Clinical Cases in Pediatric Peripheral Neuropathy

7
Clinical Cases in
Pediatric Peripheral Neuropathy
Leigh Maria Ramos-Platt
Childrens Hospital of Los Angeles, University of Southern California
USA
1. Introduction
There are many challenges to diagnosing peripheral neuropathy in children. While the
symptoms are similar to those in adults, young children and those with developmental
delays pose difficulties in extracting the appropriate history and performing a consistent
and careful neurological examination. Neuropathic processes that present in childhood can
be divided into those that are progressive and those that will tend improve over time. While
there are exceptions, children with the latter category are those that fall into the acquired
neuropathies such as vitamin deficiencies, toxicities, some immune mediated, and focal
mononeuropathies. Those in the progressive category include the neuropathies that are
hereditary/genetic in nature such as the heterogenous group of Hereditary Sensory Motor
Neuropathies and some immune mediated neuropathies. In general, when the neuropathies
of this group present earlier in childhood, the course and prognosis is worse than if they
were to present in adolescence and adulthood. There are exceptions to this as some children
who initially present as floppy infants due to a congenital neuropathy with respiratory
difficulties can attain the ability to walk independently.
A lot of the entities discussed in this chapter have been discussed in others that are
dedicated to their specific mechanisms. What this chapter will try to achieve is to discuss the
pediatric presentations of these disorders and to highlight, if present, differences between
the adult and pediatric presentations of neuropathies. While this chapter will touch on the
pathophysiology, electrodiagnostic findings, and laboratory findings, it will not try to
duplicate these areas of discussion found in other chapters of this book. The intent of this
chapter is to discuss pediatric presentations of peripheral neuropathy in the context of
clinical cases to allow the reader to consider these diagnoses in children.
A mention of performing electrodiagnostic testing is essential in any chapter discussing
peripheral neuropathy. The evaluation of weakness often employs using nerve conduction
studies and electromyograms. In young children and especially in those who have
developmental delays, this can be difficult. In this authors experience, performing these
electrodiagnostic studies in children is more time consuming. Frequent coaching and
coaxing is often needed. Without sedation available, many studies are truncated due to
tolerance, inability to cooperate, and inability to follow commands. A child life specialist can
be valuable in utilizing distraction techniques. Certified Child Life Specialists have been
used in various clinical settings to help ease the anxiety associated with procedures (McGee,
2003). Also, use of a local anesthetic cream such as topical lidocaine may be helpful in
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Peripheral Neuropathy Advances in Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches
reducing the amount of discomfort. While most diagnoses can be supported by obtaining 2
motor nerves with F-waves, 2 sensory nerves, and needle examination in one proximal and
one distal muscle, some patients will require a more complete study under sedation. It is in
this authors opinion that the ability to perform sedated EMGs should be available in
facilities that performs these studies on children.
2. Case #1
History: A previously healthy 12 year old boy first started to notice difficulties with tripping
while walking. Over the following week, his conditioned worsened and by the time he
presented to the emergency room, on day 8 of symptoms, he had difficulty walking. On
further questioning, he had a sore throat and runny nose approximately 2 weeks prior to the
onset of symptoms.
Examination highlights: 3/5 strength in his anterior tibialis and gastrocnemius muscles
bilaterally. Weakness was symmetrical. Hip girdle muscles were nearly normal as was
upper extremity strength. Remarkable on his examination were trace to absent reflexes out
of proportion to his degree of weakness.
Studies: CT of the head was negative. LP demonstrated a protein of 105 mg/dL with 3
WBC/hpf and no RBCs. CSF glucose was 58 mg/dL (65% of his peripheral glucose). MRI of
the brain was normal. MRI of the spine demonstrated enhancing caudal equina roots.
Study
Right Median Motor CMAP
Right Tibial Motor CMAP
Right Radial Sensory SNAP
Right Sural Sensory SNAP
Right Median F-wave
Right Tibial Motor F-wave
EMG/NCV Findings
Findings
normal
normal
normal
normal
Normal duration, 40% persistence
Normal duration, <20% persistence
Fig. 1. F-wave persistence <50% in a patient with AIDP
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Fig. 2. Enhancing nerve roots of the cauda equine in a patient with AIDP
Clinical Course: The patient received a 5 day course of IVIG (0.4 grams/kg/day) for a total
dose of 2 grams/kg. He started to improve on day 3 of treatment. After 4 weeks in the
inpatient rehabilitation service, he was discharged home, able to walk, climb stairs, and play
basketball.
Diagnosis: Acute Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP) also known
as the Guillain Barre Syndrome (GBS).
Discussion: In a child that presents with classic ascending paralysis and loss of reflexes, it is
important to evaluate for AIDP (Simmons, 2010). The diagnosis of AIDP is mainly clinical
with supporting information gathered from laboratory, neurophysiological, and radiological
studies. There is little in the differential diagnosis with this history but acute cord lesions
should be excluded especially if there is a history of bowel and bladder difficulties. Sensory
changes can occur in AIDP. Motor symptoms predominate (Kuwabara, 2004). However, a
recent study in adults reported that approximately 70% of AIDP patients had decreased
superficial or deep sensation in distal extremities (Kuwabara, 2004). Acute cord lesions tend
to be more abrupt (such as an anterior spinal artery syndrome). Arterior spinal artery
syndrome has dissociated sensory impairment and sphincter involvement (Servais, 2001).
AIDP is difficult to distinguish from the first presentation of CIDP. Especially in younger
children where examination can be difficult, other diagnoses to consider include myasthenia
gravis (Markowitz, 2008), acute cerebellar ataxia, and other post-infectious disorders such as
acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM). Diminished or absent reflexes, MRI
findings, and prolongation F-waves would support AIDP. In this case, a lack of F-wave
persistence was seen. Decreased F-wave persistence is seen with AIDP (Frasier, 1992). The
lack of fatigueability in this patient would argue against myasthenia gravis. In addition, the
majority of patients with myasthenia gravis present with bulbar signs (Andrews, 2003). In
these situations, careful examination of DTRs is essential.
