University,

1979
@ ttre UnitedNations
Printedin Japan
tsBN92-808-0053.1
rssN0379-5764

H S DR G PI D . 1 / U N U P - 5 3

O N T H ED E C L I N E
A N D F A L LO F E M P I R E S :
T H E R O M A NE M P I R EA N D W E S T E R N
I M P E R I A L I SC
MO M P A R E D

JohanGaltung,Tore Heiestad,and Eric Ruge

'r$ E0

fZ-1.v,
V

%#-

CONTENTS

t.
t l

ill

lV.

Introduction
T h e R i s e a n d D e c li n e o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e : A R o u g h
Characterization
: Short
T h e R i s e a n d D e c li n e o f W e s t e r n D o m i n a n c e A
C h a r a c t e ri z a t i o n

Conclusion

39

Notes

43

Bi b l i o g r a p h y

66

at the GPID lll meeting,

and Eric Rugewasfirst presented
This paperby JohanGaltung,Tore Heiestad,
asa contributionto the Expansionand Exploitation
Geneva,2-8October1978. lt can be considered
Processes
sub-projectof the GPID Project.
G e n e v aJ,u n e1 9 7 9

JohanGaltung

form to elicit commentsfrom readersand generate

This paperis beingcirculatedin a pre-publication
dialogueon the subiectat this stageof the research'

".

t h e d e c l i n e o f R o m ew a s t h e n a t u r a r a n d i n e v i t a b r e
e f f e c t o f i m m o d e r a t eg r e a t n e s s . p r o s p e r i t y r i p e n e d t h e
p r i n c i p l e o f d e c a y ; t h e c a u s e so f d e s t r u c t i o n m u l t i p l
ied
with the extent of conquest; and, as soon as time or
accident
h a d r e m o v e dt h e a r t i f i c i a l s u p p o r t s , t h e s t u p e n d o u sf a b r i c
yielded to the pressure of its ownweictht.,'
E d w a r d Gi b b o n

"l

t h i n k o f w h a t h a p p e n e dt o G r e e c e a n d R o m e ,a n d y o u s e e
w h a t i s l e f t - o n l y t h e p i I l a r s . V / h a t h a s h a p p e n e d ,o f
course is that the great civilizations of the past, as they
h a v e b e c o m ew e a t h y , a s t h e y h a v e r o s t t h e i r w i i l t o r i v e , '
t o i m p r o v e , t h e y h a v e b e c o m es u b j e c t t o t h e d e c a d e n c et h a t
eventually destroys the civilization.
The united states is
now reaching that period.
I am convinced, however, that we
have the vitality,
I berieve we have the courage, r be.|ieve
we have the strength out through this heartland and across
t h i s N a t i o n t h a t w i l l s e e t o i t t h a t A m e r i c an o t o n l y i s
rich and strong, but that it is healthy in termsof moral
and spiritual strEiilllR i c h a r dM . N i x o n ( t 9 7 t )

I NTRODUCT
I ON

The fall

o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r eh a s f a s c i n a t e d m o r e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s

t h a n E d w a r dG i b b o n ,w h o c o n c l u d e dh i s m a j o r h i s t o r i c a l w o r k i n L a u s a n n e
just

before the French Revolution. To draw parallels to the contempor-

a r y s i t u a t i o n w a s n o t h i s m a j o r c o n c e r n ; h e w a s c o n c e r n e dw i t h t h e f a l l
o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r ea s s u c h , b u t e v i d e n t l y a l s o f e l t
m u c ht o l e a r n f r o m i t . 1

that there was

H o w e v e r ,f o r t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e

to be useful as a heuristic there haveto be deepsimilarities.2

o t h e r s y s t e ms h o u l d b e a n e m p i r e b u i l t

The

in a not too dissimilar manner

t h a t e v i d e n t l y h a s p a s s e d i t s a p o g e ea n d m a y b e f a c i n g a d e c l i n e , e v e n
a fal l.

The thesis of the present paper is, in short, that the Roman

E m p i r ep r e s e n t s p a r a l l e l s w i t h t h s c o n t e m p o r a r ys i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e
w e s t e r n w o r d f i n d s i t s e l f s o d e e p a n d _ s od e n s e t h a t i t
t o u s e i t a s a b a s i s f o r s p e c u _ l a t i o na_b o u t r e g u a r i t i e s

is lvarranted
in th.e I ifs

cycle of empires.3

l / e s h a l l o n l y b e d r a w i n g o n t h e w e s t e r n e x p e r i e n c e . C o r n p a r ai vt e
s t u d i e s o f n o n - w e s t e r n e m pi r e s ( t n e I n c . a sa i r d t h e A z t e c s i n A m e ri c a ;
p o s s i b l y t h e M a li e m p i r e i n A f r i c a ; d e f i n i t e l y t h e E g y p t i a n , 0 t t o m a n ,
a n d P e r s i a n e m p r e s * t h e n r s e l v e s ,p e r h a p s , s e m i - w e s t e r n ; t h e v a r i o u s
M o n g o l / M o g u li m p e r i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s ; s o m eo f t h e C h i n e s e d y n a s t i e s )
s h o u l d b e e x t r e m e l y r e w a r d i n gh e r e , b o t h i n r e v e a li n g s m i l a r i t i e s a n d
dissimilarties.

B u t w e s h a l l c o n c e n t r a t eo n t h e V / e s t . A n d t w o m a i o r

characteristics of the westernempires,not necessariytotaly

m o n o p oilz e d b y t h e V J e s tb u t a t l e a s t n o t s o c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d i n a n y
o t h e r e m p i r e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o o u r k n o w e d g e ,s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t .
F i r s t , t h e L q . k o f I i n r i t a t o n , q p u s h i n gt h e b o r d e r so f t h e e m p i r e s
b e y o n da n y l i m i t , a s f a r a s ( a n d e v e n f u r t h e r t h a n ) t e c h n o l o g y a n d
mil itary force can carry.

T h e n , t h e t e n d e n c yn o t o n l y t o t a x a n d

e x o l o i t b a r b a r i a n l a n d s a n d b a r b a ri a n s b u t a l s o t o w e s t e r n i z e 5a n d
e v e n i n c o r p o r a t e a t l e a s t p a r t o f them.

These two p o i n t s w i l l b e

m a d eu s e o f i n w h a t f o l l o w s ; t h e y a r e c r u c i a l f o r t h e r e a s o ni n g , a s
a I i s t o f c o m m o nd e n o m i n a t o r s f o r e m p i r e s f r o m t h e VJes
t.

il.

T H E R I S EA N DD E C L I N E
O F T H E R O M AE
NM P I R E A
: ROUGH
CHARACTERIZATION

U n d e r l y i n gi t a l l ,

a t s o m es t a g e , w a s -

t i n y u n i t f o u n d e do n t h e s e v e n h i l s
m u c hb i g g e r .

p o s s i b l y- a v i s i o n o f t h a t

o f R o m ea s t h e c e n t r e o f s o m e t h i n g

Moreover,this vision must have been legitimated by an

u n d e r l y i n g c u l t u r e o r c o s m o l o g y ,a n d c e r t a i n l y r e i n f o r c e d b y s u c c e s s f u l
e x c u r s i o n s a n d e x p a n s i o n . F o r , i f s o m en o t i o n o f t h a t k i n d h a d n o t
b e e n t h e r e i n a d v a n c e , t h e e n t i t y w o u l d h a v e r e m a i n e dv e r y l i m i t e d
and more geared towards defence against the external world e n c a p s u l a t i n g-

t h a n t o w a r d su n f o l d i n g = E n t w i c k l u n g . B u t i t w a s

centrifugal rather than centripetal.

l m a g e so f t h a t k i n d m i g h t h a v e

b e e n a p a r t o f t h e h e r i t a g e f r o m t h e E t r u s c a no r H e l e n i s t i c e x e r c i s e s .
N o d o u b t t h e y w e r e m o r e s u c c e s s f u l l y i m p l e m e n t e du n d e r t h e R o m a n s ,
particularly under the Antonines,than under the possible predecessors
as holders of such imaqes.

A g a i n s t t h e k n o w l e d g eo f w h a t h a p p e n e di n t h e v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f t h e
R o m a nE m p i r e a n d t h e w e s t e r n e m p i r e s o f o u r t i m e s ( a l t h o u g h w e h a v e
not seen the end of them yet)
the obvious.

t h e s t o r y m a y n o \ ^ /e v e n h a v e a r i n g o f

F o r t h e m o m e n tc e n t r a l i z e d e x p a n s i o n i s d e c i d e d u p o n ,

m i I i t a r i l y , p o l i t i c a l l y , e c o n o m i c aI yl , c u l t u r a l y , c o m m ui cn a t i o n s w si e ,
a n d s o c i a l l y , a n u m b e ro f c o n s e q u e n c ews i l

First of all,

follow.

i t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r et dh a t t h e e x p a n s i o ni n t e r r i t o r y

i s s o m ef u n c t i o n o f t h e s q u a r e o f t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c e n t r e ; i t

is

not a I inear function of that distance.6 There is not only an external

b o r d e r t o b e d e f e n d e da g a i n s t o u t e r e n e m i e s ; t h e r e i s a l s o a n i n t e r n a l
territory

to be controlled against the inner foes of the regime.

if there are no overt hostilities

t h e c o n t r o l m a c h i n e r ys t i l

Even

e n g a g e di n b y o u t e r o r i n n e r e n e m i e s ,

h a s t o b e m a i n t a i n e d ,a n d i t

is costly.

A part of that contro machineryis the central

b u r e a u c r a c y ,w h c h
c a n b e m a i n t a i n e do n r y i f s u f f i c i e n t s u r p r u s
i s c h a n n e l e du p w a r d si n
s o c i e t y . T T h e r e a r e t w o m a i n m o d e l sf o r o b t a i n i n g
this: taking away
loca assets through piracy and rcbbery (of rninerars,
m o n e y ,p i e c e s o f
a r t , c a t t e , p e o p l e ) , s o m e it m e s u n d e r t h e f o r m u l a
,
,
t a x a ti o n r ' ,
of
and
c e n t r a c o n t r o r o v e r s o m ek i n d s o f p r o d u c t i o n
and trade in such a way
that major fruits accrue to the centre. rt
i s a s s u m e dt h a t a r r
e r n p i r e sm a k e u s e o f t h e s e m e t h o d s , b u t i n v e r y
different proportions,
and that the corour and tone of an empire very
m u c h d e p e n do n w h i c h
m e t h o dp r e v a i s . T h u s , l o c a l t a x a t i o n i s
c o r n p a t i b ew i t h m a i n t e n a n c e
o f t h e l o c a I s y s t e r no f p r o d u c t i o r r ; i t n r a y e v e n
b e c c m ea c o n t r a c t u a I
o b l i g a t i o n u n d e r v ' h i c h s o n e t h i n gh a s t o b e p a i d
in return forI'protection."B
centralized exproitation throughexpandng
economic
and other cycles w!lr tend to erode the .|oca
society, economicailv
and also cult.uraly. In either casethere
,
m a y b e , , c o r o n ! z a t i o n ri n
t h e s e n s et h a t t h e m i i t a r y / p o l i t i c a l c o m m a n d
is firnily in the hanos
of (envoysfrom) the centre; f.r that reason,
they may ook ar ike.
B u t i n t h e l a t t e r t y p e t h e r e r ^ r i l l b e o n g - ci ls t a n c e
cycles not onv
for nilitary and political decision-nraking
b u t a s o f o r e c o n o m i ca n d
c u l t u r a l v a l u e s . T h i s w i l l m a k e o r a m u c hd e n s e r
conmunicative
network radiatinE from the centre to the periphery,
a n d f o r m u c hm o r e
s o c i a l t r a n s f o r n n t i o n , i n c l u d i n ga c c u t u r a t i o n .
G i v e n t h e a s s u m p t i o nf r o m t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n
t h a t w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e db y a d e c i s i o n a n d a d e s i r e
to convert, not onry to
d o m i n a t e , t h e s e c o n dt y p e s h o u d p r e d o m i n a t e
in the evolution of
w e s t e r ne m p i r e s . T h e f i r s t t y p e i s t o o i i m i t e d ,
too contractual. lt
can be legitimated through the formua "l offer you
protection against
e n e m i e sa n d o t h e r s w h o w a n t t o t r e a t y o u r i k e
I do; you pay me for
t h a t i n c o m m o d i t i e sa n d p r o d u c t s , i n c a s h , a n d / o r
i n h u m a nc a p t a r
( s l a v e s , g a di a t o r s , r a w m a t e r i a l
f o r h u m a ns a c r i f i c e ) . , r B u t w e s r e r n
i m p e r i a i s m s e e m st o h a v e a s k e d f o r m o r e , i n
fact for others to see

_tf'*l_"*__"t_J

T h e r e h a s b e e n s o m ek i n d o f w i s h t h a t o t h e r s
shourdnot onry be
d o r n i n a t e da n d s u b j u g a t e d b u t s e e - a n d e v e n
want to see - themselves
a s d e p e n d e n to n a w e s t e r n c e n t r e f o r f r e s h s u p p l i e s
of superior goods

I
l

and services, culture, etc. The legitimating formulamight be soniething

l i k e t h i s : r ' l o f f e r y o u p r o t e c t i c l nn o t o n l y a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l e n e m i e s
b u t a l s o a g a i n s t d e p e n d e n c oy n n a t u r e w i t h a l 1 i t s h a z a r r j sa n d
hostiities,

i n r e t u r n f o r e x c h a n g er e a t i o n s w i t h n r e . " I n s h o r t ,

d e p e n d e n c yo n t h e c e n t r e r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e n a t u r e .

O b vi o u s I y ,

i n t h e c a s e o f t h e l o r n a nE r n ipr e b o t h m e t h o d s w e r e u s e d .

T h e p r o v i n c e s h a d t o c o n t r i b i . r t et e x e s i n o r c i e r t o m a i n t a i r a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g s u p e r s t r u c t u r e , 9o b u r e a u c r a c ye x e r c i s n g p o l i t i c a l - n r i I i t a r y
tasks.

A t t h e s a m et i m e , e x p l o i t a t i o n c y c e s v ; e r e s e t u p w h e r e b y n e t

r r a u e a c c u r n u l a t e di n t h e c e n t r e .

I n t h e c a s e c f t h e R o m a nE r n p i r et h e

first

m e t h o dw a s b y f a r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e . T h e r - i g h t t e i - m i s
p r o b a b l y " p l u n d e r . " T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o b - ei c t s , i t s e e n s , r { e r e p e o p e ,

l v h o w e r e c o n q u e r e da n d s o l d t o p l a n t a t i o n o w n e r s , a n d f o o d s t u f f s ,
grain.

I h e p r o v i n c e s h a d t o c o n t r i b u t e i a x e s i n o r d e r t o r n a i n t a i na n

e v e r - i n c r e a s n gs u p e r s t r u c t u r e , a b u r e a u c r a c ya n d a n a r m y e x e r c i s i n q
p o i t i c a l - m i i t , a r y t a s k s .

The net result, of course, was that the

p e r i p h e r y , t h e p r o , r i n c e E ,w e r e i r n p o v e r i s h e da n d t - h e c e n t r e ( s )
e n r i c h e d . l l u t t h e r r e c h a n i s nwra s i ' i o l , o r o n y t o a v e r y l i t t e
trade in our sense.

extent,

T h e e c o n o m i cc y c l e s w e r e s i r o r t ; t h e g _ l . k . = _

( " h o u s e h o l d ' rw
) as to a large exient self*sufficient;

the city'nrith its

h i n L e r a n d c o n s t i t u t e d a s . v s t e mc f g g ! 4 1 S q f a . L a b o u r w a s u n f r e e . r n d
a t l e a s t i n a r g e p e r i o d s a b u n d a n te r i o u g hn o t t o e n c o u r a g ea n y s e a r c h
for abour-extensiveforns of production.

L o n g - d i s t a r r c et r a d e w a s i r r

l u x u r i e s a n d , i m p o r t a n t y , i n g r a i n l ' o i -b i g c i t i e s , i r a n d e db y t h e
s t a t e , f o r t h e c e n t r e . B y " c e n t r e r ' rt h e n , i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r n e a n t
R o m eb u t a l s o t h e m a n y s u b - c e n t r e s "

l h e n r a j r : r r e a s c r t r , v i r yt h e s y s t e r

f u n c t i o n e d f o r s u c h a o n g t i m e w a s p r o b a b l y t h a t s o m a n yi n d v i d u a l s
e n d R o n r a rni o r e s a s
were "romanized," having Latin as their langLraga
t h e i r \ ^ J e l t a n s c h a u r " rtnhge,n r s e l v e sb e i n g p a r t , n r c - r raen d r T r o r eo, f ' t h e v a s t
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e , a c o r n b i n a t i o no l ' t h e c e n t r e i n t h e c e n t r e a r i d t h e
c e n t r e i n t h e p e r i p h e r y , l 0 t h a t h a d t o b e m a i n t a i n e db y t h e s y s t e m .
T h u s , w h e ns u r p l u s h a d t o b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e c e n t r e , t h i s a l s o
i n c l u d e s c ; c a l s u b - c e n t r e s : t h e c e n t r e w a s R o m el .l

VJithout slaves the system would not have workerl, for

it was based on a

c o m b i n a t i o no f u n f r e e l a b o u r p r o d u c i n g g o o d s l o c a l l y a n d f r e e p e o p l e
thereby I iberated for less menial tasks.l2 There was an enormous
empire to draw upon for taxes and raw factors of production,l3 and
t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n a n o v e r w h e l m i n gs u p e r s t r u c t u r e , u n p r o d u c t i v e i n
material terms, that should be fed and kept loyal.

A nrajor part of

t h i s s u p e r s E r u c t u r e ,t h e n , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b u r e a u c r a c ym u s t h a v e
beenwhat today would have been called "el ite": major landowners,
t r a d e s p e o p l e ,a n d a n i n c r e a s i n g s e c t o r o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s , e n t e r t a i n e r s ,
e t c . , p r o d u ci n g f o r m s o f u n d e r s t a n di n g a n d I e g i t i m a ti o n f o r t h e e n t i r e
enterprise.

T h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h i s e m p i r e c o n s t r u c t i o n m u s t h a v e d e p e n d e do n s o m e
relatively

c o m p l e x b a l a n c e s . 0 n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e i n c o m et o t h e

c e n t r e s m u s t h a v e b e e n s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s ;o n
t h e o t h e r , t h e a m o u n to f v a l u e f l o w i n g o u t o f t h e p e r i p h e r y m u s t n o t
h a v e b e e n s o m u c ha s t o c r e a t e i m p o s s i b l ec o n d i t i o n s , e i t h e r o f a p a t h y
o r o f m u t i n y , t h a t t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r ec o u l d n o l o n g e r h a n d l e b y i t s
c o m b i n a t i o n o f c o - o p t a t i o n i n t o b r o t h e r h o o d so f o y a l t y ,

rewardingthe

i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p e r f o r m e dw e l I i n t h e s y s t e r ( i n c l u d i n g o c c a s i o n a ll y
f r e e i n g s l a v e s a n d g l a d i a t o r s ) , a n d p u n i s h m e n t c, r u d e r e p r e s s i o n . l f
w e n o w a s s u m e t h a t t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e h a d a t e n d e n c y t o g r o v J-

if not

m u c h b e c a u s e o f P a r k i n s o n ' s l a w , t h e n b e c a u s eo f t h e n e e d t o r e w a r d
i n d i v i d u a s - t h e e c o n o m i cv a l u e f l o w i n g i n t o t h e c e n t r e w o u l d h a v e t o
grow too.

This either could be taken from the periphery of the Roman

Empire, the periphery of the centre or the periphery of the oeriphery,

by exhorting them to work harder and/or taxing themmoreheavily; or
c o u d b e p r o v i d e d b y e x p a n di n g t h e e m p ri e , a c q u ir i n g m o r e b a r b a r i a n
s o i l f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n , i n t h e d o u b l e s e n s eo f t h a t w o r d .
worksas far as it does: til

Either method

peripheryor barbarianresistance in the

f o r m o f m u t i n y , d e f e n c e , a n d w i t h d r a w a l b e c o m em o r e t h a n t h e s u p e r structure can handle.

lt

is at that point that the outer I imits of the

system are reached.

T h u s , w i t h t h i s c o m b i n a t i o no f p l u n d e r a n d m a s s i v eu s e o f s l a v e s ,
" p r o l e t a r i z a t i o n r r w a s t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c ep: a r t l y
o f s m a lI
f a r m e r s / p e a s a n t s p, a r t l y o f a r t i s a n s , a n d a l s o o f f r e e d s l a v e s w i t h o u t

b e l o n g i n g n e s si n s o m ea u t a r k i c u n i t .

As the land was too depletedand

t o o m u c h i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e e c o n o m i cc y c e s t o c a r r y a d d i t i o n a l
b u r d e n so f p e o p l e , t h e y h a d t o f l o c k t o t h e c i t i e s ,

partly as a cause'

p a r t l y a s a c o n s e q u e n c eo f t h e t w i r r i n s t i t u t i o n k n o w na s p a n e m l 4e t
c i r c e n s e s , l 5 " b r " " d a n d c i r c u s . " T h e b r e a d w a s f r e e , n o b o d y s h o u ld
s t a r v e , a n d t h e e x p e n s e sm u s t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l e . A l t h o u g h t h e
c o s t s o f t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t m a y h a v e b e e n n e g i g i b l e a t t h e c r u c i a
p o i n t , t h e a m p h i t h e a t r ei t s e l f ,

it

i s h a r d t o i m a g i n et h a t t h i s c o u l d

t h e h i d d e n e x p e n s e si n g e t t i n g t h e r a w m a t e r i a l f o r
t h e e n t e r t a i n n r e n t- t h e h u m a nb e i n g s a n d t h e b e a s t s - t o t h e p a c e ,

have coveredall

fed, and trained and prepared.

T o t h i s s h o u d t h e n b e a d d e dt h e c o n s t r a i n t s s e t b y n a t u r e . 1 6 I n a n
e x p a n d i n ge m p ri e , w i t h n e w s o i I r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e ' c a r e
a b o u t t h e s o i l w o u l d s e e mw a s t e d . V J h e nt h e s o i w a s e x h a u s t e d , t h e r e
was always the possibility of going farther out. But if the grains
p r o d u c e d" f a r t h e r o u t r r w e r e t h e n e x p o r t e d t o t h e c e n t r e s - . 9 . , t o
R o m e- t h e m i n e r a l s i n t h a t s o i l w o u l d b e e x p o r t e d w i t h t h e g r a i n .
C o n s u m e di n R o m e ,t h e y c o u l d t h e o r e t i c a l l y b e u s e d t o e n r i c h s o i l
a r o u n d R o m e , b u t t h e r e w a s n o s u c h m e c h a n i s m :T h e m a n u r ew e n t s t r a i g h t
i n t o t h e s e w e r sa n d w a s l o s t , a n d w i t h i t m u c ho f t h e m i n e r a l s , b o t h
a t t h e p l a c e o f p r o d u c t i o na n d t h e p l a c e o f c o n s u m p t i o n . T h i s , i n
t u r n , p r o d u c e dc o n d i t i o n s t h a t a d d e d m o r e p e o p l e t o t h e l a n d l e s s
proietariat,

m a y b en o t b e c a u s et h e y d i d n o t h a v e l a n d b u t b e c a u s eo f

l a n d m a d eu s e l e s s . l T

A s a c o n s e q u e n c eo f a l l

this

it can be seen that there was a necessity

f o r t h e R o m a nE m p i r e n o t o n l y t o h a v e e x p a n d e db u t t o c o n t i n u e t o
e x p a n d . 0 n l y b y t h a t m e t h o dw a s i t p o s s i b l e t o k e e p t h e s y s t e m
w i t h o u t c h a n g i n ga n y f u n d a m e n t a al s p e c t o f i t .

lmportantin this

c o n n e c t i o n m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e s e c o n db a s i c p o i n t m e n t i o n e di n t h e
had
Introduction: the notion of unlimited expansion. Expansionism
no built-in

inner stop signal.

could stop it -

It

is now fairly

Therewere no brakes; only roadblocks

the barbarians.

e a s y t o s e e w h a t h a d t o h a p p e nl a t e r .

There were

 i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e s y s t e mt o d e v e l o p f u r t h e r t h a n i t h a d
al ready done in internal exploitation and lnternal markets,and
externa exploitation and external marl<ets. The materialy unproduc- t o d a y p o s s i b l y i d e n t i f i e d a s m iI i t a r y
tive superstructurelS
machinery, education, and sociai securlty - must have grownmore
q u i c k l y t h a n t l r e i n c c n e a c c r u i n g f r o m a n e x p a n d i n gs y s t e m . \ l h e n t h e
vast interira proletariat could no onger be paid off

throughpanem

l ould have to be the result.

e t c i r c e n s e s , m u t i n y o r y r i t h d r a u r aw
the vast military

VJhen

f o r c e s w e r e n o o n g e r a d e q u a t et o t h e t a s k , t h e

p r e s s u r e sf r o m t h e b a r b a r i a n ' t i n v a s i o n s " ( w h i c h , o f c o u r s e , \ ^ J e r e
p r i m a r i l y e F f o r t s t o r e c o n q u e rw h a t o n c e u i a s b a r b a r i a n ) c o u l d n o
longer so efficienty

b e c o u n t e r a c t e d . U n d e rs u c h c o n d i t i o n s i t

is

o b v i o u s t h a t s o m eo f t h e o u t l y i n g p r o v i n c e s w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t e d i n a
pr:licy of self'-reliance,l9 the centres in the peripherycalculating
t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e b e t t e r o f f t h i s v , r a yt h a n d e p e n d i n g o n a w e a k e n e d
P . o m e2 .0 O l r vi o u s l y , s o m eo f t h e m c o u l d m a k e c o m m o nc a u s e w i t h t h e
b a r b e r i a n s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i c n ,a n d d i d . 2 l

\.ihatis left

then is ihe centre in the Centre: \{hat shoud they do?

That the miitary would gradually take over goeswithout saying: lf the
p r o b l e m sw e r e d e f i n e d a s p r i m a r i l y r n iI i t a r y p r o b l e m s ,s t e m m i n gt h e
i n v a s i o n sf r o m t h e b a r b a r i a n s ,n i l i t a r y

o e o p l ew o u l d e a s i i y g a i n t h e

u p p e r h e n c i i n d e c i d i n g w h o s h o u l d b e e m p e r o r s , c o m m a n d i n bEo t h t h e
b e g i n n i n ga n d t h e e n d o f a r e i g n .

B u t t h i s m u s t h a v e a d d e dt o t h e

d e r " n a nodf a n u n p r o d u c ti v e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e a n d h e n c e s t i m u la t e d t h e
q u e s t t o r f r " r r t h e r e x p e n s i c n ; t h e d i l e r n r n ap r e c i s e l y b e i n g t h a t t h e
R o m a nE m p i r e w a s o v e r e x p a n d e d ( a n d h e n c e v u n e r a b l e ) a n d u n d e r e x p a n d e d
( a n d h e n c e u n a b l e t o k e e p i t s o w n s u p e r s t r u c t u r e ) a t t h e s a m et i m e .

flhat other pol icy opticns were open to them? They could try to
reverse the agricultural policy by land reform, giving moresoil back
t o s m a l - s c a l e f a r m e r s , b y e c o l o q i c a l l y m o r e r a f - i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s ,a n d
in general by trying to keep people on the and rather than having to
, hich were
The trouble with such measuresw
t r i e d b u t u r e i - eu s u al l y s e e n a s c o r n i n g' ! t c r o l a t e r i l w a s t h a t t h e y

feed them in the cities.

all

w e r e r r c r ti n t r a p a r a d i q m a t i c .

ln a sense they uiere the beginningsof

t h e n e x t p e r i o d , t h e M i d d e A g e s , b a s e do n m u c hs m a l l e r a n d r e a t i v e l y
sef-sufficient units.

A R o m a nE m p i r eb a s e do n s u c h u n i t s w o u l d n o

l o n g e r b e a R o m a nE m p i r e , a n d t h i s p o i n t m u s t h a v e b e e n f e t

by the

centre in the Centre.22

O n em i g h t s p e c u a t e t h a t t h e y c o u l d h a v e c o n t r a c t e d v o l u n t a r i l y , t o
m o r e d e f e n d a b l ep o s i t i o n s , b o t h m i l i t a r i l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l y . 2 3B u t
t h i s d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e a p o l i c y o p t i o n t h a t c o m e se a s i l y .

lf

it

r ^ r e r et a k e n a t a 1 , i t w o u l d b e a s t h e r e s u l t o f e f f e c t i v e m u t i n y a n d
w i t h d r a w a l ( i n c r e a s e ds e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y ) o f t h e p e r i p h e r y r a t h e r t h a n
a s t h e r e s u l t o f a u t o n o m o u sd e c i s i o n s b y t h e c e n t r e .

For one thing,

t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f r o m a n i z a t i o n u r o u l db e a g a i n s t i t :

The outlying

p r o v i n c e s w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y R o m a n ;t h e y w e - ep a r t s o f t h e e m p i r e n o t
to be abandoned. lf

t h e e m p i r e w e r e b a s e do n l y o n t a x a t i o n , i t m i g h t

h a v e b e e n e a s i e r , f o r s o m et a x - c o l l e c t o r s c a n m o r e e a s i l y b e r e c a l l e d .
B u t a n e m pi r e L l a s e do n t h e e x t e n s i v e a n d d e e p b u i I d i n g o f b r i d g e h e a d s
w i t h t h e s a m es t a n d a r d sa n d s t y l e o f I i f e a s t h e c e n t r e i n t h e C e n t r e
w o u l d b e m u c hm o r e d i f f i c u l t t o d i s r n a n t l e . 2 a

It

i s h a r d t o e s c a p et h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e c e n t r e i n t - h eC e n t r e o f t h e

R o m a nE m p i r e t r i e d p r a c t i c a l y s p e a k i n ge v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e ; a l I
attempts failed, and they gradually lost the faith
enterprise.

in their own

l n t h i s c o n n e c t i c nc i r c e E B q s h o u l d a s o b e m e n t i o n e t J .

E n t e r t a i n m e n t ,h i g h l y e m o t i o n al y l o a d e d , n o d o u b t e m o t i o n a ll y
e x h a u s ti n g , m a k e s h u m a nb e i n g s i n t o o b s e r v e r - s i n s i e a d o f p a r t i c i p a n t s . 2 5 T h e l o c a l e c o n o m i cc o s t s m a y b e n e g li g i b l e u t h e s o c i a l c o s t s
considerabe. it

is not only a questionof the time that could have

beenspent otherwisebut also a questionof the entire social and

mental energy that could have gone into participation rather than
observation.
used to til

Energy that under another economicsystem cr:uld have been

t h e s o i l p r o d u c t i v e y o r f o r s m a l - s c a l ea r t i s a n r y r n u s t

h a v e b e e n e x p e n d e do n t h e t r i b u n e s o f t h e C o l o s s e u n ,a n d i n v a s t
q u a r t! t i e s .

I n s h c r t , t h e o p p o r t u ni t y c o s t s w e r e c o n si d e r a b e .

H o w e v e r ,a n o t h e r f a c t o r m u s t h a v e b e e n e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t : a n
a l t e r n a t i v e e t h o s . c o m i n gf r o m p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y .

