Chopper 2002 PDF

Chapter 3
DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
General
Buck converter
Boost converter
Buck-Boost converter
Switched-mode power supply
Bridge converter
Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.
Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2): Dr.
Zainal Salam
DC-DC Converter (Chopper)

DEFINITION: Converting the unregulated
DC input to a controlled DC output with a
desired voltage level.
General block diagram:
DC supply
(from rectifierfilter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)
DC output LOAD
Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)
APPLICATIONS:
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
Linear regulator
Transistor is
operated in linear
(active) mode.
+ VCE
IL
+
Output voltage
Vo
RL
Vs
Vo = I L RT
The transistor can
be conveniently
modelled by an
equivalent
variable resistor,
as shown.
MODEL OF LINEAR
REGULATOR
+ VCE
IL
RT
Vs
Power loss is high

at high current due
to:
Po = I L 2 RT
Zainal Salam
+
RL
Vo
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
Switching Regulator
Power loss is zero
(for ideal switch):
when switch is
open, no current
flow in it,
when switch is
closed no voltage
drop across it.
Since power is a
product of voltage
and current, no
losses occurs in the
switch.
Power is 100%
transferred from
source to load.
+ VCE
RL
Vs
+
Vo
MODEL OF LINEAR
REGULATOR
IL
SWITCH
RL
Vs
+
Vo
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Vo
(ON) (OFF) (ON)

closed open closed
DT
Switching regulator
is the basis of all
DC-DC converters
IL
OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Zainal Salam
Buck (step-down) converter

L
S
Vd
RL
+
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

iL
+ vL
S
Vd
RL
+
Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S
iL
+
vL
+
Vd
RL
Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Zainal Salam
Circuit operation when switch

is turned on (closed)
Diode is reversed
biased. Switch
conducts inductor
current
This results in
positive inductor
voltage, i.e:
+ vL S
+
VD
Vd
iL
C
RL
+
Vo
vL
VdVo
opened
closed
vL = Vd Vo
closed
opened
It causes linear
increase in the
inductor current
di
vL = L L
dt
1
iL = vL dt
L
Vo
iL
iLmax
IL
iLmin
DT

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T
6
Operation when switch turned

off (opened)
+ vL -
Because of
inductive energy
storage, iL
continues to flow.
Diode is forward
biased
Current now flows
through the diode
and
vL = Vo
iL
Vd
+
Vo
RL
vL
VdVo
opened
closed
closed
opened
Vo
iL
iLmax
IL
iLmin
(1-D)T
DT
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T
7
Analysis for switch closed

The inductor voltage,
vL = Vd Vo
diL
=L
dt
vL
Vd Vo
closed
t
diL Vd Vo
=
dt
L
Note : since the deri vative of iL is a posi tive constant.

I
Therefore iL must
increase linearly.
iL
iL max
iL
iL min
From Figure
DT
diL iL iL Vd Vo
=
=
=
dt
L
t DT
(iL )closed
Vd Vo
=
DT
L

Zainal Salam
Analysis for switch opened

For switch opened,
vL
vL = Vo
diL
=L
dt
V
di
L= o
dt
L
opened
Vd Vo
Note : since the deri vative of iL is a nega tive constant, iL must

decrease linearly.
iL
iL max
IL
iL
iL min
From Figure
DT
Vo
iL
diL iL
=
=
=
t (1 D)T
dt
L
(iL )opened
T
(1 D)T
Vo
=
(1 D)T
L
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Steady-state operation
iL
Unstable current
t
Decaying current
iL
t
Steady-state current
iL
t
Steady - state operation requires that i L at the

end of switching cycle is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of i L over one period is zero, i.e :
(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0

Vd Vo
Vo
DTs
(1 D)Ts = 0
L
L
Vo = DVd

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10
Average, Maximum and

Minimum inductor current
iL
Imax
iL
IL
Imin
Average inductor current = Average current in R L

Vo
IL = IR =
R
Maximum current :
iL Vo 1 Vo
= + (1 D)T
I max = I L +
2
R 2 L
1 (1 D)
= Vo +
2 Lf
R
Minimum current :
iL
1 (1 D )
= Vo
I min = I L
2
2 Lf
R
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11
Continuous current operation

iL
Imax
Imin
From previous analysis,

i
1 (1 D)
I min = I L L = Vo
2
2
R
Lf
For continuous operation, I min 0,

1 (1 D)
Vo
0
R
Lf
2
(1 D)
R
2f
This is the minimum inductor current to
ensure continous mode of operation.
Normally L is chosen be be >> Lmin
L Lmin =