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The case highlights the clinical features of AIDP: ascending paralysis, association with an
inciting infection which is seen in 60-70% of cases, and diminished or absent reflexes.
Progressive weakness is seen in more than one limb and progress rapidly over 4 weeks. The
nadir is usually reached by 2 weeks. Typically, there is relative symmetry. Sphincters are
usually spared but there can be an occasional patient with bladder dysfunction (Asbury,
1990; Cosi, 2006; Agrawal, 2007). A variation that must be mentioned is the Miller Fischer
variant. This triad of symptoms includes ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, and areflexia (and an
association with the Gq1b antibody (Mori, 2001).
Prolonged F-waves are among the first electrophysiological sign seen in this disease and are
suggestive of proximal demyelination even when motor conduction studies are normal.
Prolongation of distal latencies is also an early finding (Simmons, 2010). This can be seen in the
first week of symptoms. Other features, which are seen later in the course (weeks) include
conduction block on nerve conduction studies. 80% of patients who will be eventually
diagnosed with AIDP will have abnormalities in their neurophysiological studies upon
presentation. In one study, 96% will have abnormal motor responses within 3 weeks. It is also
of value to note that 20% will not have abnormalities on their nerve conductions at the time of
presentation thus re-enforcing that information gained from neurophysiological studies is
supportinve but not diagnostic. Although mild sensory complaints can be an initial feature,
approximately 70% can have abnormal sensory responses within 3 weeks of symptom onset.
Nerve involvement can be patchy. (Asbury 1990).
Lumbar puncture is needed to exclude infection as well as to evaluate for
albuminocytological disassociation which strongly supports the diagnosis of GBS/AIDP
(Simmons, 2010). One of the most predictable and consistent early findings in AIDP is
enhancement of the nerve roots of the cauda equina. This can be seen within the first 2
weeks of symtoms. Cauda equina root enhancement is 83% sensitive for Guillain Barre
Syndrome and is seen in 95% of typical cases (Gorson, 1996).
There are electrophysiologic criteria for both AIDP and CIDP which includes conduction block
in one of more nerves, prolonged late responses, prolonged distal latencies in two or more
nerves, and conduction slowing in two or more nerves. Excellent discussions and tables are in
various sources. One particularly helpful source is the textbook by Preston and Shapiro. For
AIDP, at least one of the following (conduction slowing, prolonged late responses, prolonged
distal latencies) in 2 or more nerves within the first 3 weeks of illness (Ho, 1997).
Like most other autoimmune diseases, the pathophysiology lies in molecular mimicry. An
inciting infection results in production of antibodies that cross react with myelin
components. In some cases, there is axonal involvement such as in those associated with
campylobacter infection.
Treatment is not necessary in all cases. Both IVIG and Plasma Exchange are efficacious in
the treatment of Guillain Barre Syndrome within 2 and 4 weeks of symptoms. Fewer
complications are seen with IVIG. The combination of the two modalities in sequence is not
recommended as an initial treatment. There is no benefit from treatment with corticosteroids
(Hughes, 2003). An example dose for IVIG is 2 grams per kg and given as 0.4 gram to 1 gram
per kg/day for 2 to 5 days. IVIG treatment can be associated with a reduced need for
mechanical ventilation (Shanbag, 2003). IVIG treatment is also likely associated with a
shorter time to independent ambulation in children (Shaher, 2003; Agrawal, 2007). An
example of a plasma exchange schedule is 1 volume plasma exchange every other day for a
total of 5 exchanges. Other aspects of treatment include surveillance for and treatment of
associated autonomic dysfunction, pain, and respiratory compromise. Rehabilitation
services are important in the overall care of a pediatric patient with AIDP.
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Patients with preceding c. jejuni infection were more likely to have acute axonal neuropathy or
axonal degeneration in association with AIDP. This subset of patients is associated with slower
recovery, and generally, a worse outcome. Careful history of a preceding gastroenteritis 2-3
weeks before the symptoms of weakness would help in identifying if evaluation for past c.
jejuni infection is warranted. In adult studies where c. jejuni infection was associated with the
presentation of AIDP, the majority of patients recalled watery diarrhea and a smaller
percentage recalled bloody diarrhea. Along with an association with c. jejuni infection, other
poor prognostic factors include need for ventillatory support and confinement to a bed within
2 days of neuropathic symptom onset (rapid progression) (Rees, 1995). Also, patients with
anti-GM1 antibodies can be associated with poorer prognosis (Van der berg, 1991).
Overall, prognosis is excellent with >80% of patients recovering the ability to ambulate
(Simmons 2010). It should be cautioned that (50.00%) of patients who will be eventually
diagnosed with CIDP were first diagnosed with AIDP. AIDP can recur in a small percentage
of patients. It may also be the first presentation of other autoimmune disorders such as SLE
(exceptionally rare, see below). Other associations with AIDP besides viral intections and c.
jejuni infection include preceding surgery, vaccinations (although controversial), cancer, and
multiple sclerosis (Asbury, 1990).
3. Case # 2
History: A previously healthy 6 year old boy presented with a 3 month history of progressive
weakness. Over the course of 3 months, he lost the ability to walk independently.
Examination highlights: He had near normal strength in his bilateral proximal muscles and
4/5 strength distally. He had 2/5 strength in the anterior tibialis bilaterally and 4/5 strength
in all remaining muscles. Sensation was preserved grossly. He had no elicitable reflexes.
Studies: Cerebral spinal fluid analysis demonstrated elevated protein at 100 mg/dL with no
white blood cells and no red cells. Glucose was 60 mg/dL.
Study
Right Median CMAP
Left Median CMAP
Right Ulnar CMAP
Left Tibial CMAP
Left Peroneal CMAP
Left Radial SNAP
Right Medial Plantar SNAP
Left Medial Plantar SNAP
EMG Right APB
EMG Right EDC
EMG Right anterior tibialis
EMG/NCV Findings
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Findings
Slowed conduction 38 m/s; preserved amplitude
Slowed conduction 32 m/s; conductions block with
increased temporal dispersion of CMAP
Slowed conduction 34 m/s; conduction block with
increased temporal dispersion of CMAP
Normal conduction and amplitude of SNAP
Slowed conduction 35 m/s; preserved amplitude of SNAP
Slowed conduction 33 m/s; preserved amplitude of SNAP
Large amplitude, long duration, unstable complex MUAPs
with decreased recruitment
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Clinical Course: He responded partially to IVIG. However, due to ongoing weakness

