Handbook On Energy Conscious Buildings

HANDBOOK ON ENERGY CONSCIOUS BUILDINGS
Prepared under the interactive R & D project no. 3/4(03)/99-SEC

between
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
and
Solar Energy Centre, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources
J.K. Nayak
J.A. Prajapati
May 2006
Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Pilot Edition: May 2006
written by
J.K. Nayak
J.A. Prajapati
Prepared under the interactive R & D project no. 3/4(03)/99-SEC between Indian Institute of
Technology, Bombay and Solar Energy Centre, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources,
Government of India.
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without the written permission
of authors.
Notice:
The materials in this book are technical in nature and informative for the purpose of helping
architects in designing of energy conscious buildings. The information should be used in
consonance with the prevailing building bye-laws. The authors or the organizations they belong
to, are not liable in any way for legal action pertaining to the use of the information contained in
the book.
Preface
The global energy scenario has undergone a drastic change in the last two decades. Due
to ever growing demand and shortage of supply, the cost of fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas)
is increasing day by day. Increasing consumption has led to environmental pollution resulting in
global warming and ozone layer depletion. Consequently, the era of fossil fuel is gradually
coming to an end and the attention is focused on the conservation of energy and search for
renewable sources of energy, which are environmentally benign.
Buildings are major consumers of energy insofar as their construction, operation and
maintenance are concerned. Though this is not very well quantified in India, yet there is ample
scope for energy savings. The indoor environments are becoming increasingly important for
human comfort and from health point of view. It is estimated that almost 50% of the global
energy demand is due to buildings. Thus, the energy conscious architecture has evolved to
address these issues. It involves the use of eco-friendly and less energy intensive building
materials, incorporation of passive solar principles in building design and operation including
daylighting features, integration of renewable energy technologies, conservation of water, waste
water recycling, rainfall harvesting and use of energy-efficient appliances in buildings.
In spite of access to a large information base on various features and techniques, and
despite pioneering work in this field by architects the world over and in India, the energy
conscious design approach is not very widespread. The expertise developed at various Indian
institutes has not percolated to architects at large, especially in a form that can directly be
implemented in their designs. This book is an effort to orient the thinking of practising architects
towards the importance and benefits of energy conscious architecture. The book provides
information on basic principles, climatic conditions of India, passive solar approaches, general
recommendations, specific guidelines and integration of renewable technologies in buildings. It
contains a number of illustrations, working drawings, examples, case studies and references. In
addition to practicing architects, it will also be a useful reference book for students of
architectural and building scientists. Those who are conversant with the basic aspects of climate
and passive solar architecture may skip Chapter 2 and 3 and refer to Chapter 5 for guidelines.
J. K. Nayak
J. A. Prajapati
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to a large group of people who have helped in many ways for
completing the book. The Solar Energy Centre (SEC) of the Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Sources (MNES), Government of India has been engaged in providing technical
consultancy on the use of energy efficient concepts in buildings. We are grateful to the SEC for
initiating and sponsoring this work. We are grateful to Dr. T.C. Tripathi and Dr. N.P. Singh, who
in their capacity of Advisor and Head of SEC have provided us constructive comments on the
contents of the work. We are especially grateful to Dr. B. Bandyopadhyay, the current Advisor
and Head of SEC and to his colleagues, not only for extending suggestions, but also for providing
useful materials and information on new glazings and government initiatives, undertaken by
various State Governments. We are grateful to Prof. K.R. Rao and Prof. N.K. Bansal, the
reviewers of this project work. Our special thanks are due to Prof. Rao for going through the draft
in a very detailed fashion and providing us valuable suggestions for improving the contents.
On a personal basis, we had solicited opinions from a number of experts and
professionals. We have sought opinions and suggestions on the Table of Contents of the book
from Prof. N.K. Bansal, Prof. U.N. Gaitonde, Prof. C.L. Gupta, Prof. R. Hazra, Mr. Anil Misra,
Prof. K.R. Rao, Prof. R.L. Sawhney, Prof. M.S. Sodha, Prof. S.P. Sukhatme, Prof. G.N. Tiwari,
Mr. Pankaj Agarwal and architects Sabu Francis, Vinod Gupta, Uttam Jain, Sen Kapadia, Prof. S.
Kolhatkar, Prof. Rajiv Mishra, Sanjay Mhatre, D.G. Parab and Sanjay Prakash. Some of them
attended a discussion meeting to finalise the contents of the book. Besides, a few of them had
gone through the draft copy of the book and provided us various suggestions and comments. A
book of this kind could not have become meaningful without their feedback. We are grateful to
them for their valuable comments.
Prof. R.L. Sawhney and Dr. Mahendra Joshi, D.A.V. Indore have, not only made some
specific calculations on earth-air pipe cooling system, but also have drafted the appropriate text
for that section. We are sincerely grateful to both of them. Dr. Ashvini Kumar, Director, MNES
has carried out calculations on roof surface evaporative cooling for the book. Besides, we have
received many valuable inputs from him throughout the writing of the handbook. We are grateful
to him.
The authors grateful to the Director and Dean (R & D) of IIT Bombay for providing
infrastructural help. We appreciate the contributions of young students (Ayush, Chetan, Aman
and Shashikant) of IIT Bombay, who helped us on collecting relevant materials and information.
We are also grateful to the staff and students of Energy Systems Engineering of IIT Bombay for
their kind support. Special thanks to Pravin for preparing the text and Vinayaka for tables and
figures. We are indebted to the authors and editors of all books, journals, standards, etc. that we
have referred to. We are grateful to Ms. Prema Prakash for going through the manuscript in
minute details and painstakingly correcting the text, tables, figures, etc. We are thankful to Mr.
Yogesh Nayak, Vimal Offset for taking enough care for printing the book.
Last but not the least, we are grateful to our family for bearing with us.
J.K. Nayak
J. A. Prajapati
Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CLIMATE AND BUILDINGS
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Factors affecting climate
2.2.1 Weather data
2.3
Climatic zones and their characteristics
2.3.1 Hot and dry
2.3.2 Warm and humid
2.3.3 Moderate
2.3.4 Composite
2.3.5 Cold and cloudy
2.3.6 Cold and sunny
2.4
Implications of climate on building design
2.5
Urban climate
2.6
Microclimate
2.7
Tools for analyzing weather data
2.8
Illustrative example
References
3. PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY CONSCIOUS DESIGN
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Building Envelope
3.2.1 Site
3.2.2 Orientation
3.2.3 Building Configuration
3.2.4 Building Components
3.3
Passive Heating
3.3.1 Direct Gain
3.3.2 Indirect Gain
3.3.2.1 Thermal storage wall
3.3.2.2 Roof top collectors
3.3.3 Isolated Gain
3.3.4 Solarium (Attached greenhouse / sunspace)
3.4
Passive Cooling
3.4.1 Ventilation Cooling
3.4.1.1 Cross ventilation
3.4.1.2 Wind tower
3.4.1.3 Induced ventilation
3.4.1.4 Nocturnal cooling
3.4.2 Evaporative Cooling
3.4.2.1 Passive downdraft evaporative cooling (PDEC)
3.4.2.2 Roof surface evaporative cooling (RSEC)
3.4.2.3 Direct evaporative cooling using drip-type (desert) coolers
3.4.3 Nocturnal Radiation Cooling

3.4.4 Desiccant Cooling
3.4.5 Earth Coupling
3.4.5.1 Earth-air pipe system
3.5
Daylighting
3.5.1 Basic Principles of Daylighting
3.5.2 Daylighting Systems
3.6
Building Materials
3.6.1 Embodied Energy of Building Materials
3.6.2 Alternative Building Materials
References
4. THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF BUILDINGS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Heat Transfer
4.2.1 Conduction
4.2.2 Convection
4.2.3 Radiation
4.2.4 Evaporation
4.3 Solar Radiation
4.3.1 Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
4.3.1.1 Unshaded surface
4.3.1.2 Shaded surface
4.4 Simplified Method for Performance Estimation
4.4.1 Conduction
4.4.2 Ventilation
4.4.3 Solar Heat Gain
4.4.4 Internal Gain
4.4.5 Evaporation
4.4.6 Equipment gain
4.5 Example
4.6 Computer-based Tools
References
5. DESIGN GUIDELINES
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Description of Buildings
5.2.1 Commercial Building
5.2.2 Industrial Building
5.2.3 Residential Building (Bungalow)
5.3
Methodology
5.4
General Recommendations
5.4.1 Hot and Dry Climate
5.4.2 Warm and Humid Climate
5.4.3 Moderate Climate
5.4.4 Cold and Cloudy and Cold and Sunny Climate

5.4.5 Composite Climate
5.5
Specific Guidelines
5.5.1 Hot and Dry Climate (Representative City: Jodhpur)
5.5.1.1 Commercial building
5.5.1.2 Industrial building
5.5.1.3 Residential building (bungalow)
5.5.2 Warm and Humid Climate (Representative City: Mumbai)
5.5.3 Moderate Climate (Representative City: Pune)
5.5.4 Composite Climate (Representative City: New Delhi)
5.5.5 Cold and Cloudy Climate (Representative City: Srinagar)
5.5.6 Cold and Sunny Climate (Representative City: Leh)
5.6
Summary
References
6.INTEGRATION OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
6.1
Renewable energy Technologies
6.1.1 Solar Water Heating Systems
6.1.2 Solar Air Heating Systems
6.1.3 Solar Cooking Systems
6.1.4 Solar Photovoltaic Devices
6.1.5 Biomass
6.2
Promotional Incentives
6.3
Conservation Measures
6.4
Examples
References
7. CASE STUDIES
7.1
Inspector General of Police (IGP) Complex, Gulbarga
7.2
Auroville Ecohouse, Auroville
7.3
Centre for Application of Science and Technology for Rural Areas (ASTRA), Bangalore
7.4
Solar Energy Centre, Gurgaon
7.5
H.P. State Co-operative Bank Building, Shimla
7.6
S.O.S. Tibetan Children's Village, Choglamsar
References
Glossary
SI Units
SI prefixes
Greek Alphabets
Conversion factors
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Energy is a basic requirement for the existence and development of human life.
Primarily, the commercial sources such as fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas),
hydroelectric power and nuclear power provide the energy needs of a country. The
demand for energy is growing at an alarming rate year after year. For example, according
to International Energy Agency (IEA), the global consumption of energy has increased
from 4606 Mtoe (million ton oil equivalent) in 1973, to 7287 Mtoe in 2003. On the other
hand, the fossil fuels are rapidly depleting and the era of fossil fuel is gradually coming to
an end. The accelerated demand and the depletion of resources have caused a steep hike
in the cost of fossil fuel. Besides, the combustion of fossil fuels has caused air pollution
resulting in global warming and ozone layer depletion. In addition, the release of harmful
gases into the atmosphere is causing serious problems for living organisms. Similarly, the
release of large amounts of waste heat from power plants to water bodies causes water
pollution. In case of large hydroelectric power projects, submerging of land thereby
destroying valuable plant life and displacing inhabitants has become a serious
concern. The fear of release of radioactivity into the atmosphere in the event of an
accident or from nuclear waste has forced people to reconsider the use of nuclear power.
In view of these problems associated with conventional energy sources, the focus is now
shifting to conservation of energy, and to the search for renewable sources of energy that
are also environmentally benign.
With the increase in standards of living, the consumption of energy in buildings is
progressively rising. The boom in building sector is going to create further demands,
resulting in greater pressure on the energy supply situation. In this context, the
conservation of energy in buildings through appropriate construction, operation and
maintenance practices assume prime importance.
The primary function of a building is to provide a comfortable indoor
environment. Traditional buildings of earlier times had many built-in architectural
features for achieving comfort. Unlike animals and birds that build their shelters
intuitively and adapt themselves to environmental changes, man has relied on various
resources to build shelters for protection from heat, cold and rain. They are shaped and
planned to take maximum advantage of the climate and surroundings. Gradually, as
newer materials and techniques of construction developed, vernacular built forms
evolved to provide a harmonious balance between buildings, climate and peoples
lifestyle. A number of passive solar techniques were adopted in vernacular architecture in
the various climatic zones. Control of the microclimate around the building was always
an important design consideration. While planning a town, care was taken to orient the
streets keeping the effects of sun and wind in mind. For example, towns in Gujarat and
Rajasthan, which experience a hot and dry climate, had rowhouses with common walls.
These were tightly packed along with streets and lanes to minimize exposure to direct sun
and hot winds. The front faades were further shaded with well-articulated balconies
called jharokhas. Each house had an open courtyard which acted as an exhaust for
warm air and provided enough natural light for the interior of the house.
With technological advancement, people failed to continue the tradition of
maintaining harmonious balance between buildings, climate and their lifestyle. Modern
architecture has become a conquest of nature in the sense that, environmental
conditions notwithstanding, a building could be given a sleek, clean and wellproportioned exterior faade, and the interior made as comfortable as required with the
help of artificial devices. However, the drawback is that, such buildings consume an
enormous amount of energy.
A growing worldwide concern for conservation of energy has reawakened interest
in ecologically sustainable materials, processes and sources of energy. With the
availability of newer materials and techniques, and with changing demands on built
spaces, achieving thermal and visual comfort in buildings has become a design challenge
for modern architects, building engineers and scientists. Various analytical methods have
been developed using which, the techniques evolved in the past are now scientifically
understood, appropriately quantified and improved. These have led to the evolution of
energy conscious building. Energy conscious building involves the use of eco-friendly
and less energy intensive materials, incorporation of passive solar techniques (including
day lighting features) and integration of renewable energy technologies. It also includes
conservation of water and waste water recycling, rainfall harvesting and the use of
energy-efficient appliances in buildings. For example, in a commercial building, the
cooling load can be saved by about 26% in a hot and dry climate (like Jodhpur) by
adopting appropriate design considerations and operation strategies. Simple design
procedures such as orientation, shading, insulation, etc. can be easily incorporated in any
building, leading to substantial benefits from the point of view of comfort and energy
savings. In some climates, simple techniques alone may not be adequate for achieving
ideal comfort conditions. In such cases, advanced features such as wind tower, roof pond,
Trombe wall, etc. may be used. Even in conditioned buildings, where mechanical devices
are used to create a comfortable environment, the use of passive methods would help
reduce the energy consumption. Further, the integration of photovoltaic systems as well
as active systems such as hot water or hot air systems would further reduce the
consumption of conventional energy.
In spite of access to a large information base and pioneering work in this field, the
idea of energy conscious design approach has is not quite caught on. The expertise
developed at various institutes in India has not percolated to architects at large, especially
in a form that can be directly implemented in their designs. This book endeavours to
orient practising architects towards the importance and benefits of energy conscious
building.
A brief outline of each chapter of the book is as follows:
Chapter 2 presents basic information regarding climate and its effects on
buildings. A description of the characteristics of the different climatic zones of India is
given.
The principles of passive solar architecture including simple and advanced
techniques are described in detail in Chapter 3. Wherever possible, the principles are also
accompanied by the details of construction. Additionally, day lighting is described
separately as a passive solar technique.
The thermal performance of a conditioned building refers to the estimation of its
heating and cooling loads, energy demand, and sizing and selection of HVAC equipment.
For a non-conditioned building, it is the calculation of temperature variation inside the
building over a specified time, and the estimation of uncomfortable periods. The
quantification of these aspects determines the performance of a building design and helps
in evolving improved designs for achieving comfortable indoor conditions. Chapter 4
presents the basic concepts that enable an architect to understand the various aspects of
estimation of the thermal performance of a building design.
Chapter 5 provides guidelines on passive techniques for three types of buildings,
namely, commercial, industrial and residential buildings. Because the design of passive
solar buildings is climatic specific, the guidelines have been structured climate-wise.
The integration of renewable technologies in building design, conservation of
water and rain water harvesting are discussed in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 presents a few case studies to illustrate the use of various passive
techniques and new building materials.
A technical glossary and a number of appendices containing useful information
supplement the main chapters.
---------------------
CHAPTER - 2
CLIMATE AND BUILDINGS
Contents:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Factors affecting climate
2.3 Climatic zones and their characteristics
2.4 Implications of climate on building design
2.5 Urban climate
2.6 Microclimate
2.7 Tools for analysing weather data
2.8 Illustrative example
References
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The weather of a place represents the state of the atmospheric environment over a brief period
of time. Integrated weather condition over several years is generally referred to as climate or more
specifically, as the macro-climate. An analysis of the climate of a particular region can help in
assessing the seasons or periods during which a person may experience comfortable or
uncomfortable conditions. It further helps in identifying the climatic elements, as well as their
severity, that cause discomfort. The information helps a designer to build a house that filters out
adverse climatic effects, while simultaneously allowing those that are beneficial. Discomfort and
the corresponding energy demand for mechanical systems can be significantly reduced by
judicious control of the climatic effects. The built-form and arrangement of openings of a building
can be suitably derived from this analysis. For example, in a place like Mumbai, one feels hot and
sweaty owing to intense solar radiation accompanied by high humidity. Here, the building design
should be such that (a) it is sufficiently shaded to prevent solar radiation from entering the house
and, (b) it is ventilated to reduce discomfort due to high humidity. On the other hand, in a place
like Shimla, it is necessary to maintain warmth inside the building due to the predominantly cold
climate. Climate thus plays a pivotal role in determining the design and construction of a building.
In this chapter, we will review the various aspects of climate and the methods of its analysis.
This includes a brief description of the various climatic factors and climatic zones of India. The
design requirements of buildings in different climatic zones are discussed and tabulated.
Illustrative examples provide information on how to analyse the climatic conditions of a place.
2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE
Both weather and climate are characterised by the certain variables known as climatic
factors [1]. They are as follows:
(A) Solar radiation
(B) Ambient temperature
(C) Air humidity
(D) Precipitation
(E) Wind
(F) Sky condition
(A) Solar radiation

Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity of sunrays
falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in Watts per square metre (W/m2). The
radiation incident on a surface varies from moment to moment depending on its geographic
location (latitude and longitude of the place), orientation, season, time of day and atmospheric
conditions (Fig. 2.1). Solar radiation is the most important weather variable that determines
whether a place experiences high temperatures or is predominantly cold. The instruments used for
measuring of solar radiation are the pyranometer and the pyrheliometer. The duration of sunshine
is measured using a sunshine recorder.
EXAMPLE:
BUILDING ON A SOUTH
FACING SLOPE IN
SHIMLA WILL RECEIVE
MORE RADIATION COMPARED
TO OTHER ORIENTATIONS
SOLAR RADIATION ON SURFACES NORMAL TO SUNS' RAYS

IS HIGHER THAN ON HORIZONTAL SURFACES
EFFECT OF ORIENTATION
(a)
EXAMPLE:
NORTHWEST ROOM TENDS TO
GET HOTTEST IN MUMBAI
IN APRIL, MAY AND JUNE
IN OTHER MONTHS
SOUTHWEST ROOM
TENDS TO BE HOTTEST
SUN IN NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

IN SUMMER FOR MUMBAI (LATITUDE 19.12 N)
SUN IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

IN WINTER FOR MUMBAI (LATITUDE 19.12 N)
EFFECT OF SEASON
(b)
Fig. 2.1 Factors affecting solar radiation

(a) effect of orientation, (b) effect of season
EXAMPLE:
MUMBAI IS COOL IN THE
MONTH OF AUGUST DUE
TO PRESENCE OF CLOUDS
AND RAINFALL
DIRECT SUNLIGHT
IN SUMMERS
SUNLIGHT CUT-OFF IN MONSOON

DUE TO PRESENCE OF CLOUDS
EFFECT OF SKY COVER
(c)
EXAMPLE:
AT NOON, A HORIZONTAL ROOF WILL
GET MAXIMUM SOLAR RADIATION
IN LATE AFTERNOONS,
SOUTHWEST WALLS RECIEVE
MORE RADIATION
SUN DIRECTLY OVERHEAD AT NOON

THEREFORE SOLAR RADIATION IS MORE
SUN AT AN ANGLE IN EVENING

THEREFORE SOLAR RADIATION IS LESS
EFFECT OF TIME
(d)
Fig. 2.1 Factors affecting solar radiation (cont.)

(c) effect of sky cover, (d) effect of time
(B) Ambient temperature

The temperature of air in a shaded (but well ventilated) enclosure is known as the ambient
temperature; it is generally expressed in degree Celsius (C). Temperature at a given site depends
on wind as well as local factors such as shading, presence of water body, sunny condition, etc.
When the wind speed is low, local factors strongly influence on temperature of air close to the
ground. With higher wind speeds, the temperature of the incoming air is less affected by local
factors. The effect of various factors on the ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 2.2. A simple
thermometer kept in a Stevensons screen can measure ambient temperature.
DECIDUOUS TREES PROVIDE SHADE

IN SUMMER AND ALLOW
SUNLIGHT IN WINTER
TREE SHADES GROUND, HENCE SURROUNDING

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE IS REDUCED
EFFECT OF SHADING
EXAMPLE:
POOLS AND FOUNTAINS AT
FATEHPUR - SIKRI USED FOR
COOLING DIWAN-E-KHAS
EVAPORATION OF WATER REDUCES

TEMPERATURE OF AMBIENT AIR
EFFECT OF WATER BODY
COOL NIGHT AIR CAN

BE UTILISED TO COOL
STRUCTURE AND SPACES BY
VENTILATION
ON CLEAR NIGHTS RE-RADIATION

BACK TO SKY REDUCES AMBIENT TEMPERATURES
EFFECT OF SKY CONDITION
Fig. 2.2 Factors affecting ambient temperature
(C) Air humidity

Air humidity, which represents the amount of moisture present in the air, is usually
expressed in terms of relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of
water vapour in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature, to the mass of water vapour
in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature; it is normally expressed as a
percentage. It varies considerably, tending to be the highest close to dawn when the air
temperature is at its lowest, and decreasing as the air temperature rises. The decrease in the relative
humidity towards midday tends to be the largest in summer. In areas with high humidity levels, the
transmission of solar radiation is reduced because of atmospheric absorption and scattering. High
humidity reduces evaporation of water and sweat. Consequently, high humidity accompanied by
high ambient temperature causes a lot of discomfort. The effects of various combinations of
humidity and ambient temperature are presented in Fig. 2.3.
EVAPORATIVE COOLING CAN

PROVIDE COMFORT
AIR MOVEMENT BY CROSS
VENTILATION CAN REDUCE
DISCOMFORT
e.g. USE OF DESERT COOLERS
HIGH HUMIDITY AND HIGH TEMPERATURE

CAUSES DISCOMFORT IF PERSPIRATION
IS NOT DISSIPATED
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

AND HIGH HUMIDITY
DRY AIR LEADS TO FASTER RATE OF

EVAPORATION IF ACCOMPANIED BY HIGH TEMPERATURE
RESULTING IN DEHYDRATION AND HEAT STROKE
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

AND LOW HUMIDITY
CONDENSATION MAY LEAD

TO DETERIORATION OF
BUILDING MATERIALS
VERY LOW TEMPERATURE AND HIGH HUMIDITY

RESULTS IN CONDENSATION
OCCURING ON COOLER SIDE OF SURFACE
EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE

AND HIGH HUMIDITY
Fig. 2.3 Effects of air humidity
(D) Precipitation
Precipitation includes water in all its forms rain, snow, hail or dew. It is usually measured
in millimeters (mm) by using a rain gauge. The effects of precipitation on buildings are illustrated
in Fig. 2.4.
(E) Wind
Wind is the movement of air due to a difference in atmospheric pressure, caused by
differential heating of land and water mass on the earths surface by solar radiation and rotation of
earth. Wind speed can be measured by an anemometer and is usually expressed in metres per
second (m/s). It is a major design consideration for architects because it affects indoor comfort
conditions by influencing the convective heat exchanges of a building envelope, as well as causing
air infiltration into the building (Fig. 2.5).
- OFTEN LEADS TO DECAY

OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURE
RAINFALL IN WARMER REGIONS TENDS TO

COOL STRUCTURE AND SURROUNDINGS
PRECIPITATION IN THE FORM OF SNOW

CAN PROVIDE ADDITIONAL LAYER OF INSULATION
EFFECT OF RAINFALL
EFFECT OF SNOW
Fig. 2.4 Precipitation

- IN COLD REGIONS, WIND
NEEDS TO BE RESTRICTED
- IN HUMID REGIONS, MODERATE
INTENSITY WINDS ARE WELCOME
- IN HOT AND DRY AREAS, WIND
NEEDS TO BE CONTROLLED AND
HUMIDIFIED
TERRAIN AND MASSING OF BUILDINGS

AFFECT WIND SPEED
Fig. 2.5 Factors affecting wind
(F) Sky condition

Sky condition generally refers to the extent of cloud cover in the sky or the duration of
sunshine. Under clear sky conditions, the intensity of solar radiation increases; whereas it reduces
in monsoon due to cloud cover. The re-radiation losses from the external surfaces of buildings
increase when facing clear skies than covered skies. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6. The
measurement of sky cover is expressed in oktas. For example, 3 oktas means that 3/8th of the
visible sky is covered by clouds.
CLOUD COVER
CLEAR SKY
BUILDINGS SHADED BY CLOUD COVER

RECEIVE LESS SOLAR RADIATION
Fig. 2.6 Effect of sky condition
In addition to these factors, a number of natural elements such as hills, valleys,

waterbodies, vegetation, etc. affect the climate locally. Buildings, cities and other man-made
features also have an impact on the climate. The effects of such features are discussed in the
section 2.6 under Microclimate.
2.2.1 Weather Data
The data of all weather variables are recorded at various meteorological stations by the
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), and are also available in a number of books [1-5].
Synthetic data for solar radiation have been generated by ISHRAE [6] as well as Mani and
Rangarajan [7]. The distributions of hours of sunshine, global and diffuse solar radiation on an
annual basis are presented in Fig. 2.7-2.9 [2]. It can be seen from Fig. 2.7 that Rajasthan, Gujarat,
west Madhya Pradesh and north Maharashtra receive more than 3000 to 3200 hours of bright
sunshine in a year. Over 2600 to 2800 hours of bright sunshine are available over the rest of the
country, except Kerala, the north-eastern states, and Jammu and Kashmir where they are
appreciably lower. The corresponding information for different months of the year is also available
in the handbook [2]. During monsoon (June August), a significant decrease in sunshine occurs
over the whole country except Jammu and Kashmir where the maximum duration of sunshine
occurs in June and July, and minimum in January due to its location. The north-eastern states and
south-east peninsula also receive relatively less sunshine during October and November due to the
north-east monsoons. As far as the availability of global solar radiation is concerned, more than
2000 kWh/m2-year are received over Rajasthan and Gujarat, while east Bihar, north West Bengal
and the north-eastern states receive less than 1700 kWh/m2-year (Fig. 2.8). The availability of
diffuse solar radiation varies widely in the country (Fig. 2.9). The annual pattern shows a
minimum of 740 kWh/m2-year over Rajasthan increasing eastwards to 840 kWh/m2-year in the
north-eastern states, and south wards to 920 kWh/m2-year. The monthly availability of global and
diffuse solar radiation over entire country is presented in the Handbook of solar radiation data for
India by Mani [2].
28
00
00
30
00
32
20
22
00
26
00
00
24
00
3000
3029
2445
28
0
260
0
2591
2400
3127
0
220
2190
3285
32
00
2000
2993
2701
2847
280
2847
2665
2737
2600
2737
28
00
1971
00
28
2400
2600
2299
Fig. 2.7 Distribution of annual sunshine hours [2]
The ambient temperature varies across the country. The maps showing the highest
maximum and lowest minimum temperature isopleths are shown in Fig. 2.10 and 2.11 [8]. A map
showing the average rainfall along with main direction of winds is presented in Fig. 2.12 [8].
SRN
LEH
1638
18
19 00 JMU
00
20
00
21
CNG
00
DLH
2026
DBH
DJG
JPR
JDH 2173.2
KNP
LKN
GHT
SHL1648.6
IMP
1700
AGT
PTN
2097.9
AHM
BHI
BHP
RNC
JBP
BHV
2108.2
1800
00
NGP1984.4
1900
BHW
1972.2
BMB
PNE2083.3
0
00
20
1805
CAL
2000
HYD
2029.1
VSK
GOA2064.7
2000
1813
MNC
MNG
1987.8
BNG MDS
2061.6
TRP
KDK
2006.9
00
20
2058
TRV
PBL
1625.5
Fig. 2.8 Distribution of annual global solar radiation (kWh/m2-year) [2]
78
0
840
820
800
780
840
763.4
840
766.9
758.5
78
0
820
780.2
820
856.5
840
760
776.6
740
800
780
731.9
800
773.2
820
76
0
775.6
797.4
800
820
809.9
820
840
840
860
860
859.4
880
880
900
900
920
924.9
Fig. 2.9 Distribution of annual diffuse solar radiation (kWh/m2-year) [2]
45.0
47.5
50.0
37.5
50.0
42.5
37.5
>40.0
40.0
50.0
40.0
50.0
47.5
45.0
42.5
<45.0
45.0
42.5
40.0
45.0
42.5
>47.5
45.0
40.0
45.0
37.5
45.0
42.5
40.0
37.5
Fig. 2.10 Maximum temperature isopleths [8]
40.0
-7.5
-5.0
-2.5
-2.5
-7.5
-5.0
-2.5
-2.5
0
>5.0
2.5
>5.0
2.5 0
5.0
5.0
5.0
7.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
10.0
12.5
12.5
15.0
<10.0
15.0
17.5
17.5
Fig. 2.11 Minimum temperature isopleths [8]
2.5
5.0
5
10
20
30
- THE ARROWS SHOW THE MAIN LINES OF AIR MOTION

- RAINFALL IS SHOWN IN INCHES
5
10
20
30
50
50
30
20
10
200
200
150
5
50
100
200 150
10
100
50
50
50
30
20
CONVERSION
SCALE
in.
cm.
200 500
150
50
75
20
100
20
150
50
30
20
50
400
300
100
50
200
50
0
100
0
100
75
30
50 30
Fig. 2.12 Average rainfall and main wind direction [8]
2.3 CLIMATIC ZONES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Regions having similar characteristic features of climate are grouped under one climatic zone.
Based on the climatic factors discussed in the previous section, the country can be divided into a
number of climatic zones. Bansal et al. [1] had carried out detailed studies and reported that India
can be divided into six climatic zones, namely, hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate, cold and
cloudy, cold and sunny, and composite. The criteria of classification are presented in Table 2.1 and
Fig. 2.13(a) shows the climatic zones. A place is assigned to one of the first five climatic zones
only when the defined conditions prevail there for more than six months. In cases where none of
the defined categories can be identified for six months or longer, the climatic zone is called
composite [1]. According to a recent code of Bureau of Indian Standards [9], the country may be
divided into five major climatic zones. Table 2.1 presents the criteria of this classification as well;
Fig. 2.13(b) shows the corresponding climatic classification map of India. It is seen that the recent
classification is not very different from the earlier one except that the cold and cloudy, and cold
and sunny have been grouped together as cold climate; the moderate climate is renamed as
temperate climate. However, a small variation is noticed as far as the land area of the country
corresponding to different zones is concerned (Fig. 2.13(a) and (b)). In this book, we have
followed the former classification. It may be mentioned that each climatic zone does not
experience the same climate for the whole year. It has a particular season for more than six months
and may experience other seasons for the remaining period.
Table 2.1 Classification of Climates
Criteria of Bansal et al. [1]
Climate
Mean monthly Relative
temperature
humidity
(oC)
(%)
Hot and dry
>30
<55
Warm and
humid
Moderate
Cold and
cloudy
Cold and
sunny
Composite
>30
>55
25-30
<75
<25
>55
<25
<55
Criteria of SP 7: 2005 [9]

Climate
Mean monthly
Relative
maximum
humidity
temperature(oC)
(%)
Hot and
>30
<55
dry
Warm and
>30
>55
humid
>25
>75
Temperate
25-30
<75
Cold
This applies, when six

months or more do not fall
within any of the above
categories
Composite
<25
All values
This applies, when six months

or more do not fall within any of
the above categories
Fig. 2.13a Climatic zones of India [1]
Fig. 2.13b Climatic zones of India [9]
The characteristic features of each climate are described briefly in the following
subsections.
2.3.1
Hot and Dry
The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India; Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and
Sholapur are some of the towns that experience this type of climate.
A typical hot and dry region is usually flat with sandy or rocky ground conditions, and
sparse vegetation comprising cacti, thorny trees and bushes. There are few sources of water on the
surface, and the underground water level is also very low. Due to intense solar radiation (values as
high as 800-950 W/m2), the ground and the surroundings of this region are heated up very quickly
during day time. In summer, the maximum ambient temperatures are as high as 4045 C during
the day, and 2030 C at night. In winter, the values are between 5 and 25 C during the day and 0
to 10 C at night. It may be noted that the diurnal variation in temperature is quite high, that is,
more than 10 C.
The climate is described as dry because the relative humidity is generally very low, ranging
from 25 to 40 % due to low vegetation and surface water bodies. Moreover, the hot and dry
regions receive less rainfall- the annual precipitation being less than 500 mm.
Hot winds blow during the day in summers and sand storms are also experienced. The
night is usually cool and pleasant. A generally clear sky, with high solar radiation causing an
uncomfortable glare, is typical of this zone. As the sky is clear at night, the heat absorbed by the
ground during the day is quickly dissipated to the atmosphere. Hence, the air is much cooler at
night than during the day.
In such a climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot winds.
The design criteria should therefore aim at resisting heat gain by providing shading, reducing
exposed area, controlling and scheduling ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity. The
presence of water bodies is desirable as they can help increase the humidity, thereby leading to
lower air temperatures. The ground and surrounding objects emit a lot of heat in the afternoons and
evenings. As far as possible, this heat should be avoided by appropriate design features.
2.3.2
Warm and Humid

The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country. Some cities that fall
under this zone are Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. The high humidity encourages abundant
vegetation in these regions.
The diffuse fraction of solar radiation is quite high due to cloud cover, and the radiation
can be intense on clear days. The dissipation of the accumulated heat from the earth to the night
sky is generally marginal due to the presence of clouds. Hence, the diurnal variation in temperature
is quite low. In summer, temperatures can reach as high as 30 35 C during the day, and
25 30 C at night. In winter, the maximum temperature is between 25 to 30 C during the day and
20 to 25 C at night. Although the temperatures are not excessive, the high humidity causes
discomfort.
An important characteristic of this region is the relative humidity, which is generally very
high, about 70 90 % throughout the year. Precipitation is also high, being about 1200 mm per
year, or even more. Hence, the provision for quick drainage of water is essential in this zone.
The wind is generally from one or two prevailing directions with speeds ranging from
extremely low to very high. Wind is desirable in this climate, as it can cause sensible cooling of
the body.
The main design criteria in the warm and humid region are to reduce heat gain by
providing shading, and promote heat loss by maximising cross ventilation. Dissipation of humidity
is also essential to reduce discomfort.
2.3.3
Moderate
Pune and Bangalore are examples of cities that fall under this climatic zone. Areas having a
moderate climate are generally located on hilly or high-plateau regions with fairly abundant
vegetation.
The solar radiation in this region is more or less the same throughout the year. Being
located at relatively higher elevations, these places experience lower temperatures than hot and dry
regions. The temperatures are neither too hot nor too cold. In summers, the temperature reaches
30 34 C during the day and 17 24 C at night. In winter, the maximum temperature is between
27 to 33 C during the day and 16 to 18 C at night.
The relative humidity is low in winters and summers, varying from 20 55%, and going
upto 55 90% during monsoons. The total rainfall usually exceeds 1000 mm per year. Winters are
dry in this zone. Winds are generally high during summer. Their speed and direction depend
mainly upon the topography. The sky is mostly clear with occasional presence of low, dense
clouds during summers.
The design criteria in the moderate zone are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and to
promote heat loss by ventilation.
2.3.4
Composite
The composite zone covers the central part of India. Some cities that experience this type
of climate are New Delhi, Kanpur and Allahabad. A variable landscape and seasonal vegetation
characterise this zone. The intensity of solar radiation is very high in summer with diffuse
radiation amounting to a small fraction of the total. In monsoons, the intensity is low with
predominantly diffuse radiation. The maximum daytime temperature in summers is in the range of
32 43 C, and night time values are from 27 to 32 C. In winter, the values are between 10 to 25
C during the day and 4 to 10 C at night.
The relative humidity is about 20 25 % in dry periods and 55 95 % in wet periods. The
presence of high humidity during monsoon months is one of the reasons why places like New
Delhi and Nagpur are grouped under the composite and not hot and dry climate. Precipitation in
this zone varies between 500 1300 mm per year. This region receives strong winds during
monsoons from the south-east and dry cold winds from the north-east. In summer, the winds are
hot and dusty. The sky is overcast and dull in the monsoon, clear in winter and frequently hazy in
summer.
Generally, composite regions experience higher humidity levels during monsoons than hot
and dry zones. Otherwise most of their characteristics are similar to the latter. Thus, the design
criteria are more or less the same as for hot and dry climate except that maximising cross
ventilation is desirable in the monsoon period.
2.3.5
Cold and Cloudy

Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. Most cold and cloudy
regions are situated at high altitudes. Ootacamund, Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and Mahabaleshwar
are examples of places belonging to this climatic zone. These are generally highland regions
having abundant vegetation in summer.
The intensity of solar radiation is low in winter with a high percentage of diffuse radiation.
Hence, winters are extremely cold. In summer, the maximum ambient temperature is in the range
of 20 30 C during the day and 17 27 C at night, making summers quite pleasant. In winter, the
values range between 4 and 8 C during the day and from -3 to 4 C at night, making it quite chilly.
The relative humidity is generally high and ranges from 70 80 %. Annual total
precipitation is about 1000 mm and is distributed evenly throughout the year. This region
experiences cold winds in the winter season. Hence, protection from winds is essential in this type
of climate. The sky is overcast for most part of the year except during the brief summer.
Conditions in summer are usually clear and pleasant, but owing to cold winters, the main
criteria for design in the cold and cloudy region aim at resisting heat loss by insulation and
infiltration, and promoting heat gain by directly admitting and trapping solar radiation within the
living space.
2.3.6
Cold and Sunny
The cold and sunny type of climate is experienced in Leh (Ladakh). The region is
mountainous, has little vegetation, and is considered to be a cold desert.
The solar radiation is generally intense with a very low percentage of diffuse radiation. In
summer, the temperature reaches 17 24 C during the day and 4 11 C at night. In winter, the
values range from -7 to 8 C during the day and -14 to 0 C at night. Winters thus, are extremely
cold. The relative humidity is consistently low ranging from about 10 50 % and precipitation is
generally less than 200 mm per year. Winds are occasionally intense. The sky is fairly clear
throughout the year with a cloud cover of less than 50%.
As this region experiences cold desert climatic conditions, the design criteria are to resist
heat loss by insulation and controlling infiltration. Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be promoted
by admitting and trapping solar radiation within the living space.
2.4 IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE ON BUILDING DESIGN
The characteristics of each climate differ and accordingly the comfort requirements vary
from one climatic zone to another. Before proceeding further, it would be useful to define comfort
and the conditions that affect it. According to ASHRAE [10], thermal comfort is, that condition
of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. It is also, the range of
climatic conditions within which a majority of the people would not feel discomfort either of heat
or cold. Such a zone in still air corresponds to a range of 20 30 C dry bulb temperature with 30
60 % relative humidity. Besides, various climatic elements such as wind speed, vapour pressure
and radiation also affect the comfort conditions.
Fig. 2.14 Bio-climatic chart
Figure 2.14 illustrates a Comfort Zone on a bio-climatic chart [11] a simple tool for
analysing the climate of a particular place. It indicates the zones of human comfort based on
ambient temperature and humidity, mean radiant temperature, wind speed, solar radiation and
evaporative cooling. On the chart, dry bulb temperature is used as the ordinate, and relative
humidity as the abscissa. Based on the dry bulb temperature and humidity of a place, one can
locate a point on the chart. If it lies within the comfort zone, then the conditions are comfortable.
In case it is above the zone, cooling is required; if it is below the zone, heating is needed. If the
point is higher than the upper perimeter of the comfort zone, air movement needs to be increased.
For conditions when the temperature is high and relative humidity is low, air movement will not
help. On the other hand, evaporative cooling is desirable. If the point lies below the lower
perimeter of the comfort zone, heating is necessary to counteract low dry-bulb temperature. If the
point lies to the left of the comfort zone, either radiant heating or cooling is necessary. Thus, a bioclimatic chart can give ready information about the requirements of comfort at a particular time.
Design decisions can be taken accordingly.
Based on the characteristics of climate, the comfort requirements for each climatic zone
are presented in Table 2.2. The corresponding physical manifestations are also mentioned in the
table.
Table 2.2 Comfort requirements and physical manifestation
1)Hot and Dry Region
OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain
Decrease exposed surface area
Increase thermal resistance
Increase thermal capacity (Time lag)
Increase buffer spaces
Decrease air exchange rate
(ventilation during day-time)
Increase shading
Increase surface reflectivity
2)Promote heat loss

Ventilation of appliances
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation
during night-time)
Increase humidity levels
PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION
Orientation and shape of building
Insulation of building envelope
Massive structure
Air locks/ lobbies/balconies/verandahs
Weather stripping and scheduling air
changes
External surfaces protected by overhangs,
fins and trees
Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles etc.
Provide windows/ exhausts

Courtyards/ wind towers/ arrangement of
openings
Trees, water ponds, evaporative cooling
2)Warm and Humid Region

OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain

Increase shading
2)Promote heat loss

Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation
throughout the day)
Decrease humidity levels
Roof insulation and wall insulation.
Reflective surface of roof.
Balconies and verandahs
Walls, glass surfaces protected by
overhangs, fins and trees
Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles, etc.