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12
Output voltage ripple

iL
L
iR
iC
imax
iL
+
Vo
Vo / R
iL=IR
imin
ic = iL + iR
Q
Q = CVo Q = CV o Vo =
C
From figure, use triangle area formula :
1 T i
TiL
Q = L =
2 2 2
8
TiL (1 D )
Vo =
=
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
Vo (1 D)
=
r=
Vo
8 LCf 2
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13
Design procedures for Buck

SWITCH
Vd
(input
spec.)
f=?
D=?
TYPE ?
Lmin= ?
L = 10Lmin
C
ripple ?
RL
Po = ?
Io = ?
Calculate D to obtain required output

voltage.
Select a particular switching frequency:
preferably >20KHz for negligible acoustic
noise
higher fs results in smaller L, but higher device
losses. Thus lowering efficiency and larger heat
sink. Also C is reduced.
Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT.
Low power MOSFET can reach MHz range.

Zainal Salam
14
Design procedures for Buck

Determine Lmin. Increase Lmin by about 10
times to ensure full continuos mode.
Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
Capacitor ratings:
must withstand peak output voltage
must carry required RMS current. Note RMS
current for triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the
peak capacitor current given by iL/2
Wire size consideration:

Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as
peak. RMS value for iL is given as:
I L , RMS
2 iL 2
= IL +

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15
Examples of Buck converter
A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery

source. Given L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm,
f=20KHz and D=0.4. Calculate: (a) output voltage
(b) maximum and minimum inductor current, (c)
output voltage ripple.
A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and

output of 25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz.
The power output is 125W. (a) Determine the duty
cycle, (b) value of L to limit the peak inductor
current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.
Design a buck converter such that the output

voltage is 28V when the input is 48V. The load is
8Ohm. Design the converter such that it will be in
continuous current mode. The output voltage ripple
must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the frequency
and the values of each component. Suggest the
power switch also.
Zainal Salam
16
Boost (step-up) converter

D
Vd
RL
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER

iL
+ vL
Vd
+
RL
Vo

L
+ vL Vd
+
S
RL
Vo

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17
Boost analysis:switch closed

iL
+ vL
Vd
vL = Vd
diL
=L
dt
diL Vd
=
dt
L
vL
Vd
CLOSED
t
Vd V o
diL iL iL
=
=
dt
t DT
Vd
diL
=
dt
L
(iL )closed
+
vo
iL
iL
DT
Vd DT
=
L
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18
Switch opened
iL
+ vL Vd
vL = Vd Vo
diL
=L
dt
diL Vd Vo
=
dt
L
diL iL
=
dt
t
iL
=
(1 D)T
+
vo
-
vL
Vd
OPENED
t
Vd V o
iL
iL
( 1-D )T
DT
diL Vd Vo
=
dt
L
(Vd Vo )(1 DT )
(iL )opened =
L
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19
Steady-state operation
Vd DT (Vd Vo )(1 D)T
=0
L
L
Vd
Vo =
1 D
Boost converter produces output voltage

that is greater or equal to the input
voltage.
Alternative explanation:
when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.
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20
Average, Maximum,
Minimum inductor current
Input power = Output power
Vo 2
Vd I d =
R
2
Vd
2
V
(
1
)
D
=
d
Vd I L =
R
(1 D) 2 R
Average inductor current
Vd
IL =
(1 D) 2 R
Max, min inductor current
Vd
Vd DT
iL
=
+
I max = I L +
2
2
2L
(1 D) R
I min
Vd
Vd DT
iL
= IL
=
2
2
2L
(1 D) R
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21
L and C values
For continous operation,
I min 0
vL
Vd DT
0
2
2L
(1 D) R
D(1 D )2 TR
Lmin =
2
2
D(1 D ) R
=
2f
Vd
Vd
Ripple factor
VdVo
imax
iL
imin
imax
iD
Vo
Q = DT = CVo
R
Vo DT Vo D
Vo =
=
RCf
RCf
V
D
r= o =
Vo
RCf
imin
Io=Vo / R
ic
Q
DT

Zainal Salam
T
22
Examples
The boost converter has the following
parameters: Vd=20V, D=0.6, R=12.5ohm,
L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum
and minimum inductor current, (c) output
voltage ripple.
Design a boost converter to provide an

output voltage of 36V from a 24V source.
The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty
cycle ratio, switching frequency, inductor
and capacitor size, and power device.