despite a repeat course of IVIG, he was started on prednisone. Due to intolerance and side
effects of prednisone (pathological factors, hepatitis, markedly elevated cholesterol levels),
he was subsequently started on mycophenylate. 6 months after the initial diagnosis, he is
able to walk independently but cannot run. He has trace reflexes. He continues to make
improvement with immune suppression.
Diagnosis: Chronic Inflammatory Polyradiculoneuropathy
Discussion: In a child presenting with 3 months of progressive weakness, deciphering the
timing and the progression of weakness is needed to aid with the differential diagnosis.
AIDP is among the highest on the differential. Had the patient peaked in weakness, and
what was presenting 3 months from the onset was improved, then AIDP is a possibility.
However, this was not the case in this patient. Hereditary sensory motor neuropathies can
also present as progressive weakness, and are a consideration in this patient. Making this
diagnosis less likely is that the patient was normal prior to the start of symptoms. In
addition, while patients with HSMN can present with elevated protein in the CSF,
conduction block is characteristically not a feature. Conudction block is an indication of nonuniform slowing seen on NCV studies along with increased temporal dispersion. HSMN
tends to have a more uniform slowing with a few exceptions. As will be discussed in a later
section, children with HSMN typically have a history of delayed motor development.
Like in adults, CIDP in children is less likely to have an antecedent event (such as URI
symptoms). An antecedent event can be recalled in 20-30% of patients with CIDP. Some
studies report up to 57%; but still considerable less than with AIDP (Markowitz, 2008). CIDP
presents as a symmetrical predominantly motor polyradiculoneuropathy affecting both
proximal and distal muscle groups. Hyporeflexia or areflexia is seen. In adult patients, a
predominantly distal course is seen in 17%. A predominantly sensory form is seen in 15%
and asymmetry can be seen in just under 10% of patients. Cranial nerves can be involved in
5% of patients and CNS involvement is seen in 8% (Rotta, 2000). The overall course can be
relapsing or chronic progressive (Rotta, 2000). The initial presentation in general is typically
quite striking in children such as gait disturbance and weakness. Tremor and ataxia are also
reported symptoms. This is in contrast to adults who may present with minor complaints
such as subtle weakness, mild sensory disturbances or decreased dexterity. Like adults,
approximately 50% of children will have sensory discturbances such as parasthesias at the
time of diagnosis (Simmons, 1997). Symptoms must be present for at least eight weeks to fit
the clinical criteria of CIDP. The incidence of patients younger than 20 diagnosed with CIDP
is 0.48 per 100,000 (in contrast to CIDP in adults 1.9 per 100,000) (Markowitz, 2008).
Like with AIDP, neurophysiological studies are supportive of this diagnosis but not
diagnostic (see below). Just under 10% of patients will have caudal root enhancement.
Elevated protein in the CSF is seen but not all patients have this (Rotta, 2000).
Nearly all CIDP patients will respond to their first treatment within a week. Like adults with
CIDP, children will fit electrodiagnostic criteria (Simmons, 1997). Treatment options include
IVIG (initially 2 grams per kilogram divided into 4-5 days) with subsequent treatment up to
2 grams/kg every 3 weeks, steroids (prednisone, typically 1-2 mg per kg/day),
plasmapharesis for refractory cases, and other immunosuppressive agents such as
mycophenilate (Cellcept). Other immunosuppressive agents used include azathioprine,
methotrexate, cyclosporine, and interferon therapies (Markowitz, 2008).
In this authors practice, in patients requiring prolonged immune suppression with a
combination of medications, it is important to consider prophylaxis with trimethoprim
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sulfa. Regular evaluation of potential side effects of these medications and toxicity is
essential in the care of patients with CIDP. Routine labs to consider include complete blood
counts, chemistry profiles, liver profiles, levels of immunosuppressant agents and their toxic
metabolites, lipid panel, vitamin D level, and lipase/amylase. The frequency of surveillance
labs will be dictated by the patients needs.
Prognosis for patients with CIDP is variable. Some patients remit after the first treatment
and most patients have improvement after the first treatment. 60% of patients will respond
to IVIG, 70% to steroids, 50% to plasma exchange, and 36% to cytotoxic agents. However, it
is not well delineated which of the pediatric patients will have a course of frequent relapsing
and partial remitting with treatment (Rotta, 2000). It must be highlighted that early
treatment will provide the best opportunity for improvement. Pediatric patients tend to
have more of a remitting-relapsing course and not typically have a progressive decline.
Those patients that have a more insidious, slower onset are more likely to be associated with
disease that is more difficult to treat. Pediatric patients with CIDP are less likely to need
ventillatory support compared to those with AIDP, and adults with CIDP (although it has
been reported). Long term treatment with IVIG has been demonstrated to be beneficial in
patients with CIDP. Relapses can correlate with tapering of treatment (Simmons, 1997).
Adults with an associated IgM monoglonal gammoathy and predominanrly sensory
symptoms with or without serum anti-MAG antibodies have a poorer response to
treatment. Further studies in children regarding positive antibody subsets are needed. One
study comparing treatment of CIDP with high dose intermittent IV methylprednisolone
demonstrated no difference in outcome between those treated with oral steroids and IVIG
(Lopate, 2005). This study was in adults. Intermittent high dose IV methyprednisolone may
be a lower cost, lower side effects treatment option. Further studies, particularly in children,
are needed.
4. Case #3
History: A 7 year old boy did not start walking until he was 2 years of age. His parents
report that although he has maintained the ability to walk, he has been tripping more as if
he cannot pick up his feet. He cannot keep up with the other children when playing
although cognitively, he is at grade level, if not advanced. His mother was able to play
basketball and soccer in high school. She still helps with coaching their other children in
soccer. Family history is notable for three of his fathers siblings with muscular dystrophy.
Two of his fathers brothers died in their 30s after being wheelchair bound in their teens. His
older sister is in her 50s and is wheelchair bound. His father is healthy. On his mothers side,
multiple family members needed special shoes for their high arches. Although ambulatory
into their 60s, several of his mothers relative had feet that started to turn in and toes to
claw. One relative had to use a wheelchair.
Examination highlights: Negative Gower maneuver. Proximally, he has full strength. In his
hands, he had 4/5 strength in his intraossei and FDI. Although he has full strength in the
hip girdle muscles, he has 3/5 strength in the anterior tibialis and 4/5 strength in the
gastrocnemius muscles bilaterally. He has absent reflexes and no fasciculations. His calves
are thin and he has high arches in his lower extremities. He has a high steppage gait and
bilateral foot drop. The patient has a pes cavus. His mother similarly has high arches and
absent reflexes in the lower extremities. Strength is normal in her proximal muscles of her
upper and lower extremities. She has minimal weakness in bilateral ankle dorsiflexion.
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Study
Right Median CMAP
Right Ulnar CMAP
Left Tibial CMAP
Left Peroneal CMAP
Right Median SNAP