Ventilated roof construction. Courtyards, wind
towers and arrangement of openings
Dehumidifiers/ desiccant cooling
3)Moderate Region
OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain
Increase shading
2)Promote heat loss

Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation)
Roof insulation and east and west wall
insulation
East and west walls, glass surfaces protected
by overhangs, fins and trees

Courtyards and arrangement of openings
4)Cold and Cloudy Region (Applies for Cold and Sunny also)
OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat loss

Increase surface absorptivity
2)Promote heat gain

Reduce shading
Utilise heat from appliances
Trapping heat
Orientation and shape of building. Use of trees
as wind barriers
Roof insulation, wall insulation and double
glazing
Thicker walls
Air locks/ Lobbies
Weather stripping
Darker colours
Walls and glass surfaces

Sun spaces/ green houses/ Trombe walls etc.
5)Composite Region
OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain in summer and Resist
heat loss in winter

Increase shading
2)Promote heat loss in summer/ monsoon

Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation)
Increase humidity levels in dry summer

Decrease humidity in monsoon

as wind barriers
Roof insulation and wall insulation
Thicker walls
Air locks/ Balconies
Weather stripping
Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs,
fins and trees
Provide exhausts
openings
Trees and water ponds for evaporative cooling
2.5 URBAN CLIMATE

The air temperatures in densely built urban areas are often higher than the temperatures of
the surrounding countryside. This is due to rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. The term
urban heat island refers to increased surface temperatures in some pockets of a city, caused by
an ever changing microclimate. The difference between the maximum city temperature (measured
at the city centre) and the surrounding countryside is the urban heat-island intensity. An urban heat
island study was carried out in Pune, Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Vishakapatnam, Vijayawada,
Bhopal and Chennai [12,13]; the heat-island intensities of these cities are presented in Table 2.3. It
is seen that, among the cities listed in the table, the heat island intensity is greatest in Pune (about
10 C) and lowest in Vishakhapatnam (about 0.6C). In the metropolitan cities of Mumbai, New
Delhi, Chennai and Kolkata, the corresponding values are 9.5, 6.0, 4.0 and 4.0oC respectively.
Clearly, the values are quite high. The density of the built environment and the extent of tree cover
or vegetation primarily affect the heat-island intensity. Pollution and heat due to vehicular traffic,
industrialisation and human activities are other contributing factors.
Table 2.3 Heat island intensities in some Indian cities [12,13]

Station
Heat Island Intensity ( oC)
New Delhi
6.0
Bhopal
6.5
Kolkata
4.0
Mumbai
9.5
Pune
10.0
Vishakhapatnam
0.6
Vijayawada
2.0
Chennai
4.0
Normally, the central business district (CBD) or the centre of a city experiences higher
temperatures than the other parts. This is because the CBD mainly consists of concrete buildings
and asphalted roads, which heat up very quickly due to radiation from the sun. Most of this heat is
stored and released very slowly, sometimes even upto the night. This phenomenon does not allow
the daily minimum temperature to become too low. Though it may be a welcome phenomenon in
cold regions during winters, it makes life unbearable for people in the hot regions. Thus, in tropical
climates, the provision of sufficient ventilation and spacing between buildings is required to allow
the accumulated heat to escape to the atmosphere easily.
Street patterns and urban blocks can be oriented and sized to incorporate concerns of light,
sun, and shade according to the dictates of the climate. For example, the densely built areas
produce, store and retain more heat than low-density areas. Thus, the temperature differential
between urban areas and the surrounding countryside increases as the surrounding areas cool at
night. As a result, cooler air from the surrounding countryside flows towards the centre. This kind
of circulation is more pronounced on calm summer nights and can be utilised to flush dense areas
of heat and pollutants. To achieve cool air movement, a belt of undeveloped and preferably
vegetated land at the perimeter of the city, can be provided to serve as a cool air source. Radial
street patterns can also be designed for facilitating movement of air from less dense to more dense
areas.
A system of linear greenways or boulevards converging towards the city centre will help to
maintain the movement of cool air. Provided the soil is adequately moist, a single isolated tree may
transpire upto 400 litres of water per day. This transpiration together with the shading of solar
radiation, creates a cooler environment around the tree. On a hot summer day, the temperature can
drop significantly under trees due to cool breezes produced by convective currents and by shading
from direct sunlight. Planted areas can be as much as 5 8 oC cooler than built-up areas due to a
combination of evapotranspiration, reflection, shading, and storage of cold.
Local wind patterns are created when the warm air over a dense built up area rises, and is
replaced by cooler air from vegetated areas. Having many evenly distributed small open spaces
will produce a greater cooling effect than a few large parks. Studies suggest that for a city with a
population of about one million, 10-20% of the city area should be covered by vegetation for
effectively lowering local temperatures. As the vegetation cover in the city increases from 20 to
50%, the minimum air temperature decreases by 3-4 oC, and the maximum temperature decreases by
about 5 oC [14]. Figure 2.15 illustrates the temperature drop as a function of tree cover in the city of
Montreal. Similar findings were reported in another study conducted in Sacramento, Phoenix,
USA [14].
EXISTING TREE COVER
TEMPERATURE ( C)
35
10% ADDITIONAL COVER
30
25% ADDITIONAL COVER
25
20
15
0
12
TIME (h)
18
Fig. 2.15 Cooling due to tree cover [14]
The heat released from combustion of fuels and from human activities, adds to the ambient
temperature of the city. Air pollution, caused mainly by emissions from vehicles and industries,
reduces the longwave radiation back to the sky thereby making the nights are warmer. Global solar
radiation during daytime is also reduced due to increased scattering and absorption by polluted air
(this can be upto 10-20% in industrial cities). Pollution also affects visibility, rainfall and cloud
cover. Effective land use to decongest cities, and the provision of proper vegetation would mitigate
the effects of pollution. It is also important to use cleaner fuels and more efficient vehicles.
Meteorological studies and remote sensing by satellites can be used to ascertain drastic
changes in the climate, land use and tree cover patterns. Remote sensing can also be used to map
hot and cool areas across a city by using GIS tools (Geographical Information System). Such
mapping can help to reduce unplanned growth of a city, in preparing a proper land use plan, and to
identify future vulnerable areas (those devoid of natural vegetation, parks and water bodies). These
measures would certainly help in reducing urban heat island intensity.
2.6 MICROCLIMATE
The conditions for transfer of energy through the building fabric and for determining the
thermal response of people are local and site-specific. These conditions are generally grouped
under the term of microclimate, which includes wind, radiation, temperature, and humidity
experienced around a building. A building by its very presence will change the microclimate by
causing a bluff obstruction to the wind flow, and by casting shadows on the ground and on other
buildings. A designer has to predict this variation and appropriately account for its effect in the
design.
The microclimate of a site is affected by the following factors [15,16]:
(A) landform
(B) vegetation
(C) waterbodies
(D) street width and orientation
(E) open spaces and built form
An understanding of these factors greatly helps in the preparation of the site layout plan. For
example, in a hot and dry climate, the building needs to be located close to a waterbody. The
waterbody helps in increasing the humidity and lowering the temperature by evaporative cooling.
(A) Landform
Landform represents the topography of a site. It may be flat, undulating or sloping. Major
landforms affecting a site are mountains, valleys and plains. Depending on the macroclimate and
season, some locations within a particular landform experience a better microclimate than others.
In valleys, the hot air (being lighter) rises while cooler air having higher density, settles into
the depressions, resulting in a lower temperature at the bottom. Upward currents form on sunny
slopes in the morning. By night, the airflow reverses because cold ground surfaces cool the
surrounding air, making it heavier and causing it to flow down the valley. Moreover, the wind flow
is higher along the direction of the valley than across it due to unrestricted movement. On
mountain slopes, the air speed increases as it moves up the windward side, reaching a maximum at
the crest and a minimum on the leeward side. The difference in air speed is caused due to the low
pressure area developed on the leeward side.
Temperature also varies with elevation. The cooling rate is about 0.80C for every 100m of
elevation [14]. Air moving down the slope will thus be cooler than the air it replaces lower down,
and vice versa. Further, the orientation of the slope also plays a part in determining the amount of
solar radiation incident on the site. For example a south-facing slope will get more exposure than a
north-facing one in the northern hemisphere. Studies conducted in Mardin, Turkey showed that
building groups located on a south facing slope in the city needed approximately 50% less heat to
maintain the same indoor temperature as buildings located on the plain land [14].
Careful positioning of a building with respect to landform can thus help in achieving comfort.
(B) Waterbodies
Waterbodies can be in the form of sea, lake, river, pond or fountains. Since water has a
relatively high latent heat of vapourisation, it absorbs a large amount of heat from the surrounding
air for evaporation. The cooled air can then be introduced in the building. Evaporation of water
also raises the humidity level. This is particularly useful in hot and dry climates. Since water has a
high specific heat, it provides an ideal medium for storage of heat that can be used for heating
purposes.
Large waterbodies tend to reduce the difference between day and night temperatures
because they act as heat sinks. Thus, sites near oceans and large lakes have less temperature
variation between day and night, as well as between summer and winter as compared to inland
sites. Also, the maximum temperature in summer is lower near water than on inland sites.
The wind flow pattern at a site is influenced by the presence of a large waterbody in the
following way. Wind flow is generated due to the difference in the heat storing capacity of water
and land, and the consequent temperature differentials. During the day, the land heats up faster
than the water, causing the air over the land to rise and be replaced by cool air from water. Hence,
the breeze blows towards the land from water during the day and in the reverse direction at night.
(as land cools more rapidly than water).
Evaporative cooling can help to maintain comfort in buildings in hot and dry climate. This
feature was successfully adopted in vernacular architecture. For example, the Deegh palace in
Bharatpur is surrounded by a water garden to cool the neighbourhood. Other examples include the
Taj Mahal at Agra and the palace at Mandu. The evaporation rate of water in such an open spaces
depends on the surface area of the water, the relative humidity of the air, and the water
temperature.
(C) Vegetation
Vegetation plays an important role in changing the climate of a city, as seen in section 2.5. It
is also effective in controlling the microclimate. Plants, shrubs and trees cool the environment
when they absorb radiation for photosynthesis. They are useful in shading a particular part of the
structure and ground for reducing the heat gain and reflected radiation. By releasing moisture, they
help raise the humidity level. Vegetation also creates different air flow patterns by causing minor
pressure differences, and thus can be used to direct or divert the prevailing wind advantage.
Based on the requirement of a climate, an appropriate type of tree can be selected. Planting
deciduous trees such as mulberry to shade east and west walls would prove beneficial in hot and
dry zones. In summer, they provide shade from intense morning and evening sun, reduce glare, as
well as cut off hot breezes. On the other hand, deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter and
allow solar radiation to heat the building. The cooling effect of vegetation in hot and dry climates
comes predominantly from evaporation, while in hot humid climates the shading effect is more
significant.
Trees can be used as windbreaks to protect both buildings and outer areas such as lawns
and patios from both hot and cold winds. The velocity reduction behind the windbreak depends
on their height, density, cross-sectional shape, width, and length, the first two being the most
important factors. When the wind does not blow perpendicular to the windbreak, the sheltered
area is decreased. The rate of infiltration in buildings is proportional to the wind pressure.
Therefore, it is more important to design windbreaks for maximum wind speed reduction in
extreme climates, than to attempt to maximize the distance over which the windbreak is effective.
In cold climates, windbreaks can reduce the heat loss in buildings by reducing wind flow
over the buildings, thereby reducing convection and infiltration losses. A single-row of high
density trees in the form of a windbreak can reduce infiltration in a residence by about 60% when
planted about four tree heights from the building. This corresponds to about 15% reduction in
energy costs [14].
Thus, trees can be effectively used to control the microclimate. The data for various trees
found in India are presented in Table 2.4 [4, 17].
Table 2.4 Properties of some Indian Trees [17]

S.
No
Botanical Name
Common Name
English
Height
(m)
Eugenia jambolana
Jamun
12.2 to 13.7
Azadiracta indica
Margosa
Mimusops elengi
Spread
(m)
Rate of
Growth
Root
System
Drought
Resistance
Foliage
9.1 to 10.7
Medium
Medium
Medium
BLE
13.7 to 15.2
10.7 to 12.2
Fast
Medium
Good
BLE
Bulletwood tree
12.2 to 13.7
10.7 to 12.2
Slow
Large
Good
BLE
Peltrophorum
ferrigeum
Copper pod tree
13.7 to 15.2
10.7 to 12.2
Fast
Small
Good
BLE
Tamarindus indica
Tamarind
10.7 to 12.2
9.1 to 10.7
Slow
Medium
Medium
BLE
Pithecellobium dulce
Goras
12.2 to 13.7
9.1 to 10.7
Slow
Large
Medium
BLE
Samanea saman
Raintree
10.7 to 12.2
9.1 to 10.7
Fast
Medium
Medium
BLE
Bauhinia variegata
Variegated bauhinia
6.1 to 9.1
7.6 to 9.1
Fast
Small
Medium
Cassia fistula
Indian laburnum
7.6 to 10.7
6.1 to 9.1
Fast
Small
Very Good
10
Cassia javanica
Pink cassia
7.6 to 9.1
9.1 to 10.7
Medium
Medium
Good
11
Cordia sebestena
Cordia
4.6 to 6.1
4.6 to 5.5
Medium
Small
Good
12
Delonix regia
Royal poincana
7.6 to 9.1
7.6 to 8.5
Fast
Large
Medium
13
Erythrina indica
Indian coral tree
7.6 to 9.1
4.6 to 6.1
Fast
Small
Good
14
Gliricidia maculata
Madra tree
6.1 to 7.6
4.6 to 6.1
Fast
Small
Poor
BLE
15
Largerstroemia
spriosa
Pride of India
7.6 to 9.1
6.1 to 7.6
Fast
Medium
Very good
BLE
16
Morus indica
Mulberry
9.1 to 10.7
7.6 to 8.5
Medium
Medium
Medium
17
Plumeria alba
White frangipani
4.6 to 6.1
4.6 to 5.5
Fast
Small
Medium
18
Pogamia glabra
Pongam
4.6 to 6.1
4.6 to 6.1
Fast
Small
Medium
19
Psidium guyava
Guava
6.1 to 7.6
5.5 to 6.1
Fast
Medium
Medium
BLE
20
Mornga oleifera
Drumstick tree
9.1 to 10.7
7.6 to 9.1
Fast
Small
Medium
BLE
21
Pustrajiva roxburghil
Lucky bean tree
7.6 to 9.1
4.6 to 6.1
Slow
Small
Medium
BLE
22
Tecoma undulata
Wary leaved
tecoma
6.1 to 7.6
4.6 to 5.5
Fast
Small
Very good
BLE
23
Thespesia populnea
Portia tree
7.6 to 9.1
7.6 to 9.1
Fast
Small
Medium
BLE
24
Thevital peruviana
Yellow oleander
4.6 to 5.5
3.0 to 4.6
Fast
Small
Medium
25
Nesium oleander
Oleander
4.6 to 5.5
3.0 to 4.6
Fast
Medium
Good
26
Zapota
Zapota
6.1 to 7.6
7.6 to 9.1
Fast
Medium
Good
BLE
BLE = Broad Leaf Evergreen, D = Deciduous, E = Evergreen
(D) Street width and orientation

The amount of direct radiation received by a building and the street in an urban area is
determined by the street width and its orientation. The buildings on one side of the street tend to
cast a shadow on the street on the opposite building, by blocking the suns radiation. Thus the
width of the street can be relatively narrow or wide depending upon whether the solar radiation is
desirable or not. For instance in Jaisalmer (hot and dry climate), most of the streets are narrow
with buildings shading each other to reduce the solar radiation, and consequently the street
temperature and heat gain of buildings [18]. Figure 2.16 shows the street temperatures in summer
and winter in Jaisalmer as compared to temperatures recorded at the meteorological station. It is
seen that street temperatures can be upto 2.5oC lower than the ambient air temperatures due to
mutual shading of buildings. At high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, the solar radiation is
predominantly from the south, hence wider east-west streets give better winter solar access.
SUMMER
45
IMD
AIR TEMPERATURE ( C)
45
WINTER
40
STREET
35
30
25
12 18
TIME (h)
24
40
IMD
35
30
STREET
25
12 18
TIME (h)
24
Fig. 2.16 Street temperatures in Jaisalmer [18]

(a) Summer, (b) Winter
The orientation of the street is also useful for controlling airflow. Air movement in streets
can be either an asset or a liability, depending on season and climate. The streets can be oriented
parallel to prevailing wind direction for free airflow in warm climates. Smaller streets or
pedestrian walkways may have number of turns (zigzags) to modulate wind speed. Wind is
desirable in streets of hot climates to cool people and remove excess heat from the streets. It can
also help in cross ventilation of buildings. This is important in humid climates, and at night in arid
climates. In cold regions, wind increases heat losses of buildings due to infiltration. For restricting
or avoiding wind in cold regions, the streets may be oriented at an angle or normal to the
prevailing wind direction. For regular organisations of buildings in an urban area, tall buildings on
narrow streets yield the most wind protection, while shorter buildings on wider streets promote
more air movement. When major streets are parallel to winds, the primary factors affecting the
wind velocity are the width of streets and the frontal area (height and width) of windward building
faces.
(E) Open spaces and built form
The form of a building and the open spaces in its neighbourhood affect the radiation falling on
the buildings surface and the airflow in and around it. Open spaces such as courtyards can be
designed such that solar radiation incident on them during daytime can be reflected on to building
faades for augmenting solar heat. This is desirable in cold climates, and it is possible if the
surface finish of the courtyard is reflective in nature. Inside a courtyard, wind conditions are
primarily dependent on the proportion between building height and courtyard width in the section
along the wind flow line. Courtyards can also be designed to act as heat sinks. Grass and other
vegetation in a courtyard can provide cooling due to evaporation and shading. Water sprayed on
the courtyards would cause cooling effect due to evaporation. Consequently, the air temperature in
the courtyard can be much lower compared to street or outdoor air temperatures in a hot and dry
climate. Figure 2.17 presents the measured temperature at Jaisalmer, showing the maximum of
courtyard temperature as 4 oC less than that of the outdoor air temperature [18].
45
SUMMER
OUTDOOR
40
STREET
COURTYARD
FRONT ROOM
35
BACK ROOM
30
25
12
16
20
24
TIME (h)
Fig. 2.17 Effect of courtyard [18]
The air in open spaces shaded by surrounding buildings would be cooler and can be used to
facilitate proper ventilation and promote heat loss through building envelope. Built forms can be
so oriented that buildings cause mutual shading and thus reduce heat gain. For ensuring
unobstructed airflow, taller structures can be planned towards the rear side of a building complex.
Thus, open spaces and built form can be appropriately used to modulate the microclimate.
2.7 TOOLS FOR ANALYSING WEATHER DATA
The effects of sun, wind and light on a particular site can be analysed in many ways
depending on the type of information available for a place. They can be graphical in nature (such
as bioclimatic chart [4, 11] and psychrometric chart [11]), or in worksheet format (such as
Mahoney table [19]). One could also use computer software such as Climate Consultant [20] or
Therm [21]. For example, the effects of temperature and humidity can be plotted on a bioclimatic
or psychrometric chart [11] to understand the climate and suggest ways of expanding the comfort
zone. Similarly, Mahoney tables facilitate diagnosis of climate and provide design
recommendations. The computer software Therm evaluates climatic factors and predicts the
adaptive comfort index. Climate Consultant, in addition to analyzing weather variables, provides
recommendations for building design from the point of view of comfort requirements.
To generate relevant information on the climate of a place, one can use graphical procedures
or adopt the measurement route, or resort to computational techniques. The measurement route can
be either analysis of the recorded data available from Indian Meteorological Department and other
sources (section 2.2), or for conducting on-site measurements. Table 2.5 lists various techniques
that can be adopted to generate and analyse climatic factors.
The procedure to be adopted for the analysis of the climate of a place is as follows:
1. Obtain weather data.
2. Find out which months are comfortable (hot or cold), using mean temperature and
relative humidity. This also gives an indication of the severity of the climate.
3. Identify the climatic zone to which the city belongs for adopting appropriate
strategies to achieve comfort.
4. Establish the positive and negative aspects of climate for a particular season. For
example, shading from the sun may be needed during overheated periods. Which
are those seasons, and what is the position of the sun in the sky ? During the same
period, wind may be required to alleviate discomfort. What are the speed and the
direction of the wind during that period ?
5. Adjust the impact of local microclimatic conditions and the urban context in the
analysis. For example, in northern hemisphere, larger buildings in the south create
shadow zones in the north. Thus the amount of direct solar radiation falling on a
smaller building in the north is affected. Also, the presence of a large building, or
the orientation of the street can impact the speed and direction of wind.
6. Finalise the zoning of the site. For example, the presence of water bodies on the site
may be advantageous in a hot and dry zone. The wind, if allowed to pass over the
water body can increase the potential for evaporative cooling. So the building has to
be oriented facing the wind.
Table 2.5 Techniques for analysis of climatic factors
Technique
Graphical method
Recorded data
Measurement
Instruments
Software
Solar radiation
Maps for shading analysis [22]
Photographic survey [22]
Shadow angle protractor [19]
Shadow throw angles [3]
Solar envelope [14,22]
Solar radiation distribution maps [2]
Sundial [14]
Sundial and scale model [14]
Sun path diagrams [3,4,11,14,19]
Mean, minimum and maximum global,
diffuse and direct solar radiation data
[1,2,3]
TNO sunlight meter [14],
Pyranometer,
Pyrheliometer
Sunshine recorder
Solar 2 [23], Suntool [24]
Wind
Wind rose [4]
Wind square [14]
Mean, minimum and

maximum with
prevailing wind direction
data [1,2,3]
Anemometer
Wind Tunnel Testing
Temperature,
humidity, precipitation
Temperature and
humidity isopleths on
[2,8]
Mean, minimum and

maximum data [1,2,3].
Hygrometer,
Thermometer
Rain gauge
-
2.8 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

As an illustrative example, the use of bioclimatic charts for analysing the climatic zones of
six places, namely Jodhpur (hot and dry), Mumbai (warm and humid), Pune (moderate), New
Delhi (composite), Srinagar (cold and cloudy) and Leh (cold and sunny) are discussed in this
section.
a)
Jodhpur (Latitude: 26.30 N, Longitude: 73.02 E, Elevation: 224 MASL)

The climate in Jodhpur is predominantly hot and dry. The months from April to June are
very hot with temperatures in excess of 37 oC during daytime. The chart (Fig. 2.18) shows that the
evaporating cooling method is desirable in April and May. Mechanical air-conditioning is required
from June to August due to high humidity coupled with high temperatures. September is a
relatively cooler month, during which ventilation may be adequate to provide comfort. Nights in
October are comfortable, but days are hot and dry. Thus, evaporating cooling is desirable during
daytime in this month. Daytime conditions are comfortable during January, February, November
and December. Nights are cool in these months.
J=January, F=February, MH=March, AL=April, My=May, JE=June, JY=July, AT=August,

S=September, O=October, N=November, D=December
Fig. 2.18 Bioclimatic chart of Jodhpur
b)
Mumbai (Latitude: 19.12 N, Longitude: 72.85 E, Elevation: 14 MASL)

The climate in Mumbai is predominantly warm and humid. Although temperatures are not
very high in summer, conditions are uncomfortable due to the high humidity. May is the hottest
month with the monthly average daily maximum temperature reaching as high as 32 C, coupled
with a humidity of about 60% during daytime. The chart (Fig. 2.19) shows that mechanical airconditioning is required from April to October during the day. At nights, wind or fan induced
ventilation can provide comfort. In March, only ventilation cooling is needed. The months of
January, February, November and December are mostly comfortable.

Fig. 2.19 Bioclimatic chart of Mumbai
c)
Pune (Latitude: 18.53 N, Longitude: 73.85 E, Elevation: 559 MASL)

The climatic conditions in Pune are mostly warm (Fig. 2.20). The day temperatures are
relatively high during March, April and May; the corresponding night temperatures are within
comfort level. April is the hottest month with the monthly average daily maximum temperature of
37.4 C and a corresponding relative humidity of 19%. Evaporative cooling is indicated in these
months during daytime. Ventilation can be adopted to achieve comfort at night, as the conditions
are relatively cooler. In monsoon months (June to October), ventilation is required to provide
comfort throughout the day. Winter months (January, February, November and December) are
generally comfortable during the day and cool at night.

Fig. 2.20 Bioclimatic chart of Pune
New Delhi (Latitude:28.58o N, Longitude: 77.20 E, Elevation: 216 MASL)

The climate in New Delhi is predominantly hot. It also has distinct cool and humid seasons.
April to June is very hot; May and June are particularly harsh, with maximum daytime
temperatures of about 39o C. Evaporating cooling is desirable in April and May (Fig. 2.21).
Mechanical air-conditioning is required from June to August due to high humidity coupled with
high temperatures. September is warm and humid; air movement in the form of ventilation can
help in achieving comfort. In October, days are hot and dry, nights are comfortable. From
November to March, the days are pleasant and nights are cool. January is the coolest month.
d)

Fig. 2.21 Bioclimatic chart of New Delhi
Srinagar (Latitude: 34.08o N, Longitude: 74.83 E, Elevation: 1587 MASL)

Figure 2.22 shows that Srinagar is predominantly cool. The months from October to May are
uncomfortably cold. The conditions during December, January and February are extremely cold
with night temperatures falling below freezing line. Mechanical heating is required during these
e)
months. Days are comfortable in June and September; but some heating is required at night. July
and August are just above the comfort limit and some cooling may be required. Ventilation should
be able to provide comfort during these months. In the months of April, May and October, days
can be made comfortable by providing heating through direct solar radiation. The daytime heat can
also be trapped for nighttime use by providing adequate thermal mass.

Fig. 2.22 Bioclimatic chart of Srinagar
Leh (Latitude: 34.15o N, Longitude: 77.57 E, Elevation:3514 MASL)

The chart (Fig. 2.23) shows that Leh is predominantly cold throughout the year. Outside
conditions are rarely within the comfort zone except during daytime in the months of July and
August. In fact, the months of December, January and February experience sub-zero temperatures
almost throughout the day and night.
f)

Fig. 2.23 Bioclimatic chart of Leh
Nights are severely cold with temperatures ranging from 14o C in January to 11o C in
December. January is the coldest month (minimum and maximum temperatures being 14oC and
3oC respectively). March, April, October and November are less severe. However, the
temperatures at night are below freezing point. Therefore, heating is a must in the months from
October to April. In other months, the limit of comfort can be extended if adequate radiation from
the sun is incident on the interior surfaces of the building. In May and October, additional heating
is required at night. The global solar radiation available at this place is quite high; it has more than
300 days of clear sunshine. The radiation can therefore be trapped for use in the building both
during day and night, to alleviate discomfort.
References
1. Bansal N.K. and Minke G., Climatic zones and rural housing in India, Kernforschungsanlage, Juelich,
Germany, 1988.
2. Mani A., Handbook of solar radiation data for India, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1981.
3. Seshadri T.N., Rao K.R., Sharma M.R., Sarma G.N. and Ali S., Climatological and solar data for
India, CBRI, Sarita Prakashan, Meerut, 1968.
4. Krishan A., Agnihotri M.R., Jain K., Tewari P. and Rajagopalan M. (compiled) Climatically responsive
energy efficient architecture - a design handbook (Vol. II), School of Planning and Architecture, New
Delhi, 1995.
5. Chand I. and Bhargava P.K., The climatic data handbook, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1999.
6. WeDCo Database version 1.2, Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning
Engineers, 2000.
7. Mani A. and Rangarajan S., Solar radiation over India, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 1982.
8
Bureau of Indian Standards, National building code of India 1983 incorporating amendments
No.1 and 2, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1990.
9. SP 7:2005, national building code of India 2005, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2005.
10. ASHRAE fundamentals, ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta, 1997.
11. Olgyay V., Design with climate, Princeton University press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1963.
12. Padmanabhamurty B., Microclimates in tropical urban complexes, Energy and Buildings, Vol. 15-16,
pp 83-92.), 1990.
13. Santamouris M., Energy and climate in the urban built environment, James and James (Science
Publishers Ltd.), London, 2001.
14. Brown G. Z., DeKay M., Sun, wind and light architectural design strategies, 2nd Ed., John Wiley and
Sons Inc., New York, 2001.
15. Markus T.A. and Morris E.N., Buildings, climate and energy, Pitman Publishing Limited, London,
1980.
16. Nayak J.K., Hazra R. and Prajapati J., Manual on solar passive architecture, Solar Energy Centre,
MNES, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1999.
17. N. Amin, N. Gandhi and S. Gajjar, Urjapatra, Vol. 2, No. 4, Gujarat Energy Development Agency,
1989.
18. Gupta V.(Ed) Energy and Habitat, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, 1984.
19. Koenigsberger O.H., Ingersoll T.G., Mayhew A. and Szokolay S.V., Manual of tropical housing and
building, part 1 climatic design, Orient Longman, Madras, 1975.
20. Climate consultant 2.01, Graduate School of Architecture and Urban Planning, UCLA, Los Angeles,
USA, 1991.
21. Gupta C.L. and Jajoo K., Energy efficiency in design of buildings: an evaluation technique and rating
criterion, SESI Journal 12, pp. 59 72, 2002.
22. Goulding, J.R., Lewis J. O., Steemers T.C. (Ed.), Energy in architecture the European passive solar
handbook, B.T. Batsford Ltd., London, 1992.
23. Zhonglin H. and Murray M., Solar 2, version 1.3, Users Manual, University of California, Los
Angeles, 1998.
24. Suntool 1.10, Dr. Andrew Marsh, Square One Research PTY LTd, http://www.squ1.com
CHAPTER 3 2
PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY CONSCIOUS DESIGN
Contents:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Building Envelope
3.3 Passive Heating
3.4 Passive Cooling
3.5 Daylighting
3.6 Building Materials
References
3.1
INTRODUCTION
The energy conscious design approach helps designers and building owners to
economically reduce building operating costs, while improving comfort for the buildings
occupants. The energy consumed by a building depends on its use (whether residential,
commercial or industrial), the type of building (air-conditioned or otherwise), the interaction
of spaces, and the climate. Architects have to ensure that the design of the built form suits the
intended use of the building and the specific needs of the client within the framework of the
prevailing climatic conditions. That is, the parameters of architectural design are based on
need, context and form, the relationships between which are outlined in Fig. 3.1. Appropriate
combinations of these parameters lead to savings of energy required for maintaining healthy
and comfortable indoor conditions.
In any building design, one employs simple techniques such as orientation, shading of
windows, colour, and vegetation among others, to create comfortable conditions. Such
techniques pertain to the building envelope. Building envelopes not only provide the thermal
divide between the indoor and outdoor environment, but also play an important role in
determining how effectively the building can utilise natural lighting, ventilation, and heating
and cooling resources. Thus, intelligent configuration and moulding of the built form and its
surroundings can considerably minimise the level of discomfort inside a building, and reduce
the consumption of energy required to maintain comfortable conditions.
Yet, in extreme climate s, comfortable indoor conditions cannot be completely achieved
by limiting oneself to simple techniques. For example, in a city like Ahmadabad where the
ambient temperatures can reach up to 42 C in summer, simple techniques such as
orientation, shading, colour of external surfaces and insulation may help to bring down the
temperature to around 36 C [1]. A significant reduction no doubt, but the room temperature
is still very much above comfort levels. In such circumstances, additional features need to be
considered. One way is to use passive techniques such as wind towers coupled with
evaporative cooling to cause further cooling of the interiors.
ENVELOPE
MICROCLIMATE
ACOUSTIC, DAYLIGHT
AND VENTILATION
MACROCLIMATE
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
CONSTRUCTION
PROCESS
FO
RM
UTILITIES
ZONING
NT
IMAGE
CONTEXT
CO
CONSTRUCTION TYPE
TRANSPORT NETWORK
T
EX
STRUCTURE
CIRCULATION
NEIGHBOURHOOD
SITE
NEED
FORM
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
NEED
MAINTENANCE
EQUIPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL
(INDOOR + AMBIENT)
ACCESS
PRIORITIES
RELATIONSHIPS
SPACE REQUIREMENT
ACTIVITIES
OBJECTIVES
Fig. 3.1 Parameters of architectural design
Passive solar techniques involve methods of collecting, storing, distributing and

controlling thermal energy flow by means of natural principles of heat transfer. Passive
systems have no separate devices for collecting and storing energy, nor any mechanical means
for transporting heat. Instead, they make use of the energy available in the immediate
environment and effect energy exchanges through natural processes. However, the term
natural energy flow is certainly not synonymous with unregulated energy flow. In fact, the
natural flow can be reasonably regulated by controls such as dampers, openable windows,
movable insulation or shading devices. Passive systems offer a number of advantages that
afford large savings of energy; they are also easy to incorporate into buildings at little or no
additional cost. Further, the simplicity of design, operation and maintenance invite interest.
Common materials can be used in constructions and the systems subsequently maintained by
laypersons. However, as passive systems are dependent on natural forces, it would be
incorrect to compare their performance with that of air-conditioning systems. When rooms
are required to be maintained at a constant temperature and humidity, it is still advisable to
use conventional systems.
This chapter elaborates on both, the simple techniques pertaining to building envelope
as well as passive solar techniques. Wherever possible, the principles are accompanied by
details of construction. An architect may use the methods described as a starting point for
generating customised solutions. Techniques relevant to Indian conditions such as direct gain,
Trombe wall, ventilation, evaporative cooling, and earth-air-pipe system are explained in
greater detail than others.
The artificial is lighting load on a building can be significantly reduced if its design
allows for effective daylighting. Additionally, building materials also play an important role
in energy conscious architecture. This chapter also describes daylighting as a passive solar
technique, and concludes with a discussion on alternative building materials and their
embodied energy aspects.
3.2
BUILDING ENVELOPE
A building interacts with the environment through its external faades such as walls,
windows, projections, and roofs, referred to as the building envelope. The envelope acts as a
thermal shell, which if thoughtlessly constructed, would result in energy leaks through every
component. Hence, each component needs to be properly chosen to ensure an energy efficient
building. The choice depends on the site and the primary objective is, therefore, to examine
the site conditions. Besides, an ideal orientation of the building at a site and proper building
configuration play a significant role in the buildings performance.
3.2.1
Site
Of the various factors influencing the building design, site conditions occupy an
important position. The environmental conditions experienced on the site are due to the
macroclimate as well as the microclimate (discussed in chapter 2). Site-specific conditions
such as land form, vegetation, waterbodies, open spaces, etc. (section 2.6) play an important
role in building design. Proper analysis of these conditions can enable one to choose a site
and make suitable design plans. This would help save energy and also provide a fairly
satisfactory indoor environment throughout the year.
3.2.2
Orientation
Appropriate orientation of buildings can provide physically and psychologically
comfortable conditions in the building. It can help exclude the undesirable effects of severe
weather to a great extent. For example, in cold climates, a building must be oriented to
receive maximum solar radiation into the living areas for warmth on one hand, while keeping
out the prevailing cold winds on the other. Conversely, in hot regions, solar radiation and hot,
dusty winds need to be avoided in summer, while cool winds must be admitted. Thus,
appropriate orientation can control the amount of solar radiation and wind entering a building.
The best orientation requires that the building as a whole should receive maximum
solar radiation in winter and minimum in summer. To decide on an optimum orientation, it is
essential to have an idea of the suns position on a daily as well as seasonal basis by using
tools such as the sun path diagram (Chapter 2, Fig. 2.1 b). It is also necessary to know the
intensity of solar radiation on various external surfaces of the building as well as the duration
of sunshine. Such information is available in various handbooks (Refer to Chapter 2). Once
the orientation is decided, the heat entering a building can be controlled by (1) area and type
of glazings, (2) types of walls and roofs, and (3) shading.
As mentioned, wind may be desirable or unwanted, depending on the climate. Hence,
it is necessary to study the velocity and direction of the wind on an hourly and monthly basis.
This helps one to identify the duration for which the wind may be desirable. Besides, the
prevalent wind direction can be identified to plan the orientation of apertures for achieving
the desired indoor air motion. It is generally found that a variation of orientation of apertures
upto 30o with respect to the prevalent wind direction, does not significantly affect the indoor
ventilation (average indoor velocity) of the building [2].
Once orientation is fixed, wind can be controlled by:
tilting and projecting surfaces to deflect wind
providing openings of appropriate size
providing windbreakers to reduce wind speed
To illustrate the effect of orientation, let us consider a rectangular conditioned
building having fully glazed wall on one of its long sides. Let us also consider four
orientations such as northwest-southeast, north-south, northeast-southwest and east-west of
this building with respect to its long axis. The estimated annual cooling load of such a
conditioned building in a few Indian cities is shown in Fig. 3.2. It is seen that in warm
climates, the maximum load corresponds to the northwest-southeast orientation (the glass
curtain wall facing southwest). Hence, such an orientation of the building should be avoided.
Northwest-southeast
7000
North-south
6500
Northeast-southwest
Annual Load (GJ/Year)
East-west
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
Jodhpur
Mumbai
Pune
New Delhi
Srinagar
Leh
Place
Fig. 3.2 Effect of orientation on the annual load of a conditioned building in various
cities
3.2.3
Building configuration
Heat exchange between a building and its surroundings occurs primarily through the
skin of the building. Configuring the geometry of the building appropriate to the climate and
usage can control the magnitude of the heat flow. For example, in an extremely cold climate,
one needs to minimise heat loss from the building to the environment. This can be achieved
by:
a) using buffer spaces, e.g., sunspaces and balconies act as sitouts in favourable
weather;
b) locating infrequently used spaces such as store rooms and toilets in the directions
that face prevailing cold winds;
c) maximising exposure to solar radiation, e.g., major living rooms may be arranged
facing the sun to gain heat;
d) locating habitable spaces appropriately, e.g., the most habitable spaces may be
kept on leeward side to avoid cold winds. They may be clustered together to
reduce exposure to cold.
The heat flow due to radiation and air movement can be controlled by varying the
following aspects of the building configuration:
-
surface area to volume ratio (S/V ratio): The ratio of the surface area to
the volume of the building (S/V ratio) determines the magnitude of the
heat transfer in and out of the building. The larger the S/V ratio, the greater
the heat gain or loss for a given volume of space. Conversely, a smaller
S/V ratio will result in the reduction of heat gain/loss. For example, in cold
climates it is preferable to have compact house forms with minimum S/V
ratio. Figure. 3.3 shows the surface to volume ratios for various building
shapes.
16
4
3
4
7.1
2
2
(a)
(b)
SOLID SHAPE SURFACE AREA