Zainal Salam
23
Buck-Boost converter
S
Vd
+
C
RL
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

S
D
iL
Vd
vL
Vo

S
Vd
D
iL
vL
Vo

Zainal Salam
24
Buck-boost analysis
Switch closed
diL
vL = Vd = L
dt
diL Vd
=
dt
L
vL
VdVo
iL iL Vd
=
=
t DT L
Vd DT
(iL ) closed =
L
imax
iL
imin
imax
iD
Switch opened
diL
vL = Vo = L
dt
diL Vo
=
dt
L
imin
Io=Vo / R
ic
Vo
iL
iL
=
=
t (1 D)T L
(iL ) opened
Vd
Q
DT
Vo (1 D)T
=
L
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25
Output voltage
Steady state operation :
Vd DT Vo (1 D )T
+
=0
L
L
D
Vo = Vs
1 D
NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter

either be higher or lower than the source
voltage.
If D>0.5, output is higher
If D<0.5, output is lower
Output voltage is always negative

Note that output is never directly
connected to load. Energy is stored in
inductor when switch is closed and
transferred to load when switch is opened.
Zainal Salam
26

Assuming no power loss in the converter,
power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.
Po = Ps
Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :
Is = ILD
Vo2
= Vd I L D
R
Substituting for Vo ,
Vo2
Po
Vd D
IL =
=
=
Vd RD Vd D R (1 D ) 2
Zainal Salam
27
L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
Vd D
Vd DT
iL
=
+
I max = I L +
2
2
2L
R (1 D )
Vd D
Vd DT
iL
=
I min = I L
2
2
2L
R (1 D)
For continuous current,
Vd D
Vd DT
+
=0
2
2L
R (1 D )
(1 D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Output voltage ripple,
Vo
Q = DT = CVo
R
Vo DT Vo D
Vo =
=
RC
RCf
Vo
D
r=
=
Vo
RCf
Zainal Salam
28
Control of DC-DC converter

using pulse width modulationPWM
Vo (desired)
Vo (actual)
Vcontrol
Comparator
Sawtooth
Waveform
Switch control
signal
Sawtooth
Waveform
Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2
Switch
control
signal
ton 2
ton 1
T

Zainal Salam
29
Switch-mode power supply

(SMPS)
Advantages over linear power
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction
Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems
However above certain ratings,
SMPS is the only feasible choice
Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)
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30
Linear and switched mode

power supplies block diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
E
+Vo
Vce=Vd-Vo
Rectifier
Vd
Line
Input
1 / 3 50/60 Hz
Isolation
Transformer
Base/gate
Drive
RL
Vo
-
Error
Amp.
Vo
Vref
Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC-DC CONVERSITION + ISOLATION
EMI
FILTER
High
Frequency
rectifier
and
filter
RECTIFIER
AND
FILTER
DC
Unregulated
Base/
gate
drive

Zainal Salam
PWM
Controller
DC
Regulated
Vo
Vref
error
Amp
31
High frequency transformer

Basic function :
i) Input - output electrical isolation
ii) step up/down time - varying voltage
Basic input - output relationship
v1 N1
=
;
v2 N 2
i1 N 2
=
i2 N1
Models :
i1
N1
N2
i2
V1
V2
i1
+
V1
Ideal model
N1
N2
i2
+
Lm
V2

Zainal Salam
Model used for

most PE application
32
Flyback Converter
C
LM
Vs
+
Vo
Flyback converter circuit

iS
i1
+ vSW
0
iLM
iLM
Vs
+ vSW
- +v D
v2
iC
+
iR
+
Vo
i2
Model
with magnetising
inductance
is=iLM
Vs
N2
+
v1
-
iLM
Vs
N1
iD
N1
N2
+
v1
v1=Vs
N1
+
v1
+
Vo
N2
v2= -VS
+
N
v1 Vo 1
N2
N
Vsw = Vs + Vo 1
N2