Right Radial SNAP
Left Sural SNAP
Left Medial Plantar SNAP
Mothers Right Median CMAP
Findings
Prolonged distal latency >8 seconds
Slowed conduction velocity <30 m/s
Normal CMAP amplitude
No conduction block
No conduction block
No conduction block
No conduction block
Normal SNAP amplitude
No conduction block
EMG/NCV Findings
Other Studies: CPK is normal. Genetic testing confirms that the patient and his mother are
positive for duplication in the PM22 gene.
Diagnosis: Hereditary Motor Sensory Neuropathy CMT1a
Discussion: Especially in a young boy who presents with progressive weakness, the
differential diagnosis must include muscular dystrophy such as a dystrophinopathy. In
general, the distribution of weakness and the reflexes in comparison to the degree of
weakness help to separate myopathic from neuropathic processes. In general, myopathic
processes involve proximal muscles first and neuropathic processes involve distal muscles
initially. Reflexes that are proportionate to the degree of weakness are consistent with a
myopathic process and that are out of proportion (much less than expected) to the degree of
weakness are consistent with a neuropathic process. A negative Gowers sign, normal CPK,
and thin calves make a diagnosis of a dystrophinopathy not likely. A dystrophinopathy
classically presents with a Gower maneuver, toe walking (rather than foot drop), large, firm
(pseudohypertrophied calves), and markedly elevated CPK. What may be confusing is that
the patient has uncles with muscular dystrophy. It should be observed that the uncles who
were affected were paternal relatives. Although some sporadic occurrence can happen, the
typical inheritance pattern for a dystrophinopathy (the most common type of muscular
dystrophy in boys), is X-linked (maternally inherited).
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Hereditary Sensory Motor Neuropathy is a heterogenous group of disorders affecting the

peripheral nerves and affects 1:2500 people. It is characterized by atrophy in the distal
extremities (anterior tibialis often affected early) and diminished or absent deep tendon
reflexes. Associated features include a high steppage gait, impaired sensation, high arches of
the feet, and pes cavus (Antonellis, 2003). It was first described in 1886 by the physicians
whose names bear the eponym. Duplications in the PMP22 gene lead to the most common
type of CMT, CMT1a (as is the case in our patient). This is located on chromosome 17 p11.2.
CMT1b is associated with an abnormality mapping to chromosome 1 resulting in abnormal
P0 protein (involved with the compaction of peripheral myelin) (Kulkens, 1993). What
appears to be recurring a theme in the majority of demyelinating Charcot Marie Tooth
Disease, is that they are the result of abnormal function in the Schwan cell.
In general, HSMN can be divided into demyelinating forms (designated as CMT 1) and
axonal forms (designated as CMT 2). Nerve conduction studies can help with the distinction
between the two. If the underlying process is predominantly a demyelinating abnormality,
prolonged distal latencies and slowed conductions will be seen with relatively preserved
amplitudes. If the underlying process is axonal, then conduction velocity will be relatively
preserved, but CMAP and SNAP amplitudes will be small. NCS can also help with
distinguishing HSMN from CIDP when the history may not be as clear. As described above,
one of the electrodiagnostic features of CIDP is conduction block. In type 1 CMTs, slowing
typically is uniform.
Symptoms of patients with CMT1 usually begin in childhood. Progression is generally slow
but progressive. Symptoms include inability to keep up with other children, clumsiness,
tripping, and foot drop (typically, the muscles of the anterior compartment of the legs are
affected first and most noticeably). Reflexes tend to be trace at best but will most likely be
absent.
It is not uncommon for the family history to have multiple relatives presenting with various
degrees of weakness severity. The disease of most HSMN patients is inherited in an
autosomal dominant pattern, although inheritance can also be autosomal recessive, Xlinked, and sporadic. There are many mutations seen in X-linked CMT. However, these
mutations are all associated with various Connexin 32 mutations (Cxn 32 is a gene
responsible for encoding gap junctions, mapped to Xq13) (Oh, 1997). X-linked CMT is the
second most frequent in the HSMN demeyelinating category. As with other X-linked
disorders, males are much more affected than females with respect to clinical presentation
as well as from a neurophysiological standpoint. However, as is the trend in patients with
HSMN, there is a spectrum of clinical presentations. Most females with X-linked CMT are
asymptomatic (Dubourg, 2001). As in this case, it is not uncommon for parents of affected
children to be unaware that they are also affected; albeit to a lesser degree.
CMT2, the heterogenous group of disorders characterized by their predominantly axonal
involvement also is autosomal dominant in inheritance (although, sporadic forms do occur).
In the authors experience with children, this is much more of a rarity. The age of onset is
older;- usually young adulthood. There are now 8 subtypes of CMT-2 (and designated as AI) (NINDS, 2011). Molecular biology has allowed for the identification of the genes
associated with these phenotypes including CMT2A associated with a mutation in KIF1B,
CMT2B with the RAS-related GTP binding protein, CMT2E with the neurofilament light
chain gene (NEFL), and a mutation in glycyl trNA synthase mapped to chromosome 7p in
CMT 2D (Antonellis, 2003). CMT2F is characterized by a symmetrical distal limb weakness
and subsequent atrophy. There are multiple genes that can be associated with this
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phenotype including one mapping to chromosome 7q11-q21. Other mutations in small heat
shock protein 27 have been reported to cause this phenotype (Evgrafov, 2004).
Dejerine Sottas Disease is also known as CMT3 or HSMN 3. It presents in infancy and is a
severe peripheral neuropathy. Nerve conduction studies demonstrate markedly slowed
velocities, generally less than 12 m/s. CSF protein can be elevated. Inheritance can be
dominant, recessive, or sporadic. Genes affected include the PMP22, P0, EGR2, and PRX.
The same abnormality that causes CMT1a in one family member can be associated with
DSD in another. Patients are slow to make motor milestones and some do eventually
achieve the ability to walk.
The course of disease varies depending on the type of abnormality (hence the type of CMT).
Families with the same mutation can have variable courses as do individual members
within the same family, as seen in our case presentation.
There is no cure for CMT. Treatment of the patient is supportive. Braces may help with
ambulation. Physical and occupation therapy ongoing will help to maintain function.
Regular screening for scoliosis is important. Pulmonary function screening is also vital
especially if there is scoliosis. There can be associated cardiac abnormalities including
conduction abnormalities and filling defects. However, this is not in the majority of patients.
Most patients with CMT have normal life expectancies. There is ongoing gene therapy
research (NINDS 2011). High dose vitamin C was studied but was not found to be helpful in
the majority of young patients (ages 12 to 25 years) with CMT1a. This same study also
deemed that high dose vitamin C was found to be safe (Vehamme, 2009).
5. Case #4
History: A 16 year old left handed girl presents with a 6 month history of numbness in the
left hand. She feels that her handwriting is mildly affected. There is no associated pain. She
exercises on a regular basis but not more than an hour a day. Upon further questioning, the
patient stated that during her 45 minute drives to and from school, she leans on her left
elbow to text her friends.
Examination highlights: She has mild atrophy of the ADM and weakness in the interossei.
There does not seem to be involvement of her Abductor Policis Brevis (APB). She has
decreased sensation in the 4th and 5th digits. Only her left ulnar reflex was diminished.
Study
Right Median CMAP
Left Median CMAP
Right Ulnar CMAP
Left Ulnar CMAP
Left Radial SNAP