R o m eh a d d o n e

the only sensible thing to do with christianity:

beat it,

\ ^ / h e tnh e y c o u l d n o t

t h e y m a d ea c o n c o r d a tw i t h c h r i s t i a n i t y , a s s t a t e r e l i g i o n ,

w i t h t h e u s u a l p r o m i s et h a t t h e r e l i g i o n m i g h t b e e x e r c i s e d f r e e l y ,
even to the point of proselytizing to the very periphery of the
R o m a nE m p i r e a n d b e y o n d , 2 6u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e R o m a nm a c h i n e r y
- in return for loyalty to the system. Andyet original christianity
must have been I ingering on 27 moretranscendental, less mundane;
more inner-directed, less outer-directed; morebent on intensive
d e v o t i o n t o G o d i n s m a lI g r o u p s , 2 B e v e n s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t

ones (tr,e

o r i g i n o f t h e m o n a s t e r i a lp r a c t i c e ) , t h a n o n b i g h i e r a r c h i e s w h e r e t h e
s t r u c t u r e a f t e r s o m et i m e c o m m a n dm
s r - r cm
h ore attent ion than the
message.29
In short, there were good reasonsfor the "loss o'L faith"
of spirit'r:

or a "oss

T h e t e c h n i q u e s a t t l ' r e d i s p o s a o f t h e s y s t e m h a d b e e r ru s e d

a n d f a i l e d ; m u c hp o t e n t i a l l y c o n s t r u c t i v e e n e r g y h a d b e e n d i s s i p a t e d
into useless directions from the point of view of empire-building;and
alternative conceptualizations of the world had been presented, and
perverted, but perhapsnot entirely
so strange that they were still

successful y.

Hence, it

is not

enjoying la dolce vita and circenses

w h e n t h e b a r b a r i a n s w e r e p o u n d i n go n t h e g a t e s : 3 0 T h e y m u s t s i m p l y
havestarted losing faith

in their ownenterprise.

s u c c e e d s i k e s u c c e s s , t h e n n o t h i n g f a i l s

lf nothing

like failure either - Decause

e i t h e r a f f e c t s t h e e n t i r e I ^ / e l t a n s c h a u u n gt h, e c o n c e p t u a l p a t t e r n
w i t h i n w h i c h p h e n o m e n aa r e u n d e r s t o o d .

The year +476, the fal

o f t h e w e s t e r n R o m a nE m p i r e , i s o n l y o n e m i l e -

s t o n e i n a p r o c e s s t h a t s t a r t e d m u c he a r l i e r a n d e n d e d s o m et i m e l a t e r .
E v i d e n t l y , t h e b a r b a r i a n s d i d n o t w a n t t o d e s t r o y t h e R o i r a nE m p i r e , 3 t
perhapsnot even to conquer it - but they definitely wanted to live in
it,

a n d n o t o n l y t o g e t t h e m u c h - n e e d e sd o l a n d r e f u g e f r o m t h e

i n v a d i n g H u n s . T h e b a r b a r i a n f o r m o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s m u c hm o r e
b a s e do n s m a l l e r s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t

u n i t s ; s o w h e nt h e y s t a r t e d s e t t l i n g

o n t h e g r o u n d s o f t h e f o r m e r R o m a nE m p i r e , a v e r y i m p o r t a n t m u t u a l
e x c h a n g eo f f u n d a m e n t a lc u t u r e s , / s t r u c t u r e s m u s t h a v e t a k e n p l a c e .
The centrifugal,

t0

e x p a n d i n gw a v e f r o m t h e R o m a nE m p i r e m u s t h a v e b e e n

r o l l i n g o n , a n d m u s t i n c r e a s i n g l y h a v e b e c o m et h e c o s m o l o g yo f t h e
barbarians.

B u t a s t h e b a r b a r i a n s s e t t l e d i n t h e R o m a nE m p ri e , s o m e

f u n d a m e n t a lc o m p a t i b iI i t y b e t w e e nt h e i r s t r u c t u r e / c u l t u r e a n d t h e
i n v e r t e d , c e n t r i p e t a i n w a r d - l o o k i n g ,s t r u c t u r e / c u lt u r e t h a t t h e
R o m a n sh a d b e e n m o r e o r e s s f o r c e d i n t o b e c a m et h e b a s i s o f t h e M i d d l e
Ages as we know them.32

It

i s t h e n a s s u m e dt h a t t h e c e n t r i f u g a l , e x p a n s i o n i s t e t h o s m u s t h a v e

h i t t h e p e r i p h e r i e s o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , a s a p a t t e r n , a s a n i m a g eo f
h o w t h i n g s c a n b e d o n e , t o b e i m p l e m e n t e dw h e n c o n d i t i o n s a r e r i p e .
S o m ec e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h e f a l l

o f R o m u l u sA u g u s t u l u s , t h e w e s t e r n p a r t

h a d b e e n r e l a t i v e l y w e l l d i v i d e d b e t r ^ r e etnh e e m p i r e o f C h a r l e m a g n ei n
the north and the Arab empire in the south, with the Ebroas one
dividlng ine.

L a t e r o n ( e a s t e r n E u r o p ei s a l w a y s b e h i n d ) , t h e

0 t t o m a n E m p i r e d i d a c o r r e s p o n d i n gj o b f o r t h e E a s t e r n R o m a nE m p i r e i n f a c t a s m u c ha s o n e m i l l e n n i u m l a t e r o n .

But neither of the three,

nor the various German/Roma

n n s t r u c t i o n s , h a d t h e s a m ed e e p s t r u c t u r e
co
a s t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , b a s e d o n b o t h m e t h o d so f e x t r a c t i n g s u r p l u s a t
t h e s a m et i m e , h e a v i l y c e n t r a l i z e d , w i t h f i r m c o n t r o l f r o m t h e c e n t r e .
T h e o t h e r s w e r e l o o s e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s , p e r m i t t i n g , p e r h a p se v e n
f o s t e r i n g , a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n to f d i v e r s i t y w i t h i n t h e i r i m i t s a s
long as taxes were paid.

Thus, they were al I entirey compatible

w i t h t h e i n w a r d - l o o k i n gs m a l l r . r n i t sw i t h l i t t l e

t r a d e a m o n gt h e m t h a t

c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e l ' l i d d l e A q e s- a t l e a s t t i l I t h e 1 4 i d d l eA q e s
R e n ai s s a n c e .

H a v i n g n o w s o m e i m a g eo f t h e c o n t r a d c t i o n s t h a t b r o u g h t t h e e m p i r e
down,we can perhapsfruitfully

p u t o n e q u e s t i o n : l ^ / h ow e r e t h e c a r r i e r s

o f t h e n e w s o c i a l o r d e r , t h e p o s t - R o m a no r d e r ?

0f course, after the

s y s t e mc o l l a p s e d , t h e y w e r e a l l

m o r eo r l e s s f o r c e d t o l i v e i n t h e n e w

o r d e r , b u t s o m em u s t h a v e d o n e i t w i t h m o r e e n t h u s i a s mt h a n o t h e r s ,
even to the point of having built

it.

And it cannot have been the

e l i t e b a r b a r i a n s , f o r s o m eo f t h e m h a d a l r e a d y b e e n c o - o p t e d , e v e n t o
t h e r a n k o f g e n e r a l s i n t h e R o m a na r m i e s ( o n e r e a s o n w h y t h e y d i d n o t
fight so efficiently?).

lt

looks as if what they wanted,as already

m e n t i o n e d , w a s t o e n j o y t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , a n d n o t o n l y i t s s o i b u t

l l

what today we would refer to as its "civilizatlon.rr33

The best for

themvlould probably have been to have its teeth extracted, full

t o I i v e w i t h i n i t s b o r c j e r sw i t h o u t b e i n g e x p l o i t e d , b u t s t i l l

rights

havethe

w h o l e r n a c h i n e r y r u n b y R o m a n sc a p a b l e e n o u g h t o k e e p i t s g o o d s a n d
s e r v i c e s f l o w i n g s o a s t o p r o v i d e a t l e a s t f o r e l i t e b a r b a r i a n st h e
I i f e o f t h e R o m a nu p p e r c l a s s e s .

It cannot have been the internal proletariat

i n t h e R o m a nE m p i r e

e i t h e r , f o r t h e y p r o b a b l y h a d v e r y s i r n i a r v i s i , c r r s :n o t h i n g b a s i c a l l y
w r o n g w i t h t h e R o m a nE m p i r e e x c e p t t h a t t h e y w e r e a t t h e b o t t o m i n s t e a d
of at the top.

S i n c e t h e s y s t e md i d p r o v i d e f o r s o m e i n d i v i d u a l

m o b i l i t y , w h a t t h e y m i g h t h a v e w a n t e dw o u l d h a v e b e e n m o b i l i t y c h a n n e l s
i e s s c l o g g e d , n o r eo p e n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l u n d e r c i o g ,p e r h a p s a s o
i m p r o v e d c o n di t i o n s i n g e n e r a l .

( W e a o n o t k n o r , vt o w h a t e x t e n t E h e r e

w a s a p r o l e t a r i a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a, s o i d a r i t y -

the histories of the

S p a r t a c . u sr e v o l t a r e v e r y a m b i g u o u so n t h i s p o i n t ) . 3 a

T h a t l e a v e s u s w i t l r t h e t w o e x t r e m e s : t h e R o m a ne i t e o n t h e o n e h a n d
a n d t h e b a r b a r i a r r r n a s s e so n t l r e o t h e r .
patIern of life;

The atter had already a

t h e r e \ , v e r es l a v e s a r n o n gt h e m , a n d t h e r e l v e r e a l s o

s e r f ' s , v e r y w e l l k n o w r rf i g u r e s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n E u r o p e a t t h a t t i m e . r 5
T h e s m a l , s e l f . - s u f f i c i e n t u n i t w a s a i s o p a r t o f r e a l i t y .

Andon the

R o r n a ne l i t e s i d e . w h a t v . r o udl h a v e b e e n m o r e n a t u r a l w h e n a l I t h e i r
e f f o r - t s f a i l e d , w h e nf a t i g u e r e a l y s e t i n , t h a n t o p a c k u p a n d l e a v e ,
a n d b u i l d t h e i r b i g , t o d a y h i g h l y i n t e r e s t i n o , v i l l a s 3 6 w a yo u t i n t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e- e . g . , o f , D a l m a t i a ni s l a n d s ? T h e y c o u l d n o t t i I I t h e
g r o u n d a l o n e ; t h e y n e e d e dt h e c o l o n i f o r t h a t , a n d t h a t w a s a l r e a d y a
p a t t e r n s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p a t i b ew i t h t h e b a r b a r i a n s e r f t o f u s e i n t o
one newstructure.3T

H o w e v e r , t h a t r v a s n o t e n o u g h . T h e s t r u c t u r e b e c a m en t u c hn i o r e t h a n a
refuge during times of trouble, a place to hold out till

times were

n o r m a l a g a i n a n d i m p e r i a li s t p u r s u i t s c o u l d b e c o n t i n u e c i . S o m e t h i n g
h a d a l s o h a p p e n e dt o t h e c o s m o l o g yi t s e l f , 3 B a n d h e r e i t

is tempting

t o d r a w o n t h e m o n a s t i ce l e m e n t , t h e p r i m i t i v e C h r s t i a n i t y t h a t h a d
s u r v i v e d t h e s e e m i n g l ys u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t s a t c o - o p t a t i o n i n t o t h e

l2

C a t h o li c C h u r c h . l t c a n p r o b a b l y b e m a i n t a i n e dt h a t t h e b i f u r c a t i o n o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y i n t o t h e h i e r a r c h c a l , c e n t r a li z e d w i n g d i r e c t e d f r o m
R o m ea n d t h e m u c hn r o r ee g a l i t a r i a n a n d d e c e n t r a i z e d d i v i s i o n i n t o a
n u m b e ro f m o n a s t i c o r d e r s w a s a p r o j e c t i o n o n t o t h e s c e n e o f r e i g i o u s
b e h a v i o u ro f t h e t l v o c o n t r a s t i n g c o s m o l o g i e s :t h e c e n t r a l i z i n g a n d
c e n t r i f u g a l , a n d d e c e n t r a li z i n g a n d c e n t r i p e t a l .

A m o d u sv i v e n d i

w o u l d h a v e t o b e f o u n d b e t w e e nt h e t w o , a n d t h i s i s w h a t n r u c ho f c h u r c h
histol-y is about - in addit ion to the obvious fact that there had to
b e a r e l i g i o u s I i b e r a t i o n f r o m R o m ec c r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e c o n o m i c
upsurgeby the burghersof Transalpina-

in other words the Protestant

R e f o r m a t i o n , w i t h t h e p r e di c t a b l e e f f o r t

to reconquerreferred to as

t - h e C o u n t e r - r e f o r m a t i o n . A n y h o w ,h i g h y t r a n s c e n d e n t a l m e d i a e v a
C h r i s t i a n i L y ' , v a sn e e d e df o r t h e e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h e n e w f o r m , a n d w a s
a v a i l a b e n u c l tb e f o r e t h a t s t r u c t u r e c a m ei n t o b e i n g , a s o r i g i n a
C h r i s t i a n i t y v r a so l d e r t h a n t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e .

H e n c e ,o n e t e n t a t i v e c o n c u s i o nw o u d b e t h a t t h e c a r r i e r s o f t h e n e w
form were located in the centre of the old form, probably for the
s i m p e r e a s o n t h a t i t w a s f o r t h e m m o r e t h a n f o r a n y b o d ye l s e t h a t t h e
o d f o r m h a d b e c o m ei n p o s s i b i e .

O t h e r s m a y c h o o s ea l t e r n a t i v e f o r m s

a s a m e t h o do f f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t p e r p h e r i z a t i o n ,a s a w a y o f g a i n i n g
a u t o n o n r -y t h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e y h a v e t r u i y

r e j e c t e d i m p e r i a li s m

a s a f o r m , b e c a u s et h e y h a v e n o t y e t t r i e d r u n n i n g i t .
it operating; they have suffered from it,

They have seen

noi the Ieast by witnessing

others enjoying the fruits of their own labour.

ls it strange if they

w o u d o n c e l i k e t o b e i n t h e s a m ep o s i t i o n , e i t h e r b y p e r i p h e r i z i n g
t h e c e n t r e o r b y p e r i p h e r i z i n g s o m e b o d ye l s e ?

l n c o n c l u d i n g t h i s s e c t i o n , l e t u s t h e n t r y t o a d d r e s so u r s e l v e s t o
a m u c hm o r e d i f f i c u l t
fal

q u e s t i o n : V J h aw
t a s t h e c a u s eo f t h e d e c l i n e a n d

o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e ? \ . / es h a l I t r y t o s h o w t h a t t h i s

is not a

v e r y w e l I p h r a s e d q u e s t i o n , b u t n o t a r n e a n i n g e s so n e e i t h e r .

C o n s i d e r D i a g r a ml , g i v i n g a h y p o t h e t i c a l f l o w c h a r t o f c a u s e s a n d
e f f e c t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e d e c l i n e a n d f a l I o f t h e R o m a nE m p r e . l t
organized so as to refect the text: There are two maior types of

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e x p a n s i o n-

to exact value, and the use of slave-based

p r o d u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o g e t s o c i a l s u r p l u s - b o t h o f t h e mm a i n t a i n i n g
territorial

a n i n c r e a s i n g e l i t e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s m a t e r i a ll y u n p r o d u c t i v e .
It

i s t h e n a s s u m e dt h a t t h i s s u p e r s t r u c t u r e f e e d s b a c k o n t h e t w o

t y p e s o f e x p a n s i o na n d t h a t t h e s e i n t u r n l e a d t o i n c r e a s i n g b a r b a r i a n
p r o t e s t a n d p r e s s u r e , a n d t o i n c r e a s i n gp r o l e t a r i z a t i o n w i t h p r o t e s t
and revolt.

To handle them, even more superstructure is needed:to

a d m i n i s t e r m i l i t a r y c a m p a i g n si n o r d e r t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e b a r b a r i a n s ,
a n d t o a d m i n i s t e r p a n e me t c i r c e n s e s i n o r d e r t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e
Drotestsand the revolts from the interna proletariat.
c a m p a i g nm a y r e s u l t i n m o r e t e r r i t o r i a l

The miitary

e x p a n s i o n ,a t l e a s t u p t o a

certain point, and the quest for bread in an even further increase in
t h e s c a l e o f e c o n o m i ca c t i v i t y ,

again up to a certain point.

Utimate-

l y a l o f t h i s l e a d s t o s u c h p h e n o m e naas e c o l o g i c a l b r e a k d o w n , 3 9l a c k
of spirit,
of real participation in society, a general breakdown
i n c r e a s i n g m iI i t a r y c o n t r o l o f s o c i e t y , a n d f i n a l l y t o s u c c e s s f u l
i n v a si o n s b y t h e b a r b a r i a n s . 4 o
" t h e c a u s eo f t h e d e c i n e a n d f a l l
So, looking at the chart, what is
o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e " ? l t c a n n o t b e o n e o f t h e f i v e

items to the right

s i n c e w h a t t h e y h a v e t a k e n L o g e t h e rm i g h t b e s a i d t o b e n e i t h e r t h e
cause nor the effect but simply a description of what is meantby
' , b r e a k d o w n . r 'T h e n o n e c a n l o o k a t t h e p o i n t s i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e
I'Thecause was a too heavy
diagram, and put forward such theses as
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e e c o n o m yt o c a r r y r " o r ' r T h e c a u s e w a s t h e
p r a c t i c e o f d i s t r i b u t i n g f r e e b r e a d , " o r " T h e c a u s ew a s a l I t h e
i m p li c a t i o n s o f t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t . " B u t t h e s e a r e o n l y r e l a t i v e l y
o b v i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e so f w h a t h a p p e n sw h e n o n e s t a r t s e x P a n d i n g a n y h o w
- u n l e s s , t h a t i s , t h e r e i s s o m ek i n d o f a b i l i t y t o f e e l a n d s e n s e
when"enough is enough." Hence, if one should be looking for something
called the cause, it might be better to look further to the left in
the diagram, to expansionitsef - but in that case not so much
e x p a n s i o na s a m a t e r i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n , g e o g r a p h i c a ly i n t e r r i t o r i a l
s p a c e a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y w i t h e x p a n d e de c o n o m i cc y c l e s , a s e x p a n s i o n a s
a p a r t o f a c o s m o l o g y- t h i s t e r m b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d b o t h i n i t s m a t e r i a l
and ideal senses.

l5

But that leads into another difficulty:

w h a t t h e R o m a nE m p i r e w a s a b o u t .

T h a t c o s m o l o g yi s i n a s e n s e

In other words, one is led towards

t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e R o m a nE m p i r e w a s t h e c a u s e o f i t s o w n d e c l i n e .
and that decline maybe a part of empire-building; in other words,
that contraction is the other side of a coin the first

side of which

is expansion.4l And this is the postion we would prefer to take:

T h e r e i s a " f a m i l y o f t h i n g s " t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e R o m a nE m p r e ; i t h a d
its own internal logc; it was consistent; but it could not last
f o r e v e r b e c a u s ei t h a d b u i l t

into it

i t s o w n c o n L r a d i c t i o n st o t h e

point of destruction.
B u t i m a g i n en o w t h a t t h i s " c o i n " l o o k e d d i f f e r e n t i n a v e r y s p e c i a l
s e n s e : t h a t , t h e _ d e c il n e w a s a l r e a d y i n c u d e d i n t h e c o s m o l o g y- i n
o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t t h e c o s m o l o g yh a d b u i l t i n t o i t t h e i d e a " s o m e t i m e s
i t g o e s u p i n t h i s w o r d ; t h e n i t m a y r e m a i n s t a b l e ; a n d s o m e t i m e si t
g o e s d o w n- a n d a l l o f t h i s i s p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l , p e r f e c t l y n o r m a . "
r ould no longer be a decline but a
I n t h a t c a s e , t h e r r d e c l i n e rw
c o n t r a c t i o n , a p h a s e i n a p u l s a t i n g e m p i r e , p e r h a p sm o r e l i k e a
b r e a t h i n g o r g a n i s mt h a n o n e u r h i c hc o n s t a n t l y i n h a e s .

lf contraction

p h a s e s \ ^ / e r ea l r e a d y b u i t

i n t o t h e p r o g r a m m e t, h e r e w o u l d , i n t h e o r y ,
b e n o F r u s t r a t i o n , n o p a n i c , n o t ' b r e a k d o wonf s p i r i 1 . t t 4 2 E v e n t h e

elite

i n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e , m a t e r i a l y n o n - p r o d u c t i v e ,w o u l d h a v e

b e e n p r e p a r e dt o s a c r i f i c e i n w h a t t o d a y i s c a l l e d l i v i n g s t a n d a r d , b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e w o r l d i s s o m a d et h a t t h e l e a n y e a r s w i l l

follow upon

the fat years, then to be followed by fat years again.43 The Roman
e l i t e d i d n o t s e e mt o a p p l y t h i s v i e w , c o m m o ni n a n c i e n t h i s t o r y , t o
their own situation.

But in that case, obviously, this would not

h a v e b e e n t h e R o m a nE m p i r e !

l t w o u l d h a v e b e e n s o m e t h i n ge l s e ,

p o s s i b l y c l o s e r t o t h e E g y p t i a n a n d C h i n e s ec o n s t r u c t i o n s . E v e n t h e
m u c hm o r e m o d e s tv e r s i o n o f t h i s , a c o s m o l o g yw i t h a b u i l t - i n

stop

signal, with a sef-regulation in the big, not only in the small (the
n e g a t i v e a r r o w s i n t h e c h a r t ) " w a s a l i e n t o t h e c o s m o l o g yo f t h e R o m a n
Empire. Hence,decline and fall

were built

into it

as a consequence

of a lack of constraint, modesty,senseof proportion.44

0 u r c o n c l u si o n

r6

then, is that to ask for the causeof the decline is a

l i k e a s k i n g f o r t h e c a u s eo f d e a t h o f o l d h u m a nb e i n g s . F o r
b i o o g i c a l o r g a n i s m si t s e e n n us s e f u l t o t h i n k i n t e r m s o f a g e n e r a
little

p r o c e s s o f a g i n g , w e a k e n i n gt h e b c d y ; f i n a l l y d e a t h i s b r o u g h t a b o u t
b y s o m ea f f i c t i o n t h a t i n a y o u n g , h e a l t h y b o d y r n i g h t h a v e b e e n o f
t h a t a f f i c t i o n a s t h e c a u s eo f d e a t h i s
e p i s t e m o l o g i c al ly m a i n l y a n e x p r e s s i o no f h o w p o o r l y t h e p r o c e s s o f
a g i n g i s u n d e r s t o o d . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l Yt,o I i f t o u t o f t h e f l o r v c h a r t

minor significance. To list

o n e o f t h e m a n yv a r i a b l e s , e l e v a t i n g i t t o t h e s t a t u s o f c a u s e o f t h e
decl ine would tend to high ight a part of the tota process at the
e x p e n s eo f t h e s y s t e m i c n a t u r e o f w h a t v r e n t o n .

Pragmatically it might

a l s o b e d a n g e r o u s ; i I w o t r l d I e a d t o a n o v e r c o n c e n t r a t i o no n t h a t
perhaps
f a c t o r , e f f o r t s t o c h a n g et h e s y s t e ma t t h a t p a r t i c u a r p o i n t ,
p r o l o n g i n g i t s I i f e a s i s d o n e t o d a y w i t h h u m a nb o d i e s , i n s e r t i n g
b o d y p a r t s , b u t n o t i n a n y e s s e n t i a l w a y c h a n g i n gt h e F r a s i c
artificial
p r o g r a m m eo f t h e s Y S t e m .
This is not the place to go into moredetail about the successor
system, the mediaevalsociety, except for one thing: lf the Roman
E m p i r ew a s a n e x a g g e r a t i o ni n o n e d i r e c t i o n , p e r h a p sm e d i a e v a ls o c i e t y
at least party, in the oPpositedirectoq'
-@,
- with the exception of
Instead of total expansion, to-tal contraction
t h e o v e r l a y e r s f r o m t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , 4 5 t h e R o m a nC h u r c h , a n d
i m i t a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e C a r o li n g i a n E m pri e '
this
C a n t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , o r i t s d e c l i n e , b e s a i d t o b e t h e c a u s e o f
new formation? Perhaps,but it maynot be very usefu to introduce
causation as a metaphor;that should better refer to less complex
itself,
e n t i t i e s a n d m o r ec l e a r c o n n e c t i o n s . A s y s t e m i s b o r n , u n f o l d s
is
a n d g o e s d o v r n ;a n c t h e r s y s t e m i s b o r n . F r o m o n e t o t h e o t h e r t h e r e
"family of things" there is another
a transformation; insteadof one
, , f a m i l y o f t h i n g s . " O n e c a n p i c k - o u t o n e p h e n o m e n oinn t h e p r e c e d i n g
settle
f o r m a t i o n - e . g . , t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e R o m a ne l i t e t o e s c a p e a n d
i n t h e i r v i l l a s - a n d o n e p h e n o m e n o inn t h e s u c c e e d i n gf o r m a t i o n
connection
. g . , t h e m a n o r s y s t e m- a n d e s t a b l i s h s o r n ek i n d o f c a u s a l
is not our conviction that this leads to a good
u n d e r s t a n d i n go f w h a t h a p p e n e ds i n c e i t l e a v e s o u t t h e

b e t w e e nt h e t w o .
historical

l7

lt

e n t i r e c o n t e x t a n d t h e c o s m o l o g yt h a t g i v e s l e g i t i m a c y a n d m e a n i n gt o
the elements in the two formations.

w i t h o u t t h a t c o s n r o l o g y ,p a r t l y

e x p r e s s e da s a m a t e r i a l s t r u c t u r e , p a r t l y a s a c o l l e c t i v e l y s h a r e d
senseof what is natural and normal, the formations would only be
i n t e g r a t e d i n a m e c h a n i c a ls e n s e , a s i f t h e y w e r e p o p u a t e d b y b e i n g s
t ^ t h ow e r e n o l o n g e r h u m a n ,w i t h n o c o n s c i o u s n e s sa n d n o c o n s c i e n c e ,
merely robots.

A n d t h a t i s p e r h a p s p r e c i s e y w h a t h a p p e n e dt o w a r d s t h e

e n d : T h e c o s m o l o g yw a s u n d e r m i n e d ; i t w a s s t i l I e x p r e s s e dm a t e r i a l l y
i n t h e s t r u c t t i r e o f t h i n g s b u t n o t i d e a ll y i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i d e a l s the two worlds were no longer sufficienty

i s o m o r p h i c . A n d m a y b et h a t

i s t h e r e a l m e a n i n go f w h a t i s m e t a p h o r i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o b y s o m a n y
h i s t o r i a n s a s t h e " b r e a k d o w no f s p i r i t " - t h e c o s m o l o g yn o l o n g e r h a d
a s o l i d g r i p o n t h e h u m a ns o u l .

c o s m o o g yw i t h o u t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

m e a n st h a t t h e r e i s a j o b t o b e d o n e ; a s t r u c t u r e n o l o n g e r l e g i t i m a t e d
by deep ideoogy may meanthat the job has been overdone.
t h e R o m a nc a s e l o s s o f c o n t r o l a n d l o s s o f s p i r i t

However, in

probably went hand

in hand, being the material and ideal sides of the decline respectively.

r8

ill

T H E R I S E A N DD E C L I N E
0 F \ . / E S T E RDNO M I N A N CAE :S H O R T
CHARACTERIZATION

I t g o e s a l m o s t w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t t h e n e w w e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s mw o u l d
h a v e t o c o m eo u t o f p e r i p h e r i e s i n s p a c e a n d t i m e : f r o m n o r t h e r n E u r o p e ,
a n d m a n yc e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h e a p o c a l y p t i c e v e n t s i n w h a t w a s a t t h a t
time the centre of the V/est, Rome. 0f course, there was aso a short
b u r s t o f i m p e r i a il s m i n l t a l y i t s e l f - t h e l t a i a n c i t y - s t a t e s , d u r i n g
a p e r i o d r o u g h l y d a t i n g f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n go f t h e " M i d d l e A g e s
R e n a i s s a n c et"i I l ,
effectively

S a y , a r o u n d 1 5 5 0w h e n t h e l t a l i a n c i t y - s t a t e s w e r e

destroyed in external and internal warfare.46 Perhaps

t h e y w e r e a l s o v i c t i m s o f t h e i r o w n p e r f e c t i o n , o r t h e i r i m a g ea s b e i n q
p e r f e c t ; p e r h a p s e x a c t l y b e c a u s ea t a c e r t a i n s t a g e t h e y s a w t h e m s e l v e s
a s t h e r e n a i s s a n c eo f t h e b e s t o f a n t i q u i t y .

M a y b et h e y d i s c o v e r e d

t o o l a t e t h e v a r i o u s t r i c k s e n g a g e di n b y t h e b u r g h e r s f a r t h e r t o t h e
"tricks" as making
n o r t h , i n F l a n d e r s , t h e N e t h e r a n d s ,E n g l a n d ; s u c h
e c o n o m i cu s e o f t h e n e w t e r r i t o r i e s

o p e n e dt h r o u g h t h e G r e a t D i s c o v e r i e s ,

c o n s i s t e n t l y i m p o r t i n g r a w m a t e r i a ls , c o n s i s t e n t l y e x p o r t i n g p r o c e s s e d
g o o d s , c a s h i n g i n o n t h e a d d e dv a l u e . 4 7 0 f c o u r s e , S p a i n w a s a l s o
f r o m e a r l y o n i n t h i s p e r i o d t h e c e n t r e o f a n e n o r m o u se m p i r e , b u t
s e e m st o h a v e m a d ea v e r y b a s i c m i s t a k e : s e e i n g t h e e m p i r e m e r e l y a s a
source of extraction of tribute, of taxation - not as a market. Spain
b e c a m er i c h , h a d o t h e r s d o i t s m a n u f a c t u r i n ga n d p r o c e s s i n g , p r o u d l y
being able to buy from all

c o r n e r s o f t h e w o r l d , n o t u n d e r s t a n d i n gt h a t

t h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s i t w a s I i v i n g o n b o r r o w e dt i m e , s y s t e m a t i c a ll y
u n d e r d e v e l o pni g i t s e l f . a B

A t a n y r a t e , i t w a s i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p et h a t t h e c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n
took place that later on could be invested into the industrial
r e v o l u t i o n , t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f m a s s - m a n u f a c t u r i n ga ,
tremendoum
s utiplier of the international division of labour

tg

m e c h a n i s ma l r e a d y m a d eu s e o f f o r c e n t u r i e s .
till

And thus it continueo

o u r d a y s , w i t h F r a n c e e s s e n t i a l y d o i n g t h e s a m e i n t h e e n i p i r eo f

i t s c r e a t i c n , i n j e a l o u s c o r n p e t i t i o nw i t h t h e B r i t i s h ; w i t h G e r m a n y
d e s p e r a t e l y t r y i n g t o d o t h e s a r l e ,p i e c i n q t o g e t h e r a n e m p i r e b e f o r e
t h e F i r s t V J o r l dW a r , t h e n c l s i n g i t a g a i n , b u i l d i n g u p a n e n o r m o u s
o n e u n d e r H i t l e r t o w a r d s t h e E a s t ( 0 s t r n a r k, ) a n d l o s i n g i t a s
r a p i d l y a s i t r v a sb u i l t .