'S'
(c)
VOLUME
'V'
SURFACE AREA/ VOLUME

RATIO
'S/V'
96
64
1.5
103.2
64
1.61
136
64
2.13
Fig. 3.3 Surface area to volume ratio (S/V ratio) for a few building
shapes
shape of the building: Wind when obstructed by a building creates

pressure differences, that is, positive pressure on the windward side and
negative pressure on the leeward side. Consequently, a new airflow pattern
is established around the building. Thus, wind pattern across a building can
be modified by shaping it appropriately.
buffer spaces: Buffer spaces such as courtyards, atria, balconies and
verandahs provide shadig and catch wind.
arrangement of openings: Appropriate openings connecting high and low

pressure areas provide effective ventilation. Solid and glazed surfaces need
to be suitably arranged and oriented for receiving or rejecting solar
radiation.
shading: Shading of surfaces can be achieved by the self-shading profiles
of buildings e.g. H-type or L-type as compared to the simple cube. Shading
devices such as chajjas block the solar radiation incident on the exposed
surfaces of a building, consequently reducing heat gain. It has been found
that in a low-rise residential building in Ahmadabad, shading a window by
a simple horizontal chajja of 0.76m depth can lower the maximum room
temperature by upto 4.6 C [3]. Therefore, the shading of windows can
significantly improve the performance of the building. In the case of hot
and dry regions, taller structures may be placed towards the south, so as to
shade other structures in a cluster. Walls can be shaded by the use of
projections, balconies, fins, textured paints and vegetation. Openings can
be shaded with appropriately sized chajjas, fins and awnings externally
(Fig. 3.4), and/or by using openable shutters and movable covers like
curtains and venetian blinds internally. Translucent materials like heat
absorbing or heat reflecting glass, plastics, painted glass, etc. can also be
used for reducing solar heat gains through glasses. The effectiveness of
these shading devices are evaluated in terms of shade factors (defined as
the ratio of the solar heat gain from the fenestration under consideration, to
the solar heat gain through a 3 mm plain glass sheet). Table 3.1 presents
the measured values of shade factors for various types of shading devices;
the corresponding U-values are also mentioned [4,5].
Table 3.1 Transmittance and shade factors of different shading devices [5]
Name of the Shading Device
Plain glass sheet (3.0 mm thick)
Plain glass + wire mesh outside
Painted glass
(i)
White paint
(ii)
Yellow paint
(iii)
Green paint
Heat absorbing glass
Plain glass sheet + Venetian blind inside
(i)
Light colour
(ii)
Dark colour
Plain glass sheet
(i)
100 percent shaded
(ii)
75 percent shaded
(iii)
60 percent shaded
Transmittance
(W/m2-K)
5.23
5.00
Shade Factor
5.22
5.22
5.22
4.65
0.35
0.37
0.40
0.45
3.72
3.72
0.35
0.40
5.23
5.23
5.23
0.14
0.34
0.56
1.00
0.65
As the roof of a building receives the maximum radiation, shading it

with movable canvas covers, plant cover (pergola) or a roof garden can
reduce heat gain.
Fig. 3.4 Types of shading devices
The reduction in yearly beam radiation incident on a typical window of

size 1.2m X 1.2m having different external shading devices (horizontal
and vertical) in some cities of India is presented in Fig. 3.5 [3]. The figure
shows that providing a horizontal chajja can reduce the incident beam
radiation falling on the window in various orientations considerably. The
shading can be further enhanced by providing vertical fins. The results for
various shading devices (horizontal chajjas and vertical fins) on windows
of different sizes and in various orientations is given in Appendix III.1 [3].
Radiation (KWh/m2-year )
700
north
south
600
east
west
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
Location
(a) Unshaded window (1.2m x 1.2 m)
700
north
south
Radiation (KWh/m2-year)
600
east
west
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
Location
(b) Window shaded by 0.6 m chajja with 0.15 m extension (1.2m x 1.2 m)
700
north
south
Radiation (KWh/m 2-year)
600
east
west
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
Location
(c) Window shaded by 0.6 m chajja and full fins (1.2m x 1.2 m)
Fig. 3.5 Reduction in yearly beam radiation incident on windows due to shading [3]
LARGER GLAZED OPENINGS

CAN BE PLACED ON EXTERNAL
WALLS THAT ARE SUBJECT
TO SELF SHADING
SELF SHADING OF
BUILDINGS REDUCE
HEAT GAIN
RECESSED WINDOWS IN
BUFFER SPACES SUCH AS
BALCONIES REDUCE HEAT
GAIN IN ROOMS
WINDOWS ON ADJACENT
WALLS PROVIDE COOLING
BY CROSS VENTILATION
Fig. 3.6 Aspects of building configuration that can reduce heat gains in a hot climate
The physical manifestation of some of the concepts on building configuration that can
reduce heat gain in a hot climate is depicted in Fig 3.6.
3.2.4
Building components
The nature of a building envelope determines the amount of radiation and wind that
will enter the building. It consists of the following elements:
(A) Roof
(B) Walls
(C) Ground-based floor
(D) Fenestrations
(E) External colour and texture
The heat flow through these elements is characterised by their resistance, thermal
capacity, absorption, transmission and emission. The materials for these components have to
be chosen carefully depending on specific requirements. The thermophysical parameters of
materials that must be considered are specific heat, density and thermal conductivity. While
the product of the first two determines the energy storage capacity of a material, the third
characterises the energy-flow behaviour. These three parameters together define the time lag
(or phase shift) and decrement factor. The former refers to the time delay of heat flow
whereas the latter signifies the reduction in the amplitude of heat waves. Thus, depending on
the climatic requirements, one would look for materials that would provide the desired
thermal storage, time delay and amplitude decrement.
Colour and texture define surface characteristics such as emissivity, reflectivity,

absorptivity and roughness. These are vital for heat flow and light distribution. For example,
if the roof of a building is painted white, then the transmission of heat can be reduced by upto
80% as compared to a dark colour.
Generally, the building components can be categorised into opaque and transparent
elements. For example, a brick wall is an opaque element whereas a glazed window is a
transparent element. Transparent elements allow direct solar radiation into the living spaces.
Furthermore, an element may also be openable (e.g. skylight, window, door, etc), thereby
allowing for air exchanges between the building and its surroundings.
Heat loss or gain from various building components may be reduced by insulating
them appropriately. Walls, floors and roofs can be insulated by materials such as polyurethane
foam (PUF), or thermocol, either externally or internally. Another mode of insulation is by
incorporating an air cavity in the external building envelope. In cavity walls, the air gap
inhibits the transmission of the heat into or out of the building as air acts as a bad conductor
of heat. A brief description of various types of insulation is provided in Appendix III.2 [6].
Variations can be achieved by using different insulation materials, adjusting their thickness,
and using them in different locations (internal or external). In cavity walls, the property of the
air gap can be varied by opting for a ventilated or unventilated air cavity, and adjusting its
thickness. It may be noted that water absorption adversely affects the performance of
insulation materials.
The heat gain or loss through individual elements depends on whether the building is
single storeyed or multi-storeyed. For example, in a typical single storeyed building,
maximum heat gain occurs through the roof, whereas in a multi-storeyed building it is
through the walls and windows. The heat gain through various building elements on the
cooling load of a ground + 4 storeyed residential building for some cities of India is given in
Table 3.2 [1]. It is seen that the maximum cooling load on an annual basis, is due to windows
(52.9%-64.7%). The next to highest cooling load is due to conduction through walls (26.5%36.4%). The cooling loads through the roof and ground are not significant as compared to
walls and windows. Windows and walls together account for more than 80% of the cooling
load in all cities. Thus, the control of solar gains through windows and conduction through
walls should be an important consideration for reducing the cooling loads.
Table 3.2 Heat gain through various building components [1]
Building
component
Walls
Roof
Ground
Window
(Conduction
+
Direct Solar)
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
(223.037 MWh)
(201.892 MWh)
(198.756 MWh)
Cooling Percentage Cooling Percentage Cooling Percentage
load
of annual
load
of annual
load
of annual
(MWh) cooling load (MWh) cooling load (MWh) cooling load
81.141
36.4
66.532
33.0
71.151
35.8
18.996
8.5
15.148
7.5
17.845
9.0
4.957
2.2
4.557
2.3
3.000
1.5
117.941
52.9
115.654
57.3
106.761
53.7
(28.563 +
(12.8
(17.405 +
(8.6
(19.608 +
(9.9
89.378)
+
98.249)
+
87.153)
+
40.1)
48.7)
43.8)
Pune
(137.764 MWh)
Cooling Percentage
load
of annual
(MWh) cooling load
36.487
26.5
12.288
8.9
-0.129
-0.1
89.119
64.7
(6.180
(4.5
+
+
82.939)
60.2)
The heat gain through each element can be varied by:

area of the element
orientation and tilt of the element
material properties (U-value, time lag, decrement factor, transmissivity,
emmissivity, etc)
finishes
control of incoming solar radiation
(A) Roof
The roof of a building receives a significant amount of solar radiation. Thus,
its design and construction play an important role in modifying the heat flow, daylighting and
ventilation. As per Indian Standard I.S. code 3792 1978 [4], the maximum value of overall
thermal transmittance (U-value) of a roof should not exceed 2.33 W/m2-K in hot-dry, and
warm and humid climates. The code recommends that the heat gain through roofs may be
reduced by the following methods:
Insulating materials may be applied externally or internally to the roofs. In case of
external application, the insulating material needs to be protected by waterproofing
treatments. For internal application, the insulating material may be fixed by adhesive
or by other means on the underside of the roofs. A false ceiling of insulation material
may be provided below the roofs with air gaps in between. Shining and reflecting
material (e.g. glazed china mosaic) may be laid on top of the roof.
Roofs may be flooded with water in the form of sprays or in other ways. Loss due to
evaporation may be compensated by make-up arrangement.
Movable covers of suitable heat insulating material, if practicable, may be considered.
White washing of the roof can be done before the onset of each summer.
The second and fourth recommendations would be fully effective if the surfaces are
kept clean, without accumulation of dust. The recommended thickness of some insulating
materials for roofs is given in Table 3.3. Figure 3.7 [6] shows the reduction of ceiling surface
temperature due to some of the above techniques for a flat roof in a hot and dry climate on
two consecutive summer days. It is seen that the ceiling surface temperature can be reduced
by about 100C.
A massive roof composed of material such as reinforced cement concrete (RCC) tends
to delay the transmission of heat into the interior when compared to lighter roofs such as
asbestos cement sheet roofing. Sometimes, the roof is also covered by inverted earthen pots
with a layer of earth over them. The earth and the air inside the pots provide good insulation
for resisting heat gain. A doubly pitched or curved roof provides a larger surface area for heat
loss compared to a flat roof. Thus, both the shape as well as the material have an effect on the
performance of the roof.
Table 3.3 Recommended thicknesses of a few insulating materials for roofs [5]
3
Density Range (kg/m )

S.
No.
1
2
Name and Type of

Insulating Material
Cellular concrete
Coconut pitch
concrete
Light weight bricks
Vermiculite
concrete
Wood-wool board
Minimum
Maximum
Maximum
Thermal
Conductivity
Value
(W/m-K)
NC
NC
Optimum Thickness (m)

Flat Roof
Sloped Roof
320
350
0.081
0.05
0.075
0.10
500
600
0.087
0.05
0.075
0.10
400
450
0.081
0.05
0.075
0.10
480
560
0.105
0.05
0.10
0.125
350
450
0.076
0.025
0.05
0.025
0.075
Foamtex
150
200
0.046
0.025
0.05
0.025
0.05
Thermocol
16
20
0.041
0.025
0.035
0.025
0.05
Fibreglass
24
32
0.041
0.025
0.035
0.025
0.05
Mineral wool
48
64
0.041
0.025
0.035
0.025
0.05
10
Fibre insulation
board
200
250
0.053
0.015
0.025
0.015
0.205
3
4
NC: Non-air-conditioned
C: Air-conditioned
TEMPERATURE (C)
50
OUTSIDE
TEMPERATURE
40
WHITE
WASHING
30
INSULATION
20
10
12
SPRAYING OF
WATER (RSEC)
16
20
12
16
20
TIME (h)
Fig. 3.7 Relative performance of different techniques on a flat roof [5]
The performance indicators such as U-values (thermal transmittance), damping,

thermal performance index and thermal time constant of commonly used flat and sloped roofs
have been discussed in SP:41 (S&T):1987 [5].
The roof can also be used advantageously for effective ventilation and daylighting by
incorporating vents and skylights respectively.
(B) Walls
Walls constitute a major part of the building envelope and receive a large amount of
direct radiation. Depending on whether the need is for heating or cooling, the thickness and
material of the wall can be varied to control heat gain. The resistance to heat flow through the
exposed walls may be increased in the following ways:
The thickness of the wall may be increased
Cavity wall construction may be adopted.
The wall maybe constructed out of suitable heat insulating material, provided
structural requirements are met.
Heat insulating material may be fixed on the inside or outside of the exposed wall. In
the case of external application, overall water proofing is essential.
Light coloured whitewash or distemper may be applied on the exposed side of the
wall.
The performance indicators, such as U-values (thermal transmittance), thermal damping,
thermal performance index and thermal time constant of some typical wall constructions have
been discussed in SP:41 (S&T):1987 [5]. The I.S. code 3972-1978 [4] specifies that the Uvalues of exposed walls should not exceed 2.56 W/m2-K in hot and dry, and hot and humid
regions. In warm and humid regions, they should not exceed 2.91 W/m2-K.
(C) Ground-based Floors
Heat is transferred by conduction from the building to the ground through the floor
which is in contact with the ground. The transfer of heat between the building and the ground
occurs primarily via the perimeter of the building, and to a lesser extent through the central
portion of the floor. In warmer climates, this heat loss is desirable from the point of view of
comfort. On the other hand, in cold climates, heat loss through the ground needs to be
minimised and hence insulation may be provided. The effectiveness of insulation under a
floor will depend on factors such as the moisture content and temperatures of the ground. If
the moisture content is high or the temperature is low, the tendency for heat to be lost through
the floor to the ground will increase. In these instances, insulation (typically of U-value =
0.09 W/m2-K) of thickness of 50mm and depth of 600mm should be provided along the entire
perimeter of the slab. To improve performance, the entire slab should be insulated.
Foundation insulation using foam board on the inside face of the foundation wall may also be
provided. This protects both during construction and during the life of the building.
(D) Fenestration (openings)
Fenestration is provided for the purposes of heat gain, daylighting and ventilation.
Their pattern and configuration form an important aspect of building design. Appropriate
design of openings and shading devices help to keep out sun and wind or allow them into the
building. Ventilation lets in the fresh air and exhausts hot room air, resulting in cooling.
While planning the position of a window, it must be remembered that the tendency of
hot air is to rise. Openings at higher levels would naturally aid in venting the hot air out. The
size, shape and orientation of the opening affect the speed and flow of air inside the building.
For example, openings on opposite walls relieve high pressure on the windward side,
permitting good cross-ventilation of the interior space. Also, a small inlet and large outlet
increases the velocity and distribution of airflow through the room. The percentage changes in
wind speed in a room due to various window locations and orientations are presented in Fig.
3.8 [5]. A negative sign indicates that the wind speed has decreased and a positive sign
indicates an increase.
PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN VELOCITY OF AIR
AS A FUNCTION OF ORIENTATION OF WIND
(%)
0
45
LOCATION OF
WINDOWS
-10
+40
-10
-15
-15
-15
-10
+40
-10
-15
-60
-20
-10
-20
-60
Fig. 3.8 Effect of window location on indoor air motion [5]
Windows are usually glazed, that is, provided with glass. Generally, glass is
transparent to solar radiation but opaque to long wave radiation. This characteristic can be
used to heat a building interior by promoting heat gain. This is desirable in winter, but may
cause overheating in summer. For reducing solar gain during summer, the window size
should be kept minimum in the hot and dry regions. For example, in a city like Ahmadabad,
the number of uncomfortable hours in a year can be reduced by as much as 35% if glazing is
taken as 10 % of the floor area instead of, say, 20%. Thus, though natural light is introduced
into the building through glazed openings, skylights, lightshelves, or clerestories, the amount
of light and glare that enters needs to be controlled. This can be achieved by providing
openable shutters and movable covers like curtains or venetian blinds (section 3.2.3). Besides,
tinted glazing or glazing with surface coatings can be used to control solar transmission,
absorption and reflection. For example, the direct transmission of solar radiation through a
6mm thick absorbing glass can be reduced by about 45% (Fig. 3.9). Reflective glass is usually
made by coating the glass with a layer of reflective material or low emittance layer.
Reflectivity could vary depending on whether the coating is on the outer or inner face of the
glass (Fig. 3.10). Glazing of these types can reduce heat gain without obstructing viewing.
They are usually used for windows which cannot be shaded externally.
Fig. 3.9 Transmission properties of absorbing glass (6 mm thick)
Fig. 3.10 Transmission properties of reflecting glass (6 mm thick)
I.S. Standard 3792-1978 [4] recommends that in the hot and arid, hot and humid,
warm and humid and cold zones, no exposed window should have a shade factor of more
than 0.5 and a transmittance (U-value) of more than 6.51 W/m2-K for unconditioned
buildings; for conditioned buildings, the corresponding values are 0.4 and 3.8 W/m2-K
respectively.
The thermal transmittance (U-values) of some doors and windows are given in Fig.
3.11 [5]. For heat insulation of exposed windows and doors, suitable methods should be
adopted to reduce both solar heat and heat transmission
U = 4.83
LEDGED AND
BRACED DOOR
U = 4.83
U = 4.83
U = 5.18
U = 5.68
SINGLE HUNG
FLUSH DOOR
PANELLED
DOOR
PANELLED AND
GLAZED DOOR
GLAZED
DOOR
U = 5.12
U = 5.23
GLAZED
WINDOW
METAL
WINDOW
Fig. 3.11 Thermal transmittance of doors and windows [5]
This can be achieved by the following means:

external shading such as louvered shutters, and sun breakers such as chajjas
internal shading such as curtains and venetian blinds
use of heat resistant glasses/ films
use of double or triple glasses with air space in between (glasses are held apart by
spacer bars and a desiccant is used to remove moisture)
Information regarding various types of glazing and their properties is given in
Appendix III.3. Under the initiatives of the International Energy Agency (Task 18), a large
number of institutes and research organisations are developing advanced glazing materials.
The target is to develop the scientific, engineering and architectural basis necessary to support
the appropriate use of advance glazing in buildings and other solar applications. Modern
research has brought about significant developments in advanced glazing systems, in the form
of new glazing types and window system encapsulations. There are many approaches to
advanced glazing system design. These include smart windows, evacuated glazings,
transparent insulation materials, monolithic and granular aerogels, low-emittance coatings,
angular selective transmittance coatings, holographic and prismatic materials, and
thermochromic and liquid crystal devices [7,8]. Commercial systems now exist for a few
cases and are being developed for the remaining ones. A basic explanation of energy-efficient
glazing has recently been reported by Bandyopadhyay [9]. A few of the advanced glazing
systems are discussed briefly.
(i) Spectrally selective glazing
Spectrally selective glazing permits some portions of the solar spectrum to
enter through it while blocking others. The glazing admits as much daylight as
possible while preventing transmission of as much solar heat as possible.
Consequently, such glazing when used in windows significantly reduces building
energy consumption and peak demand; the capacity of the building's cooling system
might also be downsized because of reduced peak loads. The spectral selectivity is
achieved by a microscopically thin, low-emissivity (low-E) coating on the glass, or on
a film applied to the glass, or suspended within the insulating glass unit.
Spectrally selective glazings can be combined with other absorbing and
reflecting glazings to provide a whole range of sun control performance. They can be
used in windows, skylights, glass doors, and atria of commercial and residential
buildings. It may be noted that these glazings may not provide glare control even if
solar gain is reduced.
Spectrally selective glazings offer a number of advantages such as:
They are more transparent than tinted glazing, enabling occupants to have an
unimpeded view and a sense of connection to the outdoors.
They offer better night views than reflective and dark tinted glazings.
From the exterior, the appearance of spectrally selective glazing is clear, and not
mirrored or heavily tinted.
(ii) Angular selective solar control

From the point of view of daylighting of a building, the objective is to block or
reflect direct sun light and admit diffuse light. Angular selective faades provide such
control based on the sun's angle of incidence on the faade. These have high
transmittance at low angles of incidence and much lower transmittance at slightly
higher angles of incidence compared to normal glazing. Consequently, the solar
radiation gets transmitted to the building interior during winter (due to lower elevation
of the sun) and is prevented from entering the building when the sun has slightly
higher elevations.
Variations on this theme include between-pane louvers, or blinds with a
mirrored upper surface; these can be used in the clerestory portion of the window
wall. In case of exterior glass lamellas (louvers), the upper surface can be treated with
a reflective coating. These systems fully or partially block direct sun and redirect
sunlight to the interior ceiling plane, given seasonal adjustments. Conventional

louvered or venetian blind systems enable users or an automated control system to
tailor the adjusted angle of blockage according to solar position, daylight availability,
glare, or other criteria.
Frit is the most common angle-selective coating. It consists of a ceramic
coating, either translucent or opaque, which is screen printed in small patterns on a
glass surface. The pattern used controls the light based on its angle of incidence. The
colour of frit controls reflection or absorption, the view and/or visual privacy. Visual
transparency can also be controlled by applying frit to both sides of the glass to make
it appear transparent in some angles and opaque in others. Angle-selective materials
can be thought of as a series of fins or overhangs within a piece of glass, which filter
or block light.
(iii) Smart windows

Smart windows are characterised by their ability to vary the visible light as
well as solar radiation. This is achieved by incorporating a chromogenic material in
the window. Generally, this is done in the form of a thin film having photochromic,
thermochromic or electrochromic properties. As the terms suggest, these devices are
activated by light, heat and electricity respectively.
Electrochromic windows
An electrochromic window is a thin, multi-layer assembly sandwiched
between traditional pieces of glass. The outer two layers of the assembly are
transparent electronic conductors. The next one is a counter-electrode layer and an
electrochromic layer, with an ion conductor layer in between. When a low voltage is
applied across the conductors, the ions move from the counter-electrode to the
electrochromic layer. This causes the assembly to change color. When the voltage is
reversed, the ions move from the electrochromic layer back to the counter-electrode
layer; this restores the device to its previous clear state. The windows operate on a
very low voltage -- one to three volts -- and use energy only to change their
condition, and not to maintain any particular state. The glass may be programmed to
absorb only part of the light spectrum.
Thermochromic windows
Thermochromic windows alter their properties due to heat. In response to
changes in the ambient temperature, clear thermochromic glazings become diffused.
Among the thermochromic technologies, gel-based coatings seem to be the most
promising. In addition to automatically changing from clear to diffuse in response to
heat, the glazings also turn white and reflective, thereby reducing the transmission
of solar heat. This property can reduce air conditioning costs significantly when the
outside is quite hot. As one cannot see through the window once it loses its
transparency, this glazing is probably better suited for skylights rather than view
windows.
Photochromic windows
Photochromic windows respond to changes in light, much like sunglasses that
darken when one moves from a dim light to a bright one. They work well to reduce
glare, but don't control heat gain. This is because the amount of light that strikes a
window does not necessarily correspond to the amount of solar heat a window
absorbs. Photochromic windows are still in the development stage and are yet to be
tested successfully on a large-scale and commercial level.
Smart windows hold promise for reducing energy demands and cutting air
conditioning and heating loads in the future. They offer the next major step in windows
that are increasingly sophisticated and energy efficient.
(E) External colour and texture
The nature of the external surface finish determines the amount of heat absorbed or
reflected by it. A smooth and light-coloured surface reflects more heat and light; a rough
textured surface causes self-shading and increases the area for re-radiation. White or lighter
shades have higher solar reflectivity and therefore are ideally used for reducing heat gain in
warmer climates. Moreover, a heavy texture on these light-coloured surfaces helps to reduce
the glare. Dark colours absorb more radiation, which increases heat gain through the surface,
and can thus be used in cooler regions. An example of the effect of the colour of external
surfaces in the four cities of Ahmadabad, Mumbai, Nagpur and Pune is given in Table 3.4 and
3.5 [3]. It is seen that in all cities, a white painted surface outperforms all other colours in
terms of lowering room temperatures.
Table 3.4 Effect of colour of external surfaces on room temperatures in different
climatic zones [3]
Colour
(Absorptivity,
Emissivity)
White painted
surface
(0.3, 0.9)
White-washed
surface
(0.4,0.9)
Ahmadabad
(Hot and Dry)
Yearly Yearly Yearly H Y
25
min
max
avg
( C)
( C)
( C)
(h)
H Y30
(h)
Mumbai
(Warm and Humid)
Yearly Yearly Yearly H Y
25
min
max
avg
( C)
( C)
( C)
(h)
H Y30
(h)
20.6
42.2
29.7
7140
3908
24.5
34.6
29.6
8605
3350
20.8
42.5
30.0
7319
4123
24.8
34.9
29.8
8667
3654
Dark grey surface

(0.9,0.9)
21.9
44.0
31.1
7830
5599
26.0
36.1
30.9
8760
5535
Cream surface
(0.4,0.9)
21.2
43.0
30.4
7498
4739
25.3
35.3
30.2
8760
4320
Red surface
0.9)
21.2
43.1
30.4
7498
4739
25.2
35.4
30.2
8760
4412
(0.6,
H Y25
H Y30
: Number of hours for which room temperatures exceed 25 C in a year

: Number of hours for which room temperatures exceed 30 C in a year
min : minimum; max : maximum; avg : average
Table 3.5 Effect of colour of external surfaces on room temperatures in different

climatic zones [3]
Colour
(Absorptivity,
Emissivity)
White painted
surface
(0.3, 0.9)
White-washed
surface
(0.4,0.9)
Nagpur
(Composite)
Yearly Yearly Yearly
min
max
avg
(C)
(C)
(C)
Pune
(Moderate)
H Y25
H Y30
(h)
(h)
Yearly Yearly Yearly

min
max
avg
(C)
(C)
(C)
H Y25
H Y30
(h)
(h)
20.4
40.1
29.2
7067
2957
22.0
34.4
27.4
7078
1926
20.7
40.3
29.5
7220
3139
22.3
34.7
27.7
7319
1957
Dark grey surface

(0.9,0.9)
22.2
41.7
30.9
7923
4408
23.7
35.9
28.8
8171
2682
Cream surface
(0.4,0.9)
21.4
40.9
30.1
7494
3715
23.0
35.2
28.2
7894
2172
Red surface
0.9)
21.3
40.9
30.1
7494
3687
22.9
35.2
28.1
7864
2140
(0.6,
3.3
3.3.1
PASSIVE HEATING
Direct Gain
Direct gain is a passive heating technique that is generally used in cold climates. It is
the simplest approach and is therefore widely used. In this technique, sunlight is admitted into
the living spaces directly through openings or glazed windows. The sunlight heats the walls
and floors, which then store and transmit the heat to the indoor environment. The main
requirements of a direct gain system are large glazed windows to receive maximum solar
radiation and thermal storage mass.
During the day, the affected part of the house tends to get very hot, and hence, thermal
storage mass is provided in the form of bare massive walls or floors to absorb and store heat.
This also prevents overheating of the room. The stored heat is released at night when it is
needed most for space heating. Carpets and curtains should not be used to cover floors and
walls used as storage mass because they impede the heat flow rate. Suitable overhangs for
shading and openable windows for ventilation must be provided to avoid overheating in the
summer. Thus a direct gain system has the following components: (a) glazing to transmit
and trap the incoming solar radiation, (b) thermal mass to store heat for night-time use, (c)
insulation to reduce losses at night, (d) ventilation for summer time cooling, and (e)
shading to reduce overheating in summer. A schematic diagram showing the components of
direct gain system is given in Fig. 3.12. Reflectors may be provided outside windows to
increase the efficiency of the direct gain system. Clerestories and skylights may also be used
to gain heat. For example, clerestories used as a direct gain system in a restaurant in New
Mexico, USA can maintain an indoor temperature of about 15oC as compared to an outside
temperature of 1.0oC [10].
Direct gain is the most common, simple, cheap and effective heating approach.
However, overheating, glare and degradation of building materials due to ultraviolet radiation
are some of its disadvantages.
CLERESTOREY
(OPTIONAL)
SKYLIGHT
(OPTIONAL)
OVERHANG
FOR SUMMER
SHADING
INSULATION
MOVABLE INSULATION
TO REDUCE HEAT
LOSS AT NIGHT
REFLECTOR PANEL
TO INCREASE SOLAR
GAIN
INSULATION ON
OUTSIDE FOR
THERMAL STORAGE
WALL
SOUTH FACING
GLAZED WINDOW
THERMAL STORAGE
WALL AND FLOOR
GROUND
LEVEL
INSULATION OF
FLOOR TO REDUCE
HEAT LOSS
Fig. 3.12 Components of a direct gain system
Components:
Glazed windows
The principal function of a glazed window in a direct gain approach is to admit and
trap solar energy so that it can be absorbed and stored by elements within the space. In winter,
the suns altitude is low and its movement is in the southern part of the sky in northern
hemisphere. Hence, the window must face south in the northern hemisphere as it receives
maximum solar radiation in this direction. Large expanses of south-facing windows used for
heating in direct gain applications can, if properly designed, gain significantly more energy
than they lose. The orientation of the window may vary by upto 20% east or west of the south
without significantly affecting the thermal performance. A slight east-of-south orientation
may be desirable to allow the sun to penetrate the living space in the mornings.
Table 3.6 Effect of window-types in cold climates
Annual load (GJ/year)
Place
Srinagar
Leh
Single clear
glass
Double clear glass
212.0
172.0
416.0
329.0
Table 3.6 presents the effect of window-types for a conditioned residential bungalow
in for Srinagar and Leh which represent (i) cold and cloudy, and (ii) cold and dry climates
respectively. It is seen that a significant reduction in heat loss can be achieved by using
double glazing. Triple glazing may be provided in places that experience severe winters.
Figure 3.13 shows an example of a wooden-framed, double glazed and double rebated
window. The extra rebate is provided to reduce infiltration.
CLEAR GLASS
AIR GAP
EPDM GASKET
SHUTTER FRAME
FRAME
BEADING
CAULKING/ SEALANT
INTERNAL PLASTER
MASONRY WALL
Fig. 3.13 Details of a double glazed window
Thermal Storage Mass

In direct gain systems, solar energy can be stored in the floor, walls, ceiling, and/or
furnishings of the living space if these components have sufficient capacity to absorb and
store heat for use at night. Materials such as concrete, brick and water have this capability and
can be used effectively in direct gain applications. Also used, are phase change materials
(PCM) such as salt or wax that store thermal energy when they melt and release heat when
they solidify [11].
Care should be taken to ensure a balanced distribution of mass throughout the living
space. In general, a thin material spread over a larger area will perform better than thick
material concentrated in one part of the space.
Generally, for every square metre of south-facing glazing area, 30 percent of storage
area should be provided to receive direct sunlight. The thickness of the storage floor material
should be 50 to 150 mm, and that of walls should be 50 to 100 mm [12]. The masonry units
used should be solid with full mortar bedding. Storage mass exposed to direct sunlight should
be dark in colour to absorb more heat. It is generally more thermally efficient to provide
thicker rather than thinner storage mass. However, there is an optimum thickness. For
example, in case of the floor being used as the storage mass, the storage effect increases as its
thickness increases. For a thickness beyond 100mm, the rate of increase in the storage effect
is not significant. In fact, the performance decreases for thicknesses greater than 200mm.
Variations and Controls:
Thermal storage materials can be concrete, bricks, stone or water in containers. The
thermal mass is typically located in the external walls, internal walls or floors that receive
direct sun. Direct gain can be admitted through various forms of openings like clerestories,
skylights, greenhouses or glass curtain walls. The colour of internal surfaces also plays an
important role in absorbing radiation, and distributing of daylight. Darker colours absorb
more heat than lighter colours as pointed out earlier. As far as the distribution of light is
concerned, lighter shades are preferred indoors. Thus, the storage surfaces should be of
medium-dark colour, whereas lightweight materials should have light colours to reflect
sunlight on the masonry walls or floors. Reflectors may be provided outside the windows,
clerestories and skylights to increase the efficiency of the direct gain system.
Reflectors can be placed horizontally above or below a window. In cases where
physical obstructions (e.g. trees or other buildings) on or around the building site shade the
window, the provision of reflectors can often increase solar collection by about 30-40%. They
are usually panels coated on one side with a material of high reflectance. When the windows
extend all the way to the ground (e.g. french window or patio door), the reflectors are simply
laid on the ground in front of them. They should be placed so that they slope slightly away
from the window to increase the amount of reflected sunlight and to facilitate drainage (5% is
recommended). The size of the reflector panel should be of the same width as the window,
and roughly 1 to 2 times the height. To be economically and aesthetically justifiable, they
should also be insulated so that they can serve as movable insulation when not in the
reflecting mode. It should be noted that reflecting panels may cause glare and/ or overheating
problems within the direct gain living spaces. Light-coloured exterior landscape elements
such as patios or terraces, can also serve as reflectors. They will not perform as efficiently as
panels with high reflectance, but they will reduce the possibility of glare and overheating.
While windows can admit and trap a great deal of solar energy during clear sunny
days, they can also lose a great deal of heat during prolonged overcast periods and at night.
Providing some form of movable insulation can result in a significant increase in overall
thermal performance. In severe climates, windows may be net energy losers if movable
insulation is not provided. There are two basic types of movable insulation: those applied to
the outer face of the collector, and those applied on the inside. Both can effectively reduce
heat loss during the heating season (winter) and when used like shades, at preventing
excessive heat gain during the cooling season (summer). These devices can be hand operated
or motor driven. Care must be taken to ensure a very tight seal between the insulation and the
collector to avoid heat loss around the edges of the insulation.
To avoid excessive heat gain in the cooling season and to increase overall system
performance, some provision should be made for shading the windows. Common external
shading devices are overhangs (fixed or adjustable), trellises, awnings, louvers (horizontal or
vertical, fixed or adjustable), and wing walls. Interior shading devices, while often not as
thermally effective as exterior units, are generally easier to operate and maintain. Common
interior shading devices include roller shades, blinds, drapes, and movable panels. For
optimum overall performance of the system, these shading elements should also be designed
to provide insulation during the day in the cooling season and at night in the heating season.
Exhausts and vents can be employed to cool the interior spaces through ventilation when the
temperature rises beyond the comfort level.
Heat losses can also be controlled by providing insulation on the storage mass. Direct
gain storage walls and floors that are exposed to the outside should be insulated on their
exterior surfaces. Insulating the interior surface of a storage wall effectively nullifies any
thermal storage capability of the wall, because it prevents solar energy from being absorbed
by the wall. Therefore, insulation should be placed on the outside of any exterior wall, above
and below the plinth that is used for thermal storage. Similarly, floors should also be
insulated on the outside.
Remarks and Practical Considerations:

A direct gain system causes large temperature swings (typically 10 C) because of
large variations in the input of solar energy to the room. Joint reinforcement should therefore
be provided to control cracking caused by thermal movement and shrinkage. Expansion joints
should be provided at the connection between floors and masonry walls to prevent cracking.
Insulation must be protected wherever it is exposed. Cement plaster over chicken mesh or
wire lath or other methods may be employed. Where damp-proofing is used, it should be
allowed to completely cure before applying insulation. Care must be taken to ensure a tight fit
between any insulation and the glass to reduce heat loss at the edges. Continuous sill sealer is
recommended to provide protection against infiltration. In cooler climates, continuous
insulation should be used under the slab which is used as storage mass, and a vapour barrier
should be placed directly under the slab.
Example:
The Himurja office building located in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh employs the direct
gain technique for heating in a cold and cloudy climate. Inside temperatures of 18 to 28 C
compared to outside air temperatures of 9 to 15 C in January have been recorded. The
building does not require any auxiliary heating during winters [13].
3.3.2 Indirect Gain
3.3.2.1 Thermal storage wall
Thermal storage wall systems are designed primarily for space heating purposes. In
this approach, a wall is placed between the living space and the glazing such that it receives
maximum solar radiation (generally the southern face of the building in the northern
hemisphere). This prevents solar radiation from directly entering the living space; instead, the
collection, absorption, storage and control of solar energy occur outside it. The glazing
reduces heat loss to the ambient. Windows can also be integrated into the thermal storage
wall to provide light, view and some direct gain heating. Movable insulation can be applied
outside the glazing faades or in the airspace between the glazing and the storage wall to
reduce heat loss at night. Shading and reflecting devices are typically placed on the exterior.
Different types of storage walls are discussed in this section.
(a) Trombe wall
A Trombe wall is a thermal storage wall made of materials having high heat storage
capacity such as concrete, bricks or composites of bricks, block and sand. A typical Trombe
wall is illustrated in Fig 3.14. The external surface of the wall is painted black to increase its
absorptivity and is placed directly behind the glazing with an air gap in between. Solar
radiation is absorbed by the blackened surface and is stored as sensible heat in the wall. In an
unvented wall, the stored heat slowly migrates to the interior, where it heats the adjacent
living space. If properly designed, the wall can provide adequate heat to the living space
throughout the night. Some of the heat generated in the air space between the glazing and the
storage wall is lost back to the outside through the glass. The hotter the air in the airspace, the
greater is the heat loss. This heat loss can be reduced by venting the storage wall at the top
and bottom. Such units are called as vented Trombe walls. The air, in the space between the
glazing and the wall gets warmed up and enters the living room through the upper vents. Cool
room air takes its place through the lower vents, thus establishing a natural circulation pattern
(thermocirculation) that needs no mechanical means for moving the air.
Fig. 3.14 Working principle of a Trombe wall
A part of the absorbed heat is conducted through the wall and is transferred to the living space
by convection and radiation. This process is illustrated in Fig. 3.14a. Thus, vented Trombe
walls are suitable for buildings having daytime use, such as offices and shops. Care should
be taken to ensure that the circulation pattern does not reverse itself at night. This is because
temperatures in the airspace drop at night leading to warm air from the living space flowing
into the airspace. This warm air then pushes the cooler air in the airspace into the living room.
Thus, the heat may actually be lost from the living space to the environment by the Trombe
wall. To prevent such reverse circulation, simple backdraft dampers or openable louvers need
to be provided on the upper vents.
In a vented system, due to circulation of hot air, the amount of heat available for
storage by the Trombe wall is reduced. An unvented system does not lose heat in this way and
thus has the advantage of storing a greater percentage of the solar energy available to it than
does a vented wall. This stored heat is, however, not readily available for immediate use,
instead, it is transferred slowly into the living area. Hence, un-vented Trombe walls are
provided for residences, which require heating mainly during the night. Furthermore, in cold
climates where daytime as well as night-time heating requirements are high, it is desirable to
provide a certain amount of heat directly to the living space. In such situations, a vented wall
may be provided. In more moderate climates where daytime heating is not as important as
night-time heating, an unvented system may be preferable. The thickness and thermal
properties of the wall materials determine the time lag of the heat travelling from the outside
surface of the unvented wall to the interiors. This may vary from several hours to an entire
day.
A Trombe wall offers several advantages. Glare, and the problem of ultraviolet
degradation of materials is eliminated as compared to the direct gain system. The time lag due
to the storage wall ensures that heat is available at night when it is needed most. Besides, one
is able to provide sufficient storage mass in a relatively small area. However, a storage wall
can block view and daylight. It is desirable to provide movable insulation between the glazing
and storage wall; otherwise, the stored heat can be lost to the ambient at a very high rate at
night due to the difference in temperature between the ambient and the storage wall. It is
noteworthy that in buildings with thermal storage walls, the indoor temperature can be
maintained at about 15oC when the corresponding outside temperature may be as low as
11oC [10].
During summer months, when the suns altitude is high, an overhang is required to cut
off direct sunshine. The Trombe wall can provide induced ventilation for summer cooling of
the space as shown in Fig. 3.14b. Here, the heated air in the collector space flows out through
exhaust vents at the top of the outer glazing, and air from outside enters the space through
openings on the cooler side to replace the hot air. This continuous air movement cools the
living space.
A section of the Trombe wall is shown in Fig. 3.15 giving various construction
details. It consists of a number of components such as, (a) glazed walls to transmit the
incoming solar radiation, (b) thermal mass to store heat for night-time use, (c) air space for
trapping heat, and in case of vented wall, to transfer heat by convection, (d) movable
insulation in air space to reduce losses at night, (e) vents in glazed walls and storage walls
for circulating hot air, and in summer for exhausting heat, and (f) shading to reduce
overheating in summer. Reflectors may be provided outside the glazing to increase the
efficiency of the Trombe wall system. Generally, the thickness of the storage wall is between
200450 mm, the air gap between the wall and the glazing is 50150 mm, and the total area
of each row of vents is about 1% of the storage wall area [10,12].
Fig. 3.15 Details of a Trombe wall
Components:
Glazing
The principal function of the glazing in a Trombe wall is to admit and trap solar
energy so that it can be absorbed and stored by the thermal storage wall. The Trombe wall
must face south in the northern hemisphere to receive maximum solar radiation. A small
variation in the orientation of the wall (east or west of the south) does not significantly affect
the thermal performance. Using double glazing reduces heat loss compared to a single
glazing. If metal framed glazing is used, it should be separated from the wall either by a space
or a wood block, to avoid conductive heat losses from the wall through the metal to the
outside. Seasoned wood may be used in place of metal. Paints applied on the frames should
be able to withstand high temperatures which may go upto 60 C. The frames should allow
for significant expansion (minimum 12mm), particularly in unvented walls. Caulking and
sealants must be able to accommodate such movement. The glazing material itself can be
glass, fibreglass, acrylic or polycarbonate. and should be able to withstand high temperatures.
Vents may be provided in the glazing panels for summer-time exhaust of hot air from the
cavity to the ambient. The surface area of the glazing should be equal that of the storage wall.
Thermal Storage Mass
The effect of a thermal storage wall is largely determined by the walls thickness, type
of material and the colour of the external surface. Materials with high thermal capacity
(concrete, brick, and water) and phase change materials (PCM) can be used effectively in
Trombe walls. The recommended thickness for different materials is given in Table 3.7 [10].
The table also shows the effect of the wall thickness on the daily fluctuation of indoor air
temperature. Generally, it is seen that the thicker the wall, the better is its performance. The
values given in the table are for clear winter days, and correspond to a wall with its external
surface painted dark and having double glazing.
Table3.7 Recommended thickness for various thermal storage walls and their effect
on indoor temperatures [10]
1
Material
Thermal
conductivity
(W/m-K)
Recommended
thickness
(m)
Adobe
Brick
(common)
Concrete
(dense)
Brick
(magnesiu
2
m additive )
3
Water
0.519
0.20 to 0.30
10.0
3.9
3.9
4.4
0.727
0.25 to 0.35
13.3
6.1
3.9
1.731
0.30 to 0.45
15.6
8.9
5.6
3.3
2.8
3.462
0.40 to 0.60
19.4
13.3
9.4
6.6
5.0
0.575
(at 10oC)
0.15 or more
10.0
7.2
6.1
5.6
5.0
1.
2.
3.
Approximate indoor temperature fluctuation as

o
a function of wall thickness ( C)
0.2m
0.3m
0.4m
0.5m
0.6m
Assuming a double glazed wall. Values are given for clear winter days.
Magnesium is added to give bricks a dark colour and also increase thermal conductivity.
If water is used in tubes or other circular containers, use at least 0.23 m diameter tubes
3
2
or 0.15 m of water for every 1 m of glazing.
Storage mass exposed to direct sunlight should have dark colour to absorb solar
radiation. To improve performance, selective coatings can also be applied on the exposed
surface of storage walls. These coatings have high absorptivity for incoming solar radiation
and low emissivity for re-radiation. The interior surface of the wall may be painted or left
untreated. The area of the vents for thermocirculation should be about 2% of the wall area,
divided evenly between upper and lower vents.
Variations and controls:
The distribution of heat into the living space can be almost immediate or delayed
depending on air circulation. Furthermore, the delay can be varied depending on the thickness
of the wall, and the time-lag property of the wall materials. If the vents are provided with
dampers, the air flow can be controlled.
Shading, reflector panels and insulation controls are more or less the same as those for
direct gain systems. Overheating during summer may be prevented by using fixed exterior
shades or movable curtains within the air space. For optimum performance, these curtains or
shading devices should also be designed to provide insulation during the day in the cooling
season, and at night in the heating season.
Another variation is due to wall materials. In addition to conventional building
materials, Phase change materials (PCM) can be used as storage materials for thermal storage
wall, because they have a greater ability to store and release heat during phase changes. Also,
for a given amount of heat storage, PCMs require less space than any sensible storage and are
much lighter in weight. They are therefore, convenient for use in retrofit of buildings.
Commonly used PCMs are hydrated salts and hydrocarbons. Of the hydrocarbons,
paraffin wax has been very popular in building applications. Also used are, (a) a mixture of
stearic acid, paraffin (80%) and mineral oil, and (b) sodium decahydrate. While hydrated salts
are inexpensive and can store more heat than a hydrocarbon, their properties degrade with
prolonged use; they are also corrosive. On the other hand, hydrocarbons are flammable and
require careful handling.
Remarks and Practical Considerations:
The Trombe wall due to its complex construction and weight, may require special
foundations and footings. The availability of daylight and view to the exterior are affected by
the presence of a Trombe wall, and therefore must be taken care of by other design features.
The temperatures in the air space can be quite high. Joint reinforcement should therefore be
provided to control cracking caused by thermal movement and shrinkage. Creaking can be
prevented by providing expansion joints at the connection between concrete or masonry
floors, and the storage walls. Sealants and caulking should also be of high quality to avoid
degradation due to high temperatures. Continuous sill sealer is recommended to provide
protection against infiltration. Periodic maintenance is required to check whether sealants
have cracked. Joints also need to be inspected; otherwise the performance of the Trombe wall
may be affected due to infiltration of cold ambient air. The accumulation of dust on the glass
and on the dark absorbing surface would deteriorate the performance. Hence, provision for
cleaning the glass and wall needs to be made. This has been done in the HP state Cooperative Bank in Shimla, which has incorporated the Tombe wall as a passive heating
systems in the building.
Example:
Trombe walls have been successfully used in the cold regions of Leh. In case of
LEDeG (Ladakh Ecological Development Group) Hostel at Leh, the temperatures inside the
bedrooms have been recorded to be above 8 C corresponding to outside temperatures of 17

C [13].
(b) Water wall
Water walls are based on the same principle as that of the Trombe wall, except that
they employ water as the thermal storage material. Water walls can store more heat than
concrete walls because of the higher specific heat. A water wall is a thermal storage wall
made up of drums of water stacked up behind glazing. It is painted black externally to
increase the absorption of radiation. The internal surface can be painted with any other colour
and can be in contact with the interior space directly, or separated by a thin concrete wall or
insulating layer. A view of the same is shown in Fig. 3.16. As the storage in the water wall is
a convective body of mass, heat transfer is very rapid compared to a masonry wall. Table 3.8
gives the typical wall area required for maintaining the living space temperatures between 18
and 24C for different ambient conditions on a clear day (solar radiation > 4 kWh/m2-day)
[11].
Fig. 3.16 Water wall
Table 3.8 Sizing a water wall for different climatic conditions

(Calculated for a mean U-value of 1.9 to 2.1 W/m2-K for a room) [10,11]
Average winter outdoor
temperature ( C )
Area of wall needed for each

2
square metre of floor area (m )
-4.0
0.70
-1.0
0.55
2.0
0.45
5.0
0.35

A large storage volume provides longer and greater storage capacity, while smaller
units enable faster distribution. In order to fix the quantity of water, the thumb rule is usually
taken as 150 litres of water per square metre of south oriented water wall. A variety of
containers like tin cans, bottles, tubes, bins, barrels, drums, etc., provide different heatexchange surfaces to the storage mass ratio. Care should be taken to ensure that steel and
metal containers are lined with corrosion resistant materials. Also, the water should be treated
with algae retardant chemicals. Troughs should be provided as a precaution against leakage of
water from containers or from condensation.
Heat transfer through a water wall is much faster than through a Trombe wall. So a
control on the distribution of heat is needed, if it (heat) is not immediately necessary for the
building. This can be effected by using a thin concrete layer or insulating layer, or by
providing air circulation through vents. Buildings like schools or government offices which
work during the day, benefit from the rapid heat transfer in water walls. To reduce heat
losses, the glazing of the water wall is usually covered with insulation at night. Overheating
during summer may be prevented by using movable overhangs.
(c) Transwall
Transwall is a thermal storage wall that is semitransparent in nature. It partly absorbs
and partly transmits the solar radiation. The transmitted radiation causes direct heating and
illumination of the living space. The absorbed heat is transferred to the living space at a later
time. Heat loss through the glazing is low, as much of the heat is deposited at the centre of the
transwall ensuring that its exterior surface does not become too hot. Thus, the system
combines the attractive features of both direct gain and Trombe wall systems.
A transwall has three main components:

Container made of parallel glass walls set in metal frame.
Thermal storage liquid, which is generally water.
A partially absorbing plate set at the centre of the transwall, parallel to the glass walls.
CLEAR GLASS
(SOUTH FACING)
WATER
SEMI-TRANSPARENT
ABSORBING PLATE
E.G. PERSPEX
TRANSPARENT BAFFLES
HEAT AND LIGHT
TRANSMITTED TO ROOM
Fig. 3.17 Typical section of a transwall
Figure 3.17 illustrates the typical section of a Transwall. It is installed on the south
side of the building (in the northern hemisphere), located directly behind double glazing. To
prevent the growth of micro-organisms in the storage, an inhibiting agent may be added.

The dimensions of the storage module are dictated by the hydrostatic pressure exerted
by the liquid. Also important, are the considerations of transportation, the method of
installation, the ways of filling and draining the module, and attachment of the modules to
each other and integration with the building.
As the storage is a convective body of water, the transfer of heat is rapid. This can be
regulated by providing baffles and adding a gelling compound. Baffles are transparent plates
which connect the module walls with the absorbing plate and prevent water movement. The
gelling compound increases the general flow resistance.
3.3.2.2
Roof top collectors

There are a few interesting examples of passive heating systems that can be
incorporated as part of the roof. Thermosyphon air panels and roof radiation traps are
examples of such systems. A brief description of each is given in this section.
(A)
Thermosyphon air panels

A thermosyphon air panel is essentially an absorbing surface, with minimum thermal
inertia on the south face (in northern hemisphere) of the building and a glazing over it, thus
forming a solar air heater. It absorbs incident solar radiation and heats up the air in the
absorber-glazing space. A well-insulated collector limits the heat loss to the outside. The hot
air forces itself into the living space through the vents, and warms it up. Cooler air takes its
place and the cycle is repeated. In addition to heating the space, heat can also be stored for
later use by passing the hot air through a storage mass. Figure 3.18 and 3.19 illustrate the
working principle and detail section of this type of collector respectively.
The storage is generally the inner structure of the building like an internal wall and/or
a concrete ceiling which is not exposed to the outside, thereby minimising the heat loss to the
outside. Besides, during the evening and night hours, the well-insulated collector serves as a
thermal buffer between the house and the external atmosphere, and eliminates the need for
movable insulation.
Dampers and ducts can be used to control the air-flow either to the storage unit or
directly into the living space. The thermal storage may be suitably designed to realise a
desired time lag for the distribution of heat to the living space.
In summer, when relief from high temperatures is required, the system can be
modified to act as a ventilation device. In this case, the hot air is not allowed to enter the
room. On the other hand, the room air enters the collector, gets heated up and is vented out at
the top. This creates a low pressure in the room, leading to cooler air being sucked into the
room from windows. This process continues throughout the day and is known as induced
ventilation. Such a system is shown in Fig. 3.20.
ROOF TOP
THERMOSYPHON
AIR PANEL
HEATED AIR
VENTS SHUT AT
NIGHT TO REDUCE
HEAT LOSS
COOL AIR
INSULATION ON
OUTSIDE FOR
THERMAL STORAGE
WALL
THERMAL STORAGE
WALL AND FLOOR
INSULATION OF
FLOOR TO REDUCE
HEAT LOSS
Fig. 3.18 Thermosyphon air panel: working principle
INSULATION
G.I. SHEET
PAINTED BLACK
ROOF
OUTLET FOR
WARM HEATED AIR
DOUBLE
GLAZING
PLYWOOD
INLET FOR
COOL AIR
INSULATION
Fig. 3.19 Details of a thermosyphon air panel
Fig. 3.20 Variation of thermosyphon air panel for summer cooling
(b)
Roof Radiation Trap

A roof radiation trap can be used for winter heating and summer cooling. In this
technique, the incident solar radiation is trapped and is used for heating the air inside the trap.
Some amount of energy is also absorbed by the roof and is conducted through it to be radiated
into the living space.
In the northern hemisphere, the trap consists of an inclined south-facing glazing and a
north sloping insulated surface on the roof. The latter projects over the glazing to shade it
during the summer. Between the roof and the insulation, an air-pocket is formed which is
heated by solar radiation. A shutter is used to cover the glazing when desired. Figure 3.21
shows the schematic sketch of a roof radiation trap. A roof can have one or several such units.
In winter (Fig. 3.21a), solar radiation penetrates the glazing and is absorbed by the
black roof surface designed to minimise heat loss to the ambient. Further, a movable
insulation reduces heat loss through the glazed plane during nights. Part of the absorbed
energy is conducted and radiated into the living area through the roof, while the rest is
transferred to the air-pocket. This hot air can be drawn to a thermal storage unit (rockbed /
water mass) to be used on cold nights or cloudy days.
The system can also be used for summer cooling. The insulating plane is covered with
a white metal sheet to increase its emissivity. On summer nights, the sheet gets cooled by
nocturnal radiation exchanges and in turn, cools the air blown under it (Fig. 3.21b). This
coolness is stored in the storage unit and used for cooling the living space during daytime.
Fig. 3.21 Working principle of a roof radiation trap
The type of roof material and its thickness determine the pattern of heat flow into the
living space. A hinged insulating panel inside the radiation trap can help to control the
division of heat flow between conduction through roof and convection to storage through air.
External insulation can be used to keep summer radiation out and prevent heat loss on winter
nights.
3.3.3
Isolated Gain
In isolated gain systems, the solar radiation collection and storage are thermally
isolated from the living spaces of the building. This allows in a greater flexibility in the
design and operation of the passive concept. The most common example of isolated gain is
the natural convective loop. In this system, solar radiation is absorbed to heat air or water.
The warm air or water rises and passes through the storage, transferring its heat. The cooler
air falls onto the absorber to get heated up again. Thus, a thermosiphoning heat flow occurs
as shown in Fig 3.22.
Fig. 3.22 Isolated gain
The basic requirements for this system are:

a collector, which absorbs the solar radiation to heat the fluid
a storage mass, which absorbs the heat from the fluid, to be stored for distribution into
the living space
a mechanism to distribute the heat stored in the storage mass
Variations and controls :

The collector can be located at any suitable place and oriented independently of the
building for maximum solar gain. Thus the building design can be flexible. The slope of the
collector is generally equal to the latitude of the place. Its area may range from 20 to 40 % of
the floor area of the living space to be heated. The collector consists of an absorber (usually a
corrugated metal plate with a black paint that can withstand temperatures upto 120o C) and
glazing. Single glazing is the norm except in severely cold climates where more than one is
required to be used. The gap between the glazing and the absorber should be about 5 6% of
the absorber length.
Variations in the storage materials can be achieved by using different types of

materials as well as by varying their location (for example, below the floors and windows or
in the wall). The method of distribution of heat from the storage can be either by radiation or
convection, or it can also be directly from the collector. If water is used as the working fluid,
the hot water can be run through pipes installed in the floor slab, where heat is stored and
radiated into the living space. This can be supplemented by a boiler, or fired by wood/gas
during extended overcast seasons for maintaining comfort conditions.
If the contact area between the collector space and the storage is not large, then the
link between the two can be blocked or disconnected easily to control the performance of the
system. It follows that the larger the area of contact, the greater and quicker the heat transfer.
Therefore performance control can be exercised by designing the area of contact between the
collector space and storage to meet specific heating demands.
3.3.4
Solarium ( Attached Green House / Sunspace)

Sunspaces are essentially used for passive heating in cold climates. This approach
integrates the direct gain and thermal storage concepts. Solar radiation admitted directly into
the sunspace heats up the air, which, by convection and conduction through the mass wall
reaches the living space (as shown in Fig 3.23). A solarium essentially consists of a sunspace
or a green house constructed on the south side (in the northern hemisphere) of the building
with a thick mass wall linking the two. The sunspace can be used as a sit-out during day as it
allows solar radiation but keeps out the surrounding cool air. At night, it acts as a buffer
space.
Fig. 3.23 Working principle of a solarium
The basic requirements of this type of building are:

a glazed south facing collector space attached, yet distinct from the building
thermal storage link between the collector and living space for heat transfer

The location of the sunspace depends on the building design and orientation of the
sun. The area of contact between the sunspace and the living space determines the size of the
former.
The thermal mass must be located where winter radiation can reach it. Floors, walls,
benches, rock bed or covered pools of water can be used to store heat. Glazing should
preferably be sloped by about 45o in overcast and 60o in clear and sunny areas. The storage
walls are generally 200 450 mm thick. If a rockbed storage is used, then the typical size is
0.75 1.25 m3 per square metre of the glazed area. Ideally, it should cover the entire floor,
the typical rock size being about 5 7.5 cm in diameter [12].
The temperature inside the sunspace must be controlled depending on its usage.
Shading to prevent overheating in summer, and movable insulation and shutters to prevent
heat loss in winter can be provided.
If the sunspaces are used for plantation or as a green house, humidity control must be
incorporated to prevent mould from growing on the storage mass or other materials kept
inside.
General remarks: The manner of arrangement of the passive components, namely. glazing,
insulation, collector, storage and the living space to be heated or cooled, differentiates one
passive system from the other. The variations and controls that each type offers have been
indicated. Further possibilities within each class are created by using different types of heat
storage materials. Sometimes passive systems also use small fans for direct control over
convective heat distribution. These may be referred to as hybrid systems.
The various passive concepts outlined so far essentially represent passive heating
systems wherein attention is given to efficient collection of solar energy. Movable insulating
curtains are provided to prevent unwanted heat loss to the environment at nights as well as on
overcast winter days. However, as indicated, some of them could also be used for passive
cooling purposes by changing the mode of operation. But there are certain concepts which are
used exclusively for passive cooling. These are outlined in the next section.
3.4
PASSIVE COOLING
The cooling of buildings by using passive methods has evoked great interest. The
underlying principle of passive cooling is to prevent heat from (or at least reduce heat flux)
entering the building, or remove heat once it has entered. In this section, we discuss the
principles governing each of the concepts used for passive cooling of buildings. The various
concepts discussed are ventilation cooling, evaporative cooling, nocturnal radiation cooling,
desiccant cooling and earth coupling. The applicability of these concepts depends greatly
upon the climatic conditions prevailing in a particular place.
3.4.1
Ventilation Cooling
Ventilation is generally defined as the replacement of stale air by fresh air. It also
provides cooling by air movement. Hence, it would be appropriate to define the term
ventilation as the supply of outside air to the interior for air motion and replacement of
vitiated air. An indoor air speed of 1.5 2.0 m/s can cause comfort in warm and humid
regions where the outdoor maximum air temperature does not exceed 28 32oC [14]. The
scheduling of natural ventilation in arid climates (allowing only night-time ventilation) can
reduce the maximum indoor temperature by about 5 8oC compared to that of the outdoor.
Providing proper ventilation in buildings calls for due consideration in the design
phase of buildings. A faulty design resulting in inadequate ventilation will result in higher
energy consumption in the building for creating comfortable indoor conditions. Therefore, the
ventilation requirements of different seasons, for different types of occupancies should be
determined first. A ventilation system should then be suitably designed to meet the required
performance standards.
There are many ways in which ventilation can improve comfort. For example, opening
the windows to let the wind in, and thus providing a higher indoor air speed, makes people
inside a building feel cooler. This approach is termed as comfort ventilation. In hot
environments, evaporation is the most important process of heat loss from the human body
for achieving thermal comfort. As the air around the body becomes nearly saturated due to
humidity, it becomes more difficult to evaporate perspiration and a sense of discomfort is felt.
A combination of high humidity and high temperature proves very oppressive. In such
circumstances, even a slight movement of air near the body gives relief. It would, therefore,
be desirable to consider a rate of ventilation which may produce necessary air movement. If
natural ventilation is insufficient, the air movement may be augmented by rotating fans inside
the building.
The air movement indoors is mainly due to stack effect (stratification of temperature)
and wind pressure. Manipulating these two effects can considerably improve the ventilation.
For example, a solar chimney works mainly on the stack effect. The solar chimney is used to
exhaust hot air from the building at a quick rate, thus improving the cooling potential of
incoming air from other openings. Similarly, wind towers use wind pressure for cooling. The
wind is captured at the top of the terrace and is diverted to the indoors using wind towers.
Windows can also be arranged to take advantage of stack effect and wind pressure.
An indirect way of cooling is to ventilate the building only at night to cool the interior
mass of the building. During the following day, the cooled mass reduces the rate of indoor
temperature rise and thus provides a cooling effect. This strategy is termed as nocturnal
ventilative cooling.
This section provides more details about cross ventilation, wind towers, and nocturnal
ventilation.
3.4.1.1
Cross ventilation
Requirements for air motion in the early summer and late post-monsoon periods are
usually small. These can be easily met by providing adequate cross ventilation through rooms.
When a building is cross ventilated during the day, the temperature of the indoor air and
surfaces closely follow the ambient temperature. Therefore ventilation in daytime should be
considered only when indoor comfort can be experienced at the outdoor air temperature (with
acceptable indoor speed).
The indoor wind speed varies due to factors such as the area and location of windows
in the room, direction of incident wind, weather shades such as louvers, chajjas, verandahs,
etc., and the type of interconnection between different rooms of a building. For example, the
available wind velocity in a room with a single window on the windward side is about 10% of
the outdoor velocity at points upto a distance of one-sixth of room width from the window.
Beyond this, the velocity decreases rapidly and hardly any air movement is produced in the
leeward end of the room. Therefore, it is better to provide two windows on adjacent or
opposite walls to improve ventilation. The window area and the direction of wind affect the
performance of this cross ventilation. Figure 3.24 [5] shows how the window area affects the
average indoor air velocity. The plot corresponds to the case where there are two windows of
identical size on opposite walls; the wind direction is perpendicular or normal to the window.
For example, for windows that are 20 percent of floor area, the average indoor wind velocity
is about 25 percent of outdoor velocity.
Fig. 3.24 Effect of window area on indoor air speed
3.4.1.2
Wind tower
Wind tower is generally used in hot and dry climates for cooling purposes. The tower
is meant to catch the wind at higher elevations and direct it into the living space. The air
flow passages in the tower may have equal or different areas. The tower may have only one
opening facing the wind, if wind is predominantly in one direction, or may have openings in
all directions in locations with variable wind directions. Such systems have been used for
centuries in West Asian countries for natural ventilation and passive cooling [15,16]. A prerequisite for using a wind tower is that the site should experience winds with a fairly good
and consistent speed. A wind tower operates in various ways according to the time of day and
the presence or absence of wind. The cardinal principle of its operation lies in changing the
temperature and thereby the density of the air in and around the tower. The difference in
density creates a draft, pulling air either upwards or downwards through the tower, shown
schematically in Fig. 3.25. The detail section of a wind tower is given in Fig. 3.26.
Working: Night
The tower area is so designed that the top part provides large heat storage capacity,
and also has a large surface area for heat transfer. The tower walls and the internal walls of
the air-flow passages absorb heat during the day and release it at night, warming the cool
night air in the tower. Warm air moves up creating an upward draft and is exhausted through
the openings. The pressure difference thus created pulls the cool night air through the doors
and windows into the building. In the absence of wind, the tower acts as a chimney. The
nocturnal radiation through the roof and the external walls brings about further cooling.
Fig. 3.25 Working principle of a wind tower
In the presence of wind, the cool night air enters the tower and forces itself down into
the structure. Though it is warmed slightly during the process, sufficient cooling can be
achieved due to forced circulation. Again, cooling due to nocturnal radiation adds to this
process.
Fig. 3.26 Detail of a wind tower
Working : Day
The hot ambient air coming in contact with the cool upper part of the tower gets
cooled. It becomes cold and dense, and sinks through the tower and into the living spaces,
replacing the hot air. In the presence of wind, the air is cooled more effectively and flows
faster down the tower and into the living area. It must be noted that the temperature of the
tower soon reaches that of the ambient air and hence, in the absence of wind, the downward
flow ceases, the tower then begins to act like a chimney. The operation of the tower depends
greatly on the ambient fluctuations like the wind velocity, air temperature changes, etc.
Variations in wind tower design can be achieved by altering tower heights, cross
section of the air passages, locations and number of openings, and the location of the wind
tower with respect to the living space to be cooled. The variations are aimed at providing the
desired air-flow rates, heat transfer area and storage capacity. Air flow through different parts
of the buildings can be controlled by the doors and windows.
Due to small storage capacity, the sensible cooling may stop after several hours of
operation on hot summer days. In order to improve the efficiency of its operation, evaporative
cooling may be introduced. The air flowing down the tower is first sensibly cooled, and then
further cooled evaporatively. This can be achieved by providing a shower/spray or dripping of
water at top of tower, or a fountain at the bottom. The reduction in the temperature of air can
be as much as 10 15o C in arid climates [14].
Wind towers can easily be incorporated in low-rise buildings. It may be noted that
wind towers may need to be shut off when cooling is not required, and hence, such provisions
may be included in the design. Due consideration must also be given to prevent the entry of
dust, birds and insects.
3.4.1.3
Induced Ventilation
Passive cooling by induced ventilation can be very effective in hot and humid climates
as well as hot and dry climates. This method involves the heating of air in a restricted area
through solar radiation, thus creating a temperature difference and causing air movements.
The draft causes hot air to rise and escape to the ambient, drawing in cooler air and thereby
causing cooling. In effect, a solar chimney is created to cause continuous air circulation.
Figure 3.27 illustrates the principle of induced ventilation and some of its variations.
Arrangements may be made to draw air from the coolest part of the structure as
replacement, to set up a continuous circulation and cool the living spaces. Curved roofs and
vents are used in combination for passive cooling of air in hot and dry climates, where dusty
winds make wind towers impracticable. The system works on the principle of cooling by
induced ventilation, caused by pressure differences. This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3.28.
Wind flowing over a curved surface creates a pressure difference across it. If vents are
provided on the surface, air is sucked out of the structure through the openings. Therefore, the
hot internal air forces its way out through the vents inducing air-circulation. Air vents are
usually placed above living rooms.
Fig. 3.27 Induced ventilation: principle and variations
Fig. 3.28 Section showing induced ventilation through curved roof and air vents
The cooling effect can be enhanced by providing evaporative cooling. A pool of water
is usually kept on the floor directly below the vents so that the air flowing into the room gets
cooled, in turn cooling the living space. The air vents are usually provided with protective
caps which help to direct the winds across them.
3.4.1.4
Nocturnal Cooling
Buildings may be cooled indirectly by ventilating at night, if the ambient air is cooler
than the room air. This cools the interior mass of the building and on the following day, the
cooled mass reduces the rate of indoor temperature rise and thus provides a cooling effect.
This strategy is termed as nocturnal ventilative cooling.
Because buildings are usually occupied during the day, nocturnal ventilative cooling
can be effective only to the extent that it can lower indoor temperatures the following day. It
is particularly important that the indoor maximum temperature the next day be lowered. Such
lower indoor temperatures can be achieved only if the building is kept closed and
unventilated during the daytime hours. In this respect, daytime comfort ventilation and
nocturnal cooling are mutually exclusive. At any given place on any given day, one or the
other should be considered as the best approach to provide daytime comfort.
There are several design options to provide the thermal mass that will serve as the
nocturnal cold storage:
structural mass of the building such as walls, partitions, floors, etc., cooled by
whole space ventilation
embedded air spaces (passages) within floors, ceilings and/ or walls through which
outdoor air is circulated
specialised storage such as a rock bed or a water tank with embedded air tubes,
cooled at night by outdoor air
The applicability of nocturnal ventilation cooling is limited to a certain range of
conditions. Limitations on applicability are posed on the one hand by climatic conditions, and
on the other by the comfort and functional needs of occupants. These limitations particularly
affect the decision to leave windows open throughout the night to obtain effective nocturnal
ventilation cooling.
3.4.2
Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling is a passive cooling technique in which outdoor air is cooled by
evaporating water before it is introduced in the building. Its physical principle lies in the fact
that the sensible heat of air is used to evaporate water, thus cooling the air, which in turn
cools the living space in the building. Evaporation occurs at the water-air interface. An
increase in the proportion of the contact area between water and air enhances the rate of
evaporation and thereby the potential for cooling. The presence of a waterbody such as a
pond, lake or sea near the building, or a fountain in the courtyard can provide a cooling effect.
Cisterns or wetted surfaces can also be placed in the incoming ventilation stream. Such direct
systems typically use little or no auxiliary power, are simple and can avoid the need for large
surfaces of water and movement of large volumes of air. They are, therefore, particularly
suited to hot and dry regions.
The airflow in these systems can be induced mechanically or passively for example,
evaporative cooling towers that humidify the ambient air can be used. This is direct
evaporative cooling. The main disadvantage of direct systems is in the increased moisture
content of the ventilation air supplied to the indoor spaces. High evaporation may result in
discomfort due to high humidity. However, passive evaporative cooling can also be indirect
the roof can be cooled with a pond, wetted pads or spray, and the ceiling transformed into a
cooling element that cools the space below by convection and radiation without raising the
indoor humidity [14].
The efficiency of the evaporation process depends on the temperatures of the air and
water, the vapour content of the air, and the rate of airflow past the water surface. The
provision of shading and the supply of cool, dry air will enhance evaporation. A
comprehensive discussion on evaporation has been reported by Bansal et al. [11]. The most
commonly used evaporative cooling system in north India is the desert cooler consisting of
water, evaporative pads, a fan and a pump. It is a hybrid type of direct evaporative cooling
system [17].
Watt [18] has proposed the following guidelines for using evaporative cooling:
Direct evaporative coolers should have an average saturation efficiency of 70% or
more, and the cooled air should enter the indoor space without any additional heat
gain.
The maximum indoor air velocity induced by the cooled air must be 1 m/s.
The room temperature should be reduced by at least 3C before the cool air is
discharged out of the room.
The temperature of the cooled space should be about 4 C below the outdoor dry
bulb temperature. This is necessary to counteract the incoming radiant heat.
On a psychrometric chart, evaporation is characterised by a displacement along a
constant wet bulb line, AB in Fig. 3.29 [19]. When the decrease in the dry bulb temperature is
accompanied by an increase in the moisture content of the air, the process is commonly
referred to as direct evaporative cooling. The passive downdraft evaporative cooling system
is an example of this process. When the evaporation of water takes place on a surface, or
inside a tube, resulting in a decrease of surface temperatures, it is possible to cool air adjacent
to these surfaces without increasing its moisture content. In this case, the process is referred
to as indirect evaporative cooling and is characterised by a displacement along a constant
moisture content line CD shown in Fig. 3.29. An example of this is the roof surface
evaporative cooling system. These techniques are discussed in detail in the following
sections.
Fig. 3.29 Psychometric chart showing evaporative cooling
3.4.2.1
Passive Downdraft Evaporative Cooling (PDEC)

Evaporative cooling was extensively used in the vernacular architecture of Pakistan,
Iran, Turkey and Egypt. Wind catchers called 'malqafs' captured wind and directed it over
porous water pots, thus cooling the air as a result of latent heat of vaporisation. This system
maintained a balance between two important parameters of passive cooling thermal
performance and ventilation effectiveness.
Contemporary passive downdraft evaporative cooling systems consist of a downdraft
tower with wetted cellulose pads at the top of the tower. Water is distributed on the top of the
pads, collected at the bottom into a sump and recirculated by a pump. Certain designs exclude
the re-circulation pump and use the pressure in the supply water line to periodically surge
water over the pads, eliminating the requirement for any electrical energy input. In some
designs, water is sprayed using micronisers or nozzles in place of pads, in others, water is
made to drip. Thus, the towers are equipped with evaporative cooling devices at the top to
provide cool air by gravity flow. These towers are often described as reverse chimneys. While
the column of warm air rises in a chimney, in this case the column of cool air falls. The air
flow rate depends on the efficiency of the evaporative cooling device, tower height and cross
section, as well as the resistance to air flow in the cooling device, tower and structure (if any)
into which it discharges. [20]
This system depends on two basic factors that determine its effectiveness: (1) amount
of cooling of the ambient air achieved, and (2) the rate at which this conditioned ambient air
replaces the stale air within the building. The former can be easily achieved by increased airwater contact zone. This factor usually dictates the height of the tower and in turn, influences
the massing of the building design. The second factor, however, requires a complex interplay
of different variables to achieve an effective performance. These variables dictate the
configuration of the tower termination, the positioning of multiple towers within the building,
the circulation pattern within the building, and even the configuration of openings between
adjacent spaces served by these towers [14].
The temperature of the incoming ambient air drops while crossing the pads.
Therefore, the height of the tower and the area of the wetted pads are not expected to have
any appreciable effect on the temperature of the air in the tower in a given combination of
ambient dry and wet bulb temperatures. However, these two system design factors affect the
airflow rate, and hence the total cooling effect generated by the system [14].
Performance Analysis
PDEC systems have been used with various types of cooling devices such as, spray
devices (pressure and ultrasonic nozzles), aspen fibre pads, corrugated cellulose pads, etc.
The performance analysis would thus vary depending on the evaporating cooling facilities
provided in the tower. Aspen pads cause a high pressure drop relative to sprays and
corrugated media, but they are low in cost. Spray devices may require efficient mist
eliminators for removing fine droplets from the air because mist impedes air flow [20].
Givoni [21] has proposed a semiempirical model to estimate exit air temperature and
flow rate of a PDEC tower. The tower uses vertical wetted cellulose pads called CELdek.
Water is distributed at the top of the pads, collected at the bottom into a sump, and is recirculated using a pump.
The exit air temperature (Texit ) is given by
Texit = Tdb 0.87(Tdb Twb ) 0.4 + 0.3 * w
(3.1)
where Tdb = dry bulb temperature of ambient air (0C)