Left Median SNAP
Left Ulnar SNAP
EMG/NCV
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Findings
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal at the wrist and segment from
wrist to below elbow with a conduction
velocity of 58 m/s. When stimulated above
the elbow, conduction velocity diminishes
to 33 m/s and drop in CMAP amplitude to
2.5 mV from 8.4 mV
Normal
Normal
Normal
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Fig. 3. Left ulnar CMAP

Diagnosis: left ulnar mononeuropathy in the segment across the elbow.
Discussion: A detailed discussion to separate a mononeuropathy, plexopahthy, and
radiculopathy is beyond the scope of this chapter. These remain in the differential diagnosis
in a child with numbness in the hand. Generally, in a lower brachial plexopathy (such as
what is seen with thoracic outlet syndrome), there is involvement of the ABP (which is
median nerve innervated). Pain is typically a prominent symptom. If a plexopathy is
suspected, obtaining sensory nerve conductions of the medial and lateral antebrachial
cutaneous nerves of the forearms bilaterally would be useful as these would be abnormal
(typically of low amplitude) in lesions of the brachial plexus. If the patient had a
radiculopathy of the C8 and T1 nerve roots, it would be expected that nerve conduction
studies would be normal. Neck pain could also be present and as with a radiculopathy,
there would be multiple nerve distribution involvement. In this patient, it is necessary to
confirm that she has only a mononeuropathy and not a mononeuropathy multiplex or a
more generalized neuropathic process. Differential diagnosis for a mononeuritis multiplex
includes autoimmune disease (such as SLE), infections (such as Lyme disease), and diabetes
mellitus.
In a 16 year old girl, connective tissue disease should be considered as a potential cause
of peripheral neuropathy. A length-dependent predominantly axonal sensorimotor
polyneuropathy or mononeuritis multiplex can be seen in pediatric patients with Systemic
Lupus Erythmatosis (SLE). Vaso nevorum vasculitis, deposits of immune complexes, or
damage to the neural tissue by antibodies against their components are proposed
mechanisms. Because of the scarcity of published studies in the literature, treatment for
the pediatric population is not well established. Limited published pediatric studies have
reported response to steroids, azathioprine, and cyclophosphamide. Peripheral
neuropathy associated with SLE tends to be concurrent with central nervous system
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disease. Gabapentin and Carbamazepine can be used for symptomatic (pain control)
treatment (Harel, 2002).
Hereditary Neuropathy with Pressure Palsies (HNPP) is in the differential diagnosis of a
child who presents with multiple episodes of painless focal neuropathies in common sites of
entrapment such as the ulnar nerve at the elbow and the peroneal nerve at the fibular head.
Like CMT1a, the abnormality is in the PMP22 gene. However, rather than a duplication,
PMP22 deletions lead to the HNPP phenotype.
In an otherwise healthy child with no history of trauma, especially with a family history of
nontraumatic mononeuropathies, benign tumors such as osteochondromas compressing
individual nerves should be considered. Although uncommon, case series have been
published on osteochondromas causing mononeuropathies and mononeuropathy multiplex.
These are treatable causes of focal neuropathies. In some patients, this is hereditary. In these
patients with autosomal dominant hereditary osteochondromata, sarcomatous
transformation can occur and thus careful attention must be paid to these patients (Levin,
1991). Compressive mononeuropathies are not as common in children compared to
adults. In one series, non-traumatic causes of ulnar mononeuropathies fared better than
traumatic causes at one year follow-up (83% vs 56% improved) (Jones, 1986; Jones, 1996).
In another small study, 4/5 focal compressive peroneal neuropathies had good recovery
(Jones, 1986).
6. Case #5
History: An 11 year old girl with a history of acute lymphoblastic leukemia is admitted to
the intensive care unit for hypotension and respiratory distress secondary to sepsis from her
indwelling central line. She had received vincristine as one of her chemotherapeutic agents.
She is intubated, paralyzed, and on pressors. Over the next three weeks, her condition
slowly improves, she is weaned off of pressors, sedation and neuromuscular blockade are
lifted. Despite apparent alertness and responsiveness, she does not hit parameters for
extubation. Much more, after the intensive care physicians are concerned that 3 days after
neuromuscular blockade is stopped, the ICU physicians and nurses note that she does not
move any extremity.
Examination highlights: She is able to open her eyes spontaneously. She will fix and track.
Pupils are equally reactive to light. She will grimace (although intubated) with noxious
stimuli. She does not move her extremities spontaneously, to gentle, or to noxious stimuli.
She is areflexic.
Studies: Her complete blood count is significant for pancytopenia (ANC <1.5, H&H 9.7 and
30, and platelets of 112). Her electrolytes were normal. Her LFTs normalized. Coagulation
profile was corrected as well. CSF was with normal cell count, glucose, and protein level.
An exact cause is difficult to pinpoint in this patient's weakness. This case was used to
springboard into a the following discussion of possible contributing factors.
An AIDP presentation has been described as both a paraneoplastic phenomenon as well as
associated with complications of chemotherapy (Reddy, 2003).
There are multiple considerations of the underlying cause of this patients weakness. Two
likely contributors are an acquired neuropathy from vincristine and critical care neuropathy.
Other possibilities are AIDP and critical care myopathy. Evaluation of the CSF may be
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helpful in excluding AIDP as a potential cause. Regarding critical myopathy as a cause, it is