More interesting,

ln a sense, was the entry of today's two superpowers

o n t h e s c e n e : t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c aa n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . 4 9 T h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s c i e a r l y r e v e r s e dt h e t r a d e p a t t e r n a i t h o u g h n o t c o m p l e t e i y :
I t s t i | e x p o r t s s o m e r a v r m a t e r i a l a n d i m p o r t s p r o c e s s e dg c o d s , b u t
s o m eo f t h e p r o c e s s e d g o o c i s i t d o e s e x p o r t o c c u p y s u c h a c e r r t r a
p o s i t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i cc o n s t r u c t i o n o f " m o d e r n "
s o c i e t i e s ( m i l i t a r y h a r d w a r e ,c o r n p u t e r s f, o r a l o n g p e r i o d c a r s , e t c . )
t h a t t h e y h a v e g i v e n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n s i d e r a b el e v e r a g e . 0 n c e
t h e f o r m u l a h a d b e e n d i s c o v e r e da n d u s e d a s a b a s i s f o r r e d i r e c t i n g
t h e r e c e n t l y i n d e p e n d e n tc o l o n i e s , t h e s i z e o f t h e A m e r i c a ne c o n o m y
b e c a m ea n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r ' , a s w e a s i t s c a p a c i t y f o r

internal

e x p a n s i o n ,b o t h i n t e r m s o t : t e r r i t o r y a n d i n t e r m s o f p o p u l a t i o n , a n
e x p a n s i o n i m p a r t i n g a r n c m e n t u tmo t h e t o t a l s o c i o - e c o n o r n i cr r a c h i n e r y
that could then be transmittec to international operations. Something
o f t h e s a n r eh a s n o d o u b t b e e n t h e c a s e f o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n : T h e y h a d
h a v e a F a r E a s t c o n c e p tj u s t a s t h e U n t e d S t a t e s h a d a
F a r \ ^ / e s tn o t i o n . 5 0 B u t t h e S o vi e t U ni o n h a s n o t i n a n y s e n s e b e e n

and still

s u c c e s s f u i n r e v e r s i n g i t s p o s i t i o n i n t h e i n I e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f
labour, still

b e i n g e s s e n t i a ll y a c o m m o d i t yd e a l e r o n t f r e i n t e r n a t i o n a

m ar k e t .

This is not the pace to describe the various stages in the process
of building westernempires,5l.^cept to rrotethe following points:
F i r s t , t h e y s a t i s f y t h e t w o c o n d i t i o n s m e n t i o n e cijn t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t h e t e n d e n c y t o b e w o r l d - e n c o n r p a s s i n gt ,o e x p a n d t i l

they are stopped

( b y r o a d - b l o c k s r a t h e r t h a n b y b r a k e s , t o u s e t h a t m e t a p h o ra g a i n ) ,
a n d t h e t e n d e n c y t o c o n v e r t t h e p e r i p h e r y , i n t h e s e n s eo f i m p o s i n g
both newsocial structures and newattitudes and beliefs, even

20

c o s m o l o g i e s . A n d t h e n t h e r e i s t h i s f a s c i n a t i n g p h e n o m e n oonf h o w a
country/people touchedby imperialism in the senseof having been its
p e r i p h e r y e n g a g e si n a i b e r a t i o n p r o c e s s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a u t o n o m y .
t h e n i t s e l f l a u n c h e s i n t o e x p a n s i o n i s ta n d e x p l o i t a t i v e v e n t u r e s ,
e m a n a t i n gw a v e s o f d o r n i n a t i o nt h a t u l t i m a t e l y m a y r e a c h t h e o l d c e n t r e ,
even engulf and peripherize it.

0 f c o u r s e , R o m ei t s e l f

was once such

a p e r i p h e r y . T h e R o m a nw
s e r e b a r b a r i a n s r e l a t i v e t o H e ll e n i c a n d
H e l l e n i s t i c e x p a n s i o n ,a n d t h e y a l s o h a d t h e E t r u s c a nm o d e l t o d r a w
u p o n . 5 2 C o r r e s p o n d i n g l yo n e m a y t a l k a b o u t A m e r i c a na n d S o v i e t
i m p e r i a l i s ma s b e i n g r e a c t i v e , a n d t h e E u r o p e a nC o m r n u n i tays b u i l d i n g
o n o l d s t r u c t u r e s i n t r y i n g t o p u l l t o g e t h e r w h a t e v e rm i g h t r e m a i n o f
F r e n c h ,G e r m a n ,l t a l i a n , B e g i a n , D u t c h , B r i t i s h , a n d D a n i s h
i m p e r i a li s m i n t o o n e c o - o r d i n a t e d u n i t , p a r t y t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e U S ,
p a r t l y t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , d e f i n i t e y t o d o m i n a t et h e
Third \lorld.53

P r e d i c t a b y , t h e r e a r e n o n - w e s t e r nr e a c t i o n s o f t h e s a m e t y p e , J a p a n
b e i n g t h e f i r s t c a s e i n t i m e , i t s v l a v eo f e c o n o m i c i m p e r i a l i s m t o d a y
f l o o d i n g t h e o l d c e n t r e s w i t h a l m o s La l l

kinds of goods. lf this is

a s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o nw a v e , I i k e t h e w a v e s f r o m t h e U S a n d t h e S o v i e t
U n i o n , t h e n t h e w a v e s n o v ' e/ m a n a t i n gf r o m " l o s q u a t r o j a p o n c i t o s "
( S o u t h K o r e a , T a i w a n , H o n g K o n g , S i n g a p o r et o m a k et h e i r

literally)

will

not fail

i m p a c t . 5 4 A n d t h e N e w I n t e r n a t i o n a E c o n o m i cO r d e r c a n

b e s e e n a s a s e t t i n q f o r m o r e s u c h w a v e r n o v e m e n t as n d m o r e q e n e r a t i o n s .

To be discussed, however, is to what extent one can say that there is

a h i g h l e v e o f p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e nt h e d e c l i n e a n d f a l l
E m p i r ea n d t h e d e c l i n e a n d p o s s i b e f a l l
m e a n i n gf i r s t

of all

of the Roman

of the westernenrpires,

t h e c o u n t r i e s i n t h e E u r o p e a nC o m m u n i t y ,s e c o n d

the United States, and third the Soviet Union. Here it should be noted
i m m e d a t e l yt h a t t h e s e t h r e e , a l t h o u g h a l o f t h e m w e s t e r n i n a
civil izational sense,obviously are in different stagesof their I ife
c y c l e s a s e m p i r e s- p o s s i b y w i t h w e s t e r n E u r o p e i n a s t a g e o f
s e n e s c e n c e ,t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e a c h i n g o l d a g e , a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n
i t s m a t u r i t y ( a l e s s a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n f o r w e s t e r n E u r o p ew o u l d m a k e
t h e t h r e e s o m e w h ayt o u n g e r , s t i l I m a i n t a i n i n g t h e o r d e r : t h e S o v i e t

2l

union on its way up,55 the united States just about passing its apogee,
w e s t e r n E u r o p e i n a s t a t e o f d e c a d e n c e ,b u t n o t y e t s e n e s c e n c e ) .
Further, it should of course be rrotedthat there is a close relations h i p b e t u r e e nt h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n d a c o n f l i c t

with

the Soviet union.

Thus, the decl ine and even fall of the eastern part
o f t h e w e s t m a y c o m e s o m e w h a lt a t e r - b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t a s m u c ha s
, 0 0 0 y e a r s l a t e r a s w a s t h e c a s e r v i t h t h e E a s t e r n R o m a nE r n p i r e- w e
o n l y p o i n t t h i s o u t i n o r d e r t o s h o wo n c e m o r e t h a t t h e u s e o f R c m a n
h i s t o r y m i g h t b e u s e f u l i n g e n e r a t i n gh y p o t h e s e s . 5 6

H o r v ,t h e n , s h o u l d o n e e n v i s a g e w e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m , c o m p a r a b ew i t h
t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , y e t w i t h i t s d i s t i n c t s p e c i f i c i t i e s ?

O n ea D D r o a c n

rvouldbe as indicated below.

T h e R e n a i s s a n c ew a s a r e a c t l v a t i o n o f t h e o l d c o s m o o g y ,e v e n m o r e
c e n t r i f u g a l , e x p a n s i o n i s t , i n s p i r i n g b o t h g e o p o il t i c a l a n d s o c i o e c o n o m i c e x p a n si o n .

T h e g e o p o li t i c a e x p a n si o n i s u s u a l l y k n o w na s

colonial ism, and the socio-economie

c x p a n s i o na s i m p e r i a li s m ; t h e
f o r m e r i s a s p i l - o v e r b e y o n dn a t i o n a l b o r d e r s o f t h e s t a t e b u i l t b y
b u r e a u c r a t s , t h e a t t e r a s p i I l - o v e r , a l s o b e y o n dn a t i o n a l b o r d e r s , o f
t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s b u i I t b y c a pi t a I i s t s .

T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , h o w e v e r ,i s t o o s h a r p , f o r o n e m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f w e s t e r n i m p e r i a i s m i s t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e ns t a t e a n d
c o r p o r a t l o n , b e t w e e nb u r e a u c r a t sa n d c a p i t a l i s t s . 5 7

capitalism

s u p p o r t e dt h e s t a t e w i t h t a x e s , m o r e o r e s s l v i l l i n g l y ; t h e s t a t e i n
r e t u r n p r o v i d e d m i l t a r y p r o t e c t i o n f o r e x p a n d i n ge c o n o m i cc y c l e s b o t h
inside and outside the national territory, placedmajor orders (..g.,
f o r u n i f o r m s , a r m s , p u b li c b u l d i n g s ) , a n d s e r v e d a s t h e u t i m a t e
g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e s o m e t h i n gt o f a l l b a c k u p o n i n c a s e o f
t o t a I b a n k r u p t c y .5 B r o g e t h e r t h e y h a d a s t a k e i n e x t r a c t i n g s u r p l u s
p r o d u c e di n t h e o v e r s e a s t e r r i t o r i e s a n d t h r o u g h p r o l e t a r i z a t i o n i n
g e n e r a l , a t h o m ea n d a b r r : a d . T h u s , i t

is the co-operative rather than

a c o m p e t i t i v e n a t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e ns t a t e a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s
t h a t s h o u l d b e s e e n a s a m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m ,
a n d i n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v et h e p o l i t i c a c o n f l i c t s a s t o t h e p r e c i s e
22

r u l e s o f t h a t g a m ea p p e a r a s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t .

0f course, to private

c o r p o r a t i o n s i t m a k e sa d i f f e r e n c e w h e t h e r t h e s t a t e p r o v i d e s t h e
t h r e e s e r v i c e s m e n t i o n e da b o v e , i n c l u d i n g b u i l d i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n
a m u c hb r o a d e r s e n s e t h a n j u s t s u p p l y i n g m i l i t a r v p r o t e c t i o n , o r i n
fact takes over corporations, starting doing businessitself.

And to

t h e s t a t e i t m a t t e r s w h e n c o r p o r a t i o n s d i c t a t e p o l i c i e s : B o r d e r li n e s
b e t w e e ns t a t e a n d c a p i t a l b e c o m em o r e b l u r r e d .

T w o p h a s e ss h o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : f r o m t h e b u i l d i n g o f g o v e r n m e n t a l
t o t h e b u i l d i n g o f i n t e r - g o v e r n m e n t aol r g a n i z a t i o n s a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l ,
and from the building of national to the building of transnational
corporations at the other evel.

In either case co-operation between

the levels takes place, regardless of whether the inter-governmental

o r g a ni z a t i o n o r t h e t r a n s n a t i o n aI c o r p o r a t i o n c o m e sf i r s t

( p r o b a b yl

u s u a l l y t h e l a t t e r b e c a u s eo f i t s m u c hh i g h e r i e v e l o f f l e x i b i l i t y ) .
And as this process growsand ihe size of the state and the corporation,
nat ionally and internationaly, takes on moreand moreoverwheming
proportions, there wi I I be an increasing need for intel lectuals who
p r o d u c e f o r m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n go f t h e s e p h e n o m e n aw, h o d e l i v e r , f o r
e x a m p l e , l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s t o t h e b u r e a u c r a t s ,a n d n a t u r a a n d s o c i a l
science"laws" to the capital ists, "planning" for a morepredictable
w o r l d i n w h i c h e x o a n s i o nc a n c o n t i n u e u n a b a t e d . 5 9 I n c o n c l u s i o n t h i s
a d d s u p t o a h u g e s u p e r s t r u c t u r eo f b u r e a u c r a t s ,c a p i t a l i s t s , a n d
i n t e l l e c t u a l s , t h e n u c l e u s o f t h e v r e s t e r ni m p e r i a li s t f o r m u l a , t o b e
s u p p o r t e d b y t h e s u r p l u s e x t r a c t e d t h r o u g h g e o p o li t i c a l

and socio-

e c o n o m i ce x p a n s i o n .
led torrunrestr'- both the I'native" reaction to geoe x p a n s i o na n d t h e " p r o l e t a r i a n " r e a c t i o n t o a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c

0f course, it
pol itical

e x p a n s i o n ,w t h w o r l d t r a d e a n d m a c h i n ei n d u s t r y p l a y i n g a d o m i n a n t
role, particularly after the industrial revolution.

In either case,

c o - o p t a t i o n w a s u s e d a s a m e t h o dt o c o n t a i n t h e u n r e s t , b u t t h e
" t r i c k i n g u p w a r d s "i n t h e f o r m o f i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a m o b i l i t y f r o m
native and proletarian layers of the total

s y s t e ma l w a y s p r o v e d

O t h e r m e t h o d sh a d t o b e u s e d , p r e d o m i n a n t l ym i I i t a r y
c a m p iag n s a g a i n s t t h e " n a t i v e s , " a n d a g a i n s t t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s a n u m b e r
insufficient.

23

of tactics that deservemoreexplicit

s o m eo f t h e s e t a c t i c s w e r e s o f t ;

mention.

s o m eo f t h e m w e r e t o u g h .

A m o n gt h e

l a t t e r w e r e t h e p o l i c e c a m p a i g n s ,t h e e f f o r t s t o q u e l l s t r i k e s a n d
r i o t s ; a r n o n gt h e f o r m e r , w e l f a r e - s t a t e m e a s u r e s( t h e p a n e mo f t h e
R o m a nE m p i r e ) a n d m a s s e n t e r t a i n m e n t ( t h e c i r c e n s e s ) : s p o r t s , m o v i e s ,
radiolTV.

B u t t h e r e w e r e a l s o m o r e s u b t l e m e a s u r e s ,p a r t i c u l a r l y a g r a d u a l
buiding of shared interest with the el ite in the superstructure.60
T h e f o r m u l a i n c r e a s i n g l y d e v e l o p i n gw a s t h e i d e a t h a t ' r w e i n t h e \ y ' e s t ,
e l i t e a n d m a s s e s ,w i l l a f t e r a l l g o u p t o g e t h e r a n d g o d o w n t o g e t h e r ,
so we can just as well fight

for the common

cause.',61 The proetariat

w a n t e d m o r e o f a s h a r e , a n d t h e w e l f a r e s t a t e w a s a r v a yo f m e e t i n g t h i s
d e m a n d . B u t t h e o t h e r p a r t y a l s o w a n t e d m o r e ; a s a c o n s e q u e n c et h e
c a k e h a d t o g r o b / , w h i c h m e a n st h a t e x p a n s i o n h a d t o c o n t i n u e .
A l l o f t h i s , t h e n , b e c o m e sp a r t i c u l a r l y d r a m a t i c i n t h e y e a r s a f t e r
t h e s e c o n d w o r l d \ , / a r , w h e n t h e p r o c e s s k n o w na s d e c o l o n i z a t i o n s e t i n .
The process was important: There was a form of direct taxation in
return for "protection' that no longer could be exercised.

But the

consequence
w a s a l s o o b v i o u s : T o c o m p e n s a t ef o r t h i s l o s s t h e r e h a d
t o b e a m u c hm o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d e f f o r t a l o n q t h e l i n e s o f s o c i o e c o n o m i ce x p a n s i o n . c o n s e q u e n t l y , a s o n e m i g h t h a v e p r e d i c t e d , t h e
u p s u r g eo f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s w a s t h e l o g i c a l a n s w e r t o
d e c o l o n i z a t i o n , a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n t h e s e c o n de x p a n s i o np l a t f o r m w h e n
t h e f i r s t w a s y i e l d i n g . 6 2 T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n gd r a m a t i c i n t h i s , a
s y s t e m b e i n g a m p u t a t e do n o n e l e g , f o r t i f y i n g

the second, vulnerable,

but I imping forward with great enthusiasm.

E s s e n t i a l l y t h i s m e a n st h a t m a r k e t r e l a t i o n s b e c o m eo f p r e d o m i n a n t
i m p o r t a n c ea n d t h e y i n v o l v e u l t i m a t e l y a q u e s t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d ,b e t w e e np r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n . l t

is no

l o n g e r s u f f i c i e n t , a s d u r i n g t h e a g e o f c o l o n i a i s m , t o e n g a g ei n
territorial

e x p a n s i o ni n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r ys u r p l u s , p a r t l y

t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o n s i d e r a b l ee l i t e , p a r t l y t o k e e p t h e r e s t i v e
2\

proletariat

a t b a y , e v e n i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r so f t h e m i n

the el ite.

E c o n o m i ce x p a n s i o n i s n e e d e d , w h i c h m e a n st h a t b o t h

c o n s u m p t i o na n d p r o d u c t i o n h a v e t o e x p a n d , b o t h d e m a n da n d s u p p l y , a n d
d e m a n dh a s t o e x p a n d s o a s t o o u t s t r i p t h e s u p p l y ; o t h e r w i s e a c r i s i s
will

e n s u e . T o a s s u m et h a t d e m a n da n d s u p p l y c a n b e i n s t a t i c

e q u i I i b r i u m i s t o a s s u m et h a t n o n - p r o d u c t i v e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s r e m a i n
c o n s t a n t b o t h i n n u m b e r sa n d i n a v e r a g e c o n s u m p t i o nd e m a n d ,a n d t h a t
the costs of keeping the proletariat also remainconstant (to mention
only one factor: that salaries are kept constant, in real terms).
B u t e v e n t h e a s s u m p t i o no f a d y n a m i ce q u i l i b r i u m m g h t n o t b e e n o u g h :
T h e r e h a s t o b e a n i m a g eo f a t l e a s t p o t e n t i a l d e m a n dl e a d i n g a c t u a l
supply in order for the production of goodsand services to be
s t e p p e d u p w i t h a r e a s o n a b l ep r o b a b i li t y t h a t t h e m a r k e t w i l

function.

Given an expansionist cosmology,it should be possible to meet these

c o n d i t i o n s , a t l e a s t f o r s o m et i m e .

Not only will

an increase in

p r o d u c t i o n o u t p u t b e c o n s i d e r e d n o r m a l , n a t u r a l ; t h e s a m ew i I I a p p l y
t o a n i n c r e a s e i n d e m a n d ,i n c o n s u m p t i o ni n g e n e r a l .

O n em a y r i d i c u e

t h e p e r s o n w h o a d d s t r a n s i s t o r r a d i o n u m b e r6 , w a t c h o r c l o c k n u m b e r
5 , T V s e t n u m b e rl ,

a n d c a r n u m b e r2 t o h i s h o u s e h o l de q u i p m e n t , b u t i t

n e v e r t h e l e s s h a p p e n sa l l t h e t i m e . 6 3

T h r o u g hs t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e

i n t e r n a l m a r k e t a n d o f t h e e x t e r n a l m a r k e t d e m a n d sm a y b u i l d u p , a n d
a s a r e s u l t p r o d u c t i o nw i l l
from this will

be stimulated, and vice versa.

h a v e t o b e i n c r e a s i n g l y s h a r e dw i t h t h e e x t e r n a l e l i t e

and be used to placate the external proletariat,

patterns not too different
of yesteryear.

The profits

from territorial,

thereby constituting

g e o p o li t i c a l

expansion

igns at the end of

S u b s ti t u t i n g f o r t h e m i I i t a r y c a m p a

t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d ( t f r e V i e t - N a mw a r w i l l
h i s t o r y a s t h e m a j o r c a s e i n m i n d ) 6 4w i l

probaby stand out in

c o m ea n i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y

t o b u i l d t h e s t a t e - c o r p o r a t i o n a l I i a n c e i n n o n - w e s t e r nc o u n t r i e s
a r o u n d m i I i t a r y g o v e r n m e n t s ,o n e r e a s o n b e i n g t h e h i g h l e v e l o f
c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e nt h e s o c i a l l o g i c o f t h e m o d e r nm i l i t a r y a s a n
i n s t i t u t i o n a n d t h e m o d e r nc a p i t a l i s t c o r p o r a t i o n . 6 5

Givenall of this then, what, if anything, could threaten the stability

o f t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t ? I ^ / h a tc o u l d , i f

25

p o s s i b l e , m a k e t h e d e m a n dl o w e r

t h a n t h e s u p p l y p r o d u c e d b y t h e w e s t e r n - d o m i n a t e dp r o d u c t i o n c e n t r e s ?
Fromthe simple logic used above there could be two sourcesof trtrguble,':
d e c r e a s e dd e m a n d ,a n d a d e c r e a s i n g s u p p l y o f p r o d u c t i o n f a c t o r s t o
m e e t t h e d e m a n d . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e c r e a s i n g d e m a n di n t h e i n t e r n a l
m a r k e t i s w e l l k n o w nt o d a y : A c e r t a i n c o n s u m p t i o nf a t i g u e h a s s e t i n
i n s o m ep a r t s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e w e s t e r n c e n t r e , p e r h a p s
p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n gu p p e r / m i d d l e - c l a s si n t e l l e c t u a l y o u t h s -

but even

though this might sound I ike a small group, they are important because
they may be taste-setters for the future.

I n s o m ec o u n t r i e s c o n s u m p t i o n

f a t i g u e h a s p e r h a p s r e a c h e dm o r e g e n e r a l l a y e r s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ; b u t
t o t h i s i t s h o u d a l s o b e a d d e d t h a t a l t h o u g h s o m ep a r t s o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n r e a c t t o o v e r - c o n s u m p t i o n ,o t h e r p a r t s r n a yf e e v e r y
s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e y a r e u n d e r - c o n s u m e r sa, n d s t i l I o t h e r p a r t s m a y
c o n s t i t u t e a p o t e n t i a l i n t e r n a l m a r k e t o n c e t h e y h a v e b e e n m a d et o
c o n c e i v e o f t h e m s e l v e sa s u n d e r - c o n s u m e r s( p e r h a p s p a r t i c u l a r l y o l d e r
people, chi ldren, marginalgroups).

G i v e n a w e s t e r n c o s m o l o g y ,a l m o s t a l l

o f t h e n o n - w e s t e r nw o r l d s h o u l d

a n d c o u l d a l s o c o n c e i v e o f e x p a n s i o n i n i t s c o n s u m p t i o na s n o r m a a n d
n a t u r a l : F e w t h i n g s l o o k a s i m m o r a lt o t h e s t a n d a r d w e s t e r n e y e a s t h e
native whoworks till

n o o n , d e c l a r e s t h a t h e h a s e a r n e d e n o u g hm o n e y
f o r h i s n e e d s , a n d e n g a g e si n w h a t t o t h e V / e s t l o o k s l i k e " l e i s u r e " t h e
r e s t o f t h e d a y , u n i n t e r e s t e d i n i n c r e a s i n g h i s p u r c h a s i n gp o w e r i n t h e

market further.

Thus, the major task of western corporations has

p r o b a b l y b e e n t o s t i m u l a t e d e m a n db y b r i n g i n g i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t i e s ,a t
a h g h I e v e l , m o d e sl o f i n c r e a s e d c o n s u m pito n . 6 6
H o w e v e nt h i s m a y b e , i t

is obvious that the major threat to the western

e x p a n s i o n i s n o t s o m u c h i n t h e f i e l d o f l i m i t e d d e m a n da s i n t h e f i e l d
of competition from newcentres of production.
facilities

V/ith production

increasingly located outside the \n/esternucleus, with

technology increasingly transferred and understood(although much

r e m a i n si n t h i s f i e l d ) , w i t h d e m a n di n c r e a s i n g l ys t i m u l a t e d ( t h e
f a m o u sr r r e v o l u t i o n o f r i s i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s " ) , a n d a b o v e a l l w i t h t h e
e l i t e s i n t h e n o n - w e s t e r nc o u n t r i e s i n c r e a s i n g l y a d a p t i n g t o a n d
accepting fully

26

a western cosmology,it would be a miracle if these

elites shouldnot increasinglyget the idea of runningthe economic

cycles themselves. This holds for their internal markets,and in the
onger run (and the time has already come)for external markets, both
i n t l r e o l d w e s t e r n p e r i p h e r y a n d i n t h e w e s t e r nc e n t r e .

Andwith this,

s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o ni m p e r i _ ai sl m i s b r o u g h t i n t o b e i n g , a n d w e a r e i n t h e
s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n go f t h i s s e c t i o n .

l t s h o u l do n l y

b e a d d e d t h a t i n o r d e r t o r u n t h e s e e c o n o m i cc y c l e s o n e o f t h e f i r s t
things these elites haveto do is to get control over their own
p r o d u c t i o n f a c t o r s , , r e a n i n tgh e i r o w n r a r vm a t e r i a s - p a r t i c u l a r l y
e n e r g y , c a p i t a l , l a b o u r , a n d r e s e a r c I c a p a c it y .

The sumtotal of the

i n s t r u m e n t sf o r a c q u i r i n g t h i s c o n t r o l , o f t e n i n a v e r y g r a d u a m a n n e r ,
i s t o d a y k n o w na s t h e N e w I n t e r n a t l o n a l E c o n o m i c0 r d e r .
remark shoud perhapsbe addedsince it
instruments: abour.

ls it

One I ittle

is not spelt out in those

to be expectedthat in the long run the

n o n - V / e s tu r i I a c c e p t w e s t e r n i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h i t s

l a b o u r r n a r k e t ? I ^ / Ii I

i t a c c e p t w e s t e r n u s e o f f o r e i g n l a b o u r a t h o m eo r a b r o a d i n o r d e r t o
n r a k e t s p r o d u c t s m o r e c o m p e it t i v e r e l a t i v e t o n o n - w e s t e r n - m a d e
p r o d u c t s ? W i l i t a c c e p t ' , n / e s t e renf f o r t s t o i n t r o d u c e s t a n d a r d s s u c h
a s m i n i m u ms a l a r i e s i n t h e n o n - \ . / e s t ,t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o s t s a n d
d e c r e a s i n g t h e c o m p e t i t i v e n e s so f t h e n o n - \ , J e sot n t h e w o r l d m a r k e t ?
0r wi I I it

r e s o r t t o a u t o m a ti o n , I i k e t h e V J e s t . 6 7

A g a i n , h o w e v e rt h a t m a y b e , t h e t h e s i s i s o n e o f i n c r e a s e d s e l f r e a n c e i n t h e o l d w e s t e r n p e r i p h e r y , a d e c r e a s i n gf l o w o f r a w f a c t o r s
f r o m n o n - V J e stto V J e s t ,a n d a d e c r e a s e o f t h e e x t e r n a l m a r k e t a v a i l a b e
to the llest, even with population growth (which is tapering off
a n y h o w ) . A n d t h i s i s w h e r e t h e c r i s i s c o m e si n : T h e s u p p l y o u t s t r i p s
t h e d e m a n d ,u n l e s s m o r e d e m a n dc a n b e c r e a t e d .

The possibility

of

e x p a n d i n gt h e i n t e r n a m a r k e t h a s a r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d , b u t t h e r e i s
the other major possibility:

the use of destruction in order to create

a m o r e a c c e p t a b l e b a l a n c e b e t w e e nd e m a n da n d s u p p l y .

F r o mt h e G r e a t

D e p r e s s i o n t h e m e t h o do f d e s t r o y i n g g o o d s t h a t a l r e a d y h a v e b e e n
p r o d u c e d i s w e l k n o w n ,a n d a c t u a y u s e d b y f a r m e r s q u i t e o f t e n w h e n
t h e m ar k e t i s d e p r e s s e d . F r o m t h e G r e a t . / a
r s ( t h e Fi r s t a n d S e c o n d
\ ^ / o r l dW a r s ) i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e m e t h o do f g o i n g m u c h f u r t h e r , d e s t r o y i n g
not only goods but capital goods (or anything for that matter) so as

27

t o p r o d u c e a t l e a s t a d e m a n df o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i f

not for further

c o n s u m p t i o ne x p a n s i o n , i s e q u a ll y w e l I k n o w n . A n y r a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s
o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e w e s t e r nw o r l d f i n d s i t s e l f

today would

i n c l u d e t h i s i n a s c e n a r i o , w h i c h , o f c o u r s e i n n o w a y m e a n sa c c e p t i n g
it.6B

I n v i e w o f t h e g r a v i t y o f t h i s p o s s i b i li t y ( c e r t a i n l y n o t o n l y

a logical one but also one that empirically has playeda considerable
role), an intensified searchfor other alternatives becomea
s survival
n e c e s si t y .

Mostof these alternatives will

be in the direction of decreased

s u p p l y : d e c r e a s i n gt h e p r o d u c t i o n p a r t i c u l a r y o f g o o d s , b y d e c r e a s i n g
e i t h e r t h e n u m b e ro f w o r k e r s , t h e n u m b e ro f w o r k h o u r s , o r p r o d u c t i v i t y .
The first

p o s s i b iI i t y

i s k n o w na s u n e m p l o y m e n tt,h e s e c o n d a s

e x p a n s i o no f f r e e t i m e , a n d t h e t h i r d e n t a i l s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n a
g e n e r a l s h i f t o f m o d eo f p r o d u c t i o n .

0 f t h e s e s i x a p p r o a c h e sw e w o u l d

s e e t h e t h r e e t h a t a i m a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e d e m a n da s i n t r i n s i c t o
w e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m : e x p a n s i o no f t h e i n t e r n a l m a r k e t , e x p a n s i o no f t h e
e x t e r n a l m a r k e t , n o t t o m e n t i o nw a r i t s e l f ,

and not only for geopoliti-

c a l c o n q u e s t b u t a l s o t o s t i m u l a t e s o c i o - e c o n o m i ce x p a n s i o n r e g a r d l e s s
o f g e o p o li t i c a l

c o n q u e s to f o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e s y s t e m . B u t t h e o t h e r

t h r e e , a i m i n g a t d e c r e a s i n gs u p p l y , a r e c o u n t e r - p a r a d i g m a t i c t; h e y a r e
c o n t r a c t i n g r a t h e r t h a n e x p a n d i n ga p p r o a c h e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,w e I i s t
b o t h u n e m p l o y m e n t l,e i s u r i s m , a n d d e c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y a m o n gt h e
signs of decline, evenof the fall

o f w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m .

lt should

be noted that leisurism equals obl igatory non-work.

I n D i a g r a ml l a n e f f o r t

h a s b e e n m a d et o d e p i c t t h e s e p r o c e s s e s ,

f o l l o w i n g t h e o g i c o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gd i a g r a m f o r t h e f a l l

of the

R o m a nE m pi r e .

In the left-hand column, in a central position, is the expansionist,

c e n t r i f u g a l c o s m o l o g yt h a t i s p o s t u l a t e d f o r t h e w h o l e p e r i o d . I t
being eroded both from the outside and from the inside by ilnon-

is

w e s t e r n c o s m o l o g i e s , " w i t h w h i c h t h e V J e s ta l w a y s h a d s o m ec o n t a c t a n d
always was, at least verbaly, fascnated,69 and by what are here
c a l l e d r r s e c t a r i a nc o s m o l o g i e s , rb' y w h i c h w e m e a nn o t o n y t h e C h r i s t i a n

28

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s e c t s t h a t h a v e s u r v i v e d a s c a r r i e r s o f a m o r e f u n d a m e n t ai ls t
christianity but also lay orientations in that direction -

suchas

s o m eb r a n d s o f a n a r c h i s m ,o f p a c i f i s m , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e m i l l i o n s o f
people scattered around in the vast periphery of the western centre,
r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s ,m o u n t a i nv i l l a g e s r e t c . , n o t m u c ht o u c h e d b y w e s t e r n
e x p a n s i o n i s me i t h e r m a t e r i a ll y o r s p i r i t u a l l y .
They representthe
s o f t s i d e o f t h e l J e s t , p e r h a p so n l y f e w o f t h e m a w a r e o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g
m e n t aI i t i e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s i n o t h e r c o r n e r s o f t h e w o r l d . 7 0
I n t h e m i d d e o f t h e d i a g r a m , t h e n , i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o no f t h e n o r m a l
w o r k i n g o f \ ^ / e s t e r ni m p e r i a l i s m . I n t h e c e n t r e i s t h e e x p a n d i n gn o n p r o d u c t i v e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e , d i v i d e d b e t w e e nt h e t h r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s /
el ites.

lt has to be fed and kept.

g e o p o i t i c a

T h e n a t i v e s c o m i n gu n d e r i t s

e x p a n s i o n h a d t o p r o d u c e e n o u g hs u r p l u s t o p a y f o r t h e

m i I i t a r y c a m p a i g n sa g a i n s t t h e m ; t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s p r o d u c e di n t e r n a l y
a n d e x t e r n a l y t h r o u g h s o c i o - e c o n o m i ce x p a n s i o n s i m i l a r l y h a d t o
p r o d u c e e n o u g hs u r p l u s t o p a y f o r t h e i r o w n p o i c i n g , a n d l a t e r o n
for welfare-state integration.