Twb = wet bulb temperature of ambient air (0C)
w = wind speed (m/s)
The flow rate of air can be estimated from
.
m air = 0.03 Awpad * H * (Tdb T wb )
(3.2)
and exit air speed is given by

.
air = m air / Atower

where,
m air = towers air flow rate (m3/s)

Awpad = area of the wetted pads (m2)
H = height of the tower (m)
Atower = cross sectional area of the tower (m2)
These equations can be applied mainly as a tool in the initial design stages [21].
(3.3)
Givoni [22] has developed performance equations for the shower tower. It consists
of an open shaft with showers at the top and collecting pond at the bottom. The water
collected at the bottom of the pond is recirculated by a small pump. When drops of water are
sprayed vertically downward from the top of the shaft, they entrain a volume of air which
flows down the shaft with falling water. The air thus gets cooled and can be used for cooling
of a building. The shaft should be installed adjacent to an opening of the building and kept
open to the outdoor air. The system can use even brackish or sea water since evaporation
takes place in the free air stream.
The exit air temperature is given by
Texit = Tdb 0.9 * (Tdb Twb ) * 1 e 1.5* H * 1 e 0.15 m water
(3.4)
m water = water flow rate (litres/minute)

The flow rate of air is given by
mair = 7 m water H / 600

(3.5)
These relations are valid for a particular type of shower. Givoni [22] has compared the
performance of the shower tower under the three different climatic conditions, namely,
Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), Los Angeles (USA) and Yokohama (Japan). He has demonstrated
that the system can provide effective cooling in all these climates and the relations are
validated through measurements.
Example:
Passive downdraft evaporative cooling tower has been used successfully at the Torrent
Research Centre in Ahmadabad. The inside temperatures of 29 30 C were recorded when
the outside temperatures were 43 44 C. Six to nine air changes per hour were achieved on
different floors [13].
3.4.2.2
Roof Surface Evaporative Cooling (RSEC)
In a tropical country like India, the solar radiation incident on roofs is very high in
summer, leading to overheating of rooms below them. Roof surfaces can be effectively and
inexpensively cooled by spraying water over suitable water-retentive materials (e.g., gunny
bags) spread over the roof surface. As the water evaporates, it draws most of the required
latent heat from the surface, thus lowering its temperature and reducing heat gain. Besides,
evaporation also cools the air above the roof. The cool air slides down and enters the living
space through infiltration and ventilation, providing additional cooling. This is an example of
the passive indirect evaporative cooling technique.
A critical factor determining the performance of a RSEC system is the sustained
wetness of the roof surface. The surfaces may be sprayed intermittently, as it is only necessary
to keep them moist. Evaporation of the water from a roof pond ( a large mass of water stored
on the roof) can also be used for reducing the cooling load in summer. However, to use this
cooling technique, the roof has to be made structurally strong and waterproof. Comparatively,
cooling by sprinkling water is more advantageous as it provides a larger surface area for
evaporation without the need for any storage.
For installing a roof surface evaporative cooling system, the following points need to
be taken note of:
1) Suitable waterproofing treatment of the roof should be done.
2) The roof must be covered with water absorptive and retentive materials such as gunny
bags,
brick ballast, sintered fly-ash, coconut husk or coir matting. On account of their
porosity, these materials when wet, behave like a free water surface for evaporation.
The durability of such materials is rather good, but they have to be treated for fire
safety.
3) During peak summer, the quantity of water needed is approximately 10 kg/ day/ m2 of
roof area.
4) The roof must be kept wet throughout the day using a water sprayer. The sprayer can
be manually operated or controlled by an automatic moisture-sensing device. The
sprayer usually works at low water pressure which can be achieved either by a water
head of the storage tank on the roof, or by a small water pump.
The effectiveness of RSEC depends on:
ambient air temperature and humidity
intensity of solar radiation
wetness of the roof surface
roof type
The effect of evaporation increases when the air humidity is low and the air
temperature as well as the intensity of solar radiation falling on the roof surface are high. A
uniform and constant wetting of the roof surface is essential for continuous evaporation. It
should be noted that the roof needs to be adequately treated with water proofing material.
The evaporation of water causes cooling of the roof surface. This sets up a
temperature gradient between the inside air and outside roof surface, resulting in loss of heat
from the inside to outside. Thus, heat transfer through the roof is the dominant aspect in the
overall performance of RSEC. Higher the rate of heat transfer, more effective is the RSEC.
Consequently the RSEC system is most effective when the roof has a high thermal
transmittance (U).
The equivalent temperature of the outer surface of the roof in the presence of RSEC
can be calculated from [23]:
eff
= I
+ h + 0.13h R T 0.013h R (1 ) R / h + 0.13h R

g 0
c 1 a
c 2
c 1
o
(3.6)
where
=
Ig =
absorptivity of the roof surface

global solar radiation on the roof surface (W/m2)
ho =
total heat transfer coefficient from roofs surface (W/m2-K)
hc = convective heat transfer coefficient from roofs surface (W/m2-K)

relative humidity of air
=
emittance of the roof surface
=
R = net exchange of long wavelength radiation between the roof surface and the sky
(W/m2)
R1 & R2 = coefficients of correlation between saturation vapour pressure and temperature (R1
is in Pa/oC and R2 is in Pa)
Ta = ambient temperature (oC)
Kumar and Purohit [23] have investigated the performance of RSEC for various roof
types under different climatic conditions. The basis of comparison for unconditioned
buildings is the discomfort degree hours (DDH), defined as:
DDH
(T
month
(3.7)
TC )
day
where TR and TC refer to the indoor air and set point temperatures respectively; the +
superscript means that only positive values are to be considered. In case of conditioned
buildings, the authors have used the monthly cooling load for establishing the effectiveness of
the RSEC system. Table 3.9 presents the percentage reduction of DDH by employing RSEC
for a few roof types under New Delhi climatic conditions, and for a set point of 270C for nonconditioned buildings. The table also presents the percentage reduction of the cooling load for
the month of May for conditioned buildings under similar conditions. It is seen that the lower
the U value of the roof, the lesser is the effect of the RSEC system.
Table 3.9 Percentage reduction of yearly DDH due to roof surface evaporative cooling
[23]
RCC
4.29
55.0
Monthly cooling
load reduction (%)
52.2
RCC- mud phuska-tile
2.60
38.2
37.1
Insulation- RCC
1.10
19.2
18.9
RCC- lime concrete
2.76
39.9
38.7
Roof Type
U (W/m2-K)
DDH reduction (%)
DDH: Discomfort degree hours
Example:
A wet gunny bag system was installed at the Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited factory
at Haridwar during the summer of 1979. The building over which the cooling system was
tried, is a four-storeyed engineering building which has a large number of offices and rooms.
A monitoring of the performance showed that a reduction of 17 C and 8 C was observed in
the peak value of ceiling temperature and indoor air temperature respectively [17].
3.4.2.3 Direct Evaporative Cooling using Drip-type (Desert) Coolers
Desert coolers are very popular in the northern parts of India. They can cool large
volumes of outside air through evaporation of water. This air is delivered to the indoors
where it absorbs heat from walls, ceilings, furnishings and the occupants. The warm air is
finally discharged to the outdoors. Fresh outside air should be used rather than employing
recirculation because, in the latter case, the wet bulb temperature continues to increase,
resulting in unsatisfactory conditions. The cooler consists of a wetting pad, a water circulating
pump, a fan, and a cabinet to hold these components. The water pump lifts the sump water up
to a distributing system, from which it runs down through the pads and back into the sump.
The wetting pad usually made of aspen wood fibres is fixed to the three sides of the
coolers walls in such a way that only air enters through the pads. A propeller-type fan or a
centrifugal blower is used above the base of the cooler. The choice of the evaporating pad is a
critical factor in determining the performance. The coolers are usually designed for a face
velocity of 1 to 1.5 m/s with a pressure drop of about 30 N/m2. In addition to providing
cooling of the incoming air, the pads also act as air filters preventing the entry of particles
having a size greater than 10 micrometers. The pads are chemically treated to prevent the
growth of bacteria, fungi and other micro-organisms. When the cooler is used only for
ventilating purposes, supplementary fibre glass filters are also used. It must be noted that the
material used in the construction of the pump, sump, water-distribution system, and casing
should necessarily be corrosion resistant.
3.4.3
Nocturnal Radiation Cooling

Nocturnal radiation cooling refers to cooling by exposure of any element of the
external envelope of the building to a cool night sky. Warm objects directly exposed to the
sky radiate their heat out to it at night. Heat loss occurs by emission of long wavelength
radiation, and hence surfaces should ideally have high emissivity. The presence of clouds at
night limit the amount of heat that can be radiated to the outer space, but on a clear night, the
effective sky temperature can be significantly lower than the ambient air temperature. The
heat accumulated during the day is lost by radiation to the cool night air, thereby cooling the
envelope. The envelope thus acts as cold storage during the day, drawing the heat away from
the living space. The method works efficiently in arid climates, where ambient temperatures
in the night are significantly lower than the day temperatures. Nocturnal radiation cooling
works without consuming any water, unlike evaporative cooling systems. Its operation is
illustrated in Fig 3.30.
The roof, being the part exposed to the sky, is the most effective long wave radiator.
The rate of heat exchange depends on the temperature difference between the emitting surface
and the surrounding atmosphere. Regions with large diurnal temperature variations will have
higher nocturnal radiation cooling. Vapour pressure and the presence of clouds in the sky also
affect the heat exchange.
For effective radiant cooling, the thermal link between the emitting surface and the
living space has to be good. Otherwise, the cooling resulting from radiation exchange will
only serve to cool the ambient air, rather than the living space. The roof pond is an example
of the concept of nocturnal radiation cooling . In this system, a mass of water is stored on the
roof of the building. During summer days, the pond is protected and insulated by an external,
movable and reflective insulation. The insulation prevents solar radiation from reaching the
water mass and keeps it cool. The cool water then absorbs heat from the rooms below and
cools the indoor air. At night, the insulation is removed and the water cools by convection
and radiation. The effectiveness of the roof pond may be gauged from the fact that an indoor
temperature of 21oC can be maintained when the outside temperature is as high as 35oC [10].
Fig. 3.30 Nocturnal radiation cooling: working principle
In winter, the panel positions are reversed. During the day, the insulation is removed
so that heat is absorbed by water for heating the interior. At night, the insulation cover
reduces the heat loss. The effectiveness of the roof pond in winter is no less than that in
summer: the indoor temperature can be maintained at about 21C while the outside is as low
as 1.1oC [10]. The principles involved in this technique are schematically represented in Fig
3.31.
Fig. 3.31 Working principle of a roof pond
Water in transparent bags or in metal / fibreglass tanks is kept on the roof, the depth
ranging from 150 to 300 mm. The top of the container/bag must be transparent to solar
radiation whereas its bottom (inside surface) should be of a dark colour. If both sides of the
container are transparent, then the top surface of the roof needs to be blackened for absorbing
solar radiation. A clear top and black bottom helps in minimising temperature stratification in
the pond water. Otherwise, hot water at the top would lose its heat to the exterior, and the
cold water at the bottom would inhibit the heat transfer to the interior of the building. The
movable insulation is usually of 50 mm thick polyurethane foam, reinforced with fibreglass
strands and sandwiched between aluminium skins. The water-proofing layer of the roof
should not inhibit the heat transfer from the pond to the interior [10]. The details of a roof
pond are shown in Fig. 3.32. Radiation is responsible for the thermal interaction between the
roof and the living space. Therefore, the ceiling of the room must not be very high, as the
intensity of the radiation reduces with height or distance. This technique is effective for one
or two storeyed buildings.
Fig. 3.32 Detail of a roof pond
Variations may be achieved by altering the ratios of heat transfer surfaces to thermal
mass. The larger the storage volume, the greater and longer the heat storage. Smaller
containers provide greater heat exchange as the surface area increases, resulting in faster
distribution. During winter, a transparent cover may be provided over the water bags, leaving
a gap. Air is blown through these gaps, forming an insulation cover to reduce heat loss.
During summer the gaps are flooded with water and the transparent cover is removed.
Another way of using nocturnal radiation cooling is to expose lightweight radiators to
the night sky. Through these radiators, a fluid is circulated which gets cooled. The cooled
fluid can be used to cool a thermal storage system at night. The cold storage can be used the
following day for space cooling.
Radiative cooling is effective in the hot and dry climate where nights are clear. In the
case of humid atmosphere, condensation may occur on the radiating surface due to a decrease
in its temperature to below dew point. The condensate transfers the latent heat of vaporisation
to the surface, keeping it warm. As a result cooling is not achieved.
3.4.4
Desiccant Cooling
Desiccant cooling is effective in warm and humid climates. Natural cooling of human
body through sweating does not occur in highly humid conditions. Therefore, a persons
tolerance to high temperature is reduced and it becomes desirable to decrease the humidity
level. In the desiccant cooling method, desiccant salts or mechanical dehumidifiers are used
to reduce humidity in the atmosphere. Materials having high affinity for water are used for
dehumidification. They can be solid like silica gel, alumina gel and activated alumina, or
liquids like triethylene glycol. Air from the outside enters the unit containing desiccants and
is dried adiabatically before entering the living space. The desiccants are regenerated by solar
energy. Sometimes, desiccant cooling is employed in conjunction with evaporative cooling,
which adjusts the temperature of air to the required comfort level.
3.4.5
Earth Coupling
This technique is used for both passive cooling as well as heating of buildings, a feat
which is made possible by the earth acting as a massive heat sink. The temperature of the
earth's surface is controlled by the ambient conditions. However, the daily as well as seasonal
variations of the temperature reduce rapidly with increasing depth from the earth's surface. At
depths beyond 4 to 5m, both daily and seasonal fluctuations die out and the soil temperature
remains almost stable throughout the year. It is equal to the annual average ambient air
temperature at that place. The temperature of the soil at depths beyond 4 to 5m can however
be modified by suitable treatment of the earth's surface. For increasing the temperature, the
earth's surface can be blackened/ glazed, and for decreasing it's value the surface can be
shaded, painted white, wetted with water spray or can have thick vegetation. Thus, the
underground or partially sunk buildings would provide both cooling (in summer) and heating
(in winter) to the living space. Besides, load fluctuations are reduced by the addition of earth
mass to the thermal mass of the building. The infiltration of air from outside is reduced, and
there is a decrease in noise and storm effects. An earth-sheltered structure has to be heavier
and stronger to be able to withstand the load of the earth and the vegetation above. Besides, it
should be suitably waterproofed and insulated to avoid ground moisture. For this, a high level
of design and supervision in construction is required.
A building may be coupled with the earth by burying it underground or berming.

Figure 3.33 shows an example of earth berming. Another possibility of utilising the ground
effect is through earth-air pipe systems, and is discussed in the following section.
3.4.5.1 Earth-air pipe system

The earth-air pipe system consists of a pipe of appropriate dimensions buried at a
depth of about 4 to 5m in the ground. Ambient air is blown through it by a blower at one end
of the pipe. The other end is connected to the building to which it supplies conditioned air.
Figure 3.34 shows the schematic of such a system. As explained earlier, the temperature at a
depth of about 4 to 5m is very stable and is equal to the annual average ambient temperature.
It remains unaffected even if heat is withdrawn from or supplied to the ground, due to its
large thermal capacity. The earth-air pipe system takes advantages of this fact. Ambient air
flowing through the pipe gets cooled (in summer) or heated up (in winter) before entering the
living space of a building. If the pipe is of adequate length (for a given air flow rate), the
desired heating or cooling effect can be realised.
Fig. 3.33 Working principle of earth-berming
To meet the thermal load requirement of the building, one may use more than one
pipe buried at the same depth a few metres apart. However, it is possible for the relative
humidity of the air from the earth-air pipe system to be higher than the ambient humidity,
depending on the soil conditions. If the air fed to living spaces is not reused, the system is
called single pass system. The earth-air pipe system can also be used in the re-circulation
mode. In that case air from the living space is re-circulated through earth-air pipe and is
supplied back to the living space.
By using an earth-air pipe system, energy and peak load requirements for space
conditioning of a building can be significantly reduced. This would lead to energy
conservation. The use of such systems has gained increasing acceptance during the last few
years, and a number of them are being installed in India, China, USA and Europe.
FROM
BLOWER
ROOM
Fig. 3.34 Earth-air pipe system: working principle
The performance of the earth-air pipe system depends on the rate of heat transfer
between the air and surrounding earth, which in turn is governed by the resistances offered
by: (i) the convection between air and inner surface of the pipe, (ii) conduction through the
thickness of the pipe wall, and (iii) conduction through the surrounding earth. Thus, the
performance of the earth-air pipe system depends on [24,25]:
system parameters (depth of the pipe from the earth's surface, its length and radius,
thermal conductivity of the pipe material, and air speed through the pipe)
soil parameters surrounding the pipe (thermal conductivity, specific heat, density and
moisture content)
weather conditions (solar radiation, ambient temperature)
earths surface conditions (shaded, blackened, white-painted or wetted with water)
The longest resistance to the heat flow is due to the soil surrounding the pipe, and it is
the main factor in controlling the rate of cooling/heating of the air in the pipe. Soil having
higher thermal conductivity is desirable, and so wet soil is more effective in heat transfer.
Resistance to the heat flow due to pipe material is comparatively very less, hence pipe
thickness and its material is of little consequence to the process. The configuration (cross
section and thickness) and material of the pipe is decided purely on the basis of cost
considerations. Thus, a duct made of brick/stone or a concrete pipe will be almost as
effective as a copper pipe.
The temperature T AL
at the end of a pipe of length L can be written as [24,25]:
T AL = TEO + (T AO TEO ) exp L

L
p
(3.8)
where,
L p = m a C PA R th ; m a = R ip2 v A A
2
Z
Z
1
+
Rop
ln
R
R
ln
op
op
R
ip
1
Rth =
+
+
2Rip hi
2k p
2k g
2t
TEO = TEM + (TE max TEM )exp Z cos

Z
t
t y kg
( g C pg )
TAO = TAM + (TAMax TAM )cos 2t '

th
(3.9)
C PA = specific heat of air (J/kg-K)

C pg = specific heat of the soil (J/kg-K)
hi =
kg =
kp=
connective heat transfer coefficient for the inner surface of the pipe to air (W/m2-K)
thermal conductivity of the soil (W/m-K)
thermal conductivity of pipe material (W/m-K)
Rip = pipe inner radius (m)

Rop = pipe outer radius (m)
t=
t' =
th =
time (zero on the day when TE max occurs) (s)

time (measured from the time when maximum temperature of the day occurs) (s)
duration of the day (24 x 3600 s = 86400 s)
ty=
time duration of a year in seconds (365 x 24 x 3600s = 31.5 x 106 s)
TEM = annual mean ambient air temperature (oC)

TE max = maximum of the daily mean temperature of the year (oC)
T AM = daily mean ambient air temperature (oC)

T A max = maximum temperature of the day (oC)
v A = air flow velocity (m/s)
Z = pipe depth (m)
g = density of the soil (kg/m3)
A =
air density (kg/m3)
It is seen that the temperature of the air T AL at the end of the pipe depends on pipe
parameters, air parameters and soil parameters.
The hourly cooling potential Qc (in kWh), and heating potential Q h (in kWh) can be
calculated from the relations:
Q c = m A C PA (TAO TAL )
(3.10)
Q h = m A C PA (TAL TAO )
(3.11)
The performance of an earth-air pipe system has been estimated for Delhi climate
conditions. For the weather data of June (summer) and January (winter), T AL and Qc are
calculated for various soil and systems parameters. The values of air properties and other
quantities used in the calculations are:
g C pg = 3 x10 6 J/m3-K , A = 1.17 kg / m 3 , C pA = 1000 J/kg-K ; k A = 0.0265 W/m-K;

t = 0 in June and 302400 s in January; TEmax = 34.2oC in June and 13.6oC in January;
TAO = 38.5oC in June and 8.5oC in January; TEM = 24.9oC; Friction factor = 0.08
Table 3.10 presents results for summer conditions in New Delhi. It is seen from the
table that T AL decreases as depth of the pipe (Z) increases. The cooling potential also
increases. Variations of T AL is significant for low values of Z. After a depth of 5m, it hardly
changes. Similarly the effectiveness of the earth-air pipe system improves when the pipe
length (L), thermal conductivity of the soil (kg), as well as that of the pipe (kp) increase. The
performance decreases with increase in pipe radius (R), pipe thickness Rop Rip , and
velocity (v A ) of the air in the pipe. While the effects of Z, L, R, vA and kg are quite
significant, the effects due to k p and thickness of the pipe are insignificant.
Table 3.11 shows similar effects for winter conditions in New Delhi. The results demonstrate
the effect of various parameters from the point of view of designing an earth-air pipe system.
Example:
Earth-air pipe systems have been installed at many places in the country. RETREAT
building, Gwalpahari, Gurgaon; Dera Library, Radha Swami Satsang, Beas, Dilwara Bagh;
Country House of Reena and Ravi Nath, Wazirpur, Gurgaon[13], etc. use this system to name
a few.
Table 3.10 Variation of delivery temperature (TAL) and cooling potential (Qc) of an
earth-air pipe system due to various system parameters for June conditions of New
Delhi
Variable
Depth of
pipe Z (m)
Length of
pipe L (m)
Radius of
pipe R (m)
Air Velocity
in pipe VA
(m/s)
Conductivity
of pipe kp
(W/m K)
Conductivity
of soil kg
(W/m K)
Value
1
3
5
7
20
40
60
80
Rip.= 0.075; Rop= 0.085
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.160
Rip.= 0.225; Rop= 0.250
Rip.= 0.300; Rop= 0.325
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.175
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.190
1
3
5
7
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.5
3.0
0.2
0.6
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
Delivery
temperature
TAL
(0C)
31.2
27.5
26.5
26.7
31.9
28.4
26.5
25.5
24.4
26.3
29.8
32.2
26.5
26.7
26.5
31.8
34.0
35.1
27.3
26.5
26.3
26.2
26.1
35.8
31.9
29.4
27.5
26.5
25.8
Cooling
potential
Qc
(kWh)
0.6
0.9
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.1
0.3
1.0
2.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.7
1.9
2.0
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.2
0.5
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0
Drop in
temperature
(Inlet - Delivery)
(C)
7.3
11.0
12.0
11.8
6.6
10.1
12.0
13.0
14.1
12.2
8.7
6.3
12.0
11.8
12.0
6.7
4.5
3.4
11.2
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
2.7
6.6
9.1
11.0
12.0
12.7
Rip =Internal diameter of pipe

Rop=External diameter of pipe
The inlet air temperature is taken as 38.5 C (i.e. monthly average maximum air temperature in June)
Table 3.11 Variation of delivery temperature (TAL) and cooling potential (Qc) of an
earth-air pipe system due to various system parameters for January conditions of
New Delhi
Variable
Depth of
pipe Z (m)
Length of
pipe L (m)
Radius of
pipe R (m)
Air Velocity
in pipe VA
(m/s)
Conductivity
of pipe kp
(W/m K)
Conductivity
of soil kg
(W/m K)
Value
Delivery
temperature
TAL (0C)
Heating
potential
Qc(kWh)
1
3
5
7
20
40
60
80
Rip.= 0.075; Rop= 0.085
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.160
Rip.= 0.225; Rop= 0.250
Rip.= 0.300; Rop= 0.325
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.175
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.190
1
3
5
7
0.2
0.6
1.0
1.5
3.0
0.2
0.6
1.0
1.5
3.0
18.1
21.0
22.3
22.5
16.2
20.2
22.3
23.5
24.7
22.6
18.6
15.8
22.3
22.1
22.3
16.2
13.7
12.5
21.5
22.4
22.6
22.7
22.8
11.8
16.4
19.3
21.3
22.9
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.6
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.3
1.2
1.9
2.4
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.9
2.2
2.3
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
0.3
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.2
Rise in
temperature
(Inlet Delivery)
(C)
9.6
12.5
13.8
14.0
7.7
11.7
13.8
15.0
16.2
14.1
10.1
7.3
13.8
13.6
13.8
7.7
5.2
4.0
13.0
13.9
14.1
14.2
14.3
3.3
7.9
10.8
12.8
14.4
Rip =Internal diameter of pipe

Rop=External diameter of pipe
The inlet air temperature is taken as 8.5 C (i.e. monthly average maximum air temperature in January)
The earth-air pipe system is used to cool about 120 m2 of floor area in the Dilwara
Bagh house. Two rectangular pipes of cross sectional area of 0.6m x 0.8m, and a length of
60m are employed at a depth of 4m. A blower of 3 hp is used to force air into the system, and
is housed in a blower room about 67.5m away from the house. It maintains an air velocity of
about 6m/s in the pipe, which is made of brick and sand stone. A cross-section of the pipe and
a sketch plan of the system are shown in Figs. 3.35 and 3.36. The outlets of the system to the
rooms are protected by earth-berms. A cross-section of the same is shown in Fig 3.37.
Fig. 3.35 Cross-section of pipe at the Dilwara Bagh House, Gurgaon
Fig. 3.36 Sketch plan of earth-air pipe system at the Dilwara Bagh House, Gurgaon
Fig. 3.37 Section showing earth berm at the Dilwara Bagh House, Gurgaon
Extensive post occupancy evaluation studies have been carried out by Thanu et al.
[26]. Figure 3.38 shows a typical performance of the system during summer and winter
conditions. It is seen that in summer, the exit or delivery temperature is about 290C when
outside can be as high as 380C. Further, the fluctuation in room temperature is only 2.20C as
compared to 11.80C for outside air. In winters, the delivery temperature is maintained at about
200C, when outside air is about 80C an increase in temperature by about 120C. Thus, the
earth-air pipe system performs well both in summers as well as in winters. The system
provides an average daily cooling potential of 242 kWh (thermal) in a summer month and
about 365 kWh in a winter month. As the blowers power is 3 hp (2.2 kW), the coefficient of
performance (COP) of the system is 4.5 in summer and 6.8 in winter.
(a) Summer
(b) Winter
Fig. 3.38 Typical performance of the earth-air pipe system
3.5
DAYLIGHTING
Vision is by far the most developed of all our senses and light has been the main
prerequisite for sensing things. Light is that part of the electromagnetic radiation which is
capable of exciting the retina of the eye to produce visual sensation. It is a vital and
invaluable component of human life. Considerable care is therefore essential for creating
effective visibility and providing visual satisfaction.
The visible spectrum, to which the human eye is sensitive, is a narrow band of
wavelengths between 380 and 780 nm. Buildings must have sufficient lighting in this band.
Light has a major effect on the way one perceives spaces and their functions. Sufficient light
is required to carry out everyday tasks in homes, offices and factories. The illumination
requirements for the comfortable performance of various tasks need to be suitably considered
in design. For example, very bright lighting is required in a diamond polishing industry while
soft lighting may be sufficient in a bedroom. The required illumination can be provided by
daylight through windows and/ or by artificial light in the form of tubelights and lamps. In
artificial lighting, the light source is under the users control in the sense that the illumination
level is independent of location, climate or even the construction of the building. On the other
hand, daylighting strongly depends on external conditions and its control depends on the way
a building is constructed. Very often, one finds numerous tubelights burning in offices,
factories and homes during daytime even though there is plenty of sunlight outside. Because
of its variability and subtlety, natural light has a more pleasing effect than monotonous
artificial lighting. Building components such as windows and skylights, which admit light,
enable a visual communication with the outside world. Besides, plentiful daylight also has
energy-saving implications. Since most buildings are largely used during the daytime,
effective daylighting makes economic sense. Because a good daylighting system involves
many elements, it is best to incorporate them in the building design at an early stage. The
manner in which daylight enters and distributes itself in a room depends on the size and
location of openings, type of glazing, configuration of the room, and reflective properties of
walls, ceiling and other surfaces. The intensity of daylight and the daylight factor (explained
under 3.5.1) also depend on the height and the location of the opening on a wall; the intensity
reduces as the distance from the opening increases.
The pattern of artificial lighting in a building differs from climate to climate. For
example, in hot and dry climates, internal shading devices are often used to protect the
building from overheating by high solar radiation. This will drastically reduce the daylight
entering the room, thereby increasing artificial lighting load. However, in cold and sunny
climates shading devices are not required, so there is less need for artificial lighting. Correct
daylighting design will reduce not only the energy cost but also the cooling cost, caused by
lighting devices.
Under a European research programme, 60 buildings were monitored and documented
from the point of view of daylighting. These case studies provide a valuable resource to
building designers. Fontoynont [27] presents both quantitative as well as qualitative
assessments of a range of daylighting solutions. The designing aspects of daylight systems in
buildings have been explained by Baker and Steemers [28] in an accompanying publication.
3.5.1
Basic Principles of Daylighting

The ultimate source of daylight is the sun. By the time sunlight reaches the earths
surface, it has been subjected to atmospheric attenuation, scattering and reflection. The
daylight received on the earths surface is composed of direct light (light directly received
from the sun) and diffuse light (light received from all parts of the sky due to atmospheric
scattering and reflection). Light reaching a particular point inside a building may consist of,
(1) direct sunlight, (2) diffuse light or skylight, (3) externally reflected light (by the
ground or other buildings), and (4) internally reflected light from walls, ceiling and other
internal surfaces [29,30]. This is depicted graphically in Fig. 3.39.
Fig. 3.39 Distribution of daylight
The availability of light within a building depends on its planform, orientation, the
location and size of openings, characteristics of glazing, and internal reflections. Because of
the variations in outdoor lighting levels, it is difficult (and perhaps meaningless) to calculate
interior lighting in photometric illumination terms. However, inside a given building at a
given point, the ratio of indoor illumination to the corresponding outdoor illumination can be
taken as constant. This constant ratio, expressed in percentage, is the daylight factor (DF),
given by:
DF = E i 100
Eo
(3.12)
where,
Ei = indoor illumination at the point of consideration
Eo = outdoor illumination from unobstructed sky hemisphere
The three components contributing to daylight factor are: (a) sky component (SC), (b)
externally reflected component (ERC), and (c) internally reflected component (IRC)
Thus,
DF = SC + ERC + IRC
(3.13)
Each component can be calculated by following standard procedures outlined in the

BIS Handbook [5]. The magnitude of each of these components depends on design variables
as follows:
Sky component (SC) - The area of sky visible from the point considered and its
average altitude angle (luminance of the sky at that angle), window size and position
in relation to the point, thickness of window frame, quality of glass and its clearness,
and any external obstructions.
Externally reflected component (ERC) - The area of external surfaces visible from
the point considered, and the reflectance of these surfaces.
Internally reflected component (IRC) - The size of the room, the ratio of surfaces
(wall, roof, etc.) in relation to the window area, and reflectance of indoor surfaces.
Direct sunlight is excluded from the definition of daylight factor as it is not desirable
from the perspective of the quality of the light. It creates problems of shadows and severe
brightness imbalances that cause glare. Direct sunlight also brings excessive heat in summer.
Adequate shading devices are therefore recommended not only for thermal comfort but also
for visual comfort.
The outdoor illumination level Eo can be established for a given place by analysing the
long-term illumination record. This is taken as design sky illumination value. For India, it is
taken as 8,000 lux for clear design sky [5].
For example, if Ei = 300 and Eo = 8000 lux, then,
DF =
300
100 = 3.75
8000
(3.14)
Design variables such as window size can be manipulated to achieve this daylight
factor. This method will ensure that 90% of the time, the inside illumination level is at the
required level or exceeds it. For the remaining 10% of the time, one can rely on human
adaptability. Recommended daylight factors for typical building interiors are presented in
Table 3.12.
3.5.2
Daylighting Systems
The conventional modes of introducing daylight into the building include windows,
clerestories, skylights (Fig. 3.40) and light shelves (Fig. 3.41). They can normally provide
adequate daylight in the perimeter of buildings up to 5m of window or skylight. Light shelves
are reflective horizontal surfaces that extend from the exterior to the interior of a building.
They reflect sunlight onto the ceiling, which in turn reflects into the interior space. They can
prevent unwanted direct sunlight, which is a source of glare, from entering the space. Light
shelves are intended to modify daylight distribution by reducing the sky component and
increasing reflection from the ceiling resulting in a more uniform daylight distribution [27].
Reflective blinds offer good control of glare and solar protection. These also maintain
reasonable light levels inside, provided the ceiling is bright. One can use atria and courtyards,
or use daylighting optical systems to deliver light to deeper parts of the building. Atria (Fig.
3.42) can help reduce heat losses, but their daylighting efficiency depends on the brightness
of their walls and the shading on windows [27]. Daylighting optical systems require a
collection system to gather and redirect the available light. This is then transmitted to the
point of use inside the building and finally distributed as per the illumination requirement.
Table 3.12 Recommended daylight factors [10]
Building
Dwellings
Schools
Offices
Hospitals
Libraries
Area/Activity
Kitchen
Living room
Study room
Circulation
Class room
Laboratory
General
Drawing, typing
Enquiry
General wards
Pathology laboratory
Stack room
Reading room
Counter area
Catalogue room
Fig. 3.40 Skylight
Daylight factor
(%)
2.5
0.625
1.9
0.313
1.9 3.8
2.5 - 3.8
1.9
3.75
0.625 1.9
1.25
2.5 3.75
0.9 1.9
1.9 3.75
2.5 3.75
1.9 2.5
Fig. 3.41 Light shelf
Certain systems capture and distribute light to the interiors using a pipe (Fig. 3.43) or
lightwell (Fig. 3.44). These systems usually do not have any moving parts. Aluminium pipes
with a clear acrylic dome on top and a translucent acrylic dome at the bottom are installed on
the roof and used as sunpipes. The pipes are lined with silver to reduce reflection losses. The
translucent dome at the bottom creates diffuse light in the living space. In reflective light
guides (Fig. 3.44), mirrors are used inside ducts to guide or direct light coming from the
skylights to the interiors. The ducts may open at various levels. The light guides transport
light using multiple specular reflection at the reflective inner wall surface. Using highly
reflective silvered polyester semi-collimated mirrors, light can be transmitted over 30 m with
only small losses.
Mirrors and lenses can be used to augment the availability of daylight. These follow
the path of the sun by appropriate tracking mechanisms and direct the light to the desired area
using sensors and control systems. Such arrangements can be used to catch the very low-angle
light that the sun produces at dawn and dusk, and extend the period of useful daylight by a
few hours. Figure 3.45 shows a tracking reflector with a receiver in front for directing
daylight deep into the interior in conjunction with lightwells. Additionally, there are systems
that can be used to direct light to some fixed points. For example, in the Himawari system
(Fig. 3.46), a honeycomb of Fresnel lenses focus the suns light onto the ends of quartz-glass
optical fibres. The fibres are used to distribute the light deep within the interiors. A six-fibre
cable of length of approximately 40 m can provide light which is comparable to the output of
a 75-watt incandescent lamp.
Fig. 3.42 Atrium
Fig. 3.43 Light pipe
Fig. 3.44 Light well
Fig. 3.45 Sun tracking unit
Fig. 3.46 Himawari system
Laser cut light deflecting panels (LCP) can be used to deflect collimated light at low
angles to penetrate the deeper zones. Light deflection results from the inner surfaces within
the dielectric material, angled incident light upwards into the interiors due to total internal
reflection. LCPs are formed by making laser cuts of about 2mm through a clear acrylic sheet.
Each laser cut becomes a narrow mirror internal to the sheet which reflects light incident on
the sheet from directions other than normal. The angle of the laser cuts or panels can be
varied for different uses:
It can be used to direct light to the ceiling for deeper penetration. This improves
daylighting and reduces glare on working planes.
When used in skylights, (e.g. pyramidal skylights), or angle selective glazings, the
noon time radiation which is directly overhead can be reflected back to the sky so
that interiors do not overheat. When the angle of the sun is low (e.g. in winters,
mornings and evenings), the light is directed inside.
They can be used as louvers, which when opened, deflect the direct light back to
the sky. This prevents glare and allows breeze to penetrate the building for
summer cooling. When closed, they reflect light to the ceiling for deeper
penetration of light in winter. Figure 3.47 shows a sketch of the working
principles of LCP louvers.
Fig. 3.47 LCP louvers
(a) tilted, (b) open

Refractive devices are devices that can be mounted on a window to redirect sunlight
towards the ceiling of a room over a wide range of sun elevations. The basic component of
such a device is a single solid section of dielectric with a sloping curved base and a v-shaped
trough as the top surface. These are stacked together to form a module. An enclosed air gap is
created between two sections. This module can be permanently mounted in a window to
redirect sunlight towards the ceiling by total internal reflection. The device is generally placed
in the upper parts of windows (i.e. above head height) to reduce possibility of glare and
distortion of view. Figure 3.48 shows a sketch of a refracting daylighting device.
Fig. 3.48 Schematic sketch of a refractive daylighting device
3.6
BUILDING MATERIALS
There are many techniques for improving energy efficiency in buildings, and it is the
responsibility of the occupants to operate it in an energy-conserving way. But occupants can
operate it only within the range provided by the buildings designers. It is ultimately up to the
designers to provide the most energy efficient building to owners and occupants. Not only is
this a service from an economic standpoint, but it will also prevent the building from
becoming impracticable due to high energy costs.
Building materials play a significant role in energy conscious architecture. The rate of
heat flow through various components of a building, its time lag and amplitude decrement, as
well as the energy storage capability of the building are all governed by the materials used.
The choice of materials is therefore crucial from the perspective of the thermal performance
of the building. Besides, the materials provide the required structural strength for the
building. While the conventional building materials are well known to architects, building
scientists and users (Refer to Appendix IV.1), it is desirable to focus on alternative materials
to reduce costs and energy consumption. It may be noted that a certain amount of energy is
consumed for the very production of the building materials from their basic raw ingredients.
This is known as the embodied energy of the materials. This aspect has a bearing on the
choice of building materials.
3.1.1
Embodied Energy of Building Materials