not uncommon to have both a critical care neuropathy and myopathy in the same patient.
The risk factors of critical care neuropathy do overlap with those of the myopathy. EMG
findings may not be able to separate the two early in the course and the only definitive test
is a muscle biopsy.
Study
Findings
Right Tibial CMAP
Normal distal latency

Conduction velocity 38 m/s
Amplitude <0.5 mV
Left Median CMAP

Amplitude <0.5 mV
Right Sural SNAP

Amplitude 2 uV
Left Radial SNAP

Amplitude 1.5 uV
Needle EMG Right Anterior Tibialis
fibrillation potentials and long duration,

polymorphic MUAPs.
EMG/NCV findings
Chemotherapy induced neuropathy (CIN) generally are predominant sensory or
sensorimotor in character, clinically and neurophysiologically. CIN can also affect the
autonomic nervous system. Typically, CIN severity and permanence of symptoms depends
on the agent, duration of treatment, and whether there is an underlying other cause of
neuropathy (see below). Some agents (such as Taxol) have idiosyncratic neuropathy (there is
no consistency of a threshold toxicity level) (Quasthoff, 2000).
Vincristine is one of the chemotherapeutic agents that can cause a peripheral neuropathy.
The pattern is one of predominantly axonal. Typical presenting symptoms include
paresthesias and diminished deep tendon reflexes. Although the neuropathy associated
with vincristine is dose related, even at low therapeutic ranges, there is generally
involvement of the peripheral nervous system. There is some ability for regeneration of
damaged nerve fibers once the medication is stopped. In some patients who develop
peripheral neuropathy as a side effect of chemotherapeutic agents, sometimes, their
course can be completed with a lower dose of the agent (McLeod and Penny, 1969; Packer,
1994).
Another consideration in this patient would be quadriparesis as a result of vincristine given
to a patient with an underlying hereditary neuropathy. Unusually rapidly developing
severe vincristine associated neuropathy presenting with a flaccid quadriplegia resembling
AIDP has been described in patients who also had an underlying hereditary neuropathy
(Graf, 1996).
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Cisplatin at a cumulative dose of 350mg/m^2 (although some report as little as 200

mg/m^2) has been demonstrated to be associated with a predominantly sensory
neuropathy/neuronopathy that is characterized early as parasthesias, loss of vibratory sense
and joint position sense, and absent ankle jerks. It tends to spare pain and temperature
modalities (Reddy, 2003). Studies in adults have demonstrated accumulation of cisplatin in
the dorsal root ganglia of patients undergoing this treatment (Thompson, 1984). Both
Vincristine and Cisplatin (and other related platinum agents such as Carboplatin) may
present after treatment has stopped (referred to as a coasting effect) (Quasthoff, 2000).
Thalidomide has been used to treat various inflammatory diseases in children and
adolescents such as Crohns and Bechets Disease. Like some chemotherapeutic agents, the
neuropathy course associated with Thalidomide is not predictable. Stopping this
chemotherapeutic agent does not necessarily lead to resolution of CIN symptoms. In one
study, after 4-6 years post cessation of Thalidomide, in those patients that had its associated
neuropathy, only 25% had recovered completely (Strauss, 2000; Priolo, 2008).
There is no cure for CIN. Studies on prophylactic regimens to prevent its occurrence have
not been fruitful so far. Alpha Lipoic Acid has been suggested as possibly helpful.
Treatment of Chemotherapy induced neuropathy is symptomatic. Medications such as
Gabapentin, Carbamazepine, and tricyclic anti-depressants have been used to treat CIN
(Quastaff, 2000). However, there are some studies that contradict the helpfulness of tricyclic
anti-depressants specifically for the neuropathic pain in CIN (Kautio, 2008; Wolf, 2008).
Gabapentin and Carbamazepine have not been helpful either in more recent studies although
Oxcarbazapine may (Wolf, 2008). Vitamin E may may be helpful in the prevention of Cisplatin
associated CIN but further larger studies are needed to investigate its safety in chemotherapy
patients (Wolf, 2008).
Critical Care neuropathy has been recognized more frequently in recent years. Much of the
description has been in adult patients. However there are case reports and case series in the
pediatric population. The presentation in children is similar to that in adults. The risk factors
are also similar including sepsis (critical care neuropathy is typically seen 2-3 weeks after
the onset of sepsis) and multiorgan failure. There are likely several mechanisms of injury
resulting in critical care neuropathy. These include hypoperfusion of the peripheral nerves,
ischemic injury leading to impairment of axonal transport, hyperglycemic injury to the
peripheral nervous system, malnutrition leading to vitamin deficiency and consequently
vitamin deficiency neuropathy, possible injury from antimicrobials (such as aminoglycosides
and metronidazole which can also be associated with axonal polyneuropathies), and low
albumin levels resulting in endoneural edema. Clinically, patients present with difficulty
with extubation. Patients are reported to be either paraplegic or tetraplegic with
hyporeflexia or areflexia (Petersen, 1999).
Neurophysiological studies are abnormal in 70% of patients and demonstrate a
predominantly axonal polyneuropathy of the motor nerves. Sensory nerves are not
spared. Both CMAPs an SNAPs have decreased amplitudes with significant slowing of
conduction (Gutman, 1999). There is no direct treatment for critical illness neuropathy.
Treatment is treating the underlying disease and supportive care. Unfortunately, recovery
is prolonged and not as favorable compared to adults. A favorable outcome (complete
recovery) is seen in approximately 50% of patients with critical care neuropathy (Petersen,
1999). Folate deficiency has been associated with peripheral neuropathy. Especially in
children with brain tumors who also have seizures, consider older generation AEDs as a
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potential course/contributor to peripheral neuropathy symptoms if they are using these