( T h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t , p r e s u m a b l y ,t h e

proletarianspay for directly.)

Thenthere is the third column,listing a total of lz types of forms

o r s y m p t o r nosf d e c l i n e a n d f a l - i n o t h e r w o r d s i n d i c a t o r s t h a t t h e
s y s t e n la s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e m i d d l e h a s n o t a t t a i n e d e i t h e r a s t a t i c o r
a d y n a m ce q u i l i b r i u m . I n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e s e l 2 i s w h a t i s h e r e s e e n
a s t h e f i n a l s i g n o f b r e a k d o w n t: h e e l i t e m o v i n gt o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ,
e x p e r i m e n t i n gw i t h n e w I i f e - s t y l e s .

But first

there are five

i n d c a t o r s o f a n o r eg e o p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e : t h e d e c o l o n i z a t i o n t h a t o y
a n d l a r g e a l r e a d y h a s t a k e n p l a c e ; p e r i p h e r y s o c i o - e c o n o m i cs e l f reliance, which brings to mind the l',lew
i n t e r n a t i o n a l E c o n o m i c0 r d e r ;
r r n a t i v e i n v a s i o n s , ' rw h i c h
today bring to mind the foreign workersfrom
o v e r s e a s ' p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c e n t r e s o f t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c hp a r t s
of genera western imperiaism; internal warfare in the Westwhen there
a r e n o m o r e u n c o n q u e r e tde r r i t o r i e s

left,

bringing to mind the First

a n d S e c o n dw o r l d ! , / a r sa n d t o s o m ee x t e n t a l s o t h e " c o l d , r w a r s ; t h e
f a s c i s t r e p r e s s i o n n e e d e dt o m o b i i z e n a t i o n a l e n e r g i e s i n a n i m p e r i a l i s t
d i r e c t i o n , b r i n g i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y t o m i n d t h e G e r m a ne x p a n s i o ne a s t w a r d s

30

h a vi n g 0 s t o m a r ka s i t s

i n t e n d e dp e r i p h e r y , a n d a h i g h I i k e l i h o o d i n

c o m in g y e a r s o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e p r e s s i o n , r e - e m e r g i n gi n t h e c e n t r e o f
w e S t e r n i m p e r i a i s m i n a n e f f o r t t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e p r o b l e m si n t h i s
col umn i n t h e d i a o r a r n . T

T h e p r o b e m sc o n t i n u e w i t h m o r e s o c i o - e c o n o m i cr e a c t i o n s : g e n e r a l
s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n o r a n o m i e ( i n c r e a s i n g c r i m e , n o r m l e s s n e s os f v a r i o u s
k i n d s , a l c o h o li s m , e t c . ) ; t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f a l i e n a t i o n , T 2 e x p r e s s e d
a s e x c e s s i v e" o b s e r v e r i s m "a n d p o s s i b l y a l s o t a k i n g t h e f o r m o f
i n c r e a s i n g m e n t a l d i s o r d e r ; i n c r e a s i n g u n e m p l o y m e n "t l; e i s u r i s m " a s
a n e n f o r c e d n e w m o d eo f I i f e ; a n d u l t i m a t e y d e c r e a s i n gp r o d u c t i v i t y
a s a n e w w a y o f h a n d li n g d e c r e a s i n gp r o d u c t i o n . T 3 T o t h i s s h o u l d
t h e n a l s o b e a d d e d t h e v a r i o u s s y m p t o m so f e c o l o g i c a l b r e a k d o w n ,i n
s p i t e o f t h e a b i i t y o f t h e s y s t e mt o s h i f t f r o m o n e t y p e o f e c o l o g i c a l
b a l a n c e t o a n o t h e r ( e . g . , f r o m p h y s i c a v i a c h e m i c a t o t h e r m i c ) .
0 f c o u r s e , t h e s e t w o d i a g r a m sd o n o t c o n s t i t u t e a n y k i n d o f " p r o o f ' r t h a t
the two situationsare identical or similar.

After al,

they have

b e e n d r a w n i n s u c h a w a y a s t o e m p h a s i z et h e s i m i l a r i t y , h i s t o r i c a l
s i t u a t i o n s b e i n g s o c o m p l e xt h a t n o i n v e n t o r i e so f " s i m i l a r i t i e s r r a n d
" d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s i l c a n b e m a d ew i t h a n y p r e t e n t i o n o f c o m p e t e n e s s .
That, however,is not the major point.

The major point is the high

level of isomorphism
o f t h e t o t a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s T 4r a t h e r t h a n a n
element-to-element correspondence. l/hat we have tried
the similarity

to emphasizeis

i n m e c h a n i s m s b, o t h t h e m e c h a n i s m tsh a t k e e p t h e

s y s t e m ss t a b l e f o r a l o n g p e r i o d a n d t h o s e t h a t e v e n t u a l l y d e s t a b i l i z e
them. Thus, in both cases there was the basic task of keepinga
r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g a n d m a t e r i a l y n o n - p r o d u c t i v es u p e r s t r u c t u r e , a n d
t h a t c o u l d o n l y b e d o n e b y h a v i n g b a r b a r i a n s / n a t i v e s ,a n d i n t e r n a l a n d
e x t e r n a l p r o l e t a r i a t s , p a y f o r i t w i t h t h e i r w o r k a n d w h a t e v e re l s e
was available in their vicinity.

In neither casedid they like this

very much; that posed the problemof how to placate themhard waysand soft waysof doing this.

there were

The rest is a question of

b a l a n c e : l s e n o u g h s u r p l u s p r o d u c e dt o m a i n t a i n t h e e l i t e a n d t o
control the unrest, or are the sourcesof surplus eventualy being
o v e r - s q u e e z e ds o t h a t t h e y d e l i v e r o n l y a d w i n d l i n g t r i c k l e

3l

to support

a n e v e r - e x p a n d i n gs u p e r s t r u c t u r e ? A n d , d o e s s o m u c ho f
the surplus
have to be diverted into placatng the interna and external
proletariats and natives/barbarians that this
al so puts the brakes

on
t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e ? T h a t m o d e r nw e s t e r n i m p e ri a i s m h a s
more
m e c h a n i s mast i t s d i s p o s a l ( o r a t l e a s t t r i e s t o m a k e i t
look I ike
that), that it is moreextended in space, does not affect
the
s o m o r p hi s m - o r t h e i s o m o r p hi s m h y p o t h e si s , t o b e m o r e
correct.
The
b a s i c m e c h a n i s mms a y s t i l b e s i m i l a r .

? lf we shouldpoint to one, it
would probablyhave to be the lack of unity in the western
nucleus.
I t i s r a t h e r a s i f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a d m ! n s t e r e d
by
a n l t a y s o m e w h ast m i l a r t o t h e l t a l y o f t h e c i t y - s t a t e s
of 1350-1550,
in constant rivalry and competition,often in direct warfare
with
e a c h o t h e r . A l s o , s o m ea r e e a r l y s t a r t e r s , o t h e r s a r e l a t e - c o m e r s ,

and
s o m ea r e e v e n r e a c t i v e i m p e r i a li s t s , s u c h a s t h e s o v i e t u n i o n ,
or
M o s c o w ,t o b e r n o r ep r e c i s e T 5 ( o n e p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e M o s c o w
imoerialism
i s t h a t i t h a s s e c u r e dc o n t i g u i t y f o r i t s e r f ; t h e p e r i p h e r y
is
g e o g r a p h i c a ly c o n t i n u o u s w i t h t h e c e n t r e a n d f o r t h a t
reason looks
l e s s c o l o n i a l s i n c e i t d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n dt o t h e c l a s s i c a l , o v e r s e a s , '
m o d e ) .
This should be reflected in a better modelof western
i m p e r i a l i s m ,e s s e n t i a l l y u s i n g t h e s a m eb a s i c p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e ,
but
o n e f o r s p a i n ' o n e f o r P o r t u g a , o n e f o r E n g ' | a n d ,o n e f o r F r a n c e ,
one
f o r G e r m a n y e, t c .
I n u s i n g s u c h a m o d e ra s t h i s , h o w e v e r , i t w o u r d
be obvious that what one is ta.|king about would be the menbers
ano
c a n d i d a t e m e m b e r so f t h e E u r o p e a nc o m m u n i t y ,a n d i t w o u d n o t
be too
difficult
t o e x t e n d i t t o i n c u d e t h e e v e n m o r e f a m o u sc a s e o f r e a c t i v e
i m p e r i a li s m : t h e u n i t e d s t a t e s .

M o r e o v e r ,c a p i t a l i s m a s a w o r l d s y s t e m
has a unit the states do not (as yet) have- with the centre (so
far)
i n t h e w e s t , t h e s i g n i f i c a n t J a p a n e s ev a r i e t y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n q . T 6
N e e d l e s st o s a y , t h i s m e a n st h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f r r i n t e r n a l w a r f a r e ' ,
as
a s y m p t o mo f d e c l i n e n e e d s s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n : \ ^ / eh a v e p r e f e r r e d
to
r e g a r d i t a s i n t e r n a l u r a r f a r e i n a t a c i t w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m
rather
t h a n a s e x t e r n a l w a r f a r e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m s .
T h e m a j o r d e f e n c e o f t h a t t h e s i s w o u l d b e b a s e do n t h e h i q h l e v e l
of

32

i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w e e nw e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b e t w e e nt h e e l i t e
i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s- e c o n o m i c a l l yp, o l i t i c a l l y , m i l i t a r i l y , c u l t u r a l y ,
etc.

l-he integration may take the form of incorporation, but it

is

q u i t e c l e a r t h a t l v e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s h a v e n e v e r i n m o d e r nt i m e s t r e a t e d
each other as they treat, or at east have treated, Third l/ord
countries.

E v e n f o r N a z i G e r m a n yt h i s w a s c e a r : T h e b r u t a i t y

e x e r c i s e d e a s t w a r d sw a s n e v e r m a t c h e db y a n y t h i n g s i m i l a r i n t h e N a z i
G e r m a ne x c u r s i o n t o w a r d s t h e w e s t .

T h e E u r o p e a nc o m m ui nt y i s i t s e l f

a c l e a r e x a m p l eo f t h e d e e p e r u n i t y o f p u r p o s e , p a r t i c u a r y n a p e r i o d
w h e nc l e a r l y m a r k e dt e r r i t o r i a l

division of the Third World into

c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s i s n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e a n d i t m a ya s a c o m p e n s a t i o n
pay
o f f t o e n g a g ei n j o i n t

socio-economie
c x p a n s i o n ,p a r t i c u a r l y i n i n t e r -

g o v e r n m e n t a ls t a t e c o - o p e r a t i o n w h e n i t c o m e st o b u i l d i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s t h a t w i I I f a c i I i t a t e t h e e x p a n s i o no f t r a n s n a t i o n a l
c o r p o r a t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h e f a m o u sw e s t e r n
"unity in diversity" has its I imits, particularly when
t h e c o n c e p to f
t h e l ^ / e s t i s e x t e n d e d s o a s t o i n c l u d e e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n d R u s si a . 7 7
W i t h t h a t i n c l u s i o n a a g h y p o t h e s i sm u s t b e i n t r o d u c e d : T h e r e i s l a c k
o f u n i t y , a n d e a s t e r n E u : ' o p ed e p e n d s e s s o n T h i r d W o r l d t r a d e t h a n
d o e s w e s t e r n E u r o p e , h e n c e i s e s s v u l n e r a b e - b u t , a s m e n t i o n e da b o v e ,
t h e c o n c e p t o f e a s t e r n E u r o p e a s a l a t e c o m e r w a s b y n o m e a n su n k n o w n
t o R o m a nh i s t o r y .

T h e n t h e r e i s a s e c o n dd i s s i m i l a r i t y : T h e m e c h a n i s m
for impoverishing
the peripheryand enriching the centres differs.

The distinction has

b e e n m a d e b e t w e e n t w o t y p e s o f m e c h a n i s m s :r o u g h y s p e a k i n g , o n e b a s e d
on territorial,

g e o p o i t i c a l

control that can serve as a basis for

p l u n d e r ( a d h o c ) a n d t a x a t i o n ( i n s t i t u t i o n aI i z e d ) ; t h e o t h e r b a s e d o n
c e n t r a l c o n t r o l o f t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i cc o n s t r u c t i o n .
a n d w e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m b o t h m a k eu s e o f t h e f i r s t

T h e R o m a nE m o ri e
approach,and one

o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t s o f p l u n d e r i s h u m a nb e i n g s t o b e u s e d a s
slaves.

The centre is enriched, partly by material objects and

m a t e r i a l s t a k e n f r o m e l s e w h e r e , p a r t y b y m e a n so f u n f r e e l a b o u r t o
carry out the dirty,
and al

h e a v y , b o r i n g , a n d d e g r a d i n gw o r k - s a v e s , s e r f s ,

the varieties up to therrguestworker" of our days.

But in

s a y i n g s o , w e a r e a l r e a d y t o u c h i n g o n t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i cc o n s t r u c t i o n ,

33

t h e w h o l e s y s t e mo f d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r .

T h e R o m a n sd i d n o t u s e t r a d e

t o a n e x t e n t c o m p a r a b l ew i t h o u r p e r i o d i n t h e h i s t o r y o f w e s t e r n
i m p e r i a li s m ( b u t p r o b a b l y c o m p a r a b l ew i t h e a r l i e r p e r i o d s , s u c h a s
right after the discoveries). But division of labourthere was: By
m o v i n g h u m a nb e i n g s f r o m t h e p e r i p h e r y t o t h e c e n t r e , e x p l o i t i n g t h e m
on the plantations of ltaly,

including forcing themto die for the

s a k e o f e n t e r t a i n i n g f r e e c i t i z e n s , t h e R o m a nw
s ere aso exploiting the
periphery
s o m e w h a ti n t h e s a m ew a y a s w h e n r a w m a t e r i a l i s t a k e n f r o m
the periphery and used for centre purposesin the centre.

c a p i t a l l s m a n d c a p i t a l i s t i m p e r i a li s m a d d a t r e m e n d o u e
sfficiency,
b o t h i n e x t e n s i o na n d i n d e p t h , t o t h i s .
that wth the loss of territorial

l t b e o n g st o t h e p i c t u r e

control over the overseasperipher;r

t h e v J e s t h a d t o c o m p e n s a t eb y s t e p p i n g u p c a p i t a l i s t p e n e t r a t i o n t h a t i s t h e p r e s e n t p h a s e ( a i t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h :t e r r i t o r i a

exploita-

tion of the internal periphery). Thusthere are differences in the

n a t u r e a n d r e l a t i v e w e i g h t g i v e n t o t h e m e c h a n i s r nosf c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y
f o r m a t i o n , o t h e r w i s e t h e s i m il a r i t i e s w o u d h a v e b e e n t r i v i a l !

The

b a s i c f e a t u r e s f r o m o u r p e r s p e c t i v e r e m a i n t h e s a m e :a s y s t e m t h a t
h a s t o e x p a n dt o s o l v e i t s m a j o r p r o b l e m s , t h a t o f d e f e n c e a g a i n s t
i n t e r n a I a n d e x t e r n a I p r o l e t a r i a t s a n d t h a t o f f e e d i n g a n e x p a n di n g ,
,aterial ly non-productivesuperstructure" The latter can only happen
a t t h e e x p e n s eo f n a t u r e , e x t e r n a l p r o e t a r i a t , a n d i n t e r n a l p r o l e t a r i a t - o r b y i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y . R o m ef e l l o n t h e f i r s t t h r e e a n d
w a s u n a b l e t o e n g a q ei n t h e f o u r t h - w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m r u n s i n t o
difficulties on al I four counts.

S o m e t h i n gs h o u l d b e s a i d a b o u t t h e t i m e p e r s p e c t i v eo f a l l

this, of

particular

i n t e r e s t t o t h e p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n . T l v o h y p o t h e s e sm i g h t
b e a u n c h e d :" Q u i c k u p , q u i c k d o w n r " a n d r " s l o w u p , s l o w d o w n . ' , T h e
first

b r i n g s t o m i n d s u c h p h e n o m e naas A t t i l a

t h e H u na n d H i t l e r t h e

Teuton,and the theory might be relatively simpe: lt takes time, much

p a t i e n t w o r k , a n d m u c h m o r e t h e n s h e e r e x p a n s i o n i s ma n d b r u t a l i t y

if

o n e r ^ / a n t st o b u i l d a n e m p i r e . A n e m p i r e h a s t o b e b u i l t w i t h a
certain finesse.

The military and the police should be kept in the

b a c k g r o u n d ;t h e y s h o u d n o t d o m i n a t e t h e p i c t u r e a s t h e y d i C o r m a y b e

3\

said to have done in the two exanplesgiven.

T h e o t h e r t h e s i s , I ' S l o wu p , s o w d o w n , " i s m o r e p r o b e m a t i c . l t

is

p r o b a b l y r e a s o n a b l et o t h i n k i n t e r m s o f a m u l t i p l y i n g e f f e c t d u e t o
t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o na n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e v o l u t i o n .

0f course, one can

argue both wayswhere this factor is concerned. 0n the one hand it

facil itates the control of the periphery: Signals of unrest, even
revolt in internal and external proletariats,

can be recorded

i m m e d i a t e l y ,a n a l y s e d , a n d t r a n s a t e d i n t o q u i c k a c t i o n o f t h e s o f t o r
hard variety as the case may be.

0ther factors being constant, this

w o u l d w o r k i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i n c r e a s e d c o m m u n i c a t i o na n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i i t i e s p r o l o n g i n ge m p i r e sr a t h e r t h a n s h o r t e n i n g t h e i r I i f e
span.

But then.thereare all

the other factors.

The signals of unrest and

revolt are also transmitted to other parts of interrral and externa

p r o e t a r i a t s , s e r v i n g t o r a i s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s t, o s t i m u l a t e m o b iI i z a t i o n ,
e v e n a s a l e a r n i n g m o d e lo f c o n f r o n t a t i o n a c t i v i t y .

Most important in

t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s t h e r e a i z a t i o r r o f h a v i n g t h e s a m em a s t e r , t h e s a m e
d o m i n a n tc l a s s .

T h i s w o u d w o r k n o t o n l y i n g e o g r a p h i c a ls p a c e b u t

a l s o i n s o c i a l s p a c e :W o m em
n a y s t a r t u n d e r s t a n d i n gt h a t t h e i r
situation is not so very different from that of the industrial
proletariat or, even morecleary,

from the serfs of feudalism.

Very

y o u n g p e o p l e a n d v e r y o d p e o p l e s t a r t u n d e r s t a n d i n gt h a t t h e i r
situation
forth.

is not too different

f r o m t h a t o f w o m e n ,a n d s o o n

and so

T h u s , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o na n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e v o l u t i o n s h a v e a s

a c o n s e q u e n c et h a t t h e c e n t r e r n a ya t t i m e s b e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h s o l i d a r y
u n r e s t n o t o n l y i n g e o g r a p h i c a ls p a c e b u t a l s o e v e n t u a l l y i n s o c i a l
s p a c e , s o t h a t f a r m e r s , w o r k e r s , e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s , w o m e n ,t h e y o u n g ,
t h e o l d , t h e l e s s e d u c a t e da l l

r e v o l t a t t h e s a m et i m e -

to use

c a t e g o r i e s f r o m m o d e r ni n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s ( a n d o n e c o u l d a d d t h e
h a n d i c a p p e dt ,h e i l l ,

the mentally ill).

n o t t o h a v e h a p p e n e ds o f a r ,

it

A l t h o u g ht h i s m a y b e s a i d

is definitely a possibiity for the

Thus, in the f4oscow

empire one mayperhaps identify isolated
p o i n t s o f u n r e s t l a b e i l e d ' r e t h n i cm i n o r i t i e s , " " p e a s a n t s r "a n d
" i n t e l I i g e n t s i a , r r s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d i n g e o g r a p h i c a la n d s o c i a s p a c e .
future.

35

It

i s h a r d t o s e e h o w a r e g i m ec o u l d s u r v i v e a c r y s t a j i z a t i o n i n t o

joint,

w e l m o b i i z e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h a l I t h r e e .

r e g i m e sw i l

K n o w i n gt h i s ,

s e e t o i t t h a t t h e c o n t r o l s o v e r c o m m u n i c a t i oann d

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d ,t h u s p r o v i n g t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e .

B u t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , / t r a n s p o r t a t i orne v o l u t i o n n o t o n y c h a n g e s
conditions in the periphery; it also modifies the centre.

lt makes

c e n t r e I i f e n o t o n l y m o r e v i s i b l e b u t a l s o m o r ea c c e s s i b l e ,a t l e a s t
for spectators.

lt

i s e s s s h r o u d e di n m y s t e r y , m o r e a v a i l a b l e f o r

e v e r y b o d yt o s e e i n m a s s m e d i a a n d o n c l o s e i n s p e c t i o n t h r o u g h t r a v e :
T h e l i f e o f t h e r i c h i n 1 4 i a mBi e a c hh o t e l s i s m o r e v i s i b l e a n d t o a
h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g eo f t h e p o p u l a t i o n the rich

irr the chteaux de Loire

it

- than the ife of

is assumed

in earl ier aqes.

Geoqraphical

m o b i l i t y a l m o s t h a s t o i m p l y s o c i a l r n o b i l i t y ; o t h e r w i s es o c i a l u n r e s t
would increase even further.

There has to be evidence that it

is

p o s s i b l e t o p a s s t h r o u g h t h e g a t e , o r a t l e a s t t o s c a l e t h e w a ll ,

into

the rich man'sgarden, and as an equal, not as a servant or a thief.

A n d t h i s a s o w o r k s i n t h e c e n t r e : l n c r e a s e dv i s i b i i t y s t i m u l a t e s t h e
a p p e t i t e f o r c e n t r e I i f e , b u t a s o f o r s u p e r - c e n t r eI i v e s i n s i d e t h e
c e n t r e - a t l e a s t a s l o n g a s a c o s m o l o g yo f e x p a n s i o n i s nprr e v a i l s .

T h u s , t h e n e t b a a n c eo f t h i s a n a l y s i s w o u d b e t h a t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n /
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e v o u t i o n w o t L l ds h o r t e n t h e i f e s p a n o f e m p i r e s : 7 8 l t
m u l t i p l i e s t h e s p e e da n d f a c i i t y o f c o n t r o , b u t i t a l s o m u l t i p l i e s
t h e p r o c e s s e so f c o n s c i o u s n e s sf o r m a t i o n a n d m o b i l i z a t i o n , a n d i n
a d d i t i o n a c c e l e r a t e s c e n t r e d e m a n df o r i n c r e a s i n g s u r p l u s t h a t h a s t o
" l t i m a t e l y b e c o m i n gt h e
b e p r o d u c e d s o m e w h e r e- t h a t i l s o m e w h e r e u
s o u r c e so f r e v o t .

Just as there are interna and external proletariats,

there are internal and external burgeoisies,scattered aroundthe

w o r l d , c o m p a r i n gl i f e - s t y l e s , e q u a li z i n g u p w a r d sr a t h e r t h a n d o w n w a r d s .

H o w e v e r , 9 i n t h e p o i n t s h o u l d b e m a d et h a " c t h e s t r e n g t h o f w e s t e r n
i m p e r i a il s m , i n s p i t e o f a l I t h i s , I i e s n i t s m u l t i - c e n t r e ds t r u c t u r e .
T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c ht a k o f t h e t r i a g e r n o d e l , 7 9o f l e t t i n g p e r i p h e r y
c o u n t r i e s t h a t c a n n o t t a k e o F f e c o n o m i cIal y s i n k , p u t t i n g t h e o t h e r s
i n t o t h e I i f e b o a t , p r e s u m a b l yt o w e d b y a s o l i d w e s t e r n s h i p .

36

But this

n r o d e lc o u l d a l s o a p p l y t o t h e c e n t r e : L e t t i n g t h e c e n t r e c o u n t r i e s
t h a t n o o n g e r a r e a b l e t o p r o d u c es u f f i c i e n t s u r p u s f o r t h e i r e l i t e
- . 9 . , b e c a u s et h e p r o l e t a r i a t h a s e x a c t e d s u c h s a l a r i e s t h a t t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y n o o n g e r i s c o m p e t i t i v e a b r o a d-

simply

s i n k b e c a u s et h e y a r e b a n k r u p t , w h i l e o t h e r p a r t s o f w e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m
go on as long as they can.

In this processone could then imagine,

u l t i m a t e l y , t h a t t h e o u t w a r d e x p a n s i o n i s t w a v e o f w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m
g e n e r a t e sa m u l t i p l i c i t y o f c e n t r e s a a r o u n d i t s f o r m e r p e r i p h e r y ,
eaving a big sink-hole in the middle, the tomb in which the centre of
the first

waveis buried.Bo

S o , w h a t i s t h e c a u s eo f t h e d e c li n e o f w e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m ? T h e
a n s w e rw i l l
Empire: It

h a v e t o b e e x a c t y t h e s a m ea s f o r t h e c a s e o f t h e R o m a n
i s n o t a v e r y w e lI f o r m u l a t e d q u e s t i o n .

The effects are

a l r e a d y t o a l a r g e e x t e n t t h e r e f o r m a n yt o s e e , b u t t h e y a r e e f f e c t s ,
n o t c a u s e s . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y ,i t

is hard to put one's finger on any

p a r t i c u l a r r e a t i o n s h i p i n t h e f l o w c h a r t i n t h e m i d d l e o f D i a g r a mI l :
Theyare all

i n t e r w o v e n ,a l a p a r t o f t h e s a m el o g i c .

At one point

i n t i m e t h e r e m a y b e a n i m b a a n c eh e r e , a t a n o t h e r p o i n t i n t i m e a n
i m b a l a n c et h e r e - b u t t h e s e a r e t h e m i n o r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e m a j o r
" c i r c u m s t a n c e "i s t h a t l o g i c i t s e l f :
c o s m o o g yi s i n i t s e l f
-

the cosmology. And that

challenged by both internal and external sources

t h e f a m o u sh i p p i e t r a i l

t o N e p a l a t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 6 0 sa n d e a r l y

1 9 7 0 s b e i n g a h i s t o r i c a l e n c o u n t e ro f a n e w a n d a n o l d c u l t u r e s p u n
a r o u n d t h e s a m eb a s i c t h e m e . B I T h a t t h e r e c r u i t m e n t i n t o t h e n e w
cuture in the Westwas from the upper classes and the upper middle
c l a s s e s , f r o m y o u t h p r e d e s t i n e d t o b e c o m em e m b e r so f t h e c e n t r e , e v e n
the super-centre, should surprise only the very naive: Theywere
e x a c t l y t h e o n e s w h o h a d s e e n t h e r r b r e a k d o w no f t h e s p i r i t "
eyes of their parents, whohad tasted their life-style

in the

and found it

w a n t i n g . 8 2 I n s e a r c h i n gf o r a n e w b a s e , i t w a s t o t h e T h r d W o r d
they had to go, but not to the new Third Vlorld touched by the
i m p e r i a l i s t w a v ea n d w a n t i n g i t s e l f
T hi r d \ ^ / o r l d ( i f

t o b e c o m ea c e n t r e , b u t t o t h e o l d

t h a t t e r m m a k e sa n y s e n s e a t a I I ) .

And what they were

iooking for was, of course, not only a cuture but a complete

c o s m o l o g y ,a ' r s c h e m eo f t h i n g s " t h a t w o u l d b e m o r e i n n e r - d i r e c t e d ,

37

more centripetal,

e v e n m o r e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l . B 3 T h a t t h e y t e n d e < Jt o
s e t t l e i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e o n s m a Il f a r m s , m o r e o r l e s s s e l f - r e i a n r ,

s h o u r l da l s o s u r p r i s e n o b o d y- n o r s h o r . r di t s u r p r i s e a n ; r b o d yt h a t t h e y
d i d n o t " w i n " i n t h e s e n s e o f t h e w h o l e \ , r e s t m r n e d i a t e l yc h a n g i n g i n t o
their pattern.

P r o c e s s e sa r e n o t t h a t q u i c k .

Hence' we are left

with

the sameconcusion: The cause of

the decl ine

a n d f a l o f w e s t e r n i m p e r i a i s mi s r ^ r e s t e r n
impelialism itself , o,
other words,

its

ever-expanding or at

in

least never-contractinq

c o s m o l o g y . O n ew o u l d e v e n e x p e c t t h a t a n i m p e r i a li s m o f t h i s k i n d
w o u l d s t e p u p i t s e c o n o m i ce x p a n s i o na n d e x p l o i t a t i o n s o a s t o m o r e
t h a n c o m p e n s a t ef o r g e o p o li t i c a l

I o s s e s , a n d t h a t i t r , r o u l df a l

into
d e e p p e s s i m i s ma n d f r u s t r a t i o n i f t h e s e e f f o r t s a r e t h w a r t e d ( t n e t 9 7 3
o i l s h o c k d e p r e s s i o n ? ) . A n d t h e c a r r i e r s o f a n e r vs o c i a l f o r m a t i o n
are' of course, found in the centre of the centre - not in any other
g r o u p n o t y e t t h r o u g h w i t h t h e p a t t e r n s s e t b y w e s t e r n i m p e r i a i s m ,
ony aching to get into better positions or to do it themselves. The
r o u t i n e s o f a c o s m o o g yh a v e t o b e r u n t h r o u g h - t o e x p r e s s i t i n
c o r n p u t e rl a n g u a g e-

they have to be tried out before one is through

a n d s t a r t s l o o k i n g f o r a n e w p r o g r a m m ea, n e w ' , w a yo f d o i n g t h i n g s . ' ,
R e v o l t s m a y b e m a d e b y t h e m a s s e s ; t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a r e m a c l eb y t h e
e l i t e w h o u n d e r s t a n dh o w t o n a k e u s e o f t h e r e v o l t s . T o g e t h e r t n e y
c o n s t i t u t e r e v o u t i o n s , r a r e - f o r t h e y p r e s u p p o s ea g e n e r a l f a t i g u e
a n d a c c u m u a t i o no f " p r o b l e m s ' a t a l e v e l s o h i g h t h a t t h e s y s t e r ni s
s i m p l y g i v e n u p , u l t i r n a t e l y e v e n b y i t s m o s t a g g r e s s i v es o c i a l c a r r i e r s .
I , r ti h
c h d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h i s w i I h a p p e nt o m o r r o wc r n e x r y e a r after all,

t h e R o m a nE m p i r ea l s o t o o k a l o n g t i m e i n d y i n g a n d p e r h a p s
n e v e r L r e c a mq
e u i t e d e a d . T h e d i r e c t i o n i s u n m si t a k a b e , p e r h a p s e v e n
t h e w h y a n d t h e h o w-

b u t n o t t h e w h e n a n d t h e w h e r e .8 4

l , / hi c h i s n o t

t h e s a m ea s s a y i n g t h a t c a p i t a i s m o r i m p e r i a li s m , e v e n o f t h e w e s r e r n
t y p e , w i l l d i s a p p e a rf r o m t h e w o r d - o n l y t h a t t h e c o n t r o l p o s i t i o n s
will

3B

no longer be in the \/est.

tv.