Energy used in the construction process and particularly in the building materials used
should be minimised as a whole. Energy consumed in the procurement, manufacture,
processing and recycling of building materials affects the cost of construction. The process of
energy analysis consists of three steps: (i) the energy used in the production of raw materials
(ii) the energy used in the making of the finished materials, and (iii). the energy used for the
machinery and equipment required in the manufacturing process [31]. Sum total of these
three is known as energy intensity.
Building materials have been categorised into three types based on their energy
intensities. High energy materials are those with energy intensities greater than about 5GJ per
tonne of manufactured materials and include items like aluminium, steel, plastics, glass and
cement. Medium energy group materials comprise those requiring energy inputs between 0.5
to 5 GJ per tonne of material and include concrete, lime plaster and most types of blocks
based on cement, lime, flyash and fireclay bricks and tiles. Low energy group materials
include fine and coarse aggregates for construction, pozzolona types of soil and stabilised
soil. It is essential to promote low cost, low energy and medium energy materials for energy
efficiency in building construction. However, these materials should also be durable, require
less maintenance and should be recyclable. It may be noted that materials such as aluminium
and steel although being highly energy intensive, can be recycled very cheaply in terms of
energy.
A detailed study of the embodied energy of various building materials has been
carried out by Development Alternatives, New Delhi [32]. The document provides
information for different building materials and components at various levels, namely,
manufacturing, processing and fabrication. A designer can obtain information on material
description, technology and resources, environmental implications, production statistics, and
world status on energy data. The report also presents data on energy that is consumed at the
quarrying, production and transportation of raw materials, intermediate materials and finished
goods. The embodied energy of various materials is provided in Table 3.13. In addition to
conventional materials, the table also includes a few alternative building materials. The
primary energy required by weight, volume and/or surface area of the product is listed in the
table.
Table 3.13 Energy requirements of different building materials [32]

Material
Primary Materials
Coarse Aggregate (25-40mm)
Lime (quick)
Cement (OPC 33 grade)
Steel (semis)
Mini (billets)
ISP (ingots)
PVC (billets)
Secondary Materials
Bricks weight (average 2.75 kg)
Solid Concrete Blocks
(30 x 20x 15) cm
Hollow Concrete Blocks
(20 x 20 x 40) cm
FalG Block (30 x 20 x 15) cm
Aerated Concrete block
(19 x 19 x 39) cm
Steel Rods (6, 8, 10mm etc.)
Steel RSJ (standard sizes)
Steel Cold Rolled Sheets
Steel Hot Rolled Sheets
CGI
Ferrocement (1 inch thick)
Cement Bonded Board (40 mm)
MDF (Including raw material
energy)(19 mm)
MDF (excluding raw material
energy)(19mm)
Plywood (6mm thick)
Plywood (19mm thick)
Flush door (35mm thick)
PVC pipe (40 cm diameter)
3.1.2
Density
(kg/m3)
Primary Energy M J thermal

3
2
Per tonne
Per m
Per m
2240
640
1440
7800
32000
1500
240
6220
6700
23000
158000
538
3968
9648
-
1800
2000
1286
580
2235
1002
518
209
1300
700
910
121
2000
1278
4400
6400
879
818
127
138
7800
7800
7800
7800
1687
1250
770
28212
42840
51642
34715
48276
3669
6487
8109
302
186
324
472
770
700
700
700
1500
188
-
142
312
482
-
Alternative Building Materials
This section presents a summary of various alternative building materials and technologies
that have been developed to reduce energy consumption as well as cost [31-37].
a) Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC)
Autoclaved aerated concrete is known more by its patented or trade name such as
Siporex, Trustone and Environcrete in various parts of the world. It is a factoryproduced light weight precast concrete which is available in a wide variety of shapes
and sizes. A typical 200 mm thick AAC wall can be about half the weight of an ordinary
hollow-core concrete block. Further, AAC blocks can be bonded by a thin layer of
adhesive and thus do not need mortar. AAC blocks are made from a mixture of Portland
cement, lime, silica sand or fly ash, water and aluminium powder or paste. When mixed,
millions of tiny hydrogen bubbles expand the mix to approximately five times its
original volume. AAC can be reinforced and can be easily cut using ordinary carpentry
tools. It is a stable, non-polluting, fire resisting, thermally and acoustically insulating,
and durable material. However, it needs to be plastered for protection from rain.
b) Fly ash
Fly ash is a by-product of coal in thermal power plants. It consists of organic and
inorganic matter that is not fully burnt, and can be recycled for use in a variety of
building materials. The properties of fly ash make it suitable for the manufacture of
bricks, hollow and solid blocks, cellular concrete, partial replacement of cement, filler
material in concrete, wood substitute, and also for use in the manufacture of emulsion
paints, building distempers, etc. Using fly ash in building materials can result in a
number of advantages. For example, fly ash bricks can replace burnt clay bricks, which
require use of fertile agricultural soil. They are dimensionally stable having a smooth
finish and fine edges, and are available in a number of sizes. They also have good
resistance to weathering and need not be plastered. The bricks can be made in a number
of colours using pigments. This material is being tried and tested at Central Building
Research Institute, Roorkee. It has been used at IIT Delhi and The Energy Resources
Institute, Gwalpahari and shown to have good results [31]. Fly ash is also used to make
FaL-G (hydraulic cement). The name FaL-G stands for fly ash (Fa), Lime (L) and
Gypsum (G) which are its ingredients. It can be used as an alternative to ordinary
Portland cement as a binder, and to burnt clay bricks as a masonry block. It can also be
used for road pavements, and in plain concrete in the form of Fal-G concrete.
c) Compressed earth blocks
The manual production of earth blocks by compressing them in small moulds has been
practised for centuries. The process has now been mechanised and a variety of presses
are used, including mprocessanual and hydraulic . The soil for compressed earth blocks
consists of a mixture of pebbles (1.5 parts), sand (5 parts), silt (1.5 parts) and clay (2
parts). About 5 % cement is used to stabilise the earth blocks. Products range from
accurately shaped solid, cellular and hollow bricks, to flooring and paving elements.
Compressed earth blocks are sun dried and do not need to be burnt. They are also
economical, strong, energy saving and simple to manufacture. Soil stabilised hollow
and interlocking blocks can provide better thermal insulation than bricks. Mud blocks
stabilised with Fal-G are much stronger, absorb less water, and are cheaper than cement
stabilised blocks. Development Alternatives, New Delhi [32] and Auroville,
Pondicherry have carried out extensive research on this material. A number of buildings
at Auroville, Pondicherry have been built using compressed earth blocks.
d) Clay red mud burnt bricks
Clay red mud burnt bricks are produced from alumina red mud or bauxite, an industrial
waste of aluminium producing plants, in combination with clay. The brick possesses
all the physical properties of normal clay bricks. Incidentally, they also solve the
problem of waste disposal and environmental pollution. In addition, they have good
architectural value as facing bricks due to their pleasing colour.
e) Lato blocks
Lato blocks are bricks made from lateritic soil and cement or lime. The blocks are
moulded under pressure to produce strong and good quality blocks which consume
lesser energy than conventional bricks, and hence are cheaper. They are available in
various colours ranging from cream to light crimson.
f) Precast hollow concrete blocks

Precast hollow concrete blocks are manufactured using lean cement-concrete mixes and
extruded through block making machines of the egg laying or static types. They need
lesser cement mortar and enable speedy construction as compared to brick masonry. The
cavity in the blocks provide better thermal protection. Further, the blocks may not need
external or internal plastering. These can be used as walling blocks or as roofing blocks
along with inverted precast tee beams.
g) Bamboo/timber mat based walls
These walls are made up of bamboo mat placed between horizontal and vertical
timber/bamboo frames. The plastering is done using mud or cement mortar on either
side. These are easy to construct, cost less and are popular in hilly areas as they can be
self-assembled. However, these are not load bearing and need a supporting structure.
This upgraded traditional technology is a relevant option for walling from the
perspective of earthquakes to minimise damage in the event of a collapse
h) Rat trap bond
The rat trap bond is an alternative brick bonding system for English and Flemish bond.
It is economical, strong and aesthetically appealing. It can save about 25% of the total
number of bricks and about 40% of the mortar cost for a wall. The rat trap bond is
simple to build and has better insulation properties.
i) Composite ferrocement system
The system is simple to construct and is made of ferrocement (rich mortar reinforced
with chicken mesh and welded wire mesh). These reduce the wall thickness and allow a
larger carpet area. Precast ferrocement units in trough shape are integrated with RCC
columns. Ferrocement units serve as a permanent skin unit, and as a diagonal strut
between columns. Inside cladding can be done with mud blocks or any locally available
material. These are ideally suited for seismic areas.
j) Coconut fibre and wooden chips roofing sheets
Coconut fibre and wooden chips or fibre are soaked in water for two hours and after
which the water drained off. These are then mixed with cement, laid over a corrugated
mould and kept under pressure for 8 to 10 hours. After demoulding, the sheets are
cured and dried before use.
k) Cement bonded fibre roofing sheets
These are made from coir waste, coconut pith, wood wool or sisal fibre in combination
with cement as binder, for production of corrugated or plain roofing sheets. These
sheets use lesser cement than AC sheets and are 50% cheaper than AC/CGI sheets.
Besides, they are light weight, fire resistant, water proof and can be used for sloping
roof options.
l) Micro concrete roofing tiles
Micro concrete roofing tiles are made of graded cement mortar layer and formed over
sloping mould. They are used in pitched roofing systems and are less expensive than
ACC/CGI sheets. These tiles are appropriate where fired clay tiles are not available, and
timber supporting skeletal system is costlier. The rafter and purlin system cost less
when micro concrete roofing tiles are used. Further cost reduction can be made by using
ferrocement rafters and purlins.
m) Stone patti roofing:

Stone patti roofing is a flat roofing system with sand stone slabs (patties) resting over
steel or slender RCC section beams. The slabs are overlaid with terracing for
insulation. This type of roofing is appropriate where (sand) stone slabs are available,
and is more economical than RCC slabs. In places like the states of Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh where large granite stone patties are available, the beams
are not needed as the pattis can rest on walls.
n) Precast brick arch panel system
In this technique, precast brick arches of size 50cm x 50cm are cast on a platform. The
arches are placed side by side over the partially precast joist. The haunches between the
arches are filled with cement concrete to have a level surface on the top. Such
roofs/floors are 30 percent more economical when compared with conventional RCC.
o) Filler slabs
Filler slabs are normal RCC slabs in which bottom half (tension) concrete portions are
replaced by filler materials such as bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks, etc. Filler
materials are so placed as not to compromise structural strength; they replace unwanted
and non-functional tension concrete, thus resulting in economy. These are safe, sound
and provide aesthetically pleasing pattern for ceilings. An additional advantage of filler
slabs is that they do not need plastering.
p) Particle boards
Particle boards are made from wood waste, cotton stalk and bagasse, and bonded by
resin. They can be used as inserts, and with veneering, they can be used as an alternative
to timber in panelling, false ceiling flooring, partitioning and furniture.
Table 3.14 gives the possible savings that could be achieved by using alternative
building materials [37].
Table 3.14 Estimated cost savings on using innovative building materials [37]
S. No. Cost-Effective Technologies
I.
FOUNDATIONS
1.
Pile foundation (under reamed)
2.
Brick Arch foundations
II.
1.
In place of Conventional options
% of Saving
Traditional stone/bricks
15
Footings
25
WALLING (SUPER STRUCTURE)

230 mm Thick wall in lower floors
330 mm brick walls
2.
180 mm Thick wall in bricks
230 mm brick walls
13
3.
115 mm thick recessed walls
230 mm brick walls
20
4.
5.
150/200 mm Stone block masonry'

Stabilised mud blocks
Random rubble masonry

Burnt brick walls
30-20
20
6.
7.
8.
FaL-G Block masonry

Fly ash brick walls
Rat trap bond walls
Clay brick walls

Gay brick walls
English/Flemish bond
20
25
25
9.
III.
1.
Hollow blocks walls

ROOFING
85 mm thick sloping RCC
Solid masonry
20
110 mm RCC
30
2.
Tiles over RCC rafters
Tiles over timber rafters
25
3.
Brick panel with joists
RCC
20-25
4.
Cuddapah slabs over RCC rafters
CS over timber rafters
20
5.
L-panel sloping roofing
RCC
10
RCC planks over RCC joists
RCC
10
7.
8.
9.
10.
Ferrocement shell roofing

Filler slab roofing
Waffle roofing
RCC channel units
RCC
RCC
RCC
RCC
40
22
15
12
11.
Jack arch brick roofing
RCC
15
12.
13.
14.
15.
Funicular shell roofing

Brick funicular shell roofing
Precast blocks over inverted T-beams
Micro-concrete roofing tiles
RCC
RCC
RCC
Clay tile roofing AC sheet roofing
18
30
25
20-15
IV.
1.
2.
3.
MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
RCC door frames
Frameless doors (only inserts)
Ferrocement door shutters
Timber Frames
Frames and shutters
Timber shutters (second class timber)
30
50
30
4.
RCC window frames
Timber frames
30
5.
RCC jellies
Timber windows/ventilators
50
6.
Precast thin lintels
RCC lintels
25
7.
Cast sunshades
30
RCC lintel-cum-sunshades
50
9.
Precast sunshades
Ferrocement sun shades-cumlintel
Brick on edge lintels
RCC lintels
50
10.
Corbelling for lintels
RCC lintels
40
11.
Brick arch-for lintels
RCC lintels
30
12.
Precast RCC shelves units
Timber/concrete
20-35
13.
14.
15.
Precast Ferrocement shelves

Ferrocement manhole covers
Ferrocement water tank
Timber/concrete
Casion/concret e
Rigid PVC
35-45
50-40
60
8.
References
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system for Indian locations, Proc. ICORE 2005, Pune, pp. 179 186, 2005.
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system, Int. J. Energy research, 18, pp. 509 524, 1994.
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system, Int. J. Energy research, 18, pp. 437 - 447, 1994.
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performance of an earth air-pipe system in single pass mode, Solar Energy, 71, pp. 353 364,
2001.
27. Fontoynont M. (Ed.), Daylight performance of buildings, James & James (Science Publishers)
Ltd., London, 1999.
28. Baker N. and Steemers K., Daylight design of buildings, James & James (Science Publishers)
Ltd., London, 2002.
29. Misra A. and Kumar P., Energy efficient lighting and daylighting in buildings-a primer, Tata
Energy Research Institute Report, 1995.
30. Koenigsberger O.H., Ingersoll T.G., Mayhew A. and Szokolay S.V., Manual of tropical housing
and building, part 1 climatic design, Orient Longman, Madras, 1975.
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Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council, BMTPC, 1995
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alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao), January 16 18, IISc.,
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workshop on alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao), January
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National workshop on alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao),
January 16 18, IISc., Bangalore, 2002, pp.66 69.
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workshop on alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao), January
16 18, IISc., Bangalore, 2002, pp.163 170.
APPENDIX III.1
EFFECT OF SHADING DEVICES
The heat gain through windows has a major role in controlling the indoor temperatures in
case of non-conditioned buildings and heating and cooling load in case of conditioned buildings. It is
therefore necessary to examine the effect of various chajja-fin combinations to reduce the heat gain.
For this purpose the amount of direct solar radiation incident on windows has been considered as the
basis. The effect of size of chajja, fin, gap, extension and windows in the four cardinal directions (i.e.
north, east, south and west) has been studied. These terms are defined as follows:
Fin/Chajja depth:
Projection outward from the wall,. (When a chajja is assumed to have a

depth of say X meters, all the fins are also assumed to have a depth of X
meters. The chajja and fin meet at an edge at top)
Fin length
:
Length measured from the top edge of the window to the bottom of
the fin. (Four cases considered are: no fin, fin upto one third of window height measured downwards
from top edge of window, fin upto two third of window height measured downwards from top edge of
window and fin upto window height measured downwards from top edge of window).
Gap
Extension
The distance between the top edge of window and the chajja
The distance between the left or right fin to the nearest vertical edge of
window. In case there is no fin, it is the length by which the chajja extends
beyond the width of the window.(Extension is assumed equal on both sides of
the window)
Figure III.1 illustrates these terms graphically.

The various cases considered are:
Window size
0.6 x 1.2 , 0.6 x 1.8, 1.2 x 1.2, 1.2 x 1.8,

1.8 x 1.2, 1.8 x 1.8 (m2)
Fin/Chajja depth
0.0, 0.3, 0.6, 1.0 (m)
Fin length
:
:
:
:
No fin,
Upto 1/3 of window height measured from top.
Upto 2/3 of window height measured from top.
Equal to the window height.
Gap
0.0, 0.15(m)
Extension
0.0, 0.15(m)
Windows are given a set back of 0.1 m from the exterior surface of the wall.
Beam radiation incident on the window per unit area ( i.e., Beam radiation on window X
(Window area - Shaded area) / Window area) is found out for the hours between 9 a.m. to 4 p.m.
(IST) for all days of the year. This particular time span has been chosen to avoid the absurd values,
which may crop in due to the low magnitudes of the trigonometric functions for hours before 9 a.m.
and after 4 p.m. It may be mentioned that the intensities of solar radiation before 9 am and after 4
p.m. are generally small. So the assumption does not lead to significant error. Further, this calculation
has been used for relative comparisons. These hourly values are summed up over the year to yield
yearly total radiation incident on window.
Yearly beam solar radiation incident on windows for various chajja-fin combinations have
been estimated for Mumbai, Pune, Ahmedabad and Nagpur. Table III.1 presents results of such
calculations for a window of size 1.2m X 1.2m. Tables show the percentage radiation incident for
various chajja-fin combinations as compared to an unshaded window (with no chajja or fin). The
radiation falling on an unshaded window (over the year) in each of the directions corresponding to
different climates is given at the end of the table. To find out the actual radiation per unit area of
window with shading device/s, multiply the radiation on unshaded window with the corresponding
number from the table and divide by 100.
PxQ
Wh/m 2 - year
100
PxQxR
Total radiation on the window =
Wh/year
100
Where : P = Percentage of radiation falling on shaded window.
Q = Radiation on unshaded window
Radiation falling on window =
...(III.1)
.........(III.2)
R = Window area (m 2 )
The radiation blocked by the shading device is the difference of the radiation on the unshaded
window and that on the shaded window. The smaller is the value of P, the better is the performance
of window shading device combination. By keeping this fact in mind, one can find out the best
window shading device combination for any of the four cities and in any of the four directions.
It is seen that providing a chajja in general reduces the radiation incident on windows. This is
as expected. If, however, a gap between the top of the window and chajja is provided, the shading
decreases and the percentage of radiation increases. In addition, if fins are provided, the percentage
further reduces in general. However, providing an extension leads to a decrease in shading since the
fins are moved apart. This leads to an increase in the percentage of radiation incident. But the reverse
is the case if a window does not have fins. From these results the relative performance of the shading
combinations can be found out. For an example, consider a window with 0.6m chajja, 0.15m
extension, zero gap and no fin, the percentage of radiation incident on south window is 72.3%
compared to an unshaded window for Ahmedabad climate. But for a window with 1.0m chajja, zero
extension, zero gap and full fins, the corresponding number is 14.8%. A graphical representation of
such behaviour for all cities corresponding to a few cases has been shown in Fig. III.2. The results for
other window sizes are reported in Table III.2.
From Tables III.1 and III.2, the best combination of shading devices can be identified. For an
example, for north facing window in Ahmadabad, the percentage of radiation incident is the least
(57%) for a chajja depth of 0.3m, full fin length, zero extension and zero gap. Such combinations
have been identified for all window sizes corresponding to four cities and are listed in Table III.3.
The magnitudes of the radiation incident on such windows are also listed in the table. The numbers in
parentheses give the corresponding radiation value for unshaded window. These provide ready
reference for comparison of different cases.
Appropriate window sizing and shading combinations in different orientations can be found
from the table. For example, it is found that in Ahmadabad, a large window of 1.8 m x 1.8 m in the
north shaded by a chajja of depth 0.6m and full fins performs better than a well-shaded smaller
window of 0.6 m x 1.2 m (protected by 1.0m chajja and full fins) in the east, west and south. The
magnitude of radiation incident on window reduces by more than 3 times. Thus, it may be inferred
that larger windows should preferably be located in the north. Conversely, smaller windows should
be provided in the other directions and they should be well shaded. It is also seen that out of two
windows (width 1.2m, height 1.8m and width 1.8m, height 1.2m), the one with higher height is better
since the percentage of radiation incident is lower. This is because of the fact that the shading
increases for a window of higher height compared to a wider one, when fins are also provided. A
combination of deep chajjas and full-fins of 1.0m depth can significantly reduce the radiation falling
on a large window (1.8m X 1.8m); the values are ranging from about 3.5 times in the east to 4.9
times in the south. Hence, chajja and full-fin combinations are very effective in reducing the heat
gain through windows.
Fig. III.1
Illustrations of chajja depth, fin length, gap and extension
700
Radiation on window (KWh/m2)
600
north
east
south
west
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahamadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
Location
Fig. III.2 (Case 1) Radiation on unshaded 1.2m x 1.2 m window

700
600
north
east
south
west
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahamadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Location
Fig. III.2 (Case 2) Radiation on 1.2m x 1.2 m window shaded by 0.6 m chhajja with
0.15 m extension
Pune
700
600
north
east
south
west
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahamadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
Location
Fig. III.2 (Case 3) Radiation on 1.2m x 1.2 m window shaded by 0.6 m chhajja and full
fins
Table III.1 Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height)
Parameters
Percentage radiation incident (%)

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
ext
fin
gap
CL
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
0.3
95.30
94.74
95.84
96.35
89.86
94.22
95.88
96.37
91.12
94.81
95.43
95.59
83.18
94.48
94.86
95.92
0.6
95.30
76.97
75.98
76.59
89.86
75.94
72.83
77.54
91.12
71.69
74.62
80.84
83.11
74.04
71.65
75.78
95.30
58.64
57.21
55.74
89.86
58.94
52.62
57.73
91.12
50.25
55.81
62.77
83.11
54.15
52.75
54.97
0.15
0.3
98.79
97.10
98.06
98.47
93.79
96.95
98.20
98.49
96.25
97.72
97.96
97.58
88.90
97.09
97.36
98.13
0.15
0.6
98.79
85.13
85.43
84.96
93.77
84.27
83.16
85.63
96.25
80.91
84.24
87.80
88.82
82.99
81.80
84.24
0.15
98.79
67.85
65.81
65.30
93.77
68.19
61.90
67.65
96.25
59.19
64.40
71.68
88.82
63.87
61.64
64.89
1/3
0.3
75.10
91.75
92.01
93.70
75.01
90.59
91.98
93.55
67.34
91.85
91.42
93.19
61.95
91.71
90.73
93.47
1/3
0.6
75.10
68.93
65.17
68.93
74.82
66.54
61.51
69.20
67.34
63.24
63.35
74.11
61.17
66.66
59.80
68.50
1/3
75.10
45.81
40.46
43.14
74.82
44.32
35.24
43.96
67.34
37.09
38.73
51.27
61.17
42.35
35.20
42.94
1/3
0.15
0.3
70.59
92.40
91.93
94.24
73.75
91.35
91.99
94.00
63.42
93.01
91.54
93.72
59.93
92.80
90.83
94.21
1/3
0.15
0.6
70.59
73.53
69.75
73.90
73.52
70.84
66.85
73.64
63.42
68.85
67.89
77.92
59.00
72.42
64.78
73.74
1/3
0.15
70.59
49.93
42.32
47.72
73.52
47.96
37.74
48.54
63.42
41.04
40.43
55.47
59.00
47.54
37.27
48.17
2/3
0.3
59.20
87.52
86.22
89.65
64.55
85.73
86.09
89.30
48.19
87.44
85.33
89.52
45.92
87.89
84.62
89.73
2/3
0.6
59.20
60.26
53.05
60.55
64.31
56.81
49.09
60.21
48.19
54.43
50.70
66.30
44.98
58.92
46.94
60.58
2/3
59.20
33.70
24.29
31.24
64.31
31.14
19.21
31.25
48.19
25.39
22.28
39.88
44.98
31.65
19.06
31.77
2/3
0.15
0.3
60.83
88.44
86.40
90.34
66.82
86.81
86.28
89.93
50.19
88.84
85.69
90.23
49.01
89.17
84.95
90.61
2/3
0.15
0.6
60.83
65.69
58.55
66.23
66.58
62.13
55.41
65.42
50.19
60.93
56.17
70.72
48.07
65.44
53.01
66.49
2/3
0.15
60.83
39.43
28.26
37.34
66.58
36.68
24.06
37.51
50.19
31.09
26.19
45.35
48.07
38.33
23.50
38.45
full
0.3
56.99
84.03
81.25
86.15
62.24
81.79
80.89
85.66
43.56
83.86
80.01
86.35
42.09
84.71
79.34
86.47
full
0.6
56.99
54.11
44.39
54.47
62.01
50.16
40.55
53.75
43.56
48.52
41.59
60.38
41.16
53.54
38.29
54.82
Continued ...............
Table III.1 Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height) Continued from previous page
Parameters

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
ext
fin
gap
CL
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
full
56.99
26.28
14.76
23.94
62.01
23.36
10.18
23.62
43.56
18.77
12.45
32.33
41.16
25.31
9.98
24.95
full
0.15
0.3
60.48
85.70
82.54
87.60
66.16
83.81
82.36
87.09
48.68
86.14
81.54
87.64
47.81
86.74
80.98
88.03
full
0.15
0.6
60.48
61.39
52.83
62.03
65.93
57.62
49.99
61.00
48.68
57.04
50.13
66.36
46.88
61.77
47.54
62.50
full
0.15
60.48
34.61
22.34
32.68
65.93
31.72
18.57
32.70
48.68
27.01
19.97
40.23
46.88
34.31
17.98
34.10
0.15
0.3
89.89
94.06
95.22
95.89
84.52
93.35
95.28
95.85
83.96
94.20
94.76
95.07
75.66
93.82
94.09
95.42
0.15
0.6
89.89
74.01
72.28
73.69
84.32
72.27
68.65
74.39
83.86
68.10
70.81
78.49
75.01
70.84
67.14
72.78
0.15
89.89
52.70
49.76
49.69
84.32
52.02
44.33
51.10
83.86
43.20
48.38
57.58
75.01
47.79
44.28
48.66
0.15
0.15
0.3
95.55
96.66
97.73
98.25
89.36
96.41
97.89
98.22
91.13
97.42
97.61
97.24
82.69
96.69
96.89
97.87
0.15
0.15
0.6
95.55
83.03
82.97
82.86
89.15
81.61
80.37
83.32
91.04
78.20
81.72
86.14
81.98
80.67
78.69
82.06
0.15
0.15
95.55
62.90
59.49
60.30
89.15
62.34
54.81
62.18
91.04
53.06
58.13
67.43
81.98
58.44
54.32
59.61
0.15
1/3
0.3
67.77
92.61
93.23
94.78
70.69
91.53
93.40
94.76
60.32
92.87
92.64
94.10
56.76
92.60
91.93
94.52
0.15
1/3
0.6
67.77
68.21
63.84
68.25
69.65
65.35
59.86
68.50
59.27
61.88
61.73
73.92
53.38
65.85
57.85
67.89
0.15
1/3
67.77
42.29
35.06
39.48
69.65
39.99
29.03
40.02
59.27
32.46
32.98
48.50
53.38
38.70
28.66
39.37
0.15
1/3
0.15
0.3
67.55
94.71
94.86
96.70
71.96
93.99
95.18
96.73
60.41
95.57
94.56
95.92
58.29
95.07
93.80
96.65
0.15
1/3
0.15
0.6
67.55
75.17
71.28
75.46
70.85
72.30
68.26
75.37
59.23
69.87
69.18
79.86
54.68
73.97
65.92
75.45
0.15
1/3
0.15
67.55
49.04
39.58
46.66
70.85
46.42
34.26
47.44
59.23
38.92
37.31
55.23
54.68
46.43
33.37
47.26
0.15
2/3
0.3
57.47
91.46
91.13
93.72
63.89
90.15
91.33
93.79
46.72
91.60
90.36
93.29
46.13
91.67
89.60
93.76
0.15
2/3
0.6
57.47
63.36
55.96
63.61
62.79
59.81
51.76
63.57
45.54
56.89
53.29
69.85
42.57
61.86
49.41
63.81
0.15
2/3
57.47
34.31
22.87
31.53
62.79
31.17
16.98
31.59
45.54
24.80
20.36
41.14
42.57
32.04
16.46
32.31
0.15
2/3
0.15
0.3
62.65
93.75
92.98
95.75
68.03
92.84
93.23
95.88
52.21
94.47
92.45
95.25
51.89
94.28
91.62
95.98
0.15
2/3
0.15
0.6
62.65
71.05
64.29
71.44
66.92
67.65
61.06
71.11
51.04
65.64
61.61
76.31
48.28
70.61
58.46
71.91
Continued ...............
Table III.1 Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height) Continued from previous page
Parameters

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
ext
fin
gap
CL
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
North
East
South
West
0.15
2/3
0.15
62.65
42.48
29.51
40.08
66.92
39.34
24.60
40.51
51.04
32.81
26.89
48.99
48.28
41.06
23.60
41.45
0.15
full
0.3
56.99
90.86
89.66
93.09
63.11
89.46
89.77
93.28
44.74
90.96
88.63
92.86
44.72
91.21
87.88
93.35
0.15
full
0.6
56.99
60.67
51.23
60.91
62.01
56.94
47.15
60.81
43.56
54.34
48.06
67.36
41.16
59.78
44.67
61.47
0.15
full
56.99
30.43
17.21
27.64
62.01
27.22
11.85
27.68
43.56
21.58
14.27
37.12
41.16
29.08
11.26
28.97
0.15
full
0.15
0.3
62.63
93.44
92.00
95.41
67.95
92.50
92.23
95.64
51.91
94.16
91.27
95.01
51.75
94.07
90.54
95.78
0.15
full
0.15
0.6
62.63
69.54
61.68
69.94
66.85
66.14
58.69
69.63
50.73
64.36
58.67
74.80
48.13
69.52
56.03
70.64
0.15
full
0.15
62.63
40.47
26.70
38.12
66.85
37.40
22.16
38.65
50.73
31.35
23.73
46.74
48.13
39.64
21.12
39.83
Radiation on unshaded window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height)

2
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
North (Wh/m -year)

7219
5865
9537
16700
East (Wh/m -year)

394074
199200
307567
394949
South (Wh/m -year)

654682
414788
598595
581880
West (Wh/m -year)

482717
308871
564900
494051
Table III.2(A) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.2m height)
Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
0.3 100.00
96.07
97.04
97.32
99.78
96.05
97.08
97.55 100.00
96.07
96.75
96.68
98.64
95.82
96.36
96.98
0.6 100.00
82.67
82.89
82.16
99.78
83.63
80.76
84.18 100.00
78.45
81.73
85.55
98.64
80.17
80.00
81.55
1 100.00
69.87
71.36
67.32
99.78
73.35
68.57
71.65 100.00
63.38
70.07
72.91
98.64
66.20
68.63
67.26
0 0.15
0.3 100.00
97.91
98.72
98.93
99.90
98.03
98.82
99.08 100.00
98.25
98.66
98.27
99.23
97.89
98.27
98.74
0 0.15
0.6 100.00
89.07
90.10
89.00
99.90
89.81
88.42
90.55 100.00
85.97
89.02
91.15
99.23
87.46
87.53
88.56
0 0.15
1 100.00
76.87
77.87
74.44
99.90
80.08
75.52
78.94 100.00
70.18
76.59
79.81
99.23
73.95
75.31
75.01
1/3
0.3
98.15
90.87
90.10
92.41
94.10
89.76
89.81
92.05
93.98
90.44
89.54
92.27
86.59
90.91
88.59
92.15
1/3
0.6
98.15
69.75
66.39
69.42
94.10
68.20
63.34
69.80
93.98
64.77
65.02
73.81
86.59
67.49
62.36
68.79
1/3
98.15
51.86
50.28
49.40
94.10
52.57
46.75
51.46
93.98
45.10
49.15
55.63
86.59
48.55
46.87
48.96
1/3 0.15
0.3
96.14
89.42
87.30
90.83
90.01
87.91
86.91
90.06
88.44
89.16
86.75
90.96
79.43
89.98
85.66
90.87
1/3 0.15
0.6
96.14
69.75
65.45
69.95
90.01
66.94
62.55
69.20
88.44
65.80
63.94
73.41
79.43
68.77
61.41
69.68
1/3 0.15
96.14
50.71
47.22
48.49
90.01
50.03
44.04
49.82
88.44
43.93
46.08
54.57
79.43
48.63
43.94
48.73
2/3
0.3
92.89
82.46
78.60
84.19
84.19
79.97
77.85
83.02
79.99
81.59
77.47
84.85
67.90
83.23
76.16
84.33
2/3
0.6
92.89
53.58
45.74
53.40
84.19
49.42
41.92
52.08
79.99
48.34
43.85
58.62
67.90
52.33
40.91
53.23
2/3
92.89
31.56
26.75
29.37
84.19
29.45
23.21
29.15
79.99
25.41
25.59
35.68
67.90
29.53
23.50
29.06
2/3 0.15
0.3
90.93
81.24
76.08
82.82
81.61
78.43
75.20
81.30
75.33
80.62
74.96
83.76
63.51
82.55
73.56
83.30
2/3 0.15
0.6
90.93
54.37
45.79
54.68
81.61
49.23
42.27
52.38
75.33
50.31
43.86
58.90
63.51
54.50
41.21
54.94
2/3 0.15
90.93
31.85
25.78
29.91
81.61
28.65
22.77
29.17
75.33
25.95
24.68
35.87
63.51
31.20
22.86
30.38
full
0.3
89.94
75.03
68.07
76.86
79.95
71.58
66.83
75.10
71.54
74.08
66.35
78.19
59.45
76.63
64.91
77.51
full
0.6
89.94
40.69
29.38
40.51
79.95
35.25
25.62
38.27
71.54
36.10
27.29
46.16
59.45
40.92
24.78
41.18
Continued ...............
Continued from previous page

Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
full
89.94
16.68
10.05
14.78
79.95
13.28
6.82
13.45
71.54
12.14
8.87
20.50
59.45
16.54
7.28
15.21
full 0.15
0.3
89.94
75.42
67.73
77.02
80.06
72.04
66.66
75.08
71.54
75.01
66.11
78.32
60.04
77.49
64.94
77.92
full 0.15
0.6
89.94
45.22
34.39
45.55
80.06
39.57
31.28
42.80
71.54
42.23
32.26
49.69
60.04
46.71
30.37
46.57
full 0.15
89.94
21.80
14.36
20.10
80.06
18.14
11.78
18.90
71.54
17.54
13.08
25.30
60.04
22.80
12.02
21.34
0.15
0.3 100.00
95.07
96.05
96.60
98.91
94.72
96.06
96.68
99.98
95.09
95.64
95.86
95.61
94.79
95.10
96.16
0.15
0.6 100.00
77.92
76.54
77.37
98.91
77.68
73.50
78.67
99.98
72.56
75.21
81.48
95.61
74.71
72.39
76.29
0.15
1 100.00
60.73
59.63
57.83
98.91
62.91
55.54
60.92
99.98
52.34
58.48
64.36
95.61
55.76
55.62
56.66
0.15
0 0.15
0.3 100.00
97.36
98.24
98.67
99.44
97.33
98.35
98.74 100.00
97.89
98.15
97.82
97.29
97.34
97.55
98.37
0.15
0 0.15
0.6 100.00
86.15
86.13
85.93
99.44
86.09
83.80
87.06 100.00
82.07
84.98
88.62
97.29
83.93
82.48
85.14
0.15
0 0.15
1 100.00
70.01
68.27
67.25
99.44
72.33
64.80
70.97 100.00
61.33
67.20
73.45
97.29
65.81
64.44
66.84
0.15
1/3
0.3
96.37
92.77
92.65
94.58
89.48
91.87
92.59
94.52
89.04
92.39
91.92
94.17
77.99
92.84
91.25
94.45
0.15
1/3
0.6
96.37
68.23
62.80
67.67
89.48
65.64
58.64
67.93
89.04
61.99
60.79
73.33
77.99
65.89
57.31
67.44
0.15
1/3
96.37
44.79
39.77
41.56
89.48
43.41
34.92
42.23
89.04
35.85
38.07
49.53
77.99
40.85
35.09
40.75
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.3
94.35
94.13
93.22
95.81
86.61
93.36
93.24
95.72
83.73
94.07
92.63
95.47
73.02
94.63
91.90
95.97
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.6
94.35
72.66
66.80
72.44
86.61
69.45
63.04
72.21
83.73
67.50
64.70
77.22
73.02
71.76
61.43
72.91
0.15
1/3 0.15
94.35
48.13
40.92
44.99
86.61
45.69
36.66
45.50
83.73
38.95
39.11
53.00
73.02
45.52
36.44
45.19
0.15
2/3
0.3
91.19
90.48
88.61
92.44
81.70
89.17
88.42
92.36
76.09
89.63
87.42
92.57
63.39
91.00
86.69
92.77
0.15
2/3
0.6
91.19
58.85
48.87
58.23
81.70
54.50
43.95
57.86
76.09
52.18
46.21
65.30
63.39
57.81
42.50
59.19
0.15
2/3
91.19
30.30
21.87
26.89
81.70
26.27
17.15
25.86
76.09
21.74
19.91
35.76
63.39
28.03
17.43
26.95
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.3
90.01
92.05
89.45
93.86
80.62
91.00
89.25
93.79
72.42
91.65
88.37
94.07
61.60
93.03
87.56
94.49
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.6
90.01
64.21
53.97
63.86
80.62
59.76
49.61
63.25
72.42
58.88
51.26
69.95
61.60
64.74
47.94
65.59
Continued ...............

Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.15
full
0.15
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
Nagpur
South
West
North
East
Pune
South
West
North
East
South
West
90.01
35.34
25.50
32.00
80.62
31.05
21.58
31.37
72.42
26.95
23.57
40.73
61.60
34.67
21.43
33.33
0.3
89.94
89.08
85.51
91.16
79.95
87.74
85.07
91.16
71.54
88.19
83.79
91.67
59.45
90.03
83.08
91.86
full
0.6
89.94
53.08
39.49
52.29
79.95
48.44
34.77
51.94
71.54
46.89
36.44
60.09
59.45
53.40
33.27
54.34
0.15
full
89.94
22.11
11.92
18.65
79.95
17.77
7.77
17.59
71.54
15.09
9.74
27.45
59.45
21.82
8.02
19.99
0.15
full 0.15
0.3
89.94
91.31
87.35
93.18
80.47
90.31
87.05
93.19
71.54
90.95
85.83
93.60
61.13
92.56
85.22
94.04
0.15
full 0.15
0.6
89.94
60.96
48.57
60.52
80.47
56.59
44.67
60.09
71.54
56.24
45.53
66.79
61.13
62.44
42.97
62.98
0.15
full 0.15
89.94
31.03
20.04
27.75
80.47
26.92
16.64
27.40
71.54
23.92
17.80
36.06
61.13
31.68
16.46
29.96
Radiation on unshaded window (0.6 m wide by 1.2 m height)

2
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
North (Wh/m -year)

4575
4549
5808
11562
East (Wh/m -year)

369392
184624
287657
372541
South (Wh/m -year)

599872
381757
547393
529888
West (Wh/m -year)

456362
290797
534582
467038
Table III.2(B) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.8m height)
Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
0.3
99.65
85.77
86.02
86.42
95.87
85.59
85.44
86.76
98.48
84.72
85.77
87.38
88.97
84.78
84.82
85.88
0.6
99.65
73.45
74.12
72.55
95.87
74.25
72.96
74.21
98.48
69.43
73.66
75.68
88.97
71.20
72.53
71.96
99.65
63.84
66.03
62.40
95.87
66.43
64.34
65.71
98.48
58.88
65.31
66.15
88.97
60.81
64.35
62.04
0 0.15
0.3 100.00
93.56
94.00
94.41
98.03
93.36
93.55
94.70 100.00
93.01
93.74
94.94
93.00
92.80
92.90
93.89
0 0.15
0.6 100.00
81.49
82.01
80.69
98.03
82.29
80.93
82.38 100.00
77.43
81.44
83.64
93.00
79.40
80.43
80.22
0 0.15
1 100.00
71.29
73.59
70.17
98.03
73.95
71.94
73.50 100.00
66.68
72.84
73.60
93.00
68.33
71.85
69.76
1/3
0.3
94.48
77.27
74.59
78.31
83.72
75.65
73.61
77.82
84.58
76.04
73.79
79.87
67.86
77.00
72.42
78.08
1/3
0.6
94.48
56.77
52.90
56.08
83.72
54.85
50.98
56.00
84.58
52.50
52.03
60.08
67.86
55.38
50.32
55.88
1/3
94.48
42.08
40.20
40.86
83.72
41.78
37.88
41.84
84.58
37.39
39.41
44.99
67.86
40.11
37.90
40.55
1/3 0.15
0.3
93.48
82.94
79.70
84.25
83.24
80.96
78.75
83.51
82.59
82.12
78.74
85.55
67.46
83.09
77.41
84.14
1/3 0.15
0.6
93.48
60.66
55.51
60.13
83.24
58.08
53.50
59.65
82.59
56.31
54.41
64.14
67.46
59.68
52.73
60.18
1/3 0.15
93.48
44.19
41.50
43.37
83.24
43.26
39.09
43.80
82.59
39.98
40.65
47.23
67.46
42.61
39.05
43.04
2/3
0.3
89.20
69.04
63.36
70.28
74.68
66.09
61.93
69.01
71.12
67.44
62.00
72.56
52.31
69.52
60.33
70.47
2/3
0.6
89.20
40.97
32.78
40.45
74.68
36.59
30.16
38.73
71.12
36.56
31.44
45.15
52.31
40.65
29.54
40.75
2/3
89.20
22.28
17.35
21.33
74.68
19.34
14.97
20.13
71.12
18.30
16.53
25.41
52.31
21.65
15.20
21.21
2/3 0.15
0.3
88.55
74.99
68.79
76.47
75.53
71.80
67.38
75.02
70.13
73.88
67.27
78.50
54.07
75.92
65.69
76.82
2/3 0.15
0.6
88.55
45.76
36.55
45.34
75.53
41.07
34.04
43.42
70.13
41.45
35.05
49.99
54.07
45.98
33.40
46.00
2/3 0.15
88.55
25.94
20.74
25.40
75.53
22.75
18.47
23.92
70.13
22.71
19.89
29.02
54.07
25.88
18.66
25.41
full
0.3
88.14
64.53
57.05
65.83
73.21
61.17
55.49
64.24
67.83
63.14
55.30
68.32
49.51
65.62
53.85
66.35
full
0.6
88.14
33.83
23.94
33.35
73.21
29.03
21.60
31.25
67.83
30.21
22.44
37.94
49.51
34.56
21.12
34.23
Continued ...............

Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
Full
88.14
14.35
8.46
13.61
73.21
11.01
6.41
11.98
67.83
11.63
7.52
17.05
49.51
14.99
6.79
14.06
Full 0.15
0.3
88.44
72.32
65.03
73.81
75.36
68.94
63.61
72.18
69.35
71.43
63.27
75.88
53.54
73.63
61.94
74.36
Full 0.15
0.6
88.44
41.87
31.83
41.49
75.36
37.07
29.58
39.41
69.35
38.22
30.21
45.90
53.54
42.75
29.02
42.49
full 0.15
88.44
21.80
16.03
21.38
75.36
18.54
14.01
19.78
69.35
19.43
15.05
24.51
53.54
22.52
14.29
21.78
0.15
0.3
98.49
83.79
83.61
84.66
91.23
83.10
82.87
84.75
95.17
82.70
83.24
85.75
80.56
82.79
82.01
84.07
0.15
0.6
98.49
68.07
67.15
67.10
91.23
67.77
65.50
68.06
95.17
63.18
66.67
70.81
80.56
65.52
64.84
66.27
0.15
98.49
55.14
55.30
53.66
91.23
56.60
52.82
55.98
95.17
49.10
54.70
57.84
80.56
51.46
52.76
52.62
0.15
0 0.15
0.3
99.78
92.18
92.41
93.23
94.21
91.54
91.86
93.34
98.66
91.58
92.09
93.88
85.85
91.31
90.96
92.62
0.15
0 0.15
0.6
99.78
76.76
75.82
75.90
94.21
76.54
74.29
76.95
98.66
71.73
75.26
79.43
85.85
74.28
73.53
75.15
0.15
0 0.15
99.78
63.05
63.50
61.96
94.21
64.65
61.06
64.36
98.66
57.34
62.94
65.76
85.85
59.34
60.86
60.79
0.15
1/3
0.3
93.29
81.20
79.41
82.42
80.82
80.01
78.54
82.42
81.36
79.81
78.48
83.89
62.83
80.68
77.21
82.22
0.15
1/3
0.6
93.29
57.83
52.37
56.81
80.82
55.37
49.81
56.88
81.36
52.27
50.99
62.01
62.83
56.44
48.85
57.07
0.15
1/3
93.29
38.71
34.30
37.01
80.82
36.82
31.18
37.01
81.36
32.35
32.97
42.31
62.83
36.35
31.16
36.48
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.3
93.26
88.97
87.16
90.44
81.45
87.72
86.46
90.43
81.49
87.98
86.16
91.57
64.02
88.71
84.99
90.32
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.6
93.26
64.04
57.40
63.13
81.45
61.13
54.76
63.07
81.49
58.22
55.74
68.47
64.02
63.01
53.66
63.73
0.15
1/3 0.15
93.26
42.68
37.53
41.32
81.45
40.18
34.37
40.89
81.49
36.67
36.06
46.51
64.02
40.66
34.25
40.85
0.15
2/3
0.3
88.35
78.97
75.49
80.36
73.53
77.41
74.45
80.33
69.09
77.18
74.08
82.33
50.21
78.92
72.77
80.60
0.15
2/3
0.6
88.35
48.74
38.86
47.66
73.53
44.66
35.60
47.14
69.09
42.86
36.82
54.16
50.21
48.68
34.56
49.10
0.15
2/3
88.35
24.66
17.03
22.77
73.53
20.37
13.99
21.21
69.09
18.78
15.36
28.89
50.21
24.04
14.11
23.19
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.3
89.42
86.98
83.50
88.59
76.22
85.46
82.60
88.60
71.31
85.70
82.02
90.22
54.80
87.18
80.81
88.91
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.6
89.42
55.94
45.07
54.92
76.22
51.85
41.95
54.50
71.31
50.04
42.86
61.43
54.80
56.29
40.81
56.73
Continued ...............

Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.15
full
0.15
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
Nagpur
South
West
North
East
Pune
South
West
North
East
South
West
89.42
30.43
22.66
28.88
76.22
26.19
19.78
27.39
71.31
25.27
20.99
34.65
54.80
30.28
19.77
29.51
0.3
88.14
78.36
73.87
79.80
73.21
76.82
72.76
79.83
67.83
76.59
72.14
81.94
49.51
78.52
70.96
80.23
Full
0.6
88.14
46.11
34.53
44.95
73.21
42.05
31.54
44.55
67.83
40.66
32.23
51.63
49.51
46.78
30.50
46.97
0.15
full
88.14
21.10
12.59
19.23
73.21
16.87
9.92
17.81
67.83
16.15
10.70
25.08
49.51
21.51
10.03
20.32
0.15
full 0.15
0.3
89.42
86.74
82.68
88.37
76.22
85.27
81.75
88.41
71.31
85.48
80.99
90.06
54.80
87.05
79.92
88.77
0.15
full 0.15
0.6
89.42
54.81
43.20
53.76
76.22
50.82
40.33
53.43
71.31
49.21
40.81
60.25
54.80
55.53
39.18
55.84
0.15
full 0.15
89.42
29.01
20.78
27.53
76.22
24.93
18.16
26.19
71.31
24.39
18.94
33.01
54.80
29.38
18.14
28.49

2
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
North (Wh/m -year)

4668
4968
6125
13883
East (Wh/m -year)

386015
193468
301676
390659
South (Wh/m -year)

628425
399947
573212
556658
West (Wh/m -year)

476830
303775
555261
489083
Table III.2(C) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.8m height)
Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
0.3
87.74
83.91
84.00
84.80
80.09
83.18
83.37
84.93
81.70
82.97
83.69
85.91
70.26
82.96
82.45
84.30
0.6
87.74
68.12
67.30
67.19
80.09
67.40
65.67
68.03
81.70
63.37
66.75
71.05
70.22
65.78
64.96
66.66
87.74
54.35
54.11
52.82
80.09
54.67
51.36
54.51
81.70
48.54
53.26
57.38
70.22
51.02
51.36
52.15
0 0.15
0.3
93.26
92.05
92.46
93.11
84.84
91.36
92.03
93.23
88.31
91.57
92.20
93.79
76.52
91.27
91.07
92.59
0 0.15
0.6
93.26
76.49
75.60
75.71
84.84
75.81
74.09
76.59
88.31
71.64
74.96
79.31
76.48
74.26
73.26
75.23
0 0.15
93.26
61.89
61.85
60.76
84.84
62.33
59.13
62.48
88.31
56.43
61.08
64.96
76.48
58.60
58.97
59.94
1/3
0.3
64.24
79.31
78.07
80.62
62.84
77.74
77.38
80.51
54.75
78.45
77.44
82.00
47.49
78.74
76.12
80.37
1/3
0.6
64.24
58.25
54.27
57.79
62.67
56.01
52.31
57.81
54.75
53.19
53.17
62.42
46.85
56.76
50.97
57.67
1/3
64.24
39.63
35.12
38.50
62.67
37.87
31.84
38.85
54.75
33.58
33.80
43.90
46.85
37.47
31.58
38.40
1/3 0.15
0.3
64.48
86.33
85.05
87.91
64.15
84.63
84.56
87.73
55.71
85.94
84.39
88.92
49.15
86.04
83.19
87.72
1/3 0.15
0.6
64.48
64.25
59.39
64.06
63.94
61.74
57.48
63.95
55.71
59.07
58.05
68.59
48.39
63.13
55.90
64.12
1/3 0.15
64.48
43.73
38.39
43.11
63.94
41.74
35.07
43.22
55.71
38.07
37.04
48.31
48.39
42.00
34.61
43.04
2/3
0.3
50.20
75.18
72.44
76.67
53.64
73.00
71.63
76.37
38.37
74.19
71.50
78.39
34.54
75.00
70.18
76.72
2/3
0.6
50.20
49.79
42.52
49.62
53.42
46.56
40.27
49.04
38.37
44.65
40.87
54.76
33.73
49.25
38.56
49.97
2/3
50.20
27.85
19.51
26.94
53.42
25.08
16.33
26.47
38.37
22.21
17.91
32.74
33.73
27.10
16.00
27.54
2/3 0.15
0.3
55.30
82.46
79.68
84.14
57.84
80.22
79.03
83.77
43.91
81.91
78.71
85.50
39.96
82.53
77.51
84.23
2/3 0.15
0.6
55.30
56.63
48.62
56.63
57.62
53.30
46.51
56.00
43.91
51.43
46.77
61.55
39.15
56.38
44.67
57.10
2/3 0.15
55.30
33.53
24.85
33.03
57.62
30.78
21.82
32.51
43.91
28.43
23.24
38.41
39.15
33.08
21.33
33.61
full
0.3
49.77
73.07
69.50
74.58
53.02
70.69
68.67
74.19
37.05
72.13
68.35
76.36
33.54
73.14
67.18
74.76
full
0.6
49.77
46.44
38.04
46.35
52.81
43.03
36.00
45.59
37.05
41.61
36.14
51.34
32.73
46.38
34.26
46.86
Continued ...............
Table III.2(C) Percentage beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.8m height) Continued from previous page
Parameters
ext
fin
Ahmadabad
Gap CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
full
49.77
24.03
14.81
23.24
52.81
21.15
11.96
22.64
37.05
18.96
12.97
28.67
32.73
23.91
11.61
24.09
full 0.15
0.3
55.27
81.21
77.97
82.89
57.75
78.88
77.33
82.49
43.67
80.73
76.86
84.24
39.80
81.44
75.79
83.05
full 0.15
0.6
55.27
54.81
46.33
54.87
57.53
51.43
44.42
54.16
43.67
49.87
44.35
59.60
38.99
54.86
42.56
55.43
full 0.15
55.27
31.57
22.55
31.18
57.53
28.81
19.73
30.61
43.67
26.85
20.79
36.24
38.99
31.48
19.22
31.88
0.15
0.3
81.55
82.79
82.75
83.89
74.24
81.81
82.10
83.92
74.34
81.84
82.39
85.04
62.68
81.87
80.97
83.35
0.15
0.6
81.55
65.04
63.46
64.18
74.11
63.70
61.67
64.71
74.29
59.76
62.88
68.41
62.25
62.62
60.67
63.58
0.15
81.55
49.03
47.63
47.59
74.11
48.50
44.42
48.78
74.29
42.53
46.78
52.60
62.25
45.47
44.21
46.68
0.15
0 0.15
0.3
87.78
91.21
91.59
92.45
78.91
90.29
91.15
92.50
81.42
90.74
91.31
93.19
68.97
90.41
90.00
91.90
0.15
0 0.15
0.6
87.78
73.69
72.10
72.98
78.78
72.41
70.42
73.58
81.37
68.28
71.42
76.97
68.47
71.34
69.32
72.43
0.15
0 0.15
87.78
56.73
55.59
55.70
78.78
56.34
52.39
56.93
81.37
50.60
54.84
60.36
68.47
53.15
52.01
54.62
0.15
1/3
0.3
59.40
81.18
80.38
82.62
60.16
79.79
79.80
82.70
50.39
80.37
79.78
83.94
45.02
80.50
78.32
82.34
0.15
1/3
0.6
59.40
58.88
54.52
58.37
59.15
56.40
52.49
58.45
49.54
53.20
53.20
63.42
42.09
57.35
50.95
58.39
0.15
1/3
59.40
38.12
32.36
37.01
59.15
35.78
28.59
37.23
49.54
31.31
30.72
42.93
42.09
35.87
28.02
36.99
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.3
61.23
89.25
88.64
90.89
62.26
87.85
88.30
91.00
52.88
88.94
88.08
91.86
47.81
88.76
86.73
90.67
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.6
61.23
66.13
61.02
65.85
61.18
63.49
59.05
65.92
51.83
60.29
59.45
70.82
44.51
64.90
57.30
66.07
0.15
1/3 0.15
61.23
43.43
36.81
42.76
61.18
40.93
32.99
42.86
51.83
36.99
35.10
48.54
44.51
41.53
32.19
42.82
0.15
2/3
0.3
49.81
80.04
78.34
81.60
54.03
78.43
77.77
81.76
38.51
79.16
77.54
83.15
36.23
79.59
76.05
81.59
0.15
2/3
0.6
49.81
54.16
46.90
53.84
52.90
51.02
44.65
53.65
37.44
48.37
45.00
59.43
32.94
53.47
42.81
54.41
0.15
2/3
49.81
30.35
20.64
29.28
52.90
27.23
16.98
29.02
37.44
23.85
18.53
35.73
32.94
29.42
16.29
30.13
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.3
56.01
88.30
86.80
89.99
58.60
86.73
86.43
90.20
45.22
87.90
86.02
91.19
42.31
88.01
84.65
90.04
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.6
56.01
62.12
54.30
61.95
57.48
58.98
52.19
61.81
44.14
56.23
52.18
67.35
38.94
61.65
50.21
62.65
Continued ...............
Table III.2(C) Percentage beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.8m height) Continued from previous page
Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.15
full
0.15
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
Nagpur
South
West
North
East
Pune
South
West
North
East
South
West
56.01
37.05
27.13
36.36
57.48
34.03
23.64
36.14
44.14
31.08
25.02
42.45
38.94
36.32
22.76
37.19
0.3
49.77
79.79
77.58
81.32
53.94
78.14
77.00
81.56
38.12
78.90
76.64
82.96
36.01
79.41
75.21
81.42
full
0.6
49.77
52.94
44.78
52.63
52.81
49.78
42.68
52.44
37.05
47.31
42.62
58.23
32.73
52.57
40.80
53.38
0.15
full
49.77
28.68
18.27
27.63
52.81
25.60
14.91
27.43
37.05
22.59
15.91
33.90
32.73
28.21
14.19
28.75
0.15
full 0.15
0.3
56.01
88.21
86.42
89.87
58.60
86.63
86.05
90.13
45.22
87.80
85.55
91.11
42.31
87.95
84.24
89.98
0.15
full 0.15
0.6
56.01
61.60
53.41
61.43
57.47
58.49
51.44
61.31
44.14
55.83
51.17
66.78
38.94
61.29
49.44
62.22
0.15
full 0.15
56.01
36.39
26.23
35.74
57.47
33.44
22.88
35.58
44.14
30.66
23.97
41.66
38.94
35.90
21.99
36.69

2
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
North (Wh/m -year)

8267
6886
11214
21002
East (Wh/m -year)

412960
209569
323366
415438
South (Wh/m -year)

687407
435137
627902
612513
West (Wh/m -year)

505548
323395
587495
518350
Table III.2(D) Percentage of beam radiation on window (1.8m wide by 1.2m height)
Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
0.3
79.18
94.01
95.20
95.88
79.97
93.24
95.34
95.84
76.05
94.26
94.75
95.09
71.26
93.78
94.16
95.42
0.6
78.53
74.23
72.64
74.11
77.27
72.39
69.31
74.72
73.21
68.41
71.21
78.76
66.39
71.32
67.70
73.31
78.53
52.72
49.41
50.14
77.27
51.53
44.21
51.30
73.21
43.39
47.92
57.84
66.39
48.38
43.95
49.34
0 0.15
0.3
85.51
96.52
97.65
98.16
84.72
96.18
97.85
98.11
83.03
97.39
97.50
97.18
77.96
96.56
96.86
97.78
0 0.15
0.6
84.84
82.82
82.88
82.82
81.60
81.19
80.55
83.15
79.94
77.99
81.68
86.02
72.66
80.66
78.80
82.12
0 0.15
84.84
62.28
58.68
60.18
81.60
60.94
54.15
61.63
79.94
52.65
57.25
67.13
72.66
58.24
53.49
59.61
1/3
0.3
62.58
91.99
92.56
94.16
69.72
90.87
92.83
94.03
59.21
92.22
92.09
93.50
57.50
91.95
91.36
93.79
1/3
0.6
61.20
68.91
65.22
69.02
65.55
66.21
61.58
69.31
52.92
62.82
63.43
74.24
49.42
66.46
59.63
68.63
1/3
61.20
44.08
37.14
41.60
65.55
41.89
31.53
42.26
52.92
34.53
35.23
50.18
49.42
40.63
31.00
41.44
1/3 0.15
0.3
64.06
93.36
93.50
95.39
71.21
92.53
93.84
95.24
60.43
94.18
93.28
94.63
59.41
93.74
92.47
95.19
1/3 0.15
0.6
62.66
75.14
72.21
75.46
66.60
72.37
69.49
75.37
53.82
70.06
70.45
79.41
50.80
73.71
67.31
75.38
1/3 0.15
62.66
50.29
41.68
48.31
66.60
47.66
36.67
49.11
53.82
40.51
39.63
56.39
50.80
47.55
35.69
48.67
2/3
0.3
53.06
89.13
88.77
91.50
63.18
87.70
89.01
91.30
47.44
89.27
88.15
91.06
47.55
89.46
87.31
91.36
2/3
0.6
51.67
63.15
57.24
63.46
58.97
59.87
53.35
63.47
41.09
57.10
54.94
69.04
39.36
61.38
51.23
63.57
2/3
51.67
36.08
25.99
33.67
58.97
33.31
20.38
33.99
41.09
26.86
23.59
42.72
39.36
33.70
19.79
34.21
2/3 0.15
0.3
58.28
90.67
89.89
92.84
66.91
89.56
90.14
92.61
52.53
91.40
89.50
92.31
52.62
91.40
88.58
92.87
2/3 0.15
0.6
56.89
69.93
64.92
70.38
62.31
66.71
61.95
70.03
45.92
64.90
62.68
74.61
44.00
69.13
59.69
70.74
2/3 0.15
56.89
43.35
32.21
41.41
62.31
40.31
27.39
41.92
45.92
34.01
29.71
49.78
44.00
41.60
26.40
42.39
full
0.3
51.71
86.75
85.51
89.19
61.83
85.11
85.62
88.97
44.62
86.90
84.69
88.95
45.10
87.42
83.81
89.27
full
0.6
50.34
59.06
51.64
59.39
57.63
55.53
47.73
59.25
38.27
53.24
48.97
65.08
36.90
57.84
45.64
59.88
Continued ...............
Table III.2(D) Percentage of beam radiation on window (1.8m wide by 1.2m height) Continued from previous page
Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
full
50.34
31.15
19.79
28.79
57.63
28.24
14.43
29.00
38.27
22.56
17.00
37.77
36.90
29.57
13.86
29.82
full 0.15
0.3
58.05
88.80
87.36
91.01
66.56
87.59
87.54
90.78
51.61
89.64
86.80
90.57
51.81
89.83
85.94
91.24
Full 0.15
0.6
56.65
67.04
61.23
67.55
61.93
63.76
58.36
67.13
45.00
62.38
58.73
71.68
43.18
66.72
56.14
68.20
full 0.15
56.65
40.11
28.41
38.28
61.93
37.08
23.76
38.78
45.00
31.38
25.61
46.40
43.18
38.97
22.81
39.60
0.15
0.3
73.70
93.55
94.77
95.58
76.45
92.65
94.94
95.49
71.08
93.86
94.29
94.74
66.48
93.34
93.65
95.09
0.15
0.6
72.47
72.27
70.14
72.18
72.56
69.95
66.50
72.62
66.36
65.99
68.65
77.13
59.60
69.22
64.70
71.33
0.15
72.47
48.63
44.22
46.03
72.56
46.88
38.45
46.87
66.36
38.60
42.73
54.24
59.60
44.13
38.12
45.12
0.15
0 0.15
0.3
80.64
96.22
97.41
97.99
81.78
95.80
97.64
97.92
78.91
97.19
97.24
96.95
73.99
96.28
96.54
97.60
0.15
0 0.15
0.6
79.06
81.39
81.17
81.40
77.00
79.38
78.64
81.60
73.73
76.14
79.94
84.84
66.02
79.13
76.68
80.68
0.15
0 0.15
79.06
58.80
54.18
56.69
77.00
56.88
49.13
57.90
73.73
48.40
52.75
64.13
66.02
54.54
48.36
56.04
0.15
1/3
0.3
58.66
92.53
93.41
94.86
67.76
91.48
93.67
94.73
56.42
92.97
92.82
94.08
54.47
92.56
92.22
94.48
0.15
1/3
0.6
56.76
68.40
64.41
68.52
62.27
65.48
60.47
68.91
47.69
62.04
62.48
74.18
44.57
65.90
58.33
68.20
0.15
1/3
56.76
41.63
33.80
39.19
62.27
38.93
27.57
39.64
47.69
31.58
31.65
48.31
44.57
38.20
27.02
39.08
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.3
62.14
94.84
95.50
97.01
70.86
94.25
95.83
96.89
60.06
95.95
95.15
96.06
58.55
95.25
94.52
96.78
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.6
59.88
76.13
73.31
76.43
64.47
73.38
70.40
76.61
50.77
70.87
71.43
80.79
47.46
74.68
68.00
76.45
0.15
1/3 0.15
59.88
49.49
40.20
47.57
64.47
46.37
34.64
48.30
50.77
39.17
37.85
56.16
47.46
46.70
33.59
48.02
0.15
2/3
0.3
52.57
91.70
92.09
94.21
63.56
90.61
92.32
94.06
48.29
92.13
91.29
93.52
47.85
91.97
90.73
93.97
0.15
2/3
0.6
50.68
65.13
59.29
65.38
58.06
61.94
55.12
65.85
39.47
58.91
56.85
71.55
37.85
63.28
52.77
65.59
0.15
2/3
50.68
36.31
25.61
33.91
58.06
33.13
19.41
34.18
39.47
26.61
22.84
43.53
37.85
33.87
18.77
34.55
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.3
59.20
94.13
94.32
96.43
68.50
93.52
94.56
96.30
55.12
95.23
93.75
95.59
54.53
94.75
93.11
96.33
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.6
56.95
73.34
68.81
73.70
62.11
70.43
65.68
73.95
45.83
68.23
66.44
78.49
43.44
72.48
63.12
74.18
Continued ...............
Table III.2(D) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.8m wide by 1.2m height)

Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.15
full
0.15
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
56.95
45.12
33.58
43.21
62.11
41.71
28.22
43.82
45.83
35.23
30.68
52.11
43.44
43.22
27.10
44.31
0.3
52.23
91.24
91.20
93.84
63.15
90.19
91.32
93.70
47.10
91.71
90.15
93.22
46.90
91.67
89.60
93.71
full
0.6
50.34
63.31
56.27
63.54
57.63
60.16
52.10
64.11
38.27
57.34
53.42
69.94
36.90
61.91
49.67
64.10
0.15
full
50.34
33.73
21.97
31.34
57.63
30.55
16.06
31.68
38.27
24.57
18.79
40.92
36.90
31.95
15.36
32.45
0.15
full 0.15
0.3
59.18
93.89
93.75
96.25
68.47
93.32
93.92
96.13
54.92
95.03
92.97
95.42
54.41
94.61
92.40
96.21
0.15
full 0.15
0.6
56.93
72.32
67.15
72.67
62.07
69.50
64.13
73.03
45.63
67.45
64.50
77.51
43.32
71.77
61.53
73.40
0.15
full 0.15
56.93
43.78
31.79
41.90
62.07
40.47
26.62
42.64
45.63
34.32
28.60
50.65
43.32
42.30
25.47
43.31

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
North (Wh/m2-year)
8174
6311
10857
18625
East (Wh/m2-year)
403527
203988
313416
402145
South (Wh/m2-year)
672479
427617
616668
599192
West (Wh/m2-year)
493711
315284
575200
501918
Table III.2(E) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.8m wide by 1.8m height)
Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
0.3
72.95
83.09
83.16
84.20
70.48
82.05
82.63
84.22
67.99
82.18
82.85
85.32
60.22
82.11
81.47
83.62
0.6
72.48
65.71
64.21
64.99
68.65
64.24
62.71
65.45
66.20
60.44
63.70
69.07
57.29
63.36
61.62
64.41
72.48
49.52
47.82
48.30
68.65
48.45
44.82
49.21
66.20
43.05
46.94
53.22
57.29
46.12
44.45
47.41
0 0.15
0.3
79.27
91.30
91.77
92.57
75.00
90.32
91.42
92.61
74.71
90.89
91.52
93.31
66.37
90.50
90.24
92.03
0 0.15
0.6
78.79
74.09
72.58
73.57
73.11
72.64
71.18
74.10
72.90
68.73
71.95
77.38
63.12
71.85
69.99
73.05
0 0.15
78.79
56.93
55.46
56.14
73.11
55.92
52.45
57.04
72.90
50.82
54.66
60.70
63.12
53.56
51.92
55.12
1/3
0.3
52.96
79.92
79.15
81.42
58.33
78.47
78.68
81.35
48.41
79.12
78.68
82.72
44.59
79.34
77.17
81.06
1/3
0.6
51.09
59.00
55.35
58.64
53.88
56.66
53.56
58.78
42.54
53.64
54.33
63.22
37.33
57.40
52.09
58.63
1/3
51.09
39.28
34.01
38.38
53.88
37.10
30.60
38.77
42.54
32.81
32.54
44.06
37.33
37.06
29.94
38.30
1/3 0.15
0.3
55.90
87.38
86.78
89.11
60.69
85.90
86.50
89.05
51.46
87.08
86.32
90.06
47.89
87.07
84.91
88.85
1/3 0.15
0.6
54.03
65.83
61.58
65.73
56.11
63.32
59.84
65.85
45.31
60.38
60.33
70.14
40.11
64.51
58.21
65.92
1/3 0.15
54.03
44.42
38.47
43.99
56.11
42.10
34.98
44.27
45.31
38.35
36.95
49.47
40.11
42.51
34.12
43.96
2/3
0.3
44.59
77.13
75.45
78.83
52.69
75.38
74.95
78.69
38.43
76.28
74.82
80.32
36.70
76.92
73.24
78.70
2/3
0.6
42.70
53.40
47.60
53.23
48.16
50.51
45.57
53.09
32.29
48.10
46.09
58.12
29.21
52.48
43.96
53.71
2/3
42.70
31.50
23.23
30.68
48.16
28.78
19.81
30.73
32.29
25.37
21.28
36.76
29.21
30.33
19.12
31.28
2/3 0.15
0.3
50.65
84.76
83.26
86.63
56.89
83.02
82.91
86.51
44.51
84.40
82.65
87.78
42.32
84.81
81.16
86.60
2/3 0.15
0.6
48.77
60.77
54.55
60.80
52.30
57.83
52.61
60.68
38.36
55.42
52.84
65.44
34.52
60.08
50.92
61.43
2/3 0.15
48.77
37.67
29.32
37.28
52.30
34.98
25.96
37.29
38.36
32.06
27.34
43.00
34.52
36.74
25.11
37.86
full
0.3
44.32
75.68
73.53
77.43
52.36
73.88
72.99
77.29
37.65
74.93
72.78
78.96
36.06
75.72
71.25
77.46
full
0.6
42.44
51.15
44.71
51.02
47.83
48.21
42.74
50.84
31.52
46.12
43.00
55.83
28.57
50.60
41.17
51.74
Continued ...............

Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
South
Nagpur
West
North
East
South
Pune
West
North
East
South
West
full
50.34
31.15
19.79
28.79
57.63
28.24
14.43
29.00
38.27
22.56
17.00
37.77
36.90
29.57
13.86
29.82
full 0.15
0.3
58.05
88.80
87.36
91.01
66.56
87.59
87.54
90.78
51.61
89.64
86.80
90.57
51.81
89.83
85.94
91.24
full 0.15
0.6
56.65
67.04
61.23
67.55
61.93
63.76
58.36
67.13
45.00
62.38
58.73
71.68
43.18
66.72
56.14
68.20
full 0.15
56.65
40.11
28.41
38.28
61.93
37.08
23.76
38.78
45.00
31.38
25.61
46.40
43.18
38.97
22.81
39.60
0.15
0.3
73.70
93.55
94.77
95.58
76.45
92.65
94.94
95.49
71.08
93.86
94.29
94.74
66.48
93.34
93.65
95.09
0.15
0.6
72.47
72.27
70.14
72.18
72.56
69.95
66.50
72.62
66.36
65.99
68.65
77.13
59.60
69.22
64.70
71.33
0.15
72.47
48.63
44.22
46.03
72.56
46.88
38.45
46.87
66.36
38.60
42.73
54.24
59.60
44.13
38.12
45.12
0.15
0 0.15
0.3
80.64
96.22
97.41
97.99
81.78
95.80
97.64
97.92
78.91
97.19
97.24
96.95
73.99
96.28
96.54
97.60
0.15
0 0.15
0.6
79.06
81.39
81.17
81.40
77.00
79.38
78.64
81.60
73.73
76.14
79.94
84.84
66.02
79.13
76.68
80.68
0.15
0 0.15
79.06
58.80
54.18
56.69
77.00
56.88
49.13
57.90
73.73
48.40
52.75
64.13
66.02
54.54
48.36
56.04
0.15
1/3
0.3
58.66
92.53
93.41
94.86
67.76
91.48
93.67
94.73
56.42
92.97
92.82
94.08
54.47
92.56
92.22
94.48
0.15
1/3
0.6
56.76
68.40
64.41
68.52
62.27
65.48
60.47
68.91
47.69
62.04
62.48
74.18
44.57
65.90
58.33
68.20
0.15
1/3
56.76
41.63
33.80
39.19
62.27
38.93
27.57
39.64
47.69
31.58
31.65
48.31
44.57
38.20
27.02
39.08
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.3
62.14
94.84
95.50
97.01
70.86
94.25
95.83
96.89
60.06
95.95
95.15
96.06
58.55
95.25
94.52
96.78
0.15
1/3 0.15
0.6
59.88
76.13
73.31
76.43
64.47
73.38
70.40
76.61
50.77
70.87
71.43
80.79
47.46
74.68
68.00
76.45
0.15
1/3 0.15
59.88
49.49
40.20
47.57
64.47
46.37
34.64
48.30
50.77
39.17
37.85
56.16
47.46
46.70
33.59
48.02
0.15
2/3
0.3
52.57
91.70
92.09
94.21
63.56
90.61
92.32
94.06
48.29
92.13
91.29
93.52
47.85
91.97
90.73
93.97
0.15
2/3
0.6
50.68
65.13
59.29
65.38
58.06
61.94
55.12
65.85
39.47
58.91
56.85
71.55
37.85
63.28
52.77
65.59
0.15
2/3
50.68
36.31
25.61
33.91
58.06
33.13
19.41
34.18
39.47
26.61
22.84
43.53
37.85
33.87
18.77
34.55
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.3
59.20
94.13
94.32
96.43
68.50
93.52
94.56
96.30
55.12
95.23
93.75
95.59
54.53
94.75
93.11
96.33
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.6
56.95
73.34
68.81
73.70
62.11
70.43
65.68
73.95
45.83
68.23
66.44
78.49
43.44
72.48
63.12
74.18
Continued ...............

