KB Delta Compressor Valve Parts, Mfg. ..........................................36-37
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers .................................................................25

BETA Machinery Analysis ......................................................................15
Lufkin Industries LLC .............................................................................31

MOTORTECH GmbH ...............................................................................35
Compression Dynamics .........................................................................41

*Compressor Products International ........................................................5
Cook Compression .................................................................................17
Murphy by Enovation Controls .................53, Fourth Cover, Belly Band

Neuman & Esser Group ............................................................................9
DCL International Inc. ...............................................................................7
Nidec ASI S.p.A. ......................................................................................33
Dragon Products Production Equipment ..........................Third Cover
Reynolds French .....................................................................................45
*Dresser-Rand ...........................................................................................13
Schaeffler Technologies GmbH & Co. KG ............................................19
E Instruments International ...................................................................43
*Sloan Lubrication Systems ....................................................................49
*Elliott Group ........................................................................Second Cover

*Ellwood Crankshaft Group .....................................................................43
SOGAT 2015 ............................................................................................55

Summit Industrial Products ...................................................................47
Exline, Inc. ...............................................................................................51

Gas Compressor Association ................................................................57
Gas/Electric Partnership ........................................................................69
*Tech Transfer Inc. ..................................................................................2-3

*Testo, Inc. ................................................................................................27
GE Measurement & Control ...................................................................61
T.F. Hudgins, Incorporated ....................................................................65
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Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 72
C-B GMX Integral Gas Engine Compressor Ratings & Production (1946-1969)
Engine Model1
Rated Speed
(rpm)
Power/Cylinder2
(hp [kw])
No. Of Power
Throws3
No. Of
Compressor
Throws
Production
Years
Quantity
Produced4
GMX/TF
400
50/55 (37/41)
4,6,8
2,3,4
1946 - 1953
247
GMXA
400
62.5 (46.5)
4,6,8
2,3,4
1954 - 1956
75
GMXD
450
66 (49)
4,6,8,10
2,3,4,5
1954 - 1969
389
GMXF
450
82.5 (61.5)
4,6,8,10
2,3,4,5
1957 - 1969
40
GMXE
500
82.5 (61.5)
4,6,8,10
2,3,4,5
1958 - 1969
89
GMXC
500
110 (82)
4,6,8,10
2,3,4,5
1958 - 1963
28
GMXH
450
82.5 (61.5)
4,6,8,10,12
2,3,4,5,6
1967 - 1969
10
All spark-ignited natural gas engines, except for one diesel.

2
Power cylinders: 9.75 in. (248 mm) bore x 10.5 in. (267 mm) stroke.
3
Compressor throws: 10.5 in. (267 mm) stroke.
4
Total production = 878 units/464,000 hp (346,010 kW).
1
enced many field problems. GMXC production was stopped

in 1963 with only 28 units listed as sold over a five-year
period, and six of those appear to have been replaced by
alternate units.
In 1967, taking advantage of the lessons learned in the
development of the pure turbocharged GMVH and recognizing the thermal loading limitations of the GMX, especially
with the hot fuel often prevalent in gas production fields,
the GMXH was introduced. With pure turbocharging and
running at 450 rpm, the engine was conservatively rated at
82.5 hp (61.5 kW) per cylinder, giving the largest 12-cylinder
models an output of 990 hp (738 kW). A total of only 10
GMXH units were sold, however, as GMX production ended in 1969. By that time, increasing use of packaged highspeed (900 and 1000 rpm) gas engine compressor units in
the 400 to 1200 hp (298 to 895 kW) range, at prices substantially lower than the classic integral units, made continuing the GMX-type units uneconomic.
Dresser-Clark had fielded the first 1000 rpm, high-speed,
engine-driven, separable compressor, the CLA, already in
1957. The separable concept was not new, but what was
new was the realization that by going to shorter strokes
(3 to 6 in. [76 to 152 mm]), it was possible to match the
speed of a wide range of proven Climax, Waukesha, ROIline and Caterpillar industrial gas engines to provide compact, low-cost, easily packaged field compressor units.
Ironically, C-B had introduced the AM compressor, a 5 in.
(127 mm) stroke, 1000 rpm separable in 1958, but never
was able to develop or acquire a competitive 1000 rpm gas
engine driver line to match it until decades later.
A total of 878 GMX units, equivalent to 464,000 hp
(346,010 kW), were produced over a 23-year period, including 40 produced by licensees. Most of the early engines went to Houston, Texas, for packaging by Southwest
Industries. Later, engines went to C-B/Southern, a C-B
subsidiary, for packaging. Almost all GMXs were used in
gas production and treating applications, with the notable
exception of one GMX-8 diesel that was built in 1947 for
refrigeration service. CT2
(394 mm) pistons, integral with the crossheads, giving the