Zainal Salam
0 Switch closed
iD
+
Vo
Voltage and current

conditions when switch
opened
33
Flyback waveforms
v1
Vs
DT
-V(N1/N2)
is
iLM
DT
iD
DT
iLm
iC
Vo/ R
DT
DT

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34
Analysis: switched closed

diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm iLm iLm Vd
=
=
=
dt
dt
DT
Lm
Vd DT
(
)
iL
=
closed
L
m
On the load side of the transformer,

N2
N2
v2 = v1
= Vd
N1
N1
N2
vD = Vo Vd
<0
N1
Therefore,
i1 = 0
i2 = 0
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35
Analysis: switch opened

N
v1 = V0 1 ;
N2
v2 = V0
N
N
v1 = v2 1 = V0 1
N2
N2
Lm
N
= v1 = V0 1
dt
N2
diL m
diL m
dt
iL m
dt
iL m
(1 D )T
V0 N1
Lm N 2
V (1 D)T N1
(iL m )open = 0
Lm
N2
For steady - state operation,

m
V DT V0 (1 D )T N1
= 0
d
+
Lm
Lm
N
2
V0 = Vd
D N1
(1 D) N 2

Zainal Salam
36
Output voltage
Input output relationship is similar to buckboost converter.
Output can be greater of less than
input,depending upon D.
Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is
present.

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37

Ps = P0
V0 2
Vd I s =
R
I s is related to I Lm as :
Is =
I Lm DT
T
( )
= I Lm D
Substitute and solving for I Lm

V02
Vd I Lm D =
R
V0 2
I Lm =
Vd DR
( )
The average inductor current is also written as :

2
Vd D N 2
V0 N 2
I Lm =
2
(1 D) R N1
(1 D) R N1
Zainal Salam
38
Max, Min inductor current,

Lmin, C values
I Lm
,max
= I Lm
I Lm ,min = I Lm
iLm
N 2 V d DT
+
=
+
2
2
2 Lm
(1 D ) R N1
iLm
Vd D
N 2 Vd DT

2
2
2 Lm
(1 D ) R N1
Vd D
For continuos operation, I Lm , min = 0

2
N 2 Vd DT Vd D
=
=
2
2 Lm
2 Lm f
(1 D ) R N1
Vd D
(Lm )min
Vd (1 D) R N1
=
2f
N2
The ripple calculation is similar to boost converter,

r=
V0
D
=
V0
RCf
Zainal Salam
39
Full-bridge converter
SW1
SW3
Lx
NS
vp
VS
+
Vo
NS
SW4
+
vx
SW2
SW1,SW2
SW3,SW4
DT
VP
VS
T
2
T
+ DT
2
T
2
T
+ DT
2
-VS
Vx
N
VS S
NP
DT

Zainal Salam
40
Full bridge: basic operation

Switch pair: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].
Each switch pair turn on at a time as
shown. The other pair is off.
AC voltage is developed across the
primary. Then transferred to secondary via
high frequency transformers.
On secondary side, diode pair is high
frequency full wave rectification.
The choke (L) and acts like the buck
converter circuit.
Ns
D
Output Voltage Vo = 2Vs
N
p

Zainal Salam
41

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Chapter 3

Power Electronics and

DC-DC Converter (Chopper)

Power loss is high

(ON) (OFF) (ON)

Power Electronics and

Buck (step-down) converter

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Circuit operation when switch

Power Electronics and

Operation when switch turned

Analysis for switch closed

Note : since the deri vative of iL is a posi tive constant.

Power Electronics and

Analysis for switch opened

Note : since the deri vative of iL is a nega tive constant, iL must

Steady - state operation requires that i L at the

(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0

Power Electronics and

Average, Maximum and

Average inductor current = Average current in R L

Continuous current operation

From previous analysis,

For continuous operation, I min 0,

Power Electronics and

Output voltage ripple

Design procedures for Buck

Calculate D to obtain required output

Power Electronics and

Design procedures for Buck

Wire size consideration:

Power Electronics and

Examples of Buck converter

A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery

A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and

Design a buck converter such that the output

Boost (step-up) converter

CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and

Boost analysis:switch closed

Boost converter produces output voltage

Power Electronics and

Design a boost converter to provide an

Power Electronics and

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and

NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter

Output voltage is always negative

Average inductor current

Control of DC-DC converter

Power Electronics and

Switch-mode power supply

Linear and switched mode