LUSI ON
CONC

l/hat we have tried

to show in the preceding pages is that the Roman

E m p i r eo f n e a r y t w o m i l e n n i a a g o a n d w e s t e r n i m p e r i a i s mo f t h e l a s t
f i v e c e n t u r i e s a r e t w o s p e c i e s o f t h e s a m eg e n u s . A s s u c h o n e w o u l d
e x p e c t t h e i r I i f e p a t t e r n s t o e x h i b i t s i m il a r i t i e s .
s i m i l a r i t y w o u l d b e t h a t i F o n e d e c i n e da n d f e l l ,
the other also.

O n es u c h
vill
s o p r e s u m a b w

T h e q u e s t i o nt h e n o f t e n a r i s e s : l s t h i s a p e s s i m i s t i c

v i e w ? O b v i o u s y t h e a n s w e r d e p e n d so n f o r w h o m . S i n c e f e w i n t h e
f o r m e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s s e e mt o d a v t o b e l a m e n t i n qt h e d e c i n e a n d
fall

o f P a x B r i t a n n i c a , a n d t h e s a m es e e m st o a p p l y t o t h e C o m m u n a u t

f r a n e a i s , i t c a n p r o b a b y b e p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e s a m ew i l l
a n d l a r g e , t o w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m a s a w h o l e .

F e ww i l l

apply, by

be crying for

i ts return.

H o w e v e r ,t h e c u r i o u s t h i n g i s t h a t n o t s o m a n y p e o p l e s e e m t o b e
nostalgic about the imperial past inside Britairr or inside France
either.

F r o mt h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a t t h i s i s n o t s t r a n g e :

T h e y a c t u a l y h a v e a m a t e r i a l l y m u c hb e t t e r l i f e

nowthan during the

h e y d a yo f i m p e r i a l i s m , i n s p i t e o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c et h a t i m p e r i a l i s m
w a s n o t B r i t a i n o r F r a n c ee x p l o i t i n g t h e c o l o n i e s , b u t e l i t e c e n t r e s
o f B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e ( n e l p e d b y c e r t a i n c e n t r e s o v e r s e a s )e x p l o i t i n g
all

the rest.

I n f a c t , w h a t h a p p e n e dw a s p r o b a b y a n e x a m p l eo f

w h a t h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e da b o v e : L i b e r a t i o n p r o c e s s e sa r e c o n t a g i o u s ;
d e c o l o ni z a t i o n s t i m u l a t e d f u r t h e r s t e p s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f w e l f a r e
s t a t e s 8 5 ( w h i c h h a t Ja s a n i m m e d i a t ec o n s e q u e n c ea s h a r e d w o r k e r
i n t e r e s t i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c eo f s o c i o - e c o n o m i ce x p a n s i o na b r o a d ) ,
u l t i m a t e l y a l s o t o u c h i n g o f f t h e m a n yr e v o l t s o f t h e n a t i o n a l
minorities inside the V/est.

39

B u t e v e n t h e c e n t r e i n t h e c e n t r e , a p r t f r o m s o m ev e r y s p e c i a l g r o u p s ,
d o e s n o t s e e mt o h a v e b e e n s o b a d l y t o u c h e d b y t h e e v e n t s . A f t e r a l l ,
i t m u s t a l s o h a v e b e e n t o s o m ee x t e n t l i b e r a t i n g n o l o n g e r t o h a v e
the burdenof running one fourth or one fifth of the world on one,s
shoulders,certainly reapingthe harvests, but at the price of
c o n c e r n sa n d t r o u b l e s . S 6 T h e p o i n t m a y , t h e r e f o r e , b e m a d e
t h a t h u m a nb e i n g s p e r h a p s a r e n o t m a d e f o r t h e e x i g e n c e s o f w e s t e r n
terrible

e x p a n s i o n i s m :a l w a y s h i g h e r u p , a w a y s m o r e , n e v e r r e s t i n g c o n t e n t e d .
S o m em i g h t s e e t h i s a s a n a r g u m e n ti n f a v o u r o f l e i s u r i s m , b u t i t d o e s
n o t w o r k t h a t w a y e i t h e r : L e i s u r i s md o e s n o t g i v e , i n t h e l o n g r u n ,
t h e s a m es a t i s f a c t i o n a s w o r k ( a s d i s t i n c t f r o m h a v i n g a ' , j o b " y . 8 7 v J e
m e n t i o n a l l t h i s f o r t h e o b v i o u s r e a s o n t h a t i n a s u c c e s s o rs o c e t y t o
w e s t e r n i m p e r i a li s m - m o r e b a s e do n s m a l e r , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t u n i t s ,
m o r e c e n t r i p e t a l c o s m o l o g i e s- t h e r e r n i g h t b e c o n s i d e r a b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
liberation for the western elite - which, of course, is one reasonwhy
t h e i r s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s i n i t i a t e s u c h e x p e r i m e n t si n a l t e r n a t i v e i f e styles.

D o e s t h a t m e a nt h a t w e a r e e n t e r i n g t h e D a r k t 4 i d d l e A g e s ? A n d w o u l d
t h a t n o t b e a p e s s i m i s t c v i e w ? T h e p r o b l e mi s , o f c o u r s e , w h e t h e r
t h e D a r k M i d d l e A g e sw e r e t h a t d a r k , o r o n y a p p e a rd a r k i n t h e l i g h t
o f g e n e r a t i o n s ( h i s t o r i a n s a m o n gt h e m ) t o w h o me x p a n s i o n i s t , c e n t r i f u g a l c o s m o l o g yi s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , d e f i n i n g I i f e i n t h a t p e r i o d a s
h i g h l y a b n o r m a l , h i g h l y u n n a t u r a l . T h e m e t a p h o r st h a t a r e u s e d n a v e
t o d o w i t h t h i s : O n et a l k s a b o u t t h e , r r i s e " a n d , ' f a l l ' r o f i m p e r i a l i s n r
b u t n o t a b o u t t h e r r r i s e " a n d t h e ' , f a l | r o f t h e M i d d l e A g e ss e e n a s a n i n t e r l u d e b e t w e e nn o r m a l s t a t e s o f a f f a i r s .

they are

Generations

trying to think differenty might reversethis and talk about the

d e c l i n e o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s i n t o t h e R e n a i s s a n c ae n d t h e r i s e o f
h u m a n i t y a f t e r u J e s t e r ni r n p e r i a li s m .B B
s e c o n d , t h e a r g u m e n to f t e n r a i s e d t h a t " i f

there is no materially

n o n - p r o d u c ti v e e l i t e b e y o n da c r i t i c a l s i z e , t h e m a s t e r p i e c e so f
civilization
I ight.

w o u l d n o t b e p r o d u c e d "c o u l d a l s o b e s e e n i n t h e s a m e
T h e r e i s o f c o u r s e t h e n r o r a l a s p e c t : l ^ / h a ti s t h e v a l u e o f t h e

m o n u m e n tosf t h e p a s t i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , i n I i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e f i n e a r t s ,

40

in music, if the price paid had to be expoitationof millions of

s m a l l p e o p l e b e n d i n gt h e i r b a c k s i n t h e f i e d s ,
s w e a t - s h o p so f t h e f a c t o r i e s ? 8 9

in the mines, in the

ls it worth the price?

P e r h a p sa

better way of putting the question woud be: Are there other ways in
w h i c h c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a r e p r o d u c e dt h a t a r e n o t b a s e d o n x p o i t a t i o n ?
A n d t h i s o p e n s u p a n e n o r m o u sr a n g e o f a n s w e r s , w h e r e o n e c u e m i g h t b e
t h e d e g r e e o f d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r b e t w e e nc u l t u r e p r o d u c e r s a n d c u l t u r e
c o n s u m e r s ,i n t i m a t e l y i n k e d t o t h e m a t e r i a l l y n o n - p r o d u c t i v e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e t o s o m ee x t e n t r n o n o p oi zl i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c u l t u r a
products, turning others into consumers. In short, there are many
o t h e r m o d e l s f u s i n g o t h e r t y p e s o f w o r k w i t h a r t , m a n yo f t h e m k n o w n
also from the I'darkest" part of the Middle Ages, different from the
el itist

c i v i l i z a t i o n m o d e l t h a t i s a c o n c o m i t a n to f w e s t e r n

and division of abour in general.

expansionism

For these and other reasons it

is difficult

to conceiveof the image

g i v e n i n t h e p r e c e d i n gs e c t i o n s a s a p e s s i m i s t i c o n e .

Rather,one

m i g h t b e t e m p t e dt o t h i n k i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n : S o m e t h i n gi n
c e n t r i f u g a l w e s t e r n c o s m o l o g y s t o t h e w o r l d c o m m u n i t yo f h u m a nb e i n g s
s o m e w h a lt i k e c a n c e r i s t o t h e h u m a nb o d y - u n c o n t r o l l e d g r o w t h . T h i s
i s n o t t h e s a m ea s t o s a y 0 c c i d e n t = A c c i d e n t . g 0 A s w e h a v e
e m p h a s i z e d ,t h e c e n t r i f u g a l c o s m o l o g yi s o n l y o n e s i d e o f t h e t o t a l
w e s t e r n c o s m o l o g y , 9 lt h e p r o b l e m b e i n g t h a t t w o p a r t s a r e n o t
h a r m o n i o u s l yb a l a n c e d i n s i d e p e r s o n so r s o c i e t i e s o r e p o c h . l n t h e
next period the Westmight play a moreequitable part in the total
w o r l d c o m m u n i t y- u n l e s s , t h a t i s , o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d t h e n p l a y
t h e w e s t e r n r o e , s u b j u g a t i n g t h e V J e s ta s s h e h a s s u b j u g a t e d t h e m .
And this

is probably the problemthat is going to worry the West more

than anything else, even more than the various aspects of the economic
crises.92

t ^ J iIl t h e y t r e a t u s a s b a d l y a s w e t r e a t e d t h e m ?

F i n a l l y , o n e r e . fl e c t i o n o n t h e q u e s t i o n I ' C a no n e l e a r n f r o m h i s t o r y ? r r :
"western
T h e a r g u m e n te m e r g i n g f r o m t h e s e p a g e s i s c e r t a i n l y t h a t
i m p e r i a l i s m h a s h a d i t s t i m e ' ; t o t h a t p o i n t t h e r e i s a n e l e m e n to f
determinism in what has been said.

But a conclusion of that type

I e a v e s o p e n a r e s p e c t a b le r a n g e o f a c t i o n a I t e r n a t i v e s . 9 3

4t

To use

l a n g u a g eb a s e do n t h e o r g a n i s ma n a l o g y , i f t h e p a t i e n t i s
very, very
o l d a n d q u t e i l , s h a l w e p r o l o n gI i f e a r t i f i c i a l y b y
inserting
synthetic body pieces? shall we let nature run her course
and opt for
a dealh in beauty? Shal we perhapsspeed up the process
througn
e u t h a n a s i a ? 0 r - s h a rr w e f o c u s o n t h e c h i d r e n , s e e i n g
to it ttrat
t h e y b e c o m eh e a l t h y , t h r i v i n g , a n d s t r o n g , a u t o n o m o u s n
, either
flattering

t h e b g n o r t r a m p li n g o n t h e s m a l ? 0 u r p e r s o n a l
i n c l i n a t i o n w o u l d b e ' r d e a t h i n b e a u t y " a n d , ' f o c u so n t h e
children,,,
a n d w e t h i n k , i n c i d e n t a r y , t h a t s u c h o r g a n i s ma n a l o g i e s
m a yb e q u i t e
u s e f u l ' N e i t h e r u n e m p o y m e n t , / wianr c y c l i c a i n t e r c h a n g e
as a response
t o e c o n o m i cc r i s e s n o r t h e m o d e r nc o u n t e r p a r t s o f i n t e r n a l
market
s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h l e i s u r i s m w o u . | da d d u p t o m o r e t h a n a r t i f
icial life
prolongation. And to learn from history shouldmean
not ony to.l earn
h o w t o p r e s e r v e s o m e t h i n go l d b u t a l s o h o w t o g i v e e a s i e r
birth to
s o m e t h i n gn e w o t h e r w i s e t h e e n t i r e e x e r c i s e w o u l d b e o f
very I imited
v aI u e .9 4

42

NOTES

T h e p r e s e n t p a p e r i s a n o u t c o m eo f t h e T r e n d s i n \ y ' e s t e r nC i v i l i z a t i o n
P r o g r a ma t t h e C h a i r i n C o n f li c t a n d P e a c eR e s e a r c h ,U n i v e r s i t y o f 0 s l o ,
a n d a n i n p u t t o t h e P r o j e c t o n G o a s , P r o c e s s e s ,a n d I n d i c a t o r s o f
D e v e l o p m e notf t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s U n i v e r s i t y . l t g r e w o u t o f a l e c t u r e
s e r i e s g i v e n b y J o h a n G a l t u n g d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r t e r m 1 9 7 7 / 7 8a t t h e
I n s t i t u t u n i v e r s i t a i r e d r E t u d e sd u D v e l o p p e n r e nGt ,e n e v a ,o f l ' r M a c r o h i s t o i r e e t l a c i v i l i s a t i o n o c c i d e n t a l e . ' r l t h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e di n
s e m i n a r sa t t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s o f T u r i n , B a s e l , Z u r i c h , B o l o g n a ,M a n n h e i m ,
B e r i n , a n d P e n a n g ;a t c o n f e r e n c e s i n S t o c k h o l m , t h e H a g u e , a n d
G u m m e r s b a ca
hn
; d i n i t s p r e s e n t s h a p e a t t h e N o r d i c c o n f e r e n c eo n
M e t h o d so f H i s t o r i c a R e s e ar c h , L e i k a n g e r, 2 . 2 - 2 1 M
+ a y 1 9 7 8, t h e M a x
P l a n c k I n s t i t u t C o n f e r e n c ei n S t a r n b e r g , 7 - 9 A u g u s t ' | 9 7 8 , a n d t h e
T h i r d G P I D R e s e a r c hM e e t i n g , G e n e v a ,2 - B O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8 . l l e a r e
i n d e b t e d t o d i s c u s s a n t sa t a l t h e s e p a c e s - p a r t i c u l a r l y B j o r n
Qviller, 0slo, and uffe 0stergSrd,rhus/Firenze. The r.rponri.bilitv
f o r t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e dr e s t s w i t h t h e a u t h o r s .

l.

, h e n t h e h u m a nr a c e
A s H e r b e r t B u t t e r f i e l d s a y s , t r s o m e t i m e sw
has
gone through one of its colossal chapters of experience, men in
the aFterperiod have been so appalled by the catastrophe, so
o b s e s s e d b y t h e m e n r o r yo f i t
. " ( T h e N e w y o r k R e vi e w o f B o o k s.

2 0 A p r i 1 9 7 8 ) . F o r r e c e n t b o o k so n f f i

"awfu revolutionr' see

L y n n \ ^ / h i t eJ r . , e d . , T h e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n
oftheRomanVdorld:Gibbon|sProblemaftertw@ley
ion: The
l
? e c l i n e o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e i n t h e W e s t
G r a n t , T h e F a lI o f t h e R o m a nE m pri e : A R e a p p r a i s a l( R a d n o r ,p 3 . ,
1976);
a n d t h e D e c li n e
a n d F a l l o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e ( C a r n b r i
2.

S u c h s i m i l a r i t i e s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e da l s o b y p e r f o r m e r s o f
poitics.
A r e m a r k a b l ec a s e i s t h a t o f f o r m e r U S P r e s i d e n t
R i c h a r d f 4 . N i x o n , w h o s e f a m o u s K a n s a sC i t y s p e e c ho f 6 L u l y 1 9 7 1 ,
f r o m w h i c h t h e t i t l e p a g eq u o t e i s t a k e n ( f r o m w e e k l y c o m p i l a t i o n
o f P r e s i d e n t i a l D o c u m e n t sl,2 J u l y l ) J l , p . 1 0 3 @
f foresight and insight - perhaps
i n v o l u n t a r y . V l a t e r g a t es t r u c k t w o y e a r s l a t e r .

3 . t r / eh a v e b e e n v e r y m u c h i n s p i r e d b y t h e a r t i c l e b y E d w a r dG o l d s m i t h ,
" T h e F a l l o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , "
The Ecologist, July 1975, pp. 196-

\3

206, and, after our article was written, by L. Stavrianos,The

Promiseof th" C@.rk
_ A g " _( S a n F r a n c i s c o , 1 9 7 6 ) . B u t t l ' r e
o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e
i s a n d r e m a i n s G i b b o n- e v e n t o t h e p o n t t h a t h i s w o r k s m a y c a r r y
s o m ec a u s a w e i g h t , a s s e f - f u f i l l i n g p r o p h e c i e s .
lr

C f . G i b b o no n " i m m o d e r a t eg r e a t n e s s r r : r r T h rei s e o f a c i t y , w h i c h
s w e l l e d i n t o a n e m p i r e , m a yd e s e r v e , a s a s i n g u l a r p r o d i g y , t h e
r e f l e c t i o n o f a p h i l o s o p h i c m i n d . B u t t h e d e c l i n e o f R o m ew a s a
n a t u r a l a n d i n e v i t a b l e e f f e c t o f i m m o d e r a t eg r e a t n e s s . P r o s p e r i t y
r i p e n e d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d e c a y ; t h e c a u s e so f d e s t r u c t i o n
m u l t i p l i e d w i t h t h e e x t e n t o f c o n q u e s t ;a n d a s s o o n a s t i m e o r
a c c i d e n t h a d r e m o v e dt h e a r t i f i c i a
supports, the stupendous
fabric yielded to the pressureof its ownweight. The story of
i t s r u i n i s s i m p l e a n d o b v i o u s ; a n d i n s t e a do f i n q u i r i n g w h y
t h e R o m a ne m p i r e w a s d e s t r o y e d , w e s h o u l d r a t h e r b e s u r p r i s e d
t h a t i t h a d s u b s i s t e d s o l o n g . " ( A H i s t o r y o f t h e D e c li n e a n d
F a l l o f t h e R o m a nE r n p i r e ,e d . J . B

5 . C h a r a c t e ri z e d b y a l a c k o f I i m i t a t i o n , n o t w it h s t a n di n g t h e M o n g osl
a n d t h e J a p a n e s e , w h o a r e c o m m o n l yi n v o k e d a s e x a g p e s t o t h e
c o n t r a r y . A s f o r t h e M o n g o l s , c f . H S k o nS t a n g , " C i n g g i s H n a n d
the Roe of a Legend:Rise of the Central Asian ldea of \^/orld
D o m i n a t i o n , "P a p e r s , C h a i r i n C o n f li c t a n d P e a c eR e s e a r c h ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f 0 s l o ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A s f o r t h e J a p a n e s et h e y d i d n o t I a c k
l i m i t a t i o n s i n e a r l i e r p e r i o d s - c f . G e o r g eB . S a n s o m ,T h e l , / e s t e r n
E r l d a n d J a p a n ( L o n d o n l 9 5 O ), a n d A H i s t o r y o f J a p a n , I f i F T 8 - f , in recent tinres J
G;Aon-tt64f-and
s a t i s f y b o t h c r i t e r i a a t t h e s a m et i m e : l t i s w o r d - w i d e , b u t t h e n
ony economic;it serves to I'Japanize,"but then only in East
A si a .
A t y p i c a l c a s e o f i m p o s i n ga i e n s t r u c t u r e s o n c o n q u e r e d
t e r r i t o r i e s i s t h e p r o c e s so f " r o m a n i z a t i o n ' nr o r t h o f t h e A l p s :
ln the north the Romans tuck to their traditional food at great
e x p e n s e t o t h e m s e l v e s . R o m a na g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e n o r t h e x p l o i t e d
mainly the dry (and poor) soil that gaveconditions resembling
t h e f , l e d i t e r r a n e a nc o u n t r i e s . T h e r e b y t h e y a v o i d e d d e v e l o p i n g
h e a v i e r a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e r yI i k e t h e h e a v y p l o u g h . C f . L y n n
l . / h i t e , J F . , " C o n c l u s i o n :T h e T e m p l eo f J u p i t e r R e v i s i t e d , r ' L y n n
\ ^ / h i t e , J r . , e d . , T h e T r a n s f o r m a t i o no f t h e R o m a nV J o r l d , ( B e r k e l e y
in" in
and Los Angees,
T e n n e y F r a n k , e d . , A n E c o n o m i cS u r v e y o f A n c i e n t R o m e( g a t t i m o r e ,
in and the
9 3 3 ), v o l . l ; n . C .
E n g l i s h S e t t l e m e n t , O x f o r d E n g li s h H i s t o r y f f i ;
C . S . S t e v e n s ," A g r i c u l t u r e a n d R u r a l L i f e n t h e L a t e r R o m a n
E m p i r e , r 'i n 1 4 . M .P o s t a n a n d E . E . R i c h , e d s . , -T h e C a m b r i d g e
E c o n o m iH
c istory, vol. I (1952),pp. 89-tt7.
A s G e o r g eD u b y s a y s , " F o r w e s h o u l d b e w r o n g i n t h i n k i n g t h a t a
h u m a ns o c i e t y f e e d s o n w h a t t h e s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d i s b e s t s u i t e d
t o p r o d u c e . S o c i e t y i s a p r i s o n e r o f p r a c t i c e s p a s s e do n f r o m
g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o na n d a l t e r e d o n l y w i t h d i f f i c u l t y .

44

C o r r s e q u e n t l yi t e n d e a v o u r st o o v e r c o m et h e I i m i t a t i o n s o f s o i I
a n d c l i m a t e i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c ea t a l l c o s t s f o o d s t u f f s t h a t i t s
c u s t o r n sa n d r i t e s o r d a i n . " ( t n e f a r y G r o v l t ho f t h e E u r o p e a n

E c o n o m yt ,r a n s . H . B . C l a r t e W l l - p : 7 ] - n c c o r d i n gt o D u b y ,t h e R o m a n o - G e r m aenni c o u n t e ri n h i s t o r y w a s a

, ' c o l i s i o n b e t w e e nt \ ^ r os t r i k i n g y d i f f e r e n t d i e t a r y t r a d i t i o n s , "
a n d i t w a s o n l y t h e b r - e a k d o l no f t h e v r e s t e r n R o m a ne m p i r e w h i c h
m a d er e a l s y n t h e s i s b e t w e e nt h e t w o t r a d i t i o n s p o s s i b l e . C f . a l s o
r r F c l r t u n a t e fyo r t h e s o i l , t h e
E d w a r CH y a m s ' ss u c c i n c t c o n c l u s i o n ,
R o m a nE m p i r er v a sf a l l i r r g t o p i e c e s " ( S o i a n d C i v i l i z a t i o n I L o n d o n ,
1 9 5 2 1 ,p . 2 4 8 ) , a r r dh i s d i s c u s s i o ng e n e r a l i y o n t h e i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f R o m a nf a r m i n g m e t h o d s i n l ' l o r t h e r n E u r o p e ( p p . 2 \ \ - 2 \ 9 ) .
T o c l a y ,w e s t e r n i z a t i o n o f T h i i - d W o r - l dc o u n t r i e s i n t h e f o r m o f t h e
"green revolution' offers paralle cases.
T h e R o m a n a n g u a g ea l s o p e n e t r a t e d E u r o p e . T h e n o t a b e c a s e s a r e
n o t o n l y t h o s e l a n g u a g e st h a t v a n i s h e db u t a l s o t h o s e t h a t
s u r v i v e d , A b o u t W e s h i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t , h a d n o t C e t i c
a n g u a g e sp e r s i s t e d e l s e i ^ r h e r e ,i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n c e i v e d o f a s
"Celt and Teuton," in
a R o m a nr e s i d u e - c f . J e f f r e y B . R u s s eIl
L y n n W h i t e , J r . , . d . , f l l t f l g l t l o r r i a t i o n o f t h e R o m a nW o r l d :
Gi b b o n ' s P r o b l e r n a f t e r T w c C e n t u r '-i e ; - f F G ' e y - a n d L 6 l - n n g E T e s ,

6.

" T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e s i z e o f p o l i t i c a u n i t s s e e m sn e v e r t o
a t t r a c t a r n o n gh i s t o r i a n s a n C s o c i o l o g i s t s t h e a t t e n t i o n r v h i c h i t
c l e s e r v e s ' ,( t t r t <E l v i n , T h e P a t t e r n o f t h e C h i n e s e _ P a s tI L o n d o n ,
'Ihe
best ntroduction to the question is probably
1 9 7 3 1 ,p . 7 ) .
L e o p o l d K o h r ' s r e m a r k a b l y u n k n o w nb o o k T h e B r e a l c d o w on f l ' l a ti - o n s
( L o n d o n ,1 9 5 7 ) . F o r a n e c o n o n n ipc e r s p e c t i v e , s e e E . A . G . R o b i n s o n ,
E c o n o m i cC o n s e o u e n c eosf t [ e S i z e o f N a t i o n s ( [ - o n d o n ,1 9 6 0 ) .
T h - eB i a s o f
(Toronto, l95l), PP. ll-'15 and I l3-ll!, and in his
!o*!""f-gg!ion
E n r p i T ea n d C o m m u n i c - a t i o( nO x f o r d , 1 9 5 0 ).

a nf l m p i r e ' s e e A " H . M . J o n e s ,
7 . F o r t h e f i r r a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h' le9 6R4o)m
,
(0xfcrd,
p. 466, and A. Bernardi,
T h e L a t e r R o m a nE m p i r e
E m p i r e a t t h e T i n r eo f l c s
of the Rornan
ffi
D e c l i n e , " i n C . C i p o l l a , e d . , T h e D e c l i r r eo f E m p i r e s( L o n d o n ,- ,
9 7 0 ) , p p . l 6 - 8 3 . F i n a n c i a l r e . s o u r C ecso u l C b e r a s e d i n t e r n a l l y
I n t e r n a l y b y t a x e s o r b y e x c i s e s o n t r a d e ,
o r e x t e r n a ll y .
e x t e r n a l y b y e x c i s e s o r b y t h e s p o i l s o f c o n q u e s t s . A c t u a ll y ,
choiceswere far moreimited. Not orrly did the economic
c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e e r n p i r ea l o w o n l y a l i r n i t e d a m o u n to f t r a d e a n d
t h e r e b y e x c i s e s ; a l s o s o c i a c o n d i t i o n s w o r k e da g a i n s t t a x e s a s
a s o l u t i o n . T h i s l e f t t h e t r - a d i t i o n a la n d f l e x i b l e s o l u t i o r ro f
c o n q u e s t , w h i c h i n i t s e l f i n v o l v e d s o m ed e l i c a t e b a a n c e s . 0 n t h e
o n e h a n d , c o n q u e s tw a s e x p e n s i v e a n d i n c u r r e d f u r t h e r o u t l a y s o n
jefence; on the other, the empireobtained booty and various
resourcesfor exploitat ion.
".

i n e l a s t i c m a r k e t sa n d t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d so f t e c h n o l c l g ya n d
a g r i c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n b l o c k e da n y s i g n i f i c a n t g r o w t h i r r
productivity, in what we could caI the gross national product,

45

and therefore any steady increase in the yield from indirect

t a x e s . W h e n , f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n , t h e d e m a n d so n t h e a v a i l a b l e
f o o d , o n t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y a n d o n t h e c o n t i - i b u t i o n so f t h e
w e a lt h y
o u t r a n p u b li c r e s o u r c e s t o o f a r , t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d
h a d o n l y t w o p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s :o n e w a s t o r e d u c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n
by sendingit out; the other was to bring in additiona means
from outside, in the form of booty and tribute.
Both, as I have
a l r e a d y s a i d , w e r e s t o p - g a p s ,n o t s o l u t i o n s . " ( F i n l e y , T h e A n c i e n t
E c o n o m yl l o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 ] , p . 1 7 5 . ) T h e a r e a s c o n q u e r e d i n t u r n ,
r e q u ir e d i m p e r i a l d e f e n c e . A n d t h i s d e f e n c e w a s t h e m a i n c h a n n e l
i n t o w h i c h r e s o u r c e sw e r e a l l o c a t e d . A n d h e r e t h e s t o p g a p
s o l u t i o n s h a d t o c o n r et o a n e n d : r r F r o mt h e m i d d e o f t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y , t h e n u m e r i c a l i n a d e q u a c yo f t h e a r m i e s w h o h a d t o r e s i s t
c o n t i n u i n g a n d g r o w i n g G e r m a n i ca n d P e r s i a n i n c u r s i o n s c o u l d n o t
l o n g h a v e e s c a p e dt h e n o t i c e o f t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e m p i r e .
N o t hi n g c o u l d b e d o n e : n e i t h e r t h e a v a i I a b l e m a n p o w e rn o r f o o d
production nor transport could bear a burdengreater than the one
i m p o s e db y D i o c l e t i a n , w h e n h e d o u b l e d t h e a r m y r s s t r e n g t h , a t
least on paper. .
But nothing could be done to raise the
p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e e m p i r ea s a w h o l e o r t o r e d i s t r i b u t e t h e l o a d .
For that a completestructural transformation would have been
r e q u i r e d . r (' l b i d . , p p . 4 8 - 4 9 . )
R

T h e l o g i c o f p r o t e c t i o n i s i n t e r e s t i n g . l t i s t h e n r a f i al o g i c
from The Godfather of the offer that cannot be rejected since the
alteriEllve toEepting
protection, against a fee, is to suffer
at the handsof the would-be protector.
In more refined
protection markets there rnight be a club of the strong, coo p e r a t i n g a c c o r d i n gt o t h e p r i n c i p l e , ' l a t t a c k t h o s e w h o h a v e
r e j e c t e d y o u r p r o t e c t i o n o n t h e c o n di t i o n t h a t y o u d o t h e s a m e
w h e n I h a v ed i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h m i n e . "

s t a v r i a n o s w r i t e s , r r T h eR o m a n se x p l o i t e d t h e i r s u b j u g a t e d l a n d s
b y o u t r i g h t c o n f i s c a t i o n o f b u l i o n a n d a r t o b j e c t s , s i p h o n i n go f f
o f r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d f o o d s t u f f s , a n d w h o l e s a e e n s l a v e m e n to f
c o n q u e r e dp e o p l e s , w h o w e r e s o l d i n m u l t i t u d e s t o p l a n t a t i o n
ownersin ltaly.
c i c e r o w a r n e d h i s c o m p a t r i o t so f t h e b i t t e r
a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l s i n l a n g u a g et h a t s o u n d su n c o m f o r t a b l y f a m i l i a r t o d a y : ' \ y ' o r d sc a n n o t e x p r e s s , g e n t l e m e n , h o w
b i t t e r l y h a t e d w e a r e a m o n gf o r e i g n n a t i o n s b e c a u s eo f t h e w a n t o n
a n d o u t r a g e o u s c o n d u c t o f t h e m e nw h o mi n r e c e n t y e a r s w e h a v e
sent to govern them.
They look about for rich and
f l o u r i s h i n g c i t i e s t h a t t h e y m a yf i n d a n o c c a s i o nf o r a w a r
against themto satisfy thei r lust for plunder.
. . r" (Op.
r
t
T
h
e
c i t . , p p . 7 - 8 . ) A n d M a x \ , J e b ew
r rites,
m u c h - p r a i s e dR o m a n
r o a d s w e r e n o t u s e d f o r a n y t h i n g r e s e m b li n g m o d e r n t r a d e , n o r
w a s t h e R o m a np o s t a s y s t e m .
T o b e n e a r a R o m a nr o a d w a s
considereda misfortune rather than an advantage,for it brought
b i I l e t i n g a n d v e r m i n . I n s h o r t : R o m a nr o a d s s e r v e d t h e a r m y , n o t
c o m m e r c e r ' -o u r c o m m e n t :a n d t o t r a n s p o r t t h e f r u i t s o f p l u n d e r .
( T h e A g r a r i a n S o c i o l o g y o f A n c i e ] r t c i v i l i z a t i o n s [ l t e wL e f t B o o k s ,
L o n d o n , 1 9 7 6 J , p . 3 9 2 . ) T h e w h o l e c h a p t e r r r T h eS o c i a l C a u s e so f
t h e D e c l i n e o f A n c i e n t C i v i l i z a t i o n s , ' , p p . 3 8 9 - 4 1 1 ,i s v e r y
instructive.