(Figueroa, 1990).
7. Case # 6
History: A 17 year old boy was referred to the EMG lab with a 3 month history of
progressive weakness of his bilateral lower extremities with involvement of the right greater
than the left. The specific question asked by the referring physician was whether the patient
needed surgery. He complained of shooting pains down the right leg. His mother reports
that he started having enuresis at this time. His pediatrician had ordered an MRI of his
lumbosacral spine and this was "positive" for a small disc bulge at L5. At this time, his
mother asked if this had anything to do with the medication that was given to him a week
and a half prior to his presentation. His PMD was contacted. Faxed records revealed he had
a hemoglobin A1c of 16.6%. He had been started on Metformin 1 1/2 weeks prior to his
appointment in EMG lab.
Examination highlights: Significant weakness (3-4/5 strength) of the hip flexors, quadriceps,
hip adductors, hip extensors, plantarflexion, and dorsiflexion. He was using 2 canes to walk
that he borrowed from his grandmother. Although he did not complain of upper extremity
weakness, he had 4+/5 strength in the interossei with the remainder of his upper extremity
muscles having good strength. He had a positive Gower's sign.
Studies: Review of his outside films demonstrated a small central disc bulge at L5 but there
was no compression of the roots and there were no abnormal cord signals.
Study
Findings
Left Peroneal CMAP
Distal Latency 6.30 ms

CMAP Amplitude 2.2 mV
Conduction Velocity 32.5 m/s
Right Peronal CMAP
Distal Latency 7.9 ms

CMAP Amplitude 8.1 mV
Conduction Velocity 36 m/s
Left Peroneal F-Wave
Prolonged
Right Peroneal F-wave
Prolonged
Needle EMG right anterior tibialis
Fibrillation potentials
2+ polyphasic MUAPS with increased
duration
Needle EMG right gastrocnemius (medial)
duration
Needle EMG right lumbar paraspinal

muscle
duration
EMG/NCV FIndings
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R TIBIAL (KNEE) - AH
5ms 5mV 100mA
2
1
3
4
2
5ms 5mV 100mA
Fig. 4.
Diagnosis: diabetic peripheral neuropathy, diabetic amyotrophy.
Clinical Course: The patient was admitted from the EMG lab to the hospital. He was seen by
an endocrine consult who determined that the patient had insulin dependent diabetes
mellitus. LP performed demonstrated mildly elevated protein of 55 mg/dL. His CSF glucose
was also elevated at 100 mg/dL. There were no abnormalities in the cell counts. He
completed a course of IVIG (2 grams per kg divided over 5 days). He remained on the
inpatient rehabilitation service for 2 weeks, By the time of his discharge, he was walking
independently and his sugars were under control on a regimen that included the use of
Lantus insulin. Although at follow-up 3 months later, he still had weakness in the hip
flexors, quadriceps, hip abductors, hip adductors, hip extensors, anterior tibialis, and
gastrocnemius muscles, there was an improvement to 4-4+/5 strength. He was then lost to
follow-up when he turned 18 years of age.
Discussion: Diabetic neuropathy is present in approximately half of patients who have had
the diagnosis for more than 5 years. Like adults, impaired glucose metabolism prior to the
diagnosis of diabetes mellitus can affect nerve function. Hemoglobin A1c and glucose
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133
tolerance tests can be helpful in diagnosing impaired glucose metabolism in patients that
have normal random glucose levels (Nelson, 2006).
L TIBIAL (KNEE) - AH
1
5ms 5mV 49mA
3
4
2
5ms 5mV 100mA
Fig. 5.
Most pediatric patients who have the peripheral neuropathy associated with diabetes
mellitus are not detectable clinically. Both vibratory and tactile perception thresholds are not
reliable. Most patients with diabetes are asymptomatic. Approximately 40% can be detected
with a careful clinical examination. A larger percentage, approximately 60% can be detected
with neurophysiological tests. It is important to identify which patients have diabetic
neuropathy because they are at higher risk for retinopathy and nephropathy (Nelson, 2006).
Presentations of diabetic neuropathy in clinidren to childern include Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome (CTS) (seen in 1/5 of type I diabetics and 1/3 of type 2 diabetics), 3rd nerve
with sparing of the pupil, intercostals neuropathy (severe abdominal and chest pain that
can mimic cardiac disease), chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculopathy, small
fiber neuropathy, autonomic neuropathy (seen in 16% of type I diabetics and 22% of type
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II diabetics), and in the case of our patient, amyotrophy. Diabetic amyotrophy is a