same 1.25 scavenge-to-power piston ratio as the GMV. To
get an exact 2:1 power ratio versus the GMV, 100 vs. 50 hp
(75 vs. 37 kW) per cylinder, the designers were somewhat
more courageous, raising the break mean effective pressure (BMEP) from 60 to 63 psi (4.13 to 4.34 bar). This was
not the wisest decision, given the hotter fuel often encountered in gas field duty.
The 400 rpm GMX was produced in four-, six- and eightcylinder versions, covering a range of 300 to 600 hp
(224 to 447 kW). It was immediately successful, and a
total of 247 units were produced through 1953. In 1948,
with the advent of the Turboflow high-compression head
design for the GMV, that technology was also applied to
the GMX, increasing the power rating to 55 hp (41 kW)
per cylinder.
In 1954, the GMXA was introduced with a gear-driven
blower, increasing the rating to 61.5 hp (46 kW) per cylinder, with 75 units produced through 1956. That same year,
the GMXAs engine speed was uprated to 450 rpm, resulting in the GMXD rated at 66 hp (49 kW) per cylinder. The
most popular model in the series, GMXD was produced
in four-, six-, eight- and 10-cylinder versions, totaling 389
units through 1969.
Turbocharging was first applied to the GMX as a supplementary air system, with turbo discharge air being delivered
to the GMXD scavenging air headers. This extra combustion air supply, plus some benefit from the higher combustion air density due to the exhaust turbine backpressure,
allowed a GMXF rating of 82.5 hp (61.5 kW) per cylinder
at 450 rpm. A total of 40 GMXFs were produced from 1957
to 1969, mostly for gas-treating plants. In 1958, the GMXE
was introduced, running at 500 rpm with a lower BMEP to
maintain the same power rating as the GMXF. Production of
this model totaled 89 units.
An infamous GMX version was the series-turbocharged
GMXC, introduced in 1958. It was rated at 110 hp (82 kW)
per cylinder, higher than any other GMX model. However,
this led to the engine tending to run hot, and it experiJANUARY-FEBRUARY 2015
71
Compressortech2
C ornerstones Of Compression
n The C-B GMX was a half-sized GMV for skid-mounting

on a steel skid with cooler, auxiliary equipment and all
interconnecting piping and wiring to meet the need for
small, portable compressor units, which could be quickly
installed at small producing fields at remote locations.
Cooper-Bessemer GMX
Integral Gas Engine
medium-speed integrals met the early
Compressor > Smaller,
demand for portable, skidded packages prior to
the emergence of high-speed separable units
By Norm Shade
he Cooper-Bessemer (C-B) GMV integral gas engine

compressor has been characterized as one of the
most advanced engines of its day. The basic design
was in continuous production for 55 years, and the specific
power output was increased by 225% over a span of three
decades. In all, 4660 GMV engines were produced, ranking
as one of the most prolific models of its kind.
During World War II, a need emerged for smaller, portable compressor units that could be quickly installed at producing fields in remote locations. These requirements could
best be met by packaging the engine and compressor on
a steel skid, complete with cooler, auxiliary equipment and
all interconnecting piping and wiring. Although some GMVs
were packaged on skids, skid-mounting anything bigger
than a 400 hp (298 kW) GMV-4 was not very practical.
Since compressor speeds higher than 500 rpm were
unheard of for oilfield equipment at that time, the use of

high-speed engines as drivers for the skidded compressors
was ruled out, and the logical choice was therefore smallersized, well-proven, integral engine compressor units, such
as a GMV derivative in C-Bs case.
Therefore, the GMX emerged a half-sized GMV, designed and put into production immediately after the end
of the War in early 1946. The engine was a geometrically
equivalent, scaled-down GMV, with the same master rod/
articulated power rod geometry and crosshead scavenging
air piston configuration as the GMV. The GMX power cylinder bore and stroke were 9.75 x 10.5 in. (248 x 267 mm),
giving both models exactly the same piston speed. Compressor throws also had a 10.5 in. (267 mm) stroke.
For the scavenging air supply, the early GMXs had 15.5 in.
72
Compressortech2
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Compressor Tech 01 2015

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MAINTAINING BOIL-OFF

METHANE LEAK REPORTING

LNG producers throughout the world.

Select a compression partner to ensure years

Elliott refrigeration compressors and unmatched experience

They turned to Elliott

The world turns to Elliott.

They say American-Made

We say it still does.

CT2 Founder ........................... Joseph M. Kane

A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group

Publisher ..................................... Brent Haight

Prepare For The New Norm

Digital Content Manager............Catrina Boettner

Telephone: (262) 754-4100 Fax: (262) 754-4175

Norm Shade Cambridge, Ohio

Brent Haight, Publisher

Lisa Hochkofler, Advertising Manager

Ian Cameron, Regional Manager/Editor

Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher

Bo Svensson, Field Editor/Business Manager

Akiyoshi Ojima, Branch Manager

S.H. Mok, Branch Manager

Myung-Shin Lee, Sales Manager

Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications

il prices continue to drop.

projected to climb to 9.42 MMbbl/d in

Brent Haight, publisher

42 Lubrication Rate Reduction In Engines And Compressors

Compressortech2 (ISSN 1085-2468)

48 Monitoring System Keeps Small Fault From Becoming Catastrophic

4 Page 4 Prepare For The New Norm

8 Global Perspective Middle East Bucks Supply And Demand

10 Meetings & Events

MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDE

IN OUR FIELD, IT TAKES OBSESSIVE ATTENTION

AND DCL IS LIGHT YEARS AHEAD.

Middle East Bucks Supply

to free up more oil for export. However, progress with gas

ccording to Business Monitor International (BMI),

WE SUPPLY HIGH PRESSURE PROCESS GAS

NEUMAN & ESSER GROUP

Contact me for requests worldwide:

NEA GROUP Headquarters in Germany

Meetings & Events

*Indicates shows and c

Perth, Western Australia

Oil & Gas Uzbekistan

About The Business

Compression Market Slowing

Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI

Adding to the angst, The Wall Street Journal reported at

Bringing energy and the environment into harmony.

Make it faster. Make it smaller. Make it better.

EPA Toughens Methane

noted that its members have made great strides in reducing

oth the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Keeping it running smoothly since 1967

8 Global Perspective Middle East Bucks Supply And Demand

Top predictability of performance