\6

A s t o t h e d e s t i n a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e a c c u m u l a t e dt h r o u g h t h e s e
m e c h a n i s mtsh e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d o m i n a n te l e m e n t i n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e w a s o f c o u r s e t h e a r m y - 6 5 0 , 0 0 0m e n i n c l u d i n g t h e n a v y
for the period after Diocletian. This must have been in the
vicinity of I per cent of the total popuation in the empire (cf.
For information about the size of the superstructure,
note l2).
s e e A . H . M .J o n e s ( o p . c i t . ) , c h a p t e r s 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 2 2 , a n d 2 J ,
a n d b y t h e s a m e a u t h o r , A u g u $ u s ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 0 ). A n a s s e s s m e n t
of the size of the superstructure might be constructed along the
i n e s d e v i s e d i n J o n e s , " T h e E c o n o m i cB a s i s o f t h e A t h e n i a n
D e m o c r a c y , i"n P a s t a n d P r e s e n t , | ( 1 9 5 2 ) , P P . l 3 - 3 ! - ( a l s o
lOxford, 1964], pP. 3-20),
appearing in .lo@
"
T
h
e
Athens of O
, PP. 23-38.
and
, , M i li t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t sa n d r n i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e t h u s b e c a m et h e
p e r m a n e n t ,d o m i n a n t c o n c e r n o f t h e e m p e r o r s , a n d t h e I i m i t t o
a m o u n tt h e y c o u l d
their mil itary activity was set by the maximum
c
o
mpulsory
o
r
s q u e e z e i n t a x a t i o n a n d c o m p u s o r yl a b o u r
(
M
o
s
e
s
A
n
c
i
e
n
t E c o n o m yI L o n d o n ,
l. Firrley, The
."
deiveries.
"ever-increasing"
w
a
s
t
h
e
1 9 7 3 1 ,p p . 9 0 - 9 1 . ) A f u r t h e r r e c i p i e n t
b u r e a u c r a c y : ' r T h ei n c r e a s i n g r e q u i r e m e n t sc a n b e a t t r i b u t e d i n
t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e t o t h a t i r o n I a w o f a b s o lu t i s t b u r e a u c r a c y
t h a t i t g r o w s b o t h i n n u m b e ra n d i n t h e e x p e n s i v e n e s so f i t s
F r o mt h e i m p e r i a c o u r t d o w nt h e r e w e r e , d e c a d eb y
I ife-style.
d e c a d e ,m o r e m e n t o s u p p o r t f r o m p u b li c f u n d s , a n d a s t e a d i l y
g r o w i n gr a t e o f u x u r - y . " ( t u i a . , p . 9 0 . )
T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s u r p l u s a c q u i r e d d e s e r v e s s o m em e n t i o n .
A l t h o u g h t h e R o m a nE m p i r e w a s a u n i q u e s t r u c t u r e a m o n ga n c i e n t
s o c i e t i e s , t h e e c o n o m i cc o n d i t i o n s o f t h e o r d i n a r y c i t y w a s n o t
without relevance to the empire. As for the sourcesof surplus,
"To
ources. Finley states,
t h e a c c e n t i s o n t h e n o n - c o m m e r c i aS
s u mu p : e s s e n t i a l y t h e a b i l i t y o f a n c i e n t c i t i e s t o p a y f o r t h e i r
food, metals, slaves and other necessities rested on four
v a r i a b l e s : t h e a m o u n to f l o c a l a g r i c u t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , t h a t i s ,
o f t h e p r o d u c e o f t h e c i t y ' s o \ ^ / nr u r a l a r e a ; t h e p r e s e n c eo r
a b s e n c eo f s p e c i a l r e s o u r c e s , s i l v e r a b o v e a l l , b u t a s o o t h e r
m e t a l so r p a r t i c u l a r y d e s i r a b l ew i n e s o r o i l - b e a r i n g p l a n t s ; t h e
invisible exports of trade and tourism; and fourth, the income
f r o m l a n d o w n e r s h i pa n d e m p i r e , r e n t s , t a x e s , t r i b u t e , g i f t s f r o m
c l i e n t s a n d s u b j e c t s . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f m a n u f a c t u r e sw e r e
n e g i g i b l e ; i t i s o n l y a f a l s e m o d e l t h a t d r i v e s h i s t o r i a n s i n
s e r c h o f t h e mw h e r e t h e y a r e u n a t t e s t e d , a n d d i d n o t e x i s t . "
(tbid., p. 139.)
10.

For an application of centre-periphery thinking to the Roman

E m p i r e ,w i t h c r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h a t t y p e o f p e r s p e c t i v e ,
s e e P a t r i c k B r u u n , " E r v r i n g o c h k o n t r o lI a v p e r i f e r i f r S n
c e n t r u m : D e t r o m e r s k ei m p e r i e t , " i n S t u d i e r i h i s t o r i s k m e t o d e
t
1 0 , P e r i f e r i o g s e n t r u mi h i s t o r i e n
u r a t T h e o r Yo f l m P e r i a li s m , "
J o u r n a l o f P e a c eR e s e a r c h ,v o l . 8 ( 1 9 7 1 ) ' p p . 8 l - 1 . | 7 .

lt.

I n A . H . M . J o n e s ' sw o r d s , r r T h eb a s i c e c o n o m i cw e a k n e s so f t h e
emoire was that too few producers supported too many idle mouths.rl

47

( l f r e t a t e r R o m a nE m p i r e , p . 1 0 4 5 .) f h e p r i m i t i v e n e a n s o f
t r a n s p o r t a n d o f p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e dt h i s b u r d e n . A n d i n F i n e y ' s
s u m m a r yo f t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i cd e v e l o p m e n td u r i n q t h e e m o ir e :
rr.
I t r ' e 1 R o n r a nc o n q u e s t a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e v a s t R o m a n
empire
. w a s a f u n d a m e n t a pl , c l i t i c a l c h a n g e i n t h e f i r s t
instance. In the fiscal field
the greater shareof tne
f i s c a l b u r d e n p a s s e df r o m t h e w e a l t h i e r s e c t o r o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
t o t h e p o o r e r , w i t h a n a c c o m p a ni n
y g d e p r e s si o n i n t r r e s t a t u s o f
the latter.
l , / ec a n n o t t r a c e t h e p r o c e s s d e c a d e b y d e c a d e ,
b u t i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . i t h a d v i s i b y h a p p e n e c l . l 4 e a nitm e
the possibiities of further external soutions, of sti | more
c o n q u e s t s f o l o w e d b y c o l o n i z a t i o n , g r a d u a ll y c a m e t o a n e n d : t h e
a v a i l a b e r e s o u r c e ss i m p l y d i d n o t p e r m i t a n y m o r e , a s T r a j a n ' s
d i s a s t r o u s P a r t h i a n e x p e d i t i o n s d e m o n s t r a t e d ,i f d e m o n s t r a t i o n s
w e r e _ r e q u i r e d . " ( M o s e sl . F i n e y , T h e A n c i e n t E c o n o m yI L o n d o n ,
1973), pp. 175-176.)
12.

"Free laboui'in the

c i t i e s c o e x i s t e dw i t h u n f r e e r a b o u r i n t h e
country; there was free division of labour producinggoods for
e x c h a n g eo n t h e u r b a n m a r k e t , a n d t h e r e w a s a s o u n f r e e l a b o u r
o r g a n i z e d t o p r o d u c eg o o d so n a n d f o r r u r a l e s t a t e s , a s i n t h e
M i d d l e A g e s , " s a y s M a xh / e b e r( o p . c i t . , p p . 3 9 2 - 3 9 3 1 . l t s h o u l d
b e n o t e d t h a t s l a v e r y m a y n o t e v e n h a v e p a i d : r n o s ta u t h o r s s e e i t
a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f w h y t e c h n o l o g y d i d n o t d e v e l o p m u c hd u r i n g
t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e . B u t s l a v e r y h a s a n o b v i o u s
s o c i a l c o n s e g u e n c ea
, t l e a s t p o t e n t i a l l y : b e c a u s es o m ep e o p l e a r e
f r e e d f r o m m a t e r i a I p r o d u c t i o n , t h e y m a y , p o s si b y , b e c o m e
n o n r n a t e r i a l l yp r o d u c t i v e - i n a r t s a n d s t a t e c r a f t , i n s c i e n c e
and rel igion, and so on.
T h e n u m b e ro f s l a v e s i s u n c e r t a i n , a s t w o s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n ,
t a x e s a n d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , h a v e I i t t l e r e l e v a n c et o s r a v e s . l t
appears to have beenone third to one fourth of the population in
c o m m u n i t i e sl v i t h a d e n s e s l a v e p o p u a t i o n , s u c h a s A t h e n s ,
c o r i n t h , a n d P e r g a m oa
n t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p e a k so f p r o s p e r i t y .
F r o m A s i a l 4 i n o r a n d G r e e c e s l a v e r y a s a m o d eo f p r o d u c t i o n s p r e a d
to ltaly and North Africa. The proportion of slaves can hardly
h a v e b e e nv e r y h g h i n t h e e m p i r ea t l a r g e . S l a v e r y i n a g r i c u l t u r e \ . v a sa b o v e a l a n l t a l i a n p h e n o m e n o na,p a r t f r o m o v e r s e e r s .
s l a v e s w e r e n e v e r m u c h e m p l o y e di n t h e g r e a t e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s .
s l a v e s d o m i n a t e dt h e d o m e s it c s e r v i c e s ; t h e y w e r e p r o m i n e n t i n
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d m a n a g e m e n ta, n d w e r e e m p l o y e dt o s o m ee x t e n t i n
c r a f t s a n d t r a d e . B u t t h e i m p o r t a n c eo f s l a v e r y i n t h e e c o n o m y
a n d a s a s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o cn a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d b y s h e e r p r o p o r t i o n
o f a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , i n t h e R o m a nE m p i r e a n y m o r e t h a n i n t h e
U S Ai n t h e l B 5 O s . 0 n s l a v e r y , c f . A . H . M . J o n e s , ' , S l a v e r y i n t h e
A n c i e n t i l o r l d , " i n M . l . F i n l e y , " c | . , l @
A n t i q u i t y _ ( N e wY o r k , l 9 6 8 ) , a n d t r r e o t n f f i
book.
The opportunity costs of slavery must have beenconsiderable.
Apart from the social st igmaslavery placed upon "its' economic
s e c t o r s , i t p r e s s e dw a g e st o w a r d s t h e e v e l o f s u b s i s t e n c e ,
d e s t r o y i n g a p a r t o f t h e m a r k e t f o r p r o c e s s e dg o o d s ( i n c i d e n t a l l y
i n c r e a s i n g t h e e c o n o m i cs i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a r r , r y,) a n d p r o b a b y

48

m a d es m a l l - s c a l e i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h r n e n t sm o r e p r o f i t a b l e . c f .
F . \ ^ / .I / a l b a n k , T h e A r v uf l R e v o l u ti o n : T h e D e c i n e o f t h e R o m a n
E m pi r e i n t h e l ^ /
11
s e e m st o h a v e h a d a l i h r e r a t i n g e f f e c t .
see for instance Robertl l e n r i B a u t i e r , T h e E c o n o m cD e v e l o p m e n it n M e d i e v a E u r o p e
( L o n d o n , l 9 7 l ) f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d t e c h n o o g i c a d e v e l o p m e n t
i n t h e e a r l y M i d d l eA g e s .
t ?

lrl .

F o r i n f o r m a t i o na b o u t t h e s i z e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o no f t h e e m p i r e ,
s e e J o s i a h C . R u s s e l l , r r L a t eA n c i e n t a n d t 4 e d i e v a lP o p u l a t i o n , r l
i n T r a n s a c t i o n sf r o m t h e A m e r i c a nP h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t v
(prr
hichte der
(
L
e
i
p
z
i
g
,
W
l
8
8
6
lr1_gchischrmisc!9n
B e l o c h a p p l y c a u t i o u s , l o w e s t i m a t e s ; h i g h e r n u m b e r sr v I I a p p e a r
in booksof other authors.
"The regular importsof foreign grain
were a life-l ine without
w h i c h t h e c a p i t a l c o u l d n o t e x i s t , ' r F . W . t / a l l b a n k , , , T r a d ea n C
I n d u s t r y u n d e r t h e L a t e r R o m a nE m p i r e i n t h e l . / e s t , " c h a p . 2 i n
M . M . P o s t a n a n d E . E . R i c h , e d s . , T h e C a m b r i d g eE c o n o m i cH i s t o r y ,
vol. 2, Trade and lndustry in the@JE-TGl-F.
ft:85.-Trrgi mports
( a p p r o xi m a t e ly
4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s , d e p e n d e n to n t y p e ) , w h i c h s h o u l d b e e n o u g h f o r o n e
m i l l i o n i n h a b i t a n t s . S e e a l s o , r s o c i a P o l i c y , " i n A . H . l , J. o n e s ,
A u g u s t u s ( L o n d o n ,1 9 7 0 ) , p p . l 3 l f f . , a n d J o n e s , T h e L a t e r R o m a n
1 9 6 4 ), p p . l o 4 5 f f .
tt appears.thT74T-,0T--@foxford,
p e r s o n s w e r e e n t t l e d t o f r e e b r e a d i n R o m ed u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f
A u g u s t u s . C o n s t a n t i n ei n s t i t u t e d f r e e i s s u e f o r 8 0 , 0 0 0 i n
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . I n a d d i t i o n A n t o c h , A l e x a n d r i a ,a n d p o s s i b l y
C a r t h a g ew e r e k e p t a t p e a c e b y s i m i l a r i s s u e s .

15.

A l m o s t h a f t h e p o p u a t i o n o f R o m ec o u l d b e a c c o m m o d a t eidn t h e
c i r c u s e s a n d t h e a t r e s ; c f . L e w i s M u m f o r d ,l h e C i t y ' r j _ H i s t o r y
(Harmondsworth,96l),p.27|;SeealsoJ._ffiire
i n A n c i e n t R o m e( L o n d o n , l 9 4 l ) .
! , / ec a n c o m p a r et h i s w i t h t I E Aenffi;f-mmrn
c i n e m a s . 0 n l y t e e v i s i o n h a s c r e a t e d s o m e t hi n q
equal on so large a scale,

16.

For a general discussion, see Krzyztof Pornian, r'Les limites

c o l o g i q u e sd e s c i v i I i s a t i o n s ," S o c i a l S c i e n c e I n f o r m a t i o n , v o l .
l5 0976), no. l.
S e e E d w a r dG o l d s m i t h , r ' T h e F a l l o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , , ' p p . 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 ,
o n r r S o i d e t e r i o r a t i o n . "

t B . \ , / h e nD i o c le t i a n " q u a d r u p l e d " t h e a r m y a n d a d m i ni s t r a t i o n , h e
must have addedconsiderably to the burden. And it is evident
f r o m A . H . l ' .1 J o n e s , T h e L a t e r R o m a nE m p i r e , t h a t h e w a s n o t f a r
off this mark. Reaffirs,
but the burden must
h a v e d o u b l e d c o m p a r e dw i t h t h e 1 0 0 s . u n d e r J u s t i n i a n t h e e m p i r e
d r e w o n e t h i r d o f t h e g r o s s p r o d u c t a s r e v e n L i e ,i n a d d i t i o n c a m e
t h e n l o c a l l a n d o w n e r sa n d e x p e n s e sf o r s e e d . 0 r , i n F i n l a y ' s
summaryof the process, rl
before the end of the second

49

century, externa pressures began,which could not be resisted

T h e a r r n yc o u l d n o t b e e n l a r g e d b e y o n da n i n a d e q u a t e
forever.
l i m i t b e c a u s et h e l a n d c o u l d n o t s t a n d f u r t h e r d e p l e t i o n o f m a n p o w e r : t h e s i t u a t i o n o n t h e l a n d h a d d e t e r i o r a t e d b e c a u s et a x e s
a n d I i t u r g i e s w e r e t o o h i g h , b u r d e n sw e r e t o o g r e a t c h i e f l y
s ere increasing. A vicious circie
b e c a u s et h e m i l i t a r y d e m a n d w
o f e v i l s w a s i n f u l l s w i n g . T h e a n c i e n t w o r l d w a s h a s t e n e dt o i t s
end by its social and poitical structure, its deeply embedded
a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d v a l u e s y s t e m , a n d , u n d e r p i n n i n gt h e w h o e ,
the organizationand exploitation of its productiveforces. There,
i f o n e w i s h e s , i s a n e c o n o m i ce x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e e n d o f t h e
a n c i e n t w o r l d . ' , ( M o s e s l . F i n l e y , T h e A n c i e n t E c o r r s r nIlL o n d o n ,

1 9 7 3 1 p, . 1 7 6 . )
19.

N o t o n l y w e r e p o l i t i c a l I i n k s d i s r u p t e d ; t h e e c o n o m i ct i e s m i g h t
h a v e w e a k e n e da s w e 1 . T h e r e w a s a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s r e d u c t i o n o f
i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l t r a d e a n d t o w a r d st h e c r e a t i o n o f l a r g e a n C
r a t h e r s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t t r a d i n g a r e a sw i t h i n t h e I i m i t s o f w h i c h
the bulk of trade took place. During the early empirethe various
p a r t s d e v e l o p e dt h e i r p r o d u c t i o n , t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o w h i c h w a s
t h e d e c l i n e o f l t a y . U h e n o l d n e e d sw e r e f i l e d , n e \ ^n/ e e d s d i d
n o t a r i s e . T h e m a j o r f a c t o r i n t h e e c o n o m i cc i r c u l a t i o n u r a s t h e
h u g e a m o u n to f p r o d u c t s d r a w n t o w a r d s t h e f r o n t i e r s t o s a t i s f y
m i l i t a r y n e e d s . A s t h e f r o n t i e r p r o v i n c e s d e v e l o p e dp r o d u c t i o n
t o s u s t - a i nt h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a r m y , e v e n t h i s s t r e a m s l o w e d d o w n .
c f . F . v J .I , / a l l b a n k , " T r a d e a n d I n d u s t r y u n d e r t h e L a t e r R o m a n
E m p i r e i n t h e W e s t , " c h a p . 2 i n M . M . P o s t a na n d E . E . R i c h , e d s ' ,
T h e c a m b r i d g eE c o n o m l cH i s t o r y , v o l . 2 , . T r a d e . a n d _ l n d u s ! r Yi !. t l l e
nritain,"
r g e C o l I i n g w o o d ,' r R o m a B
-i-n-EiFGnney,
, vo. l
e d . , A n E c o n o m i cS u r v e y o f A n c i e n t R
( a a t t i m o r e , 1 9 3 6 ).

2.

F o r a s t r a t e g i c a n a l y s i s o f d e c li n e a n df a l l , s e e E . N . L u t t w a k ,
T h e G r a n d S t r a t e g y o f t t r e R o m a nE m p i r e ( J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y
, l0
r
r
L
uttwak
w
h
o
s
a
y
s
'
February 1978, pP. 154-155,by P.A. Brunt,
r e m a r k st h a t i t s a c r i f i c e d p r o v i n c i a l s e c u r i t y f o r t h e s e c u r i t y
a s a w h o l e " a n d t h a t " t h e p r o v i n c i a l s c a n b e e x c u s e df o r t h e i r
failure to accept the logic of the system."

Zl.

T h e p o p u l a t i o n r i o t e d a n d a l I i e d t h e m s e l v e sw i t h t h e b a r b a r i a n s .
obviously the discontent was widespread. See E.A. Thompson'
rrPeasantR
s e v o l t s i n L a t e R o m a nG a u l a n d S p a i n , " i n M . | . F i n l e y '
d . , S t u d i e s i n A n c i e n t S o c i e t y ( L o n d o na n d B o s t o n , 1 9 7 \ ) ,
a r t f r o m e n d e m i cd i s s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
pp. f
the revolts were, precipitated by pague and barbarian attacks,
and started in the 180s. Rural slaves and sei-fs tended to merge
in their resistance, and were joined by deserters and ruined
f a r m e r s . B a c a u d a er i s i n g s a r e r e p o r t e d f r o m t h e 2 1 0 s a n d d u r i n g
the general crisis in the 260sand 280s. By effectively isolating
t h e p a r t s o f G a u l f r o m e a c h o t h e r , t h e R o m a ng e n e r a l s q u e l l e d t h e
r " u o t , b u t t h e r e w e r e r e n e w e da c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g t h e 3 6 0 s a n d
3 7 0 s , a n d f r o m t h e G e r m a n i c i n r o a d 4 0 7 t r r e B a c a u d a eb e c a m e

50

a c t i v e l y e n d e m i ca n d f o r m e d t h e b a s i s f o r a s t a t e i n t h e i r s t r o n g hold on the lower Loire. For their relations with Attila, see
J . F . C . F u ll e r , T h e D e c i s i v e B a t t e s o f t h e \ l e s t e r n W o r l d , e d .
John Terraine (
22

L i k e t h e m e n t a l e n c a p s u l a t i o n t h e r e w a s a n e c o n o m i c ;c f . A u r e l i o
B e r n a r d i , o p . c i t . , e s p e c i a ll y t h e c o n c l u s i o n : r r T h eb a n k r u p t c yo f
t h e e n o r m o u sS t a t e a t t h e s a m et i m e a s s m a l l p r i v i l e g e d g r o u p s ,
while they evadetaxation, heap up riches and create around their
v i l l a s e c o n o m i ca n d s o c i a l m i c r o c o s r n s c, o m p l e t e l y c u t o f f f r o r n
l t w a s t h e e n d o f t h e R o m a nU o r l d . l t w a s
the central authority.
t h e b e g i n n i n go f t h e M i d d l e A g e s " ( p p . 8 2 - 8 3 ) .

23.

T h e f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r ew a s h a r d l y e v e r
" s o u n d . " T h e m a i n e c o n o m i cp r o b e mw a s , i f n o t t h e r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e nr e s o u r c e s a n d e x t e r n a l / i n t e r n a c h a l l e n g e s , a t l e a s t t h e
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e s o u r c e s a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n tf o r
d e f e n c e p u r p o s e sa n d t h e s e c h a l l e n g e s . I n s o m e p e r i o d s , m a i n l y
u n d e r A n t o n i n u sP i u s a n d i n B y z a n t i u mi n t h e l a t e 4 0 0 s , t h e
g o v e r n m e n st u c c e e d e di n b u i l d i n g u p a r e s e r v e i n b u l l i o n , b u t w h e n
w a r s t a r t e d i t w a s r a p i d l y s q u a n d e r e d . C f . A " H . M .J o n e s , T h e
R e v e n u ew a s r e g u l a r l y s u p p l i e d b y
L a t e r R o m a nE m p i r e , c h a p . l .
Although other aims can be attributed to the
ffi
e a r l i e s t " a d j u s t m e n t s , " t h i s s e e m sa f a i r e v a l u a t i o n o f w h a t t o o k
p l a c e . T h e e f f e c t s o f t h e d e b a s e m e nm
t ight be overstated. As an
i t e m p o s s e s s i n gm e t a v a l u e b e s i d e s b e i n g s y m b oilc m o n e y ,o d c o i n
retained its vaue. 0ny those forced to accept bad coin for
t h e i r p r o d u c t s w e r e a t a l o s s . C f . F . \ , J .V / a l l b a n k , " T r a d e a n d
I n d u s t r y u n d e r t h e L a t e r R o m a nE m p i r e i n t h e l l e s t , " c h a p . 2 i n
M . M . P o s t a n a n d E . E . R i c h , e d s . , T h e C a m b r L d gEe c o n o m i cH i s t o r y ,
gut the
v o l . 2 , T r a < l ea n d I n d u s t r y i n t h e
f a l l i n g r e a l w a g e o f s o l d i e r s m i g h t h a v e h a d t r e m e n d o u se f f e c t s
o n d e m a n d ,b y f o r c i n g t h e m t o w a r d s a s u b s i s t e n c e d i e t , r e d u c i n g
t h e i r d e m a n d sf o r i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s d e s p i t e t h e i n c r e m e n t si n
t h e i r n u m b e r . C f . M o r t i m e r C h a m b e r s", C r i s i s o f t h e T h i r d
C e n t u r y r " i n L y n n \ ^ J h i t e ,J r . , e d . , T h e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
ed
R o m a nt r / o r l d ( B e r k e l e y a n d L o s A n g e l
f a l l i n g t r a d e b e c a u s eo f i n c r e a s e d s e l f - r e l i a n c e ,
i6iffi7i-ty,
and a decline of "urbar spirit," we have here another cause of a
waningmarket to contribute to the decline of production and of
towns.

24

S e e J . G a l t u n g ,o p . c i t . ,
C o n s tr u c t i o n s ."

25.

S e e E . G o d s m i t h ,o p . c i t . , p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 , o n " P u b i c G a m e s . " A
basic point here would be the extent to which watching others do
s o m e t h i n gb e c o m e sm o r e r e a l t h a n d o i n g i t o n e s e l f , b e c a u s e i t i s
b e t t e r s t a g e d a n d m a n a g e d ,m o r e d e n s e l y p a c k e d w i t h e m o t i o n , e t c .
As for the watching, see also Michael Grant, The_Ga{iatolg
( H a r m o n d s w o r t hl ,9 7 l ) , p p . 0 2 - 1 0 8 , o n " T h e R I J E E T T - n u l e r s
and
S p e c t a t o r s . " L e w i s M u m f o r do b s e r v e s , " R o m a nI i f e , f o r a l l i t s
c l a i m s o f p e a c e , c e n t r e d m o r e a n d m o r e o n t h e i m p o s i n gr i t u a s

5l

r ' 0 n f ' l e c h a n i s mf o
sr Maintaining lmperial

o f e x t e r m i n a t i o n , I n t h e p u r s u i t o f s e n s a t i o n ss u f f i c i e n t l y
s h a r p t o c o v e r m o m e n t a r iy t h e e m p t i n e s s a n c i r n e a n i n g l e s s n e sosf
t h e i r p a r a s i t i c e x i s t e n c e , t h e R c m a n st o o k t o s t a g i n q c h a r i o t
races, ,
naval battles,
t h e a t r i c a l p a n t o m i n e si n n r h i c h
t h e s t r i p t e a s e a n d l e t v d e rs e x u a l a c t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n p u b l i c .
. T h e w h o l e e f f o r t r e a c h e sa p i n n a c . | ei n t h e g l a c t i a t o r i a
s p e c t a c l e sw h e r e i h e a g e n t s o f t h i s r e g i m e a p p l i e d a d i a b c l i c
i n v e n t i v e n e s s t o h u m a nt o r t u r e a n d h u m a ne x t e r m i n a t i o n . r , ( r n e
Ci t I i n H i s t _ o r y I H a r m o n d s w o r t h],9 6 I , p . 2 6 6 . )
26.

P r o s el y t i z i n g w a s v i t a I f o r t h e s u r v i v a I o f t h e p r e - C o n s t a n it n e
c h u r c h , g i v e n t h e b a d r e l a t i o n b e t w e e nt h e c h r i s t i a n s a n d t n e
p o p r r l a t i o na t l a r g e . B y p r o s e l y t i z i n g i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a f t e r
t h e p e r s e c u t i o n i n t h e 2 5 0 s t h e t o w n - b a s e dc h u r c h g o t a l e s s
e x p o s e db a s i s i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . I n f a c t , c h r i s t i a n i t y b e c a n r e
3 ! S - r " t i E i o n o f t h e r u r a l r n a s s e si n a f e w , b u t i m p o r t a r r t p r o v i n c e s .
c f . \ ' .l H . c . F r e u n d , " T h e F a i u r e o f p e r s e c u t i o n i n t h e R o r n a n
E m pri e , " i n P a s t a n d p r e s e n r , n o . l 6 ( 1 9 5 9 ') , a n d i n i . 4! .. F i n e y
e d . , S t u c li e l @ t y
(London "no Borton, lglt+),
pp. 26t fT:m'analysis
of the attractiveness of
c h r i s t i a n t y , s e e E . R . D o d d s ,p a g a na n d c h r i s t r a n i n a n A q e o f
A , n x i e t y ( C a m b r i d g e ,1 9 6 5 ) , p p . - t l 2 - 1 3 8 - l - -

27.

E v e no f f i c i a l C h r i s t i a n i t y r e t a i n e d s e v e r a a r i t i - s t a t e f e a t u r e s ,
s u c ha s o p p o s i t i o nt o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . A s a t e a s j l 3 t h e
C o u n c i l o f A r l e s d e c i d e d t o e , r c i u d ep o i t i c i a n s f r o m c o m m u n i o n .
l 4 o s t i m p o r t a n t v J a st h e g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s so f
h a v i n g s e p a r a i e l o y a l t i e s a n C f i r s t p r i o r i t i e s r , v h i c ht r a n s c e n d e d
t h e R o r r r asnt a t e .
P u b li c a t t e n t i o n w a s d i s t r a c t e , l f r o m t h e
p o l i t i c a l d e m a n d os f E m p i r e . T h u s , ' , n o r e a l c h r i s t i a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y f o u n d e d o n t h e p o i i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c eo F i - i e r o d o t u s ,
l h u c y d i d e s , L v y a n d T a c i t u s v r a st r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e l l i d C l e A g e s . , ,
( 4 . M o m i g l i a n o ,e d . , T h e C o n fl i c t b e t w e e nF e g s n l { L a n c lC h r i s t i a n i t y
in the FourtI Century

2 8 . A n d t h i s w a s i n l i n e w i t h t h e e n c a p s u r a t i r rtge n d e n c i e s ,w i t h m o r e

i m p o r . t a n ct o n s e q u e n c e isn o c a l l i f e t h a n m o n a s t i c i s m :, ' .
the
c h r i s t i a n c h u r c h o f t h e f c u r t h c e n t u i - ym a y w e l h a v e c o n t r b u t e d
t o t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e R o m a ne m p i r e b y e n c o u r a q i n gt h a t t e n d e n c y
o f m a n y s r n a l l m e n t c I v e i n y e t s r n a l l e rw o r l d s w h i c t r i s , p e r h a p s ,
m o r e d a n g e r o u sf o r a s o c i e t y t h a r r t h e d e s e r t a t i o n c f t h e w o r l d b v
the few." (Peter Brown,Religign an4 Socjly in the Age of saint

A u g u s itn e I L o n d o ,n 1 9 l Z ], p . - T 4 6 J
29.

52

T h e a l t e r n a t i v e e i h o s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s r e g a r d e da s a t h e i s r n ,a n
a f f r o n t t o d e c e n c y . A f t e r t h e i i r s t p e r s e c u ii o n d i r e c t e d b y t h e
g o v e r n m e n t ,2 4 9 - 2 6 0 , C h r i s t i a n i t y b e c a m ea p a r t o f t h e e s t a b l i s h r n e n t2 6 0 - 3 0 3 . T h e m i s e r y i n t h i s p e r i o d l e d t h e p e o p l e t o d e s p i s e
t h e i r o l c i g o d s ; p a g a n i s ms u r v i v e d , i n m a n yp r o v i n c e s a m o n qt h e
t o w n - a r i s t o c r a c y . T h e s o c i a l a n t a q o n i s me v i d e n t i n t h e s e c h a n g e s
ed to sectarian activities as urell as to apocalypticrovements.
c f . l ^ / . H . c .F r e u d , ' r T h e F a i l u r e o f p e r s e c u t i o n i n t h e R o m a n
E m p i r e , " i n P a s t a n d p r e s e n t , r o . . l 6 ( . l 9 5 9 ,) a l s o i n f , i r. . F i n l e y ,

e d . , S t u d i e s i n A n c i e n t S o c i e _ t y( L o n d o na n d B o s t o n , 1 9 7 \ ) ,
pp. 2
30.