consequence of uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. It usually presents as progressive proximal
greater than distal lower extremity weakness, muscle wasting, and significant weight loss.
It is a rare complication of pediatric patients and often occurs with significant peripheral
neuropathy (Trotta, 2004).
Symptoms of autonomic neuropathy can be seen in 15-20% of adolescent patients with longstanding diabetes. Autonomic neuropathy impairs the epinephrine response to
hypoglycemia and thus places patients at risk for severe complications. Multiple systems
can be involved with diabetic autonomic Neuropathy including the cardiovascular and
gastrointestinal systems (Trotta, 2004). Please refer to the excellent review written by Trotta et
al, 2004 for a discussion of the symptoms of autonomic neuropathy associated with Diabetes
Mellitus in children.
Although some degree of neuropathy cannot be avoided in even the best controlled patients,
controlling sugars is the best way to slow down progression and complications.
8. Case #7
History: A 2 year old girl is referred to the neurophysiology laboratory for absent reflexes.
Per her mother, she had been developmentally normal for the first 8 months of her life. At
this point, her development became stagnant. She developed increased tone, never attained
the abilities to crawl, stand, or walk. She was able to sit but lost this ability several months
before the test. Her mother stated that she had an abnormal MRI. Review of the report
indicates that she has a leukodystrophy.
Physical examination highlights: The patient was awake with eyes open. She did not track
consistently. Despite increased tone in her trunk and extremities, she had absent reflexes.
During her appointment in the neurophysiology laboratory for nerve conduction studies,
the patient had several 10-15 second seizures with a semiology of head and eye deviation to
the right and lip smacking.
Studies: NCV demonstrates a generalized demyelinating neuropathy. Further bloodwork
revealed a very low level of arylsulfatase.
Diagnosis: Metachromatic Leukodystrophy (MLD).
Inborn errors of metabolism are rare but important causes of neuropathy in childhood.
Causes of inborn errors of metabolism that are associated with peripheral neuropathy
include metachromatic leukodystrophy. Metachromatic leukodystrophy has multiple forms
based on the mutation as well as the age of onset. Our patient has the most severe form
(infantile) which is generally fatal in one to two decades. MLD can also present in
childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. These forms are less progressive and the
neuropathic component can be more prominent. No cure exists for this disease but bone
marrow transplant can be helpful. In some studies, it was able to significantly slow down
the progression or halt the disease for short period of time from a cognitive standpoint.
However, the peripheral neuropathy component continued. Patients with the later onset
forms of metachromatic leukodystrophy have presented with peripheral neuropathy
without clinical evidence of CNS involvement (de Silva, 1993). Very rarely, a patient can
have peripheral nervous system involvement without apparent central nervous system
involvement (Coulter-Mackie, 2001).
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Fig. 7. T1 FLAIR image of patient with MLD

Krabbes disease is an autosomal recessive disorder of galactocerebrosidase metabolism
abnormality
resulting
in
galactocerbrosidase
beta
galactosidase
deficiency.
Neurophysiological features include a demyelinating motor neuropathy on NCV and
denervation on EMG. Like Metachromatic Leukodystrophy, there are different forms of the
disease characterized by the time of their onset. The early infantile form can result in death
after quick progression, sometimes by the second birthday. Other forms include the late
infantile form (presents between 1.5 and 3 years), juvenile form (presents from 3-10 years) and
the late onset form (presents later than 10 years of age) that makes up 10-15% of the patients.
Late onset Krabbes disease has been reported to present initially only as a peripheral
neuropathy before the clinical onset of CNS manifestations. However, typically, the peripheral
neuropathy associated with Late Onset Krabbes disease is one of many other symptoms
including limb weakness, termor, ataxia, nystagmus, blindness, psychomotor regression,
and bulbar symptoms (Marks, 1997).
Other disorders associated with neuropathy include, Refsum, Mucopolysaccharidoses
(which can present with bilateral Carpal tunnel syndrome) (Gschwind, 1992), Lowe's, and
mitochondrial disorders (Wierzbicki, 2002; Charnas, 1998; Moosa, 1970). Other
leukoencephalopathies associated with peripheral neuropathy include Fabrys Disease,
Adrenoleukodystrophy/Adrenomyeloleukodystrophy, hypomyelination with congenital
cataract, and Cockayne Syndrome (Kohlschutter, 2010).
POLG-1 mutations have been described in patients who present with a CMT- like
appearance but tested negative for PMP-22 and related abnormalities. Profound sensory
ataxia is seen in this phenotype. SANDO (sensory ataxic neuropathy with dysphagia and
ophthalmoplegia) is another mitochondrial cytopathy that is associated with peripheral
neuropathy (Harrowe, 2008).
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9. Conclusion
Pediatric neuropathy presentations are quite varied. Evaluation of these disorders can be
challenging in this population. Careful history and review of the available diagnostic work-up
is essential. EMG/NCV studies continue to be an important tool in the evaluation of a child
with neuropathy. Genetic classification and testing has been improving our diagnostic
abilities. It is important to decipher as quickly as possible which ones warrant prompt
treatment.
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www.intechopen.com
Peripheral Neuropathy - Advances in Diagnostic and Therapeutic

Approaches
Edited by Dr. Ghazala Hayat
ISBN 978-953-51-0066-9
Hard cover, 206 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 29, February, 2012
Published in print edition February, 2012

Over the last two decades we have seen extensive progress within the practice of neurology. We have refined
our understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis for both peripheral and central nervous system diseases,
and developed new therapeutic approaches towards these diseases. Peripheral neuropathy is a common
disorder seen by many specialists and can pose a diagnostic dilemma. Many etiologies, including drugs that
are used to treat other diseases, can cause peripheral neuropathy. However, the most common cause is
Diabetes Mellitus, a disease all physicians encounter. Disability due to peripheral neuropathy can be severe,
as the patients suffer from symptoms daily. This book addresses the advances in the diagnosis and therapies
of peripheral neuropathy over the last decade. The basics of different peripheral neuropathies is briefly
discussed, however, the book focuses on topics that address new approaches to peripheral neuropathies.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Leigh Maria Ramos-Platt (2012). Clinical Cases in Pediatric Peripheral Neuropathy, Peripheral Neuropathy Advances in Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Dr. Ghazala Hayat (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0066-9,
InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/peripheral-neuropathy-advances-in-diagnostic-andtherapeutic-approaches/clinical-cases-in-pediatric-peripheral-neuropathy
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Clinical Cases in Pediatric Peripheral Neuropathy

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7

Peripheral Neuropathy Advances in Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches

Fig. 1. F-wave persistence <50% in a patient with AIDP