31.

c a s e s i n p o i n t : " T h e r e s i d e n t s a t c a r t h a g ew e r e t a k e n b y s u r p r i s e
o n t h e a m p h i t h e a t r ew h e n t h e V a n d a l sa t t a c k e d . T h e p a t r i c i a n s o f
C o l o g n ew e r e s i t t i n g a t a b a n q u e t w h e n t h e b a r b a r i a n s w e r e
alreadynear their walls." (Carlo|4. Cipoa, ed., The Economic
D e c li n e o f E m pi r e s I L o n d o n , 9 7 0 ] , p . 2 . )
"The aim of the invaderswas not
t o d e s t r o y t h e R o m a nE m p i r e , b u t
to occupyand enjoy it.
By and large what they preservedfar
e x c e e d e dw h a t t h e y d e s t r o y e d o r w h a t t h e y b r o u g h t t h a t w a s n e w . , ,
( H e n r i P i r e n n e , l l e di e v a l C i t i e s [ P r i n c e t o n, 1 9 5 2 f, p . 8 . ) T h i s
c a n b e s e e n a g a i n s t t h e f o l l o w i n g b ' a c k g r o u n d": B y t h e f o u r t h
c e n t u r y t h e f r o n t i e r p r o v i n c e s o f t h e D a n u b eh , e r e a s m u c h p a r t o f
R o m a n i aI i . . . , t h e R o m a nE m p i r e ] a s a n y o t h e r , a n d s o t h e o n l y
r b a r b a r a n r w a s t h e o n e a c r o s s t h e n r iI i
tary front ier. faced
d i r e c t l y , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h a s o c i e t y w h o s eh i g h e r s t a n d a r d
o f I i v i n g a n d i n t o e r a n c e o F h i s w a y o f I i f e m u s t h a v e s e e n e dt o
i n c r e a s e r r y i t he v e r y d e v e l o p m e n o
t f the third and fourth centuries.
'Envy,r not the aimless motionof tribes, drew
the barbariansto
a land wherethe bait - the great vi as and lmperial residences
o f P a n n o n i aa n d t h e R h i n e i a n d- d a n g l e d p r o v o c a t i v e l y c l o s e . ' ,
( P e t e r B r o w n ,o p . c i t . , p p . 6 0 - 6 .)| .

32.

S e e S o l o m o nK a t z , T h e D e c l i n e o F R o m ea n d t h e R i s e o f M e d i e v a l
Europe ( lthaca, 195fl-,
ope
i n T r a n s i t i o n , " p p . 8 S - l l l . l - ' o ra s t r i k i n g c o m p a r i s o w
n ith China
s e e P . A n d e r s o n , P a s s a g e sf r o m A n t i q u i t y t o F e u d a il s n r ( L o n d o n ,
l97\), p. 225, no't" 1H

33.

Soomon
Katz, op. cit.,

pp. 01-101.

3 t + . S e e J o s e p h V o g t , A n c i e n t S a v e r y a n d t h e l d q a l " l _ _ I g-lr r( 0 x f o r c l ,
l97l+),chap. l, rr
As for
t h e o f f i c i a l v e n g e a n c ea f t e r t h e S p a r t a c u sr e v o lt : " S i x t h o u s a n d
p r i s o n e r s w e r e c r u c i f i e d a l o n g t h e A p p i a n \ { a y , f r o m R o m ea l l t h e
w a y t o C a p u a ,w h e r e t h e o u t b r e a k h a d b e g u n . " ( l ' 1 .G r a n t , T h e
G l a di a t o r s I H a r m o n d s w o r t hl ,9 7 l ] , p . 2 4 . )
35.

S o l o m o nK a t z g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e " 0 r i g i n s a n d S o c i e t y o f
t h e B a r b a ri a n s " ( o p . c i t . , p p . 9 8 - 0 l ) , b a s e d o n T a ci t u s ' f a m o u s
G e r q q n i a ,d e s c r i b i n g t h e I ' t a l l , r e d h a i r e d , b l u e - e y e dG e r m a n s . "

36.

The greatest prosperity n tsritain camin the 300s and was baseci
o n t h e v i l a s - f o r e r u n n e r s a m o n gc ; t h e r t h i n g s o f t h e w o o l l e n
i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t si n t h e l " l i d d l eA g e s . E q u i p p e dw i t h
furnaces, foundries, and faciities for bronze-workinge
, namel*,
harness-, eather-, and pottery-making, they spreadover the
w e s t e r n p o r t o f t h e e m p i r e a n d t h e u p p e r D a n u b et e r r i t o r i e s , b u t
a p p a r e n t l y n o t i n t o t h e s o r . r t h e r nB a k a n s . C f . N o r m a nJ . G . P o u n d s ,
(Cambridge,
An Historic

53

37.

s o l o m o nK a t z e x p r e s s e si t t h i s w a y : " T h e l a r g e e s t a t e s o r v i I l a s
o f t h e L a t e r E m p i r e ,w h i c h w e r e c u l t i v a t e d b y h a l f - f r e e c o l o n i ,
continued into the lliddle AEes, and by a fusion of Roman-EnZG e r m a ne l e m e n t s b e c a m et h e m a n o r i a l s y s t e m o f t h a t p e r i o d . , ,
( O p . c i t . , p . 4 4 . ) A n d , " T h e s y s t e mo f l a r g e e s t a t e s o w n e db y
n o b l e s a n d w o r k e d b y c o l o n i w a s a d o p t e d b y t h e i r r v a d e r s ,w h o
a r g e y r e p l a c e d t h e R < ; r , -al ls l a n d o w n e r s . ' , ( t n i a . , p . 1 0 7 . ) 0 n
the one hand, slaves were freed; on the other, substantial parts
o f t h e r u r a p o p u l a t i o n n r o v e dt o w a r d s s e r f s t a t u s , t h e a t e
i n p e r i a l r r c o o n a t e . ' rC f . A . H . M . J o n e s r ' , T h eR o m a n
C o o n a t e , ,i n
! g : t _ g _ d _ l f e s _ g , o o . l 3 ( t g f A ) , a l s o i n M .t . F i n t e y , e d . , S t u d i e s
in Ancient Society, pp. 2BBff.
This processwas producing-i;-ffircompatiblewiththebarbarianserf.Thelarge
e s t a t e s a c c o u n t e df o r a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a ,
a n d t h e c o l o n i f o r m e d a p r e d o m i n a n t , b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e , m o d eo f
p r o d u c t i o n , e s p e c i a l y i n t h e w e s t . T h e p i g h t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t
a n d t h e l a n d o w n e r sr v o r k e dt o 5 ; e t h e r i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r s e c u r i n g
greater control over the coloni, in particuar tying themto the
s o i .
D e s i g n e da s a f i s c a m e a s u r ec o n n e c t e dw i t h D i o c r e t i a n , s
t a x r e f o r m , t h e s y s t e m n e t t h e l a n d o w n e r s 'n e e d f o r b e t t e r c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i v o r k e r sw h e n t h e y f a c e d t h e g e n e r a s h o r t a g e
of abour.
A n d t h e r r o b i li t y r e t r e a t e d t o t h e v i l l a s : T h e m e a s L t r eosf
D i o c l e t i a n r r e n t a i l e dn o t o n l y a h e a v y b u r d e no n t h e l o w e r c a s s e s
b u t a s o a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e e c o n o m i cp o t e r r t i a l o f t h e r v e a l t h y
c l a s s j u s t b e o wt h e p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l l i t e .
Andthe
ite finaly responded
by retiring to iheir estates into a
c o n d it i o n o f r n a x i n i u m
s e f * s u f f c i e n c y , w i t h d r a l v i n gt h e i r c u s t o m s
f r o m t h e i n c u s t r i a l p r o d u c e r si n t h e c i t y a n d a d d i n g t o t h e
d a m a g ea r e a d y w r e a k e d b y t h e q o v e r n m e n t . ' ( r i n e y , T h e A n c i e n t
E c c n o m yI L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 ] , p L r . 1 6 0 - . l 6 1 . )

38.

C o m p a r ef o r i n s t a n c e t h e a n c i e r r t i n t e r e s t i i r t h e w o r l d b e y o n c li t s
b c r d e r s w i t h t h e m e c i i a e v a il n d i f f e r e n c e t o e x o t i c a d u r i n g t h e
f i r s t c r u s a d e ; c f . J o s e p hR . L e v e n s o n ,t ' l n t r o d u c t i o n , ' , i n
l - e v e sr ro n , e d . , E u r o p e a nE x p a n s i o na n d t h e c o u n t e r - E x a m p e
of Asia,
13 0 0 -16 0 0 ( e n st

3 9 . . O n e a s p e c t o f e c o l o g i c a i b r e a k d o w ni s d i s e a s e . E p i d e m i c se n t e r e d
t h e R o r n a nE n r p
i r e f r o m a b r o a d a s e v e r y c i v i I i z a t i o i r s e e n r st o
s u p p o r t i t s " o w n r " d i s t i n c t ' , p o p u l a t i o n ' ,o F d i s e a s e s . B e s i d e s ,
m i c r o - o r g a n i s r nm
s ight havetheir whole ife-cycles in human
b e i n g s , b u t a l s o p a r t l y i n a n i m a l sa n d n a t u r e . s o e c o o g i c a r
c h a n g e sm i g h t i n d u c e a f . o r r n e rn o n - h u m a n i c r o - o r g a ni s m t o I i v e o n
h u m a no r g a n i s m s ,w h o ll y o r p a r t l y . M a l a r i a i s h e r e a c a s e . 0 t h e r
e c o o g i c a l c h a n g e sr n i g h t a l t e r t h e t r a c k o f m i c r o - o r g a n i s m w
s ithin
t h e b o d y , o r ' g i v e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o n e wv a r i a n t s . c i = .! r i r i a n r
M c N e i l , P l a g u e s a n d P e o p l e s ( t i e wy o r k , 1 9 " i 6 ) .
T h u s , l a t e R c r n a dn i s e a s e - h i s t o r y i s a l s o a r e s l t o f p a r a s i t e s
i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e r c h a n g i n ge n v i r o n m e n t :" T h e l o n g l a n d
f r o n t i e r s w e r e m a n n e db y g a r r i s o n s s c a t t e r e d a t s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s ;
f r o m t l r e s e f r o n t i e r g a r r i s o n s s t r e t c h e d b a c l <t h e f i l a r n e n t s o f

r l,
)'1

the spider's web, the sea routes from Africa and Egypt, the
s t r a i g h t , l e g i o n a r y - r n a d reo a d s , a l o f w h i c h l e d t o R o m e .
" H e r e i n l a y t h e m a k i n g so f d i s a s t e r . A v a s t h i n t e r l a n d h i d i n g
r u n k n o wsne c r e t s , a m o n gt h e m t h e m i c r o l o r g a n i s m so f t o r e i g n d i s e a s e ;
t r c , o p sw h o a t [ a c k e d i n t o t h a t h i n t e r l a n d a n d w e r e a t t a c k e d b y t h e
i n h a o i t a n t s ; f r e e t r a n s i t b y s h i p o r a o n g r o a d s s p e c i f c a y
b u i l t f o r s p e e d yt r a v e l , a t t h e c e n t r e a c o n c e n t r a t e dp o p u a t i o n
living a highly civilized life yet lackingthe most rudimentary
m e a n so f c o m b a t i n gi n f e c t i o n . G i v e n a c o n j u n c t i o n o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u c h a s t l r i s , i t i s I i t t l e w o n d e rt h a t t h e s t o r y o f t h e
l a s t c e n t u r i e s o f R o m a np o \ ^ / e ri s a l o n g t a l e o f p l a g u e . "
( F r e d e r i c kC a r t w r i g h t , D i s e a s ea n d H i s t o r y I L o n d o n ,i 9 7 2 ) , p . l . )
R o m a nc i v i l i z a t i o n s e e m sm o r e a f f e c t e d b y d i s e a s e i n t f r e l a t e r
A ft e r a m a j o r o u t e r n p i r et h a n e a r ' li e r . C f . M c f l e i l l , o p . c i t .
b r e a k o f e p i d e m i c s i n A . D . 6 5 , a n e w c a a m i t y o c c r r r r e di n A . D . 7 9 ,
p e r h a p sm a l a r i a a n d a n t h r a x , b o v i n e - h u m asn c k n e s s e s , t h a t , w h i l e
p r e f e r r i n g c a t t l e . c a n p r e y o n t h e h u m a np o p u l a t i o n a s w e l l i f
o n c e e s t a b i s h e d a n d t h e e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e a l t e r e d .
A f t e r t l r e A . D . 1 2 5 e p i d e m i c sc a m e t h e v e r y s e r i o u s o n e s o f 1 6 3 '|89,
perhapssmal -poX, another catte disease adapting to human
b e i n g s . A f t e r t h e w i d e s p r e a d r a v a g e so f t h i s e p i d e n r i c , a n e w o n e
s t r u c k t h e e m p ri e i n 2 5 1 , r e c u r r i n g a t I e a s t u n t i I 2 6 6 . T h e
p a g u ec o i n c i d e dw i t h t h e g r e a t e s t c r s i s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e
e m p i r e . A f t e r t h e e p i d e m i c so f 4 5 5 , \ 6 7 , a n d 4 B O , c a r l e a p l a g u e
that, ike those of 165 and 251, recurred several times. This can
i onstantinople
b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e B l a c k D e a t h . l t r e a c h e cC
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A n c i e n t a n d M e d i a e v a lP o p u l a t i o n , " i n T r a n s a c t i o n sf r o r n t h e
A m e r i c a nP h i l o s o p h i c a s o c i e t y ( p n i t a a f f i
"The medievalworld
Thereafter conditions apparently changed:
e x p e r i e n c e dn o f u r t h e r p a n d e m i c so f p a g u e f o i - m a n y c e n t u r i e s .
T h i s i s a s t o n i s h i n g b e c a u s et h e r e w e r e f r e q u e n t o u t b r e a k s i n t h e
N e a r E a s t . " C f. H e n r y F . S i g e r i s t , C i v i l i z a t ! p n - : n ! - L l l e : g ,
3 r d e d . ( l t h a c a , N . Y . , 1 9 4 5 ) ,p . I 1 5 .
40.

B a r b a r i a n i n v a s i o n s a r e n o r m a l y p r e c e d e db y t r a n s f e r o f
t e c h n o o g y a n d g e n e r a l k n o w - h o wt o t h e b a r b a r i a n s a n d t r a n s f e r
o f b a r b a r i a n sa s s o l d i e r s , c o o n i s t s , a n d g e n e r a l s i n t o t h e
e m p i r e . A n a s s i m il a t i o n h a d t o t a k e p l a c e b e f o r e t h e d e c l i n e
"The barbarians
and fall of the empire. In Braudel's phrase,
"Europe is
h a d t o k n o c k t e n t i m e s . " 0 r , a s G i b b o na s s u n r e d ,
secure from any future irruption of barbarians, since, before
t h e y c a n c o n q u e r , t h e y m u s t c e a s e t o b e b a r " b a r o u s "- c i t e d i n
A . . D .M o m i gila n o , " G b b o n r sC o n t r i b u t i o n t o l . | i s t o r i c a M e t h o d , "
i n h i s S t u d i e s i n H i s t o r i o g r a p h y ( L o n d o n ,1 9 6 9 ) , p p . \ 0 - 5 5 ,
citatio
T h e C h i n e s e E m p i r e f a c e d m u c h t h e s a m es o r t o f c h a l l e n g e , a n d
"
s c h o la r s r e c o g ni z e s o m es o r t o f " t e c h n o l o gi c a l p r o i f e r a t i o n .
O v e r t i m e t e c l r n o l o g yv r o u l d d i f f u s e t o t h e b a r b a r i a n s a n d s h i f t
the balancein their favour, placing intoerable strain uponthe
d e f e n c e so f t h e e m p i r e . C f . M a r k E l v i n , T h e P a t t e r n o f t h e

rr

c h i n e s e P a s L ( L r : n d o ,n 1 9 7 3 ). O b vi o u s r y , t h e R o m a nE n r ipr e w o r k e d
u n ? e r ; J 6 T l 6 r c o n d i t i o n s . C f. a l s o T o r e H e i e s t a d , , , N o m a d
l " l i g r a t i o n i n E u r a s i a nH i s t o r y , " p a p e r n o . 4 ! , T r e n d s i n w e s t e r n
c i v i l i z a t i o n P i - o j e c t , n o " 1 3 , c h a i r i n c o n fI i c t a n d p e a c e
R e s e ar c h U ni v e r s i t y o f 0 s I o ( 1 9 7 7 ).
4i.

T h e d e v e l o p m e n to f t h e c i t i e s o f f e r s e x a m p l e so f v e r y m a t e r i a l
e x p a n si o n / c o n t r a c t i o n p h a s e s . I n H a d ri a n r s t i m e f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f n e w c i t i e s i n t h e P o v a l e y 1 , 5 0 0 k m 2t e r r i t o r y w a s
a l l o w e d t o e a c h c i t y , 1 , 0 0 0 k n r 2i n t h e p l a i n , i n B a e t i c a i n
s o u t h e r ns p a n , a d e n s e l y " u r b a n i z e d "a r e a , 6 0 0 k m 2t o e a c h c i t y ,
a n d 3 0 0 k m 2 i n t h e G u a d a l q u i vri V a l l e y . s m a r c i t i e s o F a b o u t
2 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s p r e d o m i n a t e d . C f . N o r m a nG . p o u n d s ,A n
i l j : ! ? r i c a I 9 9 o _t g? p h y o f E ur q p e, 4 5 0 s . c . - R . o . I 3 3 0 ( c a m E ?di s e ,
ly/3), pp. I lb tt.
L a t e r c i t i e s c o n t r a c t e dt o a f r a c t i o n o f
t h e s e s i z e s . T o g i v e s o m ee x a m p l e s :
Area in decares

S e c o n dC e n t u r y
Autun
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imes
Bordeaux

2,000
2,200

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c f . K i r s t e n K l l m a n n B u c h h o l z , R a u mu n d B e v l k e r u n qi n d e r
W e l t g e s c h i c h r e n ( \ ^ l i : r z b u r g1, 9 6 8
166 f f .
42.

I n A . H . M . J o n e s ' w o r d s : " T h e m o s t d e p r e s s i n gf e a t u r e o f t h e l a t e r
e m p ri e i s t h e a p p a r e n t a b s e n c eo f p u b l i c s p i r i t . r '
(TheLater
R o m a nE E r i r e , p . 1 0 5 8 . ) , , E v e nm o r e s t r - i k i n g e v d e n c E - f i f a c k
o f p u b li c s p i r i t i s t h e i n e r t i a o f t h e c i v i l p o p u l a t i o n , h i g h a n d
l o u r , i n t h e f a c e o f t h e b a r b a r i a n i n v a si o n s .
The loyaty
o f t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s w a s , h o w e v e r ,o f a v e r y p a s s i v e c h a r a c t e r . t l
( l b i d . , p . 1 0 5 9 ). , ' M o r eu s u a l l y t h o s e w h o c o u l d , f l e d t o s a f e r
p l a c e s ' rr a t h e r t h a n r e s i s t . ( l b l a . , p . 1 0 5 9 . )

\3.

0 f f i c i a l c h r i s t i a n i t y d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o a m o r e r e a i s t i c
c o s m o l o g yi n t h i s r e s p e c t . F r o m t h e b e g i n r r i n go f o u r e r a , t h e
p r o p h e c i e so f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w i n g o f t h e p e r s e c u t e dc h r i s t i a n
m o v e r n e nm
t a d e t h e d e c l i n e o f R o m ea c e n t r a l i s s u e a s a p r e c u r s o r
t o t h e c o v e t e d m i l l e n n i u m . A c c u s e do f a c t u a l l y b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e
the downfall of the empireby its hostil ity and disruptive
activity, the churchgave its doctrines an entirey newtwist
after its recoqnition. The preservation of the empirewas nowas
i n s t r u m e n t a l t o c h r i s t i a n p u r p o s e sa s i t s d e c l i n e h a d e a r l i e r
h e e n . " Q u a n d oc a d e t R o m a ,c a d e t e t m u n d u s . r r s o f o r m i d a b l e w a s
t h e o p t i m i s m a r o u n d A . D . 4 0 0 t h a t t h e ' J F a rl " o f t h e e m p i r e w e n t
u n n o t i c e d :H o w i n s i g n i f i c a n t w a s n o t , i n 0 r i g e n ' s e y e s , A l a r i c r s
t h r e e d a y s ' o c c u p a t i o n o f a R o m ew h i c h h a d b e e n o c c u p i e d f o r s i x
m o n t h s b y t h e G a u sl 8 0 0 y e a r s e a r l i e r !
c f . F . w . f / a lI b a n k , T h e
A w f u l R e v o l u t i o n : T h e D e c i i n e o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e i n t h e w e s t -

56

44.

45.

\6.

" W h a tw a s l a c k i n g i n t h e
This applied to architecture as wel:
R o m a ns c h e m ew a s a b u i l t - i n s y s t e m o f c o n t r o l , a p p l i e d a t t h e
In the
centre no less than in the newcolonial tourns.
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, ' H e li a s R e s u r g e n t , " i n L y n n w h i t e , J r . , T h e T r a n s f o r [ e _ ]! [p n _ g t _ t l r g
" A u t o n o m yv e r s u s U n i t y
RomaV
n lorld, pp. 92-llB; MiriamLichtheim,
'rn
f h e - C h r i s t i a n E a s t , " a l s o i n L y n n V J h i t e ,J r . , P P . l l 9 - 4 6 ; a n d
H . B a y n e s, f l ' t g B y = " n t i n . E t p i r " ( L o n d o n , I 9 5 8 )
l'.lorman
"Then
c a r l o M . c i p o l l a g i v e s t h i s s u m m a r cy h a r a c t e r i s t i c :
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"The Rise
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I'TheRise of England'"
o f t h e N o r t h e r n L o v rC o u n t r i e s ' ra n d

47. SeeCipolla, oP. cit.,

"The
p p . 2 3 3 - 2 3 6 ,f o r a n a n a l y s i s o f
D e c i n eo f s p a i n , , - a s e c t i o n t h a t c o u l d p r o f i t a b l y b e r e a d b y
l e a d e r s o f t o d a y ' s T h i r d l , / o r l d c o u n t r i e s s p e n d i n gt h e i r
r e s o u r c e s o n t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f m a n u f a c t u r e dg o o d s i n s t e a d o f
b ui I d i n g u p t h e c a p a ci t y t o m a k e s u c h g o o d s t h e m s e lv e s . S p a ni s h
a f f l u e n c e c a m et o r e y o n b u l l i o n , n o t o n p r o d u c t i v e p o w e r . T h e
s c h e m e st o e s t a b l i s h a n a t i o n a l t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y w e r e w r e c k e d b y
the Mesta. As for a major export item, foodstuffs (which the
colonGf; could not do without), the inelasticity in Spanish
agricultura production drew foreigners into the market'
l n d u s t r i a l l y p r o c e s s e dg o o d s w e r e m a i n l y s u p p l i e d b y f o r e i g n e r s ,
Spain's abiI ity to purchase,
a n d s p a i n t o o k a m i d d e m a n ' sp r o f i t .
workers into tertiary
f
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r
c
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d
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e
,
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rather than
" T h e A g e o f D o nQ u i x o t e , "
v
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,
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y
sectors. cf. especia
i n P e t e r E a r l e , e d . , E s s a y s i n E u r o p e a nE q g n o m i cH i s ! o f y , 1 5 0 0 1 8 0 0 ( o x f o r d , l 9 7 t + ) , p p : - T - 0 0 : T L Z tJ . H . E I i o t , l m p e r i a l S p a i L '
T [ 5 - g - t Z t g ( H a r m o n d s w o r r h ,1 9 7 6 ) , s p . p p . 3 0 8 - 3 2 0 a n d 2 9 1 - 3 0 0 ;
l a f i r e f f f i e n s V i v e s , ' r T h e D e c li n e o f S p a i n i n t h e S e v e n t e e n t h
C e n t u r y , ' , i n C a r l o C i p o ll a , d . , T h " E c o n o t i c D . c l i n " o f E * p i r *
( L o n d o n , I 9 7 0 ), p P . l 2 l - l 6 7.

48. SeeCipolla, oP. cit.,

49.

57

A successful case of futuroogy: The global rise of the USand

R u s s i a w a s , a c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s d e R o u g e m o n t( T h e l d e a o f E u r o p e
[ L o n d o n a n d N e wY o r k 1 9 6 6 ] , p . 2 5 8 ) , p r e d i c t e d b y . N a p o l e o na n d
s e v e r a l o t h e r s , s u c h a s J o h a n n e sv o n M U l l e r ( 1 7 9 7 ) , A b b d e P r a d t
( . 1 8 2 3 ) ,T o c q u e vIi l e ( 1 3 3 5 ) , S a i n t e - B e u v e( 1 8 4 7 ) , C . C a t t a n e o

( t 8 4 8 ) , n . v o n L a s a u x l ( 1 8 5 6 ) , J . R . S e e l e y ( 1 8 8 3 ) , H e n r yA d a m s
( t g O O .) G e n e r a
I Iy, these authors presentedthe European
p r e d i c a m e n t a s t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e " m a s s d e m o c r a c y "o f A m e r i c a n
p r e p o n d e r a n c ea n d t h e " s e r v i t u d e " o f R u s s i a n h e g e m o n y .
50.

O n e b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e nt h e U S a n d t h e U S S Ri s p r e c i s e l y
t h a t t h e S o v i e t r r fr c n t i e r r r i s s t i l l l a r g e l y a n " o p e n " o n e f o .
s e t t l e m e n t a n d i n v e s t m e n t 1c,f . V i o l e t C o n o l y , S i b e r a T o d a y a n d
T o m o r r o w : A S t u d y o f E c o n o m cR e s o u r c e s , P r o b l e m s a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s

ffiffi

p e r s p e c t i v e o n v J e s t e r nh i s t o r y , s e e E r i k R u d e n g ,r r P a t t e r n so f
W e s t e r nH i s t o r y : U n i t y i n D i v e r s i t y , " T r e n d s i n W e s t e r nC i v i l i z a t i o n P r o g r a m m ef,l o . B , C h ai r i n C o n f l c t a n d P e a c e R e s e a r c h ,
University of 0slo (1975), pp. 5t+-56.
5'|.

S u f f i c e i t t o m e n t i o n o n l y o n e f u n d a m e n t a ld i F f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t r a d i t i o n a l e m p i r e so f t h e R o m a nt y p e a n d c a p i t a l i s m : " .
the
s e c r e t o f c a p i t a l i s m w a s i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e not f t h e d i v i s i o n o f
a b o u r w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r ko f a w o r d - e c o n o m yt h a t w a s n o t a n
( l m m a n u e \l ^ / a l e r s t e i n , T h e l 4 o d e r n\ . l o r l d - S y s t e m
empire.
. ."
[ N e wY o r k , 1 9 7 4 ] , p . 1 2 7 , c f . p . 3 4 S . )

52.

F o r a n a c c o u n t o f t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e nt h e E t r u s c a n s a n d t h e
R o m a n s s, e e R . M . 0 g i l v i e , E a r l y R o m ea n d t h e E t r u s c a n s ( L o n d o n ,

1975).
53.

5\.

F o r a n a n a l y s i s o f t l r i s , s e e J o h a n G a t u n g , T h e E u r o p e a n C o m m ui tny :
A S u p e r p o w e ri n t h e M a k i A g ( R t t e n 6 U n w i n , L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3
And there are, of course, rore on the way: the formery "subi m p e r i a l " s u p p o r t e r so f t h e U S i n p a r t i c u l a r , a n d t h e W e s t r n o r e
g e n e r a l l y- B r a z i l , N i g e r i a , l r a n / S a u d A
i rabia,possiblyIndia,
a l c o u n t r i e s t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y a r e d e v e l o p i n gt h e i r o w n
i n d e p e n d e n pt o l i c i e s .

55.

T h i s i s t h e C h i n e s e p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . \ ^ / eh a v e o u r
d o u b t s , b u t i t m a y b e t r u e s t i l f o r s o m et i m e . T h e f r u i t s o f
e c o n o m i cg r o w t h h a v e n o t y e t t u r n e d i n t o t h e b i t t e r n e s s o f o v e r d e v e l o p m e n t- b u t t h a t c a n n o t b e f a r a u r a y- a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s
t h e i n n e r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a r e b u il d i n g u p .

56,

F o r t h i s t o h a p p e n , e a s t e r n E u r o p ew o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e t o r e o r g a n i z e i t s e l f i n t o a p a t t e r n t h a t i s m u c hl e s s c e n t r a l i z e d a n d
M o s c o w - d e p e n d e netc, o n o m c al yl , p o l i t i c a l l y , r i I i t a r i l y .

57.

For a general account of the processof bureaucratization, see

H e n r y J a c o b y , D i e B r o k r a t i s i e r u n g d e r V J e t ( N e u v l i e da n d B e r l i n ,
any connectionsare
1969). Exampt
t h e c h a r t e r e d E a s t I n d i a c o m p a n i e si n s e v e r a l E u r o p e a nc o u n t r i e s .
A n i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e s t u d y i s K . N . C h a n d u r i ,T h e E n g li s h E a s t l n d i a
C o m p a n y T: h e S t u d y o f a n E a r l y J o i n t - S t o c k C o m p a n y I, 6 0 0 - l 6 4 0
ory
(London,1976), pp. 5l-52.

58

5 8 . F o r a n e x c eI l e r - r t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r o e c l f t h e s t a t e a s , ' a n
e s s e n t i a c o m p o n e n ot f t h e d e v e l o p m e n o
t f m o d e r nc a p i t a l i s n r , "
( N e wY o r k ,
s e e l m m a n u eW
l a ll e r s t e i n , T h e M o d e r n\ ^ / o r l d - S y s t e m

1 9 7 4 ) ,p p . 1 3 3 - 6 2 . c f . m i f f i
6 4 - 6 5 ,6 8 - 6 9 ,8 t , e t c .
59.

pp. U9,58,

T h e q u e s t f o r a n r o r ep r e d i c t a b l e w o r l d , a n d h e n c e t h e s p e c i a l r o l e
o f i n t e l e c t u a s , g o e s t o t h e c o r e o f l v e s t e r nd e v e l o p m e n t . F o r
t h e t r a d i t i o n o f S t o i c l o g i c a n d R o m a nl a v , r ,s e e J o s e p hC . S m i t h ,
' r T h eT h e o r e t i c a C o n s t r u c t s o f t / e s t e r n C o n t r a c t u a l L a w , "
in
N o r t h r o p a n d L i v i n g s t o n , e d s . , C r o s s - C-uitfluf ir a l U n d e r s t a n d i n g :
E p i s t e n r o l o g yj n A n t h r o p o o g y ( t l e w v o r t < ,
r r l , J e s t e rcno n t r a c t u a l l e g a l s c i e n c e
is future oriented and
a l a w o f m o v e m e nct o n c e r n e dw i t h t h e c r e a t i o n , t r a n s f e r , a n d
extinction of legal relations and predictionof this future
movemen t . rl

I t w a s p r e c i s e y t h e s e i n t e r r e l a t e C t h e r n e so f w e s t e r n l a w r a t i o n a i t y , p r e d i c t a b i i t y , p a n n i n g , i n v e s t m e n t ,b u r e a u c r a c y ,
i n t e l e c t u a l s - w h i c h w e r e c o m b i n e di n M a x t r ^ / e b e r a' sn a l y s i s o f
w e s t e r nc i v i I i z a t i o n ; c f . G . A b r a h a m o w s kD
i , a s G e s c h i c h t s bl id M a x
W e b e r s :U n i v e r s a l q e s c h i c h t e
am Leitfadendes okzidentalen
i i o n a T l G l b r u n g s p r o z e ss e s
ou.

C f . . J . G a lc u n g , " L i m i t s t o G r o w t ha n d C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s , "
J o u r n a l o f P e a c e R e s e ar c h v o l . 0 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ,p p . l 0 l - I 4 .

6r.

J o h a n G a l t u n g , r r A S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y o f l m p e r i a l i s m , " J o r . r r n aol f
P e a c eR e s e a r c h v, o l . 3 ( 9 7 1) , p p . B l - l 1 7 , i n t r o d u c t i o no n
h a r m o n ya n d d i s h a r m o n yb e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s c o n s t i t u t e d b y
t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i m p e r i a l i s m . T h e b a s i c h a r m o n yi s b e t w e e nt h e
centre in the Centreand the centre in the Periphery,with the
p e r i p h e r y i n t h e C e n t r e f o l l o w i n g t h e m , a t s o m ed i s t a n c e . T h e
b a s i c d i s h a r m o n y s b e t w e e na l t h e s e t h r e e a n d t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
system, the peripherluin the Periphery according to the model.

62.

! n T h e E c o n o m i s t ,4 F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8 , p p . 7 8 - 7 9 , a r e p o r t i s g i v e n
o f l 6 ' r r eo f t f ' e F i n d i n g s o f t h e C o m p a r ai vt e M u l t i n a t i o n a E n t e r l u s i n e s sS c h o o l a n d C e n t r e o f E d u c a t i o n i n
p r i s e P r o j e c t ( H a r v a r cB
I n t e r n a t i o n a l M a n a g e m e ni tn G e n e v a )o n t h e n u m b e ro f f o r e i g n
m a n u f a c t u r i n gs u b s i c i i a r i e ss e t u p o r a c q u i r e d p e r y e a r b y l B /
.|99
A m e r i c a nm u l t i n a t i o n a l s a n d
n o n * A r n e r i c a(nm e a n i n gB r i t i s h ,
c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e a n ,a n d J a p a n e s e. ) F r o ma l o w b e l o u t 0 0 t i l l
the mid-fifties both curves shoot up quickly and are above500 at
t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s , w i t h t h e n o n - A m e r i c a n sc o n t i n u i n g t o g r o w
a n d t h e A m e r i c a n st o C r o p - n o n - A m e r i c a n sf o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s
p r o b a b l y b e c o m i n gm o r e a c c e p t a b l e , s e e n a s e s s i m p e r i a i s t .

63.

V a n c e P a c k a r d , T h e W a s t e l 4 a k e r s ( N e wY o r k , 9 6 0 ) , s e t s f o r t h t h e
programme
for this development.

64.

A n i n t e r e s t i n g o u t c o r n eo f p o s t - V i e t - N a mU S s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g i s
t h e r e c e n t w i C e ly a c c l a i m e d b o o k b y E d l v rad N . L u t t w a k- h i m s e l f
a s p e c i a l i s t i n c o n t e m p o r a r yi n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s - T h e G r a n d

59

S t r a t e g y o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e ( n a l t i m o r e , 1 9 7 7 ) . I n t h e p r e f a c e
o f t h i s b o o k L u t t w a ks t a t e s h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e
C l a u s e w i t z i a np r l m a c y o f o f f e n s i v e w a r f a r e , w h i c h i r n p i e s " a
s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e nt h e s t a t e o f p e a c e a n d t h e s t a t e o f
\ n / a r . " A c c o r d i n g t o L u t t w a k , " f / e , I i k e t h e R o m a n s ,f a c e t h e
p r o s p e c t n o t o f d e c i s i v e c o n f l i c t , b u t o f a p e r m a n e n ts t a t e o f
w a r , a b e i t i m i t e d . [ , e , l i k e t h e R o m a n sm
, ustactivey protect
a n a d v a n c e ds o c i e t y a g a i n s t a v a r i e t y o f t h r e a t s r a t h e r t h a n
concentrate on destroying the forces of our enemiesin battle.rl
T h i s m e a n sa v o i d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i r e c t m i l i t a r y f o r c e , b u i l d i n g
u p a v a r i e t y o f t h r e a t s a n d " f e x i b l e r e s p o n s e s , "a n d b l u r r i n g t h e
l i n e s b e t w e e n" m i l i t a r y i l a n d " c i v i l " m e a n s , b e t w e e nr r c o n v e n t i o n a l "
and nuclear weapons. 0f course, the logic of such thinking is to
s u b o r d i n a t es o c l e t a l p l a n n i n g t o m i I i t a r y s t r a t e g y a n d s t r a t e g i s t s .
I t r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n w h e t h e r t h e m o d e r nm a g n a t e so f m u l t i national enterpriseswill, in the end, prove as obstructive to
s u c h a g r a n d s t r a t e g y a s w e r e t h e i r R o m a np r e d e c e s s o r s .
65.

F o r m o r e d e t a i l s o n t h i s , s e e J o h a nG a l t u n g , " M i l i t a r y
F o r m a t i o n sa n d S o c i a l F o r m a t i o n s :A S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s , " P a p e r
n o . 6 6 , C h a i r i n C o n f i c t a n d P e a c eR e s e a r c h ,U n i v e r s i t y o f 0 s l o
( ' | 9 7 8 ) . T h e m o d e r nm i i t a r y r e g i m e s a r e s u p r e m ee x a m p e so f t h e
t r u t h i n B u r c k h a r d t ' sd i c t u m t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t I ' t h e n e w
t y r a n n i e s w i l b e i n t h e h a n d s o f m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d owsh o w i l l
c a l l t h e m s e v e sr e p u b l i c a n . " ( Q u o t e db y R . N i s b e t , T w i l i g h t o f
A u t h o ri t y [ N e wY o r k, 1 9 7 5 ], p . 7 . )

66.

F o r a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t u d y o f i n f r a s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e dt o w e s t e r n i z e
a n d i n c r e a s e c o n s u m p t o ni n T h i r d l . / o r l d c o u n t r i e s , s e e K a r l T .
S a u v a n t , r r l 4 u l t i n a t i o n a lE n t e r p r i s e s a n d t h e T r a n s m i s s i o no f
C u l t u r e : T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S u p p yo f A d v e r t i s i n g S e r v i c e s a n d
B u si n e s s E d u c a ti o n , " J o u r n aI o f P e a c e R e s e a r c h ,v o l . 1 3 0 9 7 6 ) ,
pp.49-65.

67.

F o r a n e x c e l e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m o b li e l a b o u r
i n t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d s y s t e m , s e e F o l k e r F r b e , J U r g e nH e i n r i c h s ,
and 0tto Kreye, Die neue internationale Arbeitsleitung (Hamburg,

1977).
68.

A s t h e S I P R I Y e a r b o o k sr e m n d u s , t h e e x p o n e n t i a l a r m s r a c e a n d
t r a n s f e r o f a r m s t o T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s m a k es c e n a r i o s o f m a j o r
wars highly probable. In this respect the presentglobal system
o f s u p e r p o w e r si s v e r y d i s s i m i a r f r o m w h a t c o n f r o n t e d t h e R o m a n
Empire. But in the end the result maybe similar - the consumm a t i o n o f w e s t e r n m iI i t a r y t e c h n o l o g yo n w e s t e r n ( i n c l u d i n g U S S R )
soil, the third chapter of westernself-destruction after two
w o r l d w a r s . F o r d i s c u s s i o n so f s c e n a r i o s , s e e C . F . v o n
V J iez s c k e r , l ' / e g e i n d e r G e fa h r ( l 4 u ni c h , 1 9 7 6 ).

69.

C f . , f o r e x a m pI e , l 1. L . \ . / e s t , E a r l y G r e e k P h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e 0 r i e n t
( O x f o r d , l 9 7 l ) , a n d D . S i n a r , 0 r i e n t a li s m a n d H i s t o r y ( C a m b r i d g e ,

I 9 5 4 .)

60

70.

T h e s e u p s u r g e so f E a s t e r n r e l i g i o n a n d m y s t i c i s m , o f i n t e r e s t i n
p a r a p s y c h o o g ay n d a s t r o l o g y , o f f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h t h e s u b m e r g e d
occultist traditions of the !/est, etc. are not factors to be
l u n r p e dt o g e t h e r a t r a n d o m , b u t t h e y c a n n e v e r t h e l e s s b e s e e n a s
v a r i o u s r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e d o m i n a n tc o s m o l o g ya n d I i f e - s t y l e .
T h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e n e w s u b - c u l t u r e s h a v e p e r v a d e dw e s t e r n
s o c i e t i e s i s g e n e r a l l y t o t a l y u n d e r r a t e d , p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s et h e y
o f t e n a r e m a t t e r s o f " p r i v a t e I i f e . " T h e t u r n i n g t o w a r d st h e s o u l
f i n d s i t s m o s t s t r i k i n g e x p r e s si o n s i n t h e n e w p r e o c c u p a ito n w i t h
s o v e m e n t . r 'S i n c e 1 9 6 4 t h e
d e a t h , t h e s o - c a l l e d ' r d e a t h - a w a r e n e sm
n u m b e ro f p u b i c a t i o n s o n d e a t h h a s j u m p e d f r o m 4 0 0 t o m o r e t h a n
I { , 0 0 0 . C o u r s e so n d e a t h a r r d d y i n g a r e t a u g h t a t m o r e t h a n 1 , 0 0 0
'|978.)
U S c o l e g e s a n d s c h o o l s . ( R o b e r t R u l t o n i n N e w s w e e k I, M a y
I n o u r v i e w , t h e w i d e s p r e a dp r e o c c u p a t i o nw i t h d e a t h a n d t h e r i s e
o f " t h a n a t o l o g y " w i l o n y i n t e n s i f y t h e s o u l - s e e k i n gn e e d f o r
" m e a n i n g , "a n d w e s h a r e F r a n z B o r k e n a u s r si d e a t h a t " c h a n g e s i n
t h e p o p u a r a t t i t u d e t o l v a r d sd e a t h m a r k g r e a t e p o c h so f h i s t o r i c a
e v o l u t i o n . " ( " T h e C o n c e p to f D e a t h r " i n R o b e r t F u l t o n , e d . , D e a t h
a n d l d e n t i t y [ N e wY o r k , 1 9 6 5 ,1 p . 4 2 . ) F o r a p a r t i c u l a r l y
Ft;restlng
c r i t i q u e o f m o d e r nw e s t e r n c o n c e p t s o f d e a t h , s e e J e a n
Ziegler, Les vivants et la nrort(Paris, 1975).

71.

I n e f f i c i e n t b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o nt o s o l v e p r o b l e m so f s o c i a l
f r a g m e n t a t i o nc a n n o t g o o n i n d e f i n i t e y ; c f . D . S . E g i n a n d R . A .
B u s h n el l, " T h e L i n r i t s t o C o m p e x i t y :A r e B u r e a u c r a c i e sB e c o r n i n g
Unmanageabe?
T "h,e F u t u r i s t , v o l . I ( t 9 7 7 ) , n o . 6 . I n
c i r c u m s t a n c e so f b u r e a u c r a t i c d y s f u n c t i o n a il t y c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t a r i a r s o u t i o n s w i I I e a s i l y a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s ,a n d t h e
e x p o n e r r t i a l a s c e n d a n c yo f t h e m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i c e s e c t o r s o f
w e s t e r n ( a n d o t h e r ) c o u n t r i e s o n y i n c r e a s e st h e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h
t h a t m o s t m i i t a r i z e d s o c i e t y - t h e R o m a nE m p i r e . I n t h e U S p o l l
a f t e r p o h a s r e v e a l e d t h e m i l i t a r y t o p o s s e s sn n r e p u b l i c
c o n f i d e n c et h a n a n y o t h e r c l a s s o r s e c t o r . I n R o b e r t N i s b e t r s
a n a y s i s , " t h e r e c i p e f o r r n i i t a r i s mi n a s o c i e t y i s b a s i c a l y
twi ight of authority in the civil sphere." (twitignt of
Authority, p. 46, and more generally the impoitant s-t'ronsof
" \ . J a r a n d W e s t e r n V a l u e s " a n d i l T h e R o m a inz a t i n n o f t l ' r e \ , / e s t ." )

72.

A c o n s p i c u o u sa s p e c t o f a l i e n a t i o n i n o u r t i m e i s t h e I o s s o f
F o r a n a l y s e so f U S
c o n f i d e n c e i n g o v e r n m e n t as n d p o i t i c i a n s .
o p l n i o n p o l l s , s e e S i s s e l a B o k , L y i n g : M o r a l C h o i c ei n P u b l i c a n d
P r i v a t e L i f e ( N e wY o r k , 1 9 7 8 ) . R o b e r t N T s b - A @
t s a simple functon of
T-lnstltutlonaized lying in governmena
t h e e x p a n s i o no f b u r e a u c r a c y : r ' .
t h e v a s t l y g r e a t e r n u m b e ro f
put
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e m b a r r a s s i n qm i s t a k e s b o u n d t o o c c u r
a p r e m i u mu p o n c o n c e a m e n t . . . " A n d p a r i a m e n t a r y d e m o c r a c y ,
w i t h i t s s t r e s s o n p u b i c a c c o u n t a b ii t y , " c a r r i e s a l a r g e r
p o t e n t i a l f o r d e c e p t i o nt h a n i s I i k e y i n o t h e r f o r m s o f
( f w i t i g h t o f A u t h o r i t v [ N e wY o r k , 1 9 7 5 ) ,
government.
."
p. t7.)
T y p i c a l o f t h e a t e R o r n a an i e n a t i o n f r o m t h e b o d y p o i i t i c w a s n o t
o n y t h e w i t h d r a w a lo f t h e r i c h t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d eb u t a l s o t o t h e
attending to their ownproperty and private I ife; cf. Michael

o l

G r a n t , T h e F a l I o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e : A R e a p p r a i s a l( R a d n o r ,p r . ,
1976),
not
@inaris:',Do
bring a slur on the nobility by staying so constantly in the
c o u n t r y ! r r i s t o d a y d r a m a t i c a l l ye c h o e di n R . s e n n e t t , T h e F a l l o f
Pjb ic Man (cambridge, 1977), and A. Brirtan, The privElJEd'J6?ld
(London,1977).SenatorAdlaiStevenson|||,m,
h a s r e c e n t y e x p r e s s e ds e r i o u s d o u b t s w h e t h e r t h e u s s e n a t e a n d
other representativeinstitutions "are equa to the demando
sf
G o v e r n m e n it n t h e l a t e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y .
It is getting harder
t h a n e v e r t o g e t a n y o n ew i t h s e n s e t o r u n f o r o f f i c e . " ( T i m e ,
8 m a y I 9 7 8 .)

7 3 . T h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f m e n t a li t s i s o n y t o o e a s i l y o m i t t e d f r o r r
analyses of politico-ecoJ6fi? changes. For a short presentation
b y o n e o f t h e A n n a e sh i s t o r i a n s , s e e J a c q u eL e G o f f , " M e n t a li t i e s :
A N e wF i e l d f o F r J l 6 r i a n s , "
social science lnformation,vor. 13
\ 1 9 / 4 ) , p p . u 1 - 9 7 . F r o m a s o m e w h act o m p a r a b ea n g l e K i b F o w l e s
h a s t r i e d t o p r e d i c t c h a n g e so f m e n t a li t y o n t h e b a s i s o f
a d v e r t i s i n g p a t t e r n s : M a s sA d v e r t i s i n q a s S o c i a F o r e c a s t : A
Methodfor Future Rese
/ r ^ - l

7\.

O b v i o u s l y , w e d o n o t a d h e r e t o L o r d B r y c e r s f a m o u sd i c t u n t h a t
"the chief practical use
of history is to deiver us from
p l a u s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l a n a l o g i e s . ' , B u t a n a l o g i e sa r e n o t
p r e t e n si o n s o f e x a c t r e p e t i t i o n s o f e v e n t s o r s t r u c t u r e s . T h e y
m y , h o w e v e r ,g i v e s u g g e s t i o n so f a c e r t a i n s c a l e o f e v e n t s , a
c e r t a i n c o m p l e x i t y o r c o n s t e l a t i o n o f f o r c e s . T h u s , t h e a c k o f
relevant analogies goes to the very core of the Romansp
' redicam e n t . T h e f a l s e a n a o g i e s i n r p l i e d i n t h e i n a n e o p t i m i s mo f
A m m i a n u sA, u s o n i u s , S y m m a c h u sC, a u d i a n , a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r s
r e v e a l e d " a s l u g g i s h i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o c u r r e n t d e v e o p n e n t sw h i c h G i b b o nn o t e d a n d f o u n d h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t . , , ( t , t i c h a e G
l rant
T h e F a l l o f t h e R o m a nE m p i r e : A R e a p p r a i s a [ R a d n o r ,p a . , 1 9 7 6 ] ,

p.-zm-.1-

75.

S e e J . G a l t u n g , " s o c i a l l m p e r i a il s m a n d S u b - l m p e r i ai sl m :
c o n t i n r . r i t i e si n t h e s t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y o f l m p e r i a l i s m , " p a p e r s
n o . 2 2 , c h a i r i n c o n f l i c t a n d P e a c eR e s e a r c h ,u n i v e r s i t y o f 0 s o

( 1 e 7 5. )

76.

S e e J . G a l t u n g , " J a p a n a n d F u t u r e \ ^ / o r l dp o l i t i c s , ' J o u r n a l o f
Peace Research,vol . t0 (1913), pp. Bt- 7, for an ETlt?t-E-point
o u t s o m eo f m e s p e ci f i c i t i e s o f t h e J a p a n e s ev e r s i o n o f
i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d c a p i t a l i s m f o r t h a t m a t t e r . \ , / h a tt h e J a p a n e s e
e x a m p es h o w s , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t c a p i t a i s m i s a d a p t a b e t o o t h e r
c u l t u r e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s , p e r h a p sn o t t o a l l , b u t a t l e a s t t o s o m e .

77.

T h e p o s i t i o n o f R u s s i aa n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
c o n c e p t o f " w e s t e r n c i v i z a t i o n . h a s a l w a y s b e e n a m bi g u o u s , b o t h
t o E a s t E u r o p e a n sa n d t o v J e s t E u r o p e a n s . T h e d e e p h i s t o r i c a l ,
s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e nt h e t w o p a r t s o f E u r o p e a r e
c l e a r l y b r o u g h t o u t i n P e r r y A n d e r s o n , L i n e a g e so f t h e A b s o lu t i s t
State (London,1974). For studies on t

62

E a s t / \ ^ / e sEt u r o p e a nI i n k s , s e e 0 . H a l e c k i , T h e L i m i t s a n d D i v i s i o n s
o f E u r o p e a nH i s t o r y ( L o n d o n , l 9 5 l ) , a n d G .
E a s t e r n a n d l ^ / e s t e r nE u r o p e i n t h e l l i d d l e A g e s ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 0 ). A s
Europe, see Denis
d e R o u g e m o n t ,T h e l d e a o _ FE u r e E 3 ( N e w Y o r k a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 6 6 ) .
F o r d i s c u s s i o n so f r e l a t e d I i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f t ' T h e
reality of the traditional westernself-image," see Erik Rudeng,
r r P a t t e r n so f I , J e s t e r H
n istory: Unity in Diversity," Trends in
\ ^ / e s t e r nCi v i l i z a t i o n P r o q r a m , f l o . B , C h ai r i n C o n fI i c t a n d P e a c e
R e s e a r c hU
, n i v e r s i t yo f 0 s l o ( 1 9 7 5 ) .
78.

C f . n o t e 4 0 a b o v e . 0 f c o u r s e t h e g l o b a l s y s t e mo f s u p e r p o w e r s
( c o m p e t i n gf o r a l l i a n c e w i t h a n d i n f l u e n c e i n T h i r c l \ ^ / o r l d
c o u n t r i e s ) a n d t h e s h e e r c o r n m e r c i ai zl a t i o n o f a d v a n c e dt e c h n o o g y
t h r o u g h m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s ' a r m s s a e w i l I o n y s p e e ou p
t h e c o m m ui cn a t i o n / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p r o c e s s e s .

79.

F o r a c r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o no f t h e t r i a g e m o d e l , s e e S u s a nG e o r g e ,
H o wt h e O t h e r H a l f D i e s ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 7 ) .

80.

lt should be pointed out that the system is madein such a way

t h a t w o r k e r s a r e l a i d o f f f i r s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e w o m e n ,t h e o l d
a n d t h e y o u n g ; b u r e a u c r a t s ,c a p i t a l i s t s , a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l s m a y
not get newjobs but rarely lose the jobs they have. But this
d o e s n o t m e a nt h a t t h e y s h o u l d f e e l t o t a l l y s a f e : T h e s t a t e , o r
t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , m a y g o b a n k r u p t ; t h e p a y c h e c k sm a y c o m e a t
irregular and ever-increasingintervals; and so on.

Bl.

T h e " h i p p i e t r a i l r r i s a l s o k n o w na s t h e A s i a n H i g h w a y ,f r o m
l s t a m b u l v i a T e h r a n a n d K a b u l d o w n t o t h e I n d u s a n d G a n g e sp l a i n s .

82.

l t i s n o w c o m m o n l ya c k n o w l e d g e dt h a t t h e s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n do f t h e
t e r r o r i s t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , w h o s e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e V J e s t e r ns o c i e t y
is tota (at least as long as they are in opposition) tends
t o w a r d s" u p p e r m i d d l e c l a s s . "

83.

A c l a s s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e b r e a k d o w no f m o r a l o r d e r a n d t h e
searchfor the values of "inner l ife" is given by Sir Gilbert
M u r r a y i n h i s F i v e S t a g e s o f G r e e k R e l i j i o n ( L o n d o n, 1 9 3 5 ),
e s p e ci a l l y c f r a
A c c o r di n g t o S i r
G i l b e r t , t h e e n d o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c A g e w a s " a p e r i o d b a s e do n
t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s os f m a n i f o l d f a i u r e .
lt not only had
b e h i n d i t t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e 0 l y m p i a nt h e o l o g y a n d o f t h e f r e e
city-state
it I ived through the gradual real ization of two
o t h e r f a i l u r e s - t h e f a i l u r e o f h u m a ng o v e r n m e n t ,e v e n w h e n
b a c k e d b y t h e p o w e r o f R o m eo r t h e w e a l t h o f E g y p t , t o a c h i e v e a
good life for man; and lastly the failure of the great propaganda
o f H e l e n i s m .
T h i s s e n s eo f f a i l u r e , t h i s p r o g r e s s i v e o s s
o f h o p e i n t h e w o r l d , i n s o b e r c a l c u l a t i o n , a n d i n o r g a n i z e dh u m a n
effort, threw the ater Greekback upon his own soul, upon the
pursuit of personal hol iness, upon emotions, mysteries and
r e v e l a t i o n s , u p o n t h e c o m p a r a t i v en e g l e c t o f t h i s t r a n s i t o r y a n d
" ( P p . 3 - 4 .)
i m p e r f e c t w o r ld .

63

84.

Rc

T h i s t h e m e i s d e v e l o p e df u r t h e r i n t h e s e c t i o n " A t h e o r y o f
s t r u c t u r a l f a t g u e r " G a lt u n g , H e i e s t a d , a n d R u d e n g , r ' 0 n t h e L a s t
2 5 0 0 Y e a r s o f V J e s t e r nHi s t o r y , ' r i n t h e N e w C a m b r i d g e l 4 o d e r n
H i s t o r y , C o m p a n i oV
n o l u m e ,c h a p . 1 3 , i n D T E S S .
.l978,
p. 2)
Before the 1978 election in France Le Figaro (6 Narch
p u b li s h e d a s u r v e y o f h o w t h e I i v i n g s t a n d a r d h a d i n c r e a s e d i n
F r a n c e i n t h e p e r i o d I 9 6 0 - 1 9 7 7.

86.

A case in point is the reative relief with whichthe British ost

Ths relief was prepared
l n d i a - " t h e d i a d e mo f T I E E l T r e . "
a r e a d y b V 1 9 2 5 , w h e n E . M . F o r s t e r i s s u e d A P a s s a g et o l n d i a ,
wherethe'.twilightofthedoublevision,'@layed.
A s i m i l a r , a r n o s tt h e r a p e u t i c f u n c t i o n w a s f u l f i l l e d b y t h e
B e a t e s w h e n t h e y r e p a c e dI ' R u l e B r i t a n n i a , B r i t a n n i a R u l e t h e
! , / a v e s "w i t h " L o v e l s A l I Y o u l ' J e e d" . F o r a n i n t e r e s t i n g a n a l y s i s
.|970s,
s e e T o mN a i r n , T h e B r e a k of the state of Britain in the
U p o f B r i t a i n : C r i s i s a n d N e o - l a t i o n a l i s m( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 7 T ; p a r t i c u l a r yc h a p . , " T h eT w i i i g h t o f t h e B r i t i s h S t a t e . "

87.

For the joblwork distinction, see J. Gatung,"Alternative

L i f e s t y l e s i n R i c h C o u n t r i e s , ' rD e v e l o p m e nDt i a l o g u e , v o l .
( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 8 3 - 9 8 . M o d e r nl e i s u r i s m i s a l s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e
" b l e s s i n g s o f l e i s u r e - u n k n o w nt o t h e V J e s t ,w h i c h e i t h e r v r o r k s
o r i d l e s ' r w h i c h a r e h i n t e d a t i n A P a s s a g et o l n d i a .

88.

T h e n e s s a g ea l r e a d y c o n t a i n e d i n a b o o k t i t l e : L . S t a v r i a n o s , T h e
P r o m i s eo f t h e C o m i n gD a r k A g e ( S a n F r a n c i s c o , 1 9 7 6 ) . A c c o r d i n g
century the f./estern Europeans serf
ffiienTI'
was enjoying a level of I iving significantly better than that of
t h e p r o l e t a r i a n d u r i n g t h e h e i g h t o f A u g u s t a nR o m e . " P r o f e s s o r
S t a v r i a n o s ' s b o o k c a n b e r e a d a s a s o r l o f c o u n t e r - c a t a l o g u et o
R o s t o v t z e f f r s p e s s i m i s t i c i d e a t h a t t h e m a i n p h e n o m e n own h i c h
u n d e r li e s t h e p r o c e s s o f d e c l i n e i s g r a d u a l a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e
e d u c a t e d c l a s s e s b y t h e m a s s e sa n d t h e c o n s e q u e n ts i m p l i f i c a t i o n
o f a I t h e f u n c t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c ,a n d
i n t e l l e c t u a l I i f e , w h i c h w e c a l l t h e b a r b a r i z a t i o no f t h e a n c i e n t
( N . R o s t o v t z e f f , S o c i a l a n d E c o n o m i cH i s t c r y o f t h e R o m a n
world.
Empire [Oxford, 1926], p.

89.

T h e C h i n e s eh a v e m a d ea p r a c t i c e o f o r g a n i z i n g v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e
e x h i b i t s n e x t t o a l l m a j o r m e m o r i a l s( s u c h a s t h e M i n g t o m b s ) ,
d e m o n s t r a t i n ge x a c t l y w h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y c o s t s w e r e : W i t h
t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a n d t h i s a n r o u n to f l a b o u r s o m a n y h o u s e s c o u l d
have been constructed for so and so manv.

90.

T h e t i t e o f t h e s e c o n dc h a p t e r i n R o g e r G a r a u d y ' sP o u r u n e
d i a l o g u e d e s g ' v i l i s a t i o n s ( P a r i s , 1 9 7 7 ) ;a l s o t h e u b t i t l e o f
t h e b o o k i s L ' O c c i d e n te s t u n a c c i d e n t .

For an elaboration of this theme,see Galtung, Heiestad,and

R u d e n g ,o p . c i t .

6\

92.

l t i s d i f f i c u l t t o h a v ea f i r m o p i n i o n o n t h i s . T h e u l t i m a t e
p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e \ ^ / e s tm a y n o t b e i t s m i i t a r y s t r e n g t h - t h e
W e s tm a yn o t b e a b e t o m a i n t a n i t , n o r m a y i t w a n t t o - b u t t h e
sacred character of the f,/estfrom the point of view of those who
w a n t t o c o p y t h e V J e s t . T o G i b b o n r sp o i n t ( o p . c i t . , p p . 1 6 4 a n d
1 6 7 , \t h a t I ' t h e s a v a g e n a t i o n s o f t h e g l o b e a r e t h e c o m m o ne n e m i e s
of civil ized society," and "Europeis nowsecurefrom any future
i rruption of Barbarians; s ince, before they can conquer, they
r n u s tc e a s e t o b e b a r b a r o u s , " w e c o u l d a d d : B e f o r e t h e T h i r d \ , / o r l d
e estern in general and capital ist
can conquer, they must becornw
in particuar - and then it does not really matter very much.
\ , / h a t i t a d d s u p t o i s m ai n l y t h a t t h e _ _ g e _ ! t r em
s o v e- t o t h e S o
P a u l o s , L a g o s e s ,T e h r a n s , S i n g a p o r e s ,H o n g K o n g s , T a i p e i s , a n d
S e o u s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e T o k y o s- a n d t h a t t h e o d \ . / e s t b e c o m e s
a r e s p e c t e d p e r i p h e r y , a m u s e u mp i e c e , m u c h i k e t h e c h 6 t e a u x d e
L o i r e , s o m e t h n gt o e s t e e m a n d v e n e r a t e .

93.

T h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s r t y p i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e i s w e l e x p r e s s e db y Y v e s
L a u a n : " O u r b e s t b e t , i t s e e m s ,i s t o h o p e t h a t a w h o e s e r i e s
o f d i s c o v e r i e s i n t h e ' B O s w i l l t r a n s f o r mt h e w o r l d a s t h e f i r s t
t v J o i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n s t r a n s f o r m e d E u r o p ea n d A m e r i c a .
The timing is urgent. For the ast 50 years, we have been
r e l y i n g o n t h e s a m et e c h n o l o g i c a l s o u r c e s f o r o u r c o n t i n u e d
( " O f M a c h i n e s a n d M e n , " ! ' , 1 - . l 1 9 I F = 8! , t ' t a y
."
economic growth.
I 9 7 8 .)

9\.

O n e s o r t o f h i s t o r y w h i c h i s p r e s e n t l y v e r y m u c hn e e d e d i s t h e
h i s t o r y o f s o c i a l e x p e r i m e n t s ,c u l t u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s , a n d
ln a period
r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f c o m m u n i t y i f e i n t i m e s o f c r i s i s .
w h e n t h e c i t i e s o f t h e l J e s t , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e U S , s e e mt o b e
d r a m a t i c al y d e c a y i n g , t h e v i t a l t a s k o f r e s t o r i n g r e a l c o m m u n i t i e s
also requires historical perspective. But the practical
c o n s e q u e n c e sf o r r e s e a r c h d o n o t c o m e e a s y t o u s ' b e c a u s e- a s
R o b e r t l { i s b e t v e r y c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s- " o n e o f t h e m o s t g r i e v o u s
. ."
c a s u a t i e s , o f m o d e r nt i m e s i s t h e t r u e u t o p i a n r n e n t a l i t y .
( T w iI i g h t o f A u t h o r i t y , p . 2 3 4 . )

65

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