Parameters
ext
fin
gap
Ahmadabad
CL
0.15
2/3 0.15
0.15
Full
0.15
North
East
South
Mumbai
West
North
East
Nagpur
South
West
North
East
Pune
South
West
North
East
South
West
48.83
39.89
31.36
39.54
52.11
36.87
27.65
39.60
38.21
33.88
29.08
45.69
34.33
38.76
26.65
40.16
0.3
45.32
80.11
78.99
81.96
53.79
78.77
78.37
81.89
40.07
79.48
78.03
83.31
37.73
79.81
76.69
81.73
Full
0.6
42.44
55.41
49.25
55.13
47.83
52.79
47.20
55.55
31.52
50.09
47.45
60.61
28.57
54.61
45.37
55.88
0.15
full
42.44
31.95
23.05
31.18
47.83
28.99
19.41
31.35
31.52
25.80
20.51
37.59
28.57
31.02
18.61
32.12
0.15
full 0.15
0.3
51.82
88.52
87.84
90.51
58.18
87.23
87.43
90.45
46.98
88.37
86.97
91.47
43.91
88.34
85.72
90.29
0.15
full 0.15
0.6
48.83
63.98
57.83
63.91
52.11
61.35
55.90
64.38
38.21
58.52
55.93
69.11
34.33
63.23
53.96
64.68
0.15
full 0.15
48.83
39.45
30.79
39.13
52.11
36.50
27.16
39.25
38.21
33.62
28.39
45.17
34.33
38.49
26.15
39.86

2
Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
North (Wh/m -year)

9694
7603
13182
24055
East (Wh/m -year)

423229
214886
329996
423475
South (Wh/m -year)

706689
448880
647446
631509
West (Wh/m -year)

517515
330390
598446
527060
Table III.3 Best combinations of windows and shading devices and corresponding beam
radiation incident on window
Orientation
North
East
South
West
Combination
Radiation on window (kWh/year)
Size
(w X h)
Ext
(m)
Gap
(m)
CL
fin-ht Ahmadabad
(m)
0.6X1.2
0.0
0.0
0.3
full
0.6X1.8
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.2X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.2X1.8
0.0
1.8X1.2
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
3(3)
3(3)
3(4)
5(8)
full
4 (5)
4(5)
4(7)
7(15)
full
6(10)
5(8)
6(14)
10(24)
0.0
full
9(18)
8(15)
9(24)
15(45)
0.0
0.0
0.6
full
9(18)
8(14)
9(23)
15(40)
1.8X1.8
0.0
0.0
0.6
full
13(31)
12(25)
13(43)
22(78)
0.6X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
44(266)
18(133)
25(207)
44(268)
0.6X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
60(417)
23(209)
38(326)
63(422)
1.2X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
149(567)
67(287)
83(443)
144(569)
1.2X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
214(892)
96(453)
132(698)
215(897)
1.8X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
272(872)
124(441)
153(677)
257(869)
1.8X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
397(1371)
183(696)
249(1069)
388(1372)
0.6X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
43(432)
19(275)
35(394)
28(382)
0.6X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
57(679)
28(432)
47(619)
41(601)
1.2X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
139(943)
61(597)
107(862)
84(838)
1.2X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
220(1485)
112(940)
176(1356)
154(1323)
1.8X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
287(1453)
133(924)
226(1332)
179(1294)
1.8X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
463(2290)
246(1454)
378(2098)
333(2046)
0.6X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
49(329)
28(209)
79(385)
51(336)
0.6X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
70(515)
39(328)
102(600)
74(528)
1.2X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
166(695)
105(445)
263(813)
178(711)
1.2X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
254(1092)
158(699)
364(1269)
270(1120)
1.8X1.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
307(1066)
197(681)
469(1242)
323(1084)
1.8X1.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
full
473 (1677)
661 (1939)
496 (1708)
302 (1070)
*
0.3 for Mumbai and Pune; 0.6 for Ahmadabad and Nagpur
w
: Width in meters
h
:Height in meters
The numbers in parentheses show the corresponding radiation values on an unshaded window.
APPENDIX III.2
TYPES OF INSULATION
The building envelope is a device through which heat exchange between the internal and external
environments is controlled. The various modes of operation of an envelope are: (1) admit heat gain, (2)
exclude heat gain, (3) containing heat gain, or (4) dissipating excess internal heat. The opaque portions of
the envelope, once designed, are generally considered fixed controls. The dynamic elements of the
envelope include openable windows, shading devices and insulating shutters.
The effect of insulation is to reduce heat gain and heat loss. The more insulation in a buildings
exterior envelope, the less heat transferred into or out of the building due to temperature difference
between the interior and exterior. Insulation also controls the interior mean radiant temperature (MRT) by
isolating the interior surfaces from the influence of the exterior conditions, and also reduces drafts
produced by temperature differences between walls and air.
Insulation along with infiltration control is important for reducing heating and cooling loads in
skin-load-dominated buildings such as residences (internal load dominated buildings are typically offices).
Increased insulation levels in internally load-dominated buildings, may cause an increase in energy usage
for cooling when the outside is cooler than the inside, unless natural ventilation or an economiser cycle on
the HVAC system is available.
Types:
Insulation is made from a variety of materials and in several forms. The forms generally fall into
the following categories: (1) rigid or semirigid blocks or boards, (2) boards with impact- or weatherresistant surfaces, which are employed on building exteriors or below grade, (3) blankets, felts, or sheets,
which are either mechanically attached to vertical surfaces or laid flat on horizontal ones, (4) loose-fill,
which is poured or blown into cavities or onto flat surfaces such as above ceilings, (5) foams and dry sprayon types; which can be pneumatically applied in a variety of ways. When specifying insulation, both
performance and any complications arising from the thickness required must be considered.
Rigid
In the first category are polystyrene, polyurethane (PUF), and polyisocyanurate. Polystyrene comes
in the form of beadboard so called because it is manufactured from small Styrofoam beads which are
puffed up and fused together into slabs (also called as thermocole) and extruded polystyrene. The latter
has the advantage of some compressive strength, which makes it suitable for insulating beneath heavy
objects. High-density beadboard also has a high compressive strength (generally found as packing material
in the cartons for electrical appliances such as televisions and refrigerators).
Both burn readily and give off a dense black smoke. Polyurethane (PUF) and polyisocyanurate are
harder to ignite but give off cyanide fumes in a fire. In case of fire, these are hazardous, hence they are
generally not exposed on interior surfaces but covered with a fireproof wall or plaster or sheetrock.
The most common way of insulating masonry walls is to affix rigid sheets of insulation to the wall
surfaces, and covering them with a protective material. For a given thickness, the most effective insulation
material is polyurethane foam. 25 mm of urethane is equivalent to about 50 mm of fibreglass. The rigid
sheets are available in 12mm to 50 mm thickness.
Blanket
This type of insulation is most commonly used in standard cavity walls, where the depth of the stud
determines the amount of insulation that can be placed in the wall. The material usually consists of glass
fibre or mineral wool. It is manufactured in standard widths of 400mm 600m and is generally 75 to 175
mm thick. It comes in long rolls or batts of specific length. It is available with reflective foil or a vapour
barrier on one side. One advantage of fibreglass is that it is highly fire resistant. Its drawbacks are that it
loses its effectiveness when wet, and that it is not self-supporting in its normal form.
Loose fill
Loose fill insulations that are commercially available include cellulose, vermiculite, and blown in
fibreglass. Sawdust, wood shavings, and shredded bark can also be used. These materials are principally
used in existing walls that were not insulated during construction. They are also commonly added between
ceiling joists in unheated attics. Vermiculite and perlite are mixed with concrete aggregates to reduce heat
loss.
Foam-in-situ
Foams such as polyurethane are also available in liquid form with a catalyst for on-the-job
foaming. The liquid may be poured into forms or sprayed on with special equipment. In the hands of a
skilled applicator, this material can be rendered into almost any sculptural form and will provide
considerable structural support. It is applicable to odd-shaped structures, but needs a weather-protective
membrane.
Superinsulation
Superinsulation is the application of abnormal amounts of insulation in order to eliminate all need
for mechanical space heating. Due to reduction in heat gains and losses due to conduction and air tightness
of buildings, the internal and solar heat gains become the primary source of heat. The savings on heating
equipment and distribution systems may equal or outweigh the additional costs of extra insulation, extra
thermal mass, and insulative window treatments. Since insulation is required at all external surfaces, it can
add significantly to the construction cost. Therefore, the desirable amount of insulation must be carefully
considered. It is also important to consider overheating in mild winters and summer. The building must be
ventilated during such periods. Fresh air due to ventilation also reduces risk of diseases and foul odours.
APPENDIX III.3
TYPES OF GLAZINGS
Material
Glass
Acrylic
Polycarbonate
Fibreglass
reinforced
polyester
Polyester
film
Polyethylene film
Polyvinyl
fluoride
film
Single Glazed Float

Glass
Double Glazed Float
Glass
Flexiglas (Rhom&
Haas)
Lucite (Du Pont)
Exolite (CY/RO)
Lexan (G.E.)
Tuffack Twinwall
(Rhom & Haas)
Cyrolon SDP
(CY/RO)
Lascolite (Lasco
Industries)
Filon w/Tedlar
(Vistron Corp.)
Sunlite Premium II
(Kalwall)
Mylar Type W (Du
Pont)
Flexiguard (3M)
Monsanto 602
(Monsanto)
Teflon (Du Pont)
Tedlar (Du Pont)
Thermal
Expansion
Ease of
Handling
Weatherability
Estimated
Lifetime
(years)
25+
Solar
Transmissivity
(-)
0.91
Infrared
Transmissivity
(-)
0.01
0.47
0.47
25+
0.77-0.85
4.10
10-20
0.90
0.02
3.90
4.00
3.75
3.30
E
E
E
E
E
E
F
F
10-20
10-20
15-17
5-7
0.92
0.83
0.81-0.89
0.77
0.02
0.02
0.02
4.00
1.60
VG
10-20
0.86
2.30
VG
10-20
0.86
1.36
20
0.87
0.02
1.50
0.85
0.16-0.32
F
F
G
P
10
1
0.89
0.85
0.095
0.70
P
F
E
E
25
10-20
0.96
0.95
0.57
0.30
30.00
2.80
0.74
P=Poor, F=Fair, G=Good, VG=Very good, E=Excellent
CHAPTER 4
THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF BUILDINGS
Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Heat Transfer
4.3 Solar Radiation
4.4 Simplified Method for Performance Estimation
4.5 Example
4.6 Computer-based Tools
References
4.1
INTRODUCTION
The thermal performance of a building refers to the process of modeling the energy transfer
between a building and its surroundings. For a conditioned building, it estimates the heating and
cooling load and hence, the sizing and selection of HVAC equipment can be correctly made. For a
non-conditioned building, it calculates temperature variation inside the building over a specified
time and helps one to estimate the duration of uncomfortable periods. These quantifications enable
one to determine the effectiveness of the design of a building and help in evolving improved
designs for realising energy efficient buildings with comfortable indoor conditions. The lack of
proper quantification is one of the reasons why passive solar architecture is not popular among
architects. Clients would like to know how much energy might be saved, or the temperature
reduced to justify any additional expense or design change. Architects too need to know the relative
performance of buildings to choose a suitable alternative. Thus, knowledge of the methods of
estimating the performance of buildings is essential to the design of passive solar buildings.
In this chapter, we will discuss a simple method for estimating the thermal performance of a
building and introduce a few simulation tools used for more accurate calculations.
Various heat exchange processes are possible between a building and the external
environment. These are shown in Fig. 4.1. Heat flows by conduction through various building
elements such as walls, roof, ceiling, floor, etc. Heat transfer also takes place from different
surfaces by convection and radiation. Besides, solar radiation is transmitted through transparent
windows and is absorbed by the internal surfaces of the building. There may be evaporation of
water resulting in a cooling effect. Heat is also added to the space due to the presence of human
occupants and the use of lights and equipments. The interaction between a human body and the indoor
environment is shown in Fig. 4.2. Due to metabolic activities, the body continuously produces heat, part of
which is used as work, while the rest is dissipated into the environment for maintaining body temperature.
The body exchanges heat with its surroundings by convection, radiation, evaporation and conduction. If heat
is lost, one feels cool. In case of heat gain from surroundings, one feels hot and begins to perspire.
Movement of air affects the rate of perspiration, which in turn affects body comfort.
The thermal performance of a building depends on a large number of factors. They can be
summarised as (i) design variables (geometrical dimensions of building elements such as walls, roof and
Fig. 4.1 Heat exchange processes between a building and the external environment
Fig. 4.2 Heat exchange processes between a human body and the indoor environment
windows, orientation, shading devices, etc.); (ii) material properties (density, specific heat, thermal
conductivity, transmissivity, etc.); (iii) weather data (solar radiation, ambient temperature, wind speed,
humidity, etc.); and (iv) a buildings usage data (internal gains due to occupants, lighting and equipment, air
exchanges, etc.). A block diagram showing various factors affecting the heat balance of a building is
presented in Fig. 4.3. The influence of these factors on the performance of a building can be studied using
appropriate analytical tools. Several techniques are available for estimating the performance of buildings.
They can be classified under Steady State methods, Dynamic methods and Correlation methods. Some of the
techniques are simple and provide information on the average load or temperature, on a monthly or annual
basis. Others are complex and require more detailed input information. However, the latter perform a more
accurate analysis and provide results on an hourly or daily basis. In this chapter, we discuss a simple method
that is easy to understand and amenable to hand calculations.
MATERIAL DATA
(Density, specific heat,
conductivity, etc.)
CLIMATIC DATA
(radiation, temperature,
wind speed, etc)
HEAT
BALANCE IN
BUILDINGS
DESIGN DATA
(Orientation, windows,
wall and roof types, etc.)
BUILDING USAGE DATA

(Internal Gains, air
exchanges, etc.)
Fig. 4.3 Thermal simulation flow paths of a building
To understand the process of heat conduction, convection and radiation occurring in a

building, consider a wall having one surface exposed to solar radiation and the other surface facing
a room (Fig. 4.4). Of the total solar radiation incident on the outer surface of the wall, a part of it is
reflected to the environment. The remaining part is absorbed by the wall and converted into heat
energy. A part of the heat is again lost to the environment through convection and radiation from
the walls outer surface. The remaining part is conducted into the wall; where it is partly stored
thereby raising the wall temperature while the rest reaches the rooms interior surface. The inner
surface transfers heat by convection and radiation to the room air, raising its temperature. Heat
exchanges like these take place through opaque building elements such as walls and roofs.
Additionally, mutual radiation exchanges between the inner surfaces of the building also occur (for
example, between walls, or between a wall and roof). Such heat transfer processes affect the indoor
temperature of a room and consequently, the thermal comfort experienced by its occupants.
Fig. 4.4 Heat transfer processes occurring in a wall
Thus, a knowledge of the fundamentals of heat transfer and solar radiation would help in
understanding the underlying processes that take place in a building and its interaction with the
external environment. The reader can refer to the Glossary at the end of this book for definitions of
unfamiliar terms. The reader may also like to refer to Koenisberger et al. [1] and Markus and
Morris [2] for more information.
4.2 HEAT TRANSFER
In this section, we discuss the basic concepts on conduction, convection, radiation and
evaporation.
4.2.1 Conduction
Thermal conduction is the process of heat transfer from one part of a body at a higher
temperature to another (or between bodies in direct contact) at a lower temperature. This happens
with negligible movement of the molecules in the body, because the heat is transferred from one
molecule to another in contact with it. Heat can be conducted through solids, liquids and gases.
Some materials conduct more rapidly than others. The basic equation of heat conduction is
k A (Th Tc )
L
where Qconduction = quantity of heat flow (W)
k = thermal conductivity of the material (W/m-K)
A = area (m2)
L = thickness (m)
Th = temperature of the hot surface (K)
Tc = temperature of the cold surface (K)
Qconduction
(4.1)
For a given temperature difference, the higher the thermal conductivity of a material of
fixed thickness and cross-sectional area, the greater is the quantity of heat transferred. Appendix
IV.1 presents the values of thermal conductivity, density and specific heat of some building
materials.
4.2.2 Convection
The convection is the transfer of heat from one part of a fluid (gas or liquid) to another part
at a lower temperature by mixing of fluid particles. Heat transfer by convection takes place at the
surfaces of walls, floors and roofs. Because of the temperature difference between the fluid and the
contact surface, there is a density variation in the fluid, resulting in buoyancy. This results in heat
exchange between the fluid and the surface and is known as free convection. However, if the
motion of the fluid is due to external forces (such as wind), it is known as forced convection. These
two processes could occur simultaneously. The rate of heat transfer (Qconvection) by convection from
a surface of area A, can be written as
Q convection
(4.2)
= h A (Ts Tf )
2
where, h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m -K)

Ts = temperature of the surface (K)
Tf = temperature of the fluid (K)
The numerical value of the heat transfer coefficient depends on the nature of heat flow,
velocity of the fluid, physical properties of the fluid, and the surface orientation.
4.2.3 Radiation
Radiation is the heat transfer from a body by virtue of its temperature; it increases as
temperature of the body increases. It does not require any material medium for propagation. When
two or more bodies at different temperatures exchange heat by radiation, heat will be emitted,
absorbed and reflected by each body. The radiation exchange between two large parallel plane
surfaces (of equal area A) at uniform temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, can be written as
= eff A (T14 T24 )
with eff = [ 1/ 1 + 1/2 1]-1
where Q12 = net radiative exchange between surfaces (W)
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4)
A = area of surface (m2)
T1 = temperature of surface 1 (K)
T2 = temperature of surface 2 (K)
1 and 2 = emissivities of surfaces 1 and 2 respectively
Q12
(4.3)
In case of buildings, external surfaces such as walls and roofs are always exposed to the
atmosphere. So the radiation exchange (Qradiation) between the exposed parts of the building and the
atmosphere is an important factor and is given by
Q radiation
4
= A (Ts4 Tsky
)
(4.4)
where A = area of the building exposed surface (m2)

= emissivity of the building exposed surface
Ts = temperature of the building exposed surface (K)
Tsky = sky temperature (K)
Tsky represents the temperature of an equivalent atmosphere. It considers the fact that the
atmosphere is not at a uniform temperature, and that the atmosphere radiates only in certain
wavelengths. There are many correlations suggested for expressing sky temperature in terms of
ambient air temperature.
Equation (4.4) can be written as:
Q radiation
A
(4.5)
= h r (Ts Ta ) + R
where Ta = ambient temperature (K)

hr
= (Ts4 Ta4 ) /(Ts Ta )
(4.6)
hr is the radiative heat transfer coefficient, and R is the difference between the long wavelength
radiation incident on the surface from the sky and the surroundings, and the radiation emitted by a
black body at ambient temperature. For horizontal surface, R can be taken as 63 W/m2 and for a
vertical surface, it is zero [3].
For building applications, usually convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients are
combined to define surface heat transfer coefficient. Table 4.1 presents values of the surface heat
transfer coefficient for a few cases [4].
Table 4.1 Values of surface heat transfer coefficient [4]
Serial
No.
Wind
Speed
1.
Still air
2.
Moving air
12 (km/h)
Moving air
24 (km/h)
Position of
Surface
Horizontal
Sloping 45o
Vertical
Sloping 45o
Horizontal
Direction of Heat
Flow
Up
Up
Horizontal
Down
Down
Surface Heat Transfer

Coefficient (W/m2-K)
9.3
9.1
8.3
7.5
6.1
Any position
Any direction
22.7
Any position
Any direction
34.1
4.2.4 Evaporation
Evaporation generally refers to the removal of water by vaporisation from aqueous solutions
of non-volatile substances. It takes place continuously at all temperatures and increases as the
temperature is raised. Increase in the wind speed also causes increased rates of evaporation. The
latent heat required for vapourisation is taken up partly from the surroundings and partly from the
liquid itself. Evaporation thus causes cooling.
The rate of evaporation depends on:

the temperature (rate of evaporation increases with increase in temperature)
the area of the free surface of water (larger the surface exposed, greater is this rate)
the wind (rate is faster when wind blows than when the air is still)
the pressure (lower the external pressure, more rapid is the evaporation)
4.3 SOLAR RADIATION

The sun is the only source of heat and light for the entire solar system. It is made up of
extremely hot gaseous matter, and gets progressively hotter towards its centre. The heat is
generated by various kinds of fusion reactions. The sun is approximately spherical in shape, about
1.39x106 km in diameter and its average distance from the earth is 1.496x108 km
(Fig. 4.5). The solar disc subtends a very small angle of 32' at any point on the earth's surface and
hence, the radiation received from the sun directly on the earth's surface can be considered parallel
for all practical purposes.
SUN
( 1.39 X 10 km)
EARTH
( 1.27 X 10 km)
32'
1.496 X 10 km
1.7%
Fig. 4.5 Sun-Earth geometric relationship
The earth is approximately spherical in shape, about 1.27x104 km in diameter. It revolves

around the sun in an elliptical orbit taking a year to complete one revolution. At the same time, it
also rotates about its own axis once every 24 hours. The energy flux received from the sun outside
the earth's atmosphere is of nearly constant value and is termed as the Solar Constant (Isc). It is
defined as the energy received outside the atmosphere, per second, by a unit surface area normal to
the direction of sun's rays at the mean sun-earth distance; its value is accepted as 1367 W/m2.
However, because the earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun as one of the
foci, there is a variation in the extraterrestrial radiation. Hence, the intensity of extraterrestrial
radiation on a plane normal to sun's rays on any day is given by:
I ext
= I sc [1.0 + 0.033 cos (360 n / 365) ]
where n is the day of the year and is

1 n 365
(4.7)
(4.8)
Solar radiation is received on the earths surface after undergoing various mechanisms of
attenuation, reflection and scattering in the earths atmosphere. Consequently, two types of
radiation are received at the earths surface: one that is received from the sun without change of
direction, called beam radiation, and the other whose direction has been changed by scattering and
reflection, called diffuse radiation. The sum of these two types is known as total or global radiation.
Usually solar radiation incident on the earths surface is measured on a horizontal surface.
Both global and diffuse radiation are recorded at a number of places in India. In order that the data
reflect a true representation of the place, hourly measurements are carried out for a large number of
years (typically ten years), and monthly averages of hourly radiation values over a number of years
are calculated. Such data are available in various handbooks [e.g., Reference 5].
4.3.1 Radiation on Tilted Surfaces

External surfaces of buildings receiving solar radiation are generally tilted, except for the
flat roof, which is a horizontal surface. Consequently, it is required to estimate radiation on such
surfaces from the data measured on a horizontal surface.
A tilted surface receives three types of solar radiation, namely beam radiation directly from
the sun, diffuse radiation coming from the sky dome, and reflected radiation due to neighbouring
buildings and objects. The estimation of the last component is very complicated. However, its
contribution is much less compared to the first two sources. Therefore, the reflected component
from the surrounding ground surface is generally taken for simple calculations. However,
simulation software like DOE2.1E [6] performs a more detailed calculation for accounting the
effects of neighbouring buildings and trees.
4.3.1.1 Unshaded surface

For a surface tilted at an angle and with no shading, hourly incident solar radiation can be
estimated as:
IT = Igr
where r is the global radiation tilt factor and is given by [7]
r = (1 -
rb =
cos
1+
Id
) rb + (
Ig
cos I d
1 cos
)
+ (
Ig
2
2
(4.9)
cos
cos z
= sin (sin cos + cos cos cos sin )
+ cos (cos cos cos sin cos sin )
+ cos sin sin sin )
cos z
= sin sin + cos cos cos
(4.10)
Ig
Id
= mean hourly global solar radiation (W/m )

= mean hourly diffuse solar radiation (W/m2)
= reflectivity of the ground surface
= latitude of a location (degree). By convention, the latitude is measured as positive
for the northern hemisphere.

= declination angle (degree). It is defined as the angle made by the line joining the
centres of the sun and the earth with its projection on the equatorial plane. It can
be calculated from the following relation:
360
(4.11)
( in deg rees) = 23.45 sin[
( 284 + n) ]
365
n = day of the year
= surface azimuth angle (degree). It is the angle made in the horizontal plane
between the line due south, and the projection of the normal to the surface on the
horizontal plane. By convention, the angle is taken to be positive if the normal is
east of south and negative if west of south.
= slope (degree). It is the angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal.
= hour angle (degree). It is the angular measure of time and is equivalent to 15 per
hour. It is measured from noon based on local apparent time (LAT), being
positive in the morning and negative in the afternoon.
The local apparent time (LAT) can be estimated from Indian Standard Time (IST) using the
following equation:
LAT = IST 4 (Reference longitude Local longitude) + ET
(4.12)
The second term in the equation becomes positive for any country in the western
hemisphere. The reference longitude for India is 82.50 E. The Equation of Time (ET) correction is
plotted in Fig. 4.6 and it can also be calculated from:
ET = 229.2 (0.000075 + 0.001868 cosB - 0.032077 sinB - 0.014615 cos2B
- 0.04089 sin2B)
where B = (n - 1) 360/365 and n is the day of the year.
Fig. 4.6 Equation of time correction [4]
(413)
Equation (4.9) can be used to calculate hourly radiation on any tilted surface. The values for
mean hourly global and diffuse solar radiation on horizontal, and global radiation on vertical
surfaces (south, north, east and west) for some Indian cities during the months of May and
December are presented in Appendix IV.2. The appendix also lists hourly ambient temperature for
these months.
4.3.1.2 Shaded surface

If a surface is shaded, the radiation incident on it gets modified, and depending on the type
of shading, its estimation becomes complicated. To illustrate, let us consider the simple case of a
horizontal rectangular overhang on a wall (Fig. 4.7). The height and width of the wall are H and W
respectively, the depth of the overhang is P.
Fig. 4.7 Horizontal rectangular overhang on a wall
Hourly solar radiation on the wall can be written as:

IT = Ig r
where r
= (1
(4.14)
Id
I
) rb f i + d Fr s + 0.5
Ig
Ig
(4.15)
fi = fraction of unshaded area

and Fr-s = view factor of the wall for radiation from the sky.
fi is given by
fi
Ai
WH
(4.16)
Ai is the unshaded area of the wall and is given by

Ai
(4.17)
= W H A shade
The shaded area (Ashade) of the wall at any time, on any day is given by:
A shade
(4.18)
= [W 0.5 P tan( s )] P tan(90 z ) sec( s )
s = solar azimuth angle (degree). It is the angle made in the horizontal plane between the line due
south, and the projection of the suns rays on the horizontal plane. By convention, the angle is
positive if the normal is east of south, and negative if west of south. It is given by:
cos s
= (cos z sin sin ) / sin z cos
(4.19)
Fr-s for a wall of relative width w (= W/H) and relative projection p (= P/H) is presented in Table
4.2 [8].
Table 4.2 Wall radiation view factor for the sky, Fr-s [8]
w
1.0
4.0
25.0
0.10
0.46
0.46
0.45
0.20
0.42
0.41
0.41
0.30
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.40
0.37
0.35
0.34
Fr-s at p=
0.50
0.35
0.32
0.31
0.75
0.32
0.27
0.25
1.00
0.30
0.23
0.21
1.50
0.28
0.19
0.15
2.00
0.27
0.16
0.12
4.4 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION

Based on the concepts discussed in previous sections, we can calculate the various heat
exchanges (Fig. 4.1) taking place in a building.
4.4.1 Conduction
The rate of heat conduction (Qcond) through any element such as roof, wall or floor under
steady state can be written as
Qcond = A U T
(4.20)
where,
A
U
T
= surface area (m2)

= thermal transmittance (W/ m2- K)
= temperature difference between inside and outside air (K)
It may be noted that the steady state method does not account for the effect of heat capacity
of building materials.
U is given by
1
RT
U =
(4.21)
where RT is the total thermal resistance and is given by

m
1
1
+ ( Lj /k j ) +
(4.22)
hi
ho
j =1
hi and ho respectively, are the inside and outside heat transfer coefficients. Lj is the thickness of the
jth layer and kj is the thermal conductivity of its material.
U indicates the total amount of heat transmitted from outdoor air to indoor air through a
given wall or roof per unit area per unit time. The lower the value of U, the higher is the insulating
value of the element. Thus, the U-value can be used for comparing the insulating values of various
building elements. Examples showing calculation of U-values for a few typical cases are presented
in Appendix IV.3.
RT
Equation (4.20) is solved for every external constituent element of the building i.e., each
wall, window, door, roof and the floor, and the results are summed up. The heat flow rate through
the building envelope by conduction, is the sum of the area and the U-value products of all the
elements of the building multiplied by the temperature difference. It is expressed as:
Nc
Qc =
Ai Ui Ti
(4.23)
i =1
where,
i
Nc
= building element
= number of components
If the surface is also exposed to solar radiation then,

T = Tso - Ti
(4.24)
where Ti is the indoor temperature; Tso is the sol-air temperature, calculated using the expression:
Tso = To +
S T R
ho
ho
(4.25)
where,
To = daily average value of hourly ambient temperature (K)
= absorptance of the surface for solar radiation
ST = daily average value of hourly solar radiation incident on the surface (W/m2)
ho = outside heat transfer coefficient ( W/m2 -K)
= emissivity of the surface

R = difference between the long wavelength radiation incident on the
surface from the sky and the surroundings, and the radiation emitted
by a black body at ambient temperature
Values of heat transfer coefficient (ho) at different wind speeds and orientation are
presented in Table 4.1. The absorptance values of some common building surfaces are given in
Appendix IV.4.
Daily average values of hourly solar radiation can be calculated from the hourly data. As
mentioned earlier, measurements of global and diffuse solar radiation are carried out on a
horizontal surface. Mean hourly values of such data for various places in India are available in the
handbook by Mani [5]. Hourly radiation on a tilted surface can be estimated from these data using
Eq. (4.9) for unshaded surfaces or Eq. (4.13) for shaded surfaces.
4.4.2 Ventilation
The heat flow rate due to ventilation of air between the interior of a building and the
outside, depends on the rate of air exchange. It is given by:
Qv = Vr C T
where,
Vr
C
T
(4.26)
= density of air (kg/ m3)

= ventilation rate (m3/ s)
= specific heat of air (J/ kg-K)
= temperature difference (To Ti) (K)
Table 4.3 Recommended air change rates [4]

Space to be ventilated
Assembly hall/ Auditorium (smoking)

Bedrooms / Living rooms (smoking)
Bathrooms/ Toilets
Cafes/Restaurants (smoking)
Cinemas/Theatres (non smoking)
Classrooms
Factories(medium metal work - smoking)
Garages (smoking)
Hospital wards (smoking)
Kitchens (common - smoking)
Kitchens (Domestic - smoking)
Laboratories
Offices (smoking)
Air changes per

hour
3-6
3-6
6-12
12-15
6-9
3-6
3-6
12-15
3-6
6-9
3-6
3-6
3-6
If the number of air changes is known, then

Vr =
NV
3600
(4.27)
where,
N
= number of air changes per hour
V
= volume of the room or space (m3)
Thus,
NV
T
(4.28)
3600
The minimum standards for ventilation in terms of air changes per hour (N) are presented in
Table 4.3.
Qv = C
4.4.3 Solar Heat Gain

The solar gain through transparent elements can be written as:
M
Qs = s
Ai Sgi i
(4.29)
i =1
where,
= mean absorptivity of the space
= area of the ith transparent element (m2)
= daily average value of solar radiation (including the effect of
shading) on the ith transparent element (W/m2)
= transmissivity of the ith transparent element
i
M
= number of transparent elements
4.4.4 Internal Gain
The internal heat gain of a building is estimated as follows:
s
Ai
Sgi
The heat generated by occupants is a heat gain for the building; its magnitude depends
on the level of activity of a person. Table 4.4 shows the heat output rate of human
bodies for various activities [9]. The total rate of energy emission by electric lamps is
also taken as internal heat gain. A large part of this energy is emitted as heat (about 95%
for ordinary incandescent lamps and 79% for fluorescent lamps) and the remaining part
is emitted as light, which when incident on surfaces, is converted into heat.
Consequently, the total wattage of all lamps in the building when in use, must be added
to the Qi.
The heat gain due to appliances (televisions, radios, etc.) should also be added to the Qi.
If an electric motor and the machine driven by it are both located (and operating) in the
same space, the total wattage of the motor must be included. If the horse power (hp) of
a motor is known, its corresponding wattage can be calculated by multiplying it by 746
(1 hp = 746 W). If the motor alone is in the space considered, and if efficiency is Meff,
then energy release into the space is 746 (1-Meff) hp. The load due to common
household appliances is listed in Table 4.5 [9].
Table 4.4 Heat production rate in a human body [9]
Activity
Sleeping
Resting
Sitting, Normal office work
Typing
Slow walking(3 km/h)
Fast walking(6 km/h)
Hard work(filing, cutting,
digging, etc.)
Rate of heat production

(W)
(W/m2)
60
35
80
45
100
55
150
85
200
110
250
140
more than
More than
300
170
Table 4.5 Wattage of common household appliances [9]

Equipment
Radio
Television(black/white)
Refrigerator
Television(colour)
Coffee machine
Vacuum cleaner
Washing machine
Dishwasher
Water heater
Load
(W)
15
110
120
250
400
800
2500
3050
3500
Thus the heat flow rate due to internal heat gain is given by the equation:
Qi = (No. of people heat output rate) + Rated wattage of lamps + Appliance load
(4.30)
4.4.5 Evaporation
The rate of cooling by evaporation (Qev) from, say, a roof pond, fountains or human
perspiration, can be written as:
Qev = m L
(4.31)
where m is the rate of evaporation (kg/s) and L is the latent heat of evaporation (J/kg-K)
4.4.6 Equipment Gain

If any mechanical heating or cooling equipment is used, the heat flow rate of the equipment
is added to the heat gain of the building.
4.5 EXAMPLE
Suppose we have a room that is 5 m long, 4 m wide and 3 m high, as shown in Fig. 4.8. If
the room is maintained at 23.3oC by an air-conditioner, how may we calculate the load on the
appliance using the steady state approach?
Fig. 4.8 Plan of a single zone room
We have the following data available:

Place: New Delhi
Month: May
Ventilation rate: 2 h-1
Artificial light: Three 100 W bulbs continuously used
Occupants: Four persons (normal office work; 24 hours occupancy)
Window: (1.5m X 3m) on south wall, single glazed
Door: (1.2m X 2m) on north wall
Uglazing = 5.77 W/m2-K
Uwall = 3.00 W/m2-K
Uroof = 2.31 W/m2-K
Udoor = 3.18 W/m2-K
Daily average outside temperature in May: 32.7 C [Appendix IV.2]
Absorptance of external wall surfaces: 0.6
Outside heat transfer coefficient: 22.7 W/m2-K
Inside design temperature: 23.3 C
Daily average solar radiation on south wall: 111.3 W/m2

Daily average solar radiation on east wall: 158.2 W/m2
Daily average solar radiation on north wall: 101.1 W/m2
Daily average solar radiation on west wall: 155.2 W/m2
Daily average solar radiation on roof: 303.1 W/m2
Daily average solar radiation on window: 111.3 W/m2 (no shading)
Mean absorptivity of the space: 0.6
Transmissivity of window: 0.86
Absorptivity of glazing for solar radiation: 0.06
Absorptivity of wood for solar radiation: 0.0
Density of air: 1.2 kg/m3
Specific heat of air: 1005 J/ kg-K
Under the steady state approach (which does not account the effect of heat capacity of
building materials), the heat balance for room air can be written as
Qtotal = Qc + Qs + Qi + Qv
(4.32)
From Eq. (4.25), with R = 0 for vertical surfaces, the values of sol-air temperatures are:
Tsosouth = 32.7 + (0.6 x
111.3
) = 35.6 C
22.7
Similarly, Tsoeast = 36.9 C , Tsonorth = 35.4 C , Tsowest =36.8 C , Tsodoor = 32.7 C and Tsoglazing = 33.0 C
For the roof, R = 63 W/ m2 and hence Tsoroof = 38.2 C

Qc = 3.00 (15 4.5) (35.6 23.3) + 3.00 x 12 (36.9- 23.3) + 3.00 (15 2.4) (35.4 23.3)
+ 3.00 x 12 (36.8 23.3) + 3.18 x 2.4 (32.7 23.3) + 2.31 x 20 (38.2 23.3)
+ 5.77 x 4.5 (33.0 23.3)
= 2832.4 W
Using Eqs. (4.26 4.30),
Qs = 0.6 x 4.5 x 111.3 x 0.86 = 258.4 W
Qi = 3 x 100 + 4 x 100 = 700 W
Qv = 1.2 x 1005 (2 x 5 x 4 x 3/3600) (32.7 23.3) = 377.9 W
Thus, Qm = 2832.4 + 258.4 + 700 + 377.9 = 4168.7 4.2 kW
Remarks: Now, the problem facing a designer is to make sense of this quantity. As the total heat
gain rate is positive; it represents the total heat entering the building. How does 4.2 kW translate
practically? Let us consider it from two angles.
The COP of a standard window air conditioner of 1.5 tons cooling capacity is about 2.8. So
the power required is 1.5 kW (i.e., 4.2 kW/2.8 )
Suppose the machine were to be used for 8 hours a day; then it would consume 12 kWh per
day (1.5 kW 8 hours = 12) or 12 units (One kWh is equivalent to one unit) of electricity
supplied by the power company. At a rate of Rs. 4 per unit, expenses would amount to Rs. 48
per day.
4.6 COMPUTER-BASED TOOLS

The above example illustrates the steady state calculation of heat gain or loss for a single
zone conditioned building. The method can also be extended to multi-zone or multi-storeyed
buildings, but the algebra becomes complicated. Besides, the effects of: (a) variation of outside air
temperature and solar radiation with time, (b) shading by neighbouring objects, (c) self shading,
and (d) thermal capacity of the building (i.e. the ability of building materials to store heat during
daytime and release it back to the environment later) add to the complexity of the calculations.
Consequently, one resorts to computer-based tools known as building simulation tools. A number
of such tools are now available to do quick and accurate assessment of a buildings thermal and
daylighting performance. These tools can estimate the performances of different designs of the
building for a given environmental condition. From these results, a designer can choose the design
that consumes minimum energy. Thermal calculations also help to select appropriate retrofits for
existing buildings from the viewpoint of energy conservation. Thus, by integrating the simulation
of thermal performance of a building with its architectural design, one can achieve an energy
efficient building.
A number of tools are available for simulating the thermal performance of buildings; they
address different needs. For example, an architects office requires a tool that is quick and gets well
integrated into the design process. On the other hand an HVAC engineer would look for a tool that
would accurately predict the energy a building would consume, for optimum sizing of the airconditioning systems. A short description of a few simulation tools is provided in Appendix IV.5.
The reader may also refer to internet websites (such as http://www.energytoolsdirectory.gov) for
more information.
References
1. Koenigsberger O.H., Ingersoll T.G., Mayhew A. and Szokolay S.V., Manual of tropical housing and
building, part 1- climatic design, Orient Longman, Madras, 1975.
2. Markus T.A. and Morris E.N., Buildings, climate and energy, Pitman Publishing Limited, London,
1980.
3. ASHRAE handbook: fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning
Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA, USA, 2001.
4. SP: 41 (S&T) -1987 - handbook on functional requirements of buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, 1987.
6. DOE-2 reference manual, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 1981.
7. Sukhatme S.P., Solar energy, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 1996.
8. Duffie J.A. and Beckman W.A., Solar engineering of thermal processes, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, 1991.
9. Bansal N.K., Hauser G. and Minke G., Passive building design, Elsevier Science, New York, 1994.
10. Nayak J.K., Hazra R. and Prajapati J., Manual on solar passive architecture, Solar Energy Centre,
MNES, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1999
11. Mani A. and Rangarajan S., Solar radiation over India, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1982.
12. Bansal N.K. and Minke G., Climate zones and rural housing in India, Kernforschungsanlage, Juelich,
Germany, 1988.
13. Gupta C.L. and Jajoo K., Energy efficiency in design of buildings: an evaluation technique and rating
criterion, SESI Journal 12, pp. 59 72, 2002.
14. Nayak J.K. and Francis S, Tools for architectural design and simulation of building (TADSIM), SESI
Journal 12, pp. 81 91, 2002
15. TRNSYS: a transient simulation program, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin,
Wisconsin, 1990.
16. http://www.energyplus.gov (April 2005)
17. http://www.doe2.com/equest (February 2005)
APPENDIX IV.1
PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS [4]
Material
Burnt brick
Mud brick
Dense concrete
RCC
Limestone
Slate
Reinforced concrete
Brick tile
Lime concrete
Mud phuska
Cement mortar
Cement plaster
Cinder concrete
Foam slag concrete
Gypsum plaster
Cellular concrete
AC sheet
GI sheet
Timber
Plywood
Glass
Sand
Expanded polystyrene
Foam glass
Foam concrete
Rock wool (unbonded)
Mineral wool (unbonded)
Glass wool (unbonded)
Resin bonded mineral wool
Resin bonded glass wool
Asbestos mill board
Hard board
Straw board
Soft board
Wall board
Chip board
Particle board
Coconut pith insulation board
Jute fibre
Wood wool board
(bonded with cement)
Coir board
Saw dust
Rice husk
Aluminium Composite panels
(Alucopan 150)*
Face bricks*
Polycarbonate sheet*
Fly ash brick*
Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP)
*
sheet (Durostone standard)
Density
(kg/m3)
1820
1731
2410
2288
2420
2750
1920
1892
1646
1622
1648
1762
1406
1320
1120
704
1520
7520
480
640
2350
2240
34
160
704
150
73.5
189
99
24
1397
979
310
249
262
432
750
520
329
674
Specific heat
(kJ/kg-K)
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.84
0.84
0.84
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.92
0.84
0.84
0.88
0.96
1.05
0.84
0.50
1.68
1.76
0.88
0.84
1.34
0.75
0.92
0.84
0.92
0.92
1.00
1.00
0.84
1.42
1.30
1.30
1.26
1.26
1.30
1.09
1.09
1.13
Thermal conductivity
(W/m-K)
0.811
0.750
1.740
1.580
1.800
1.720
1.100
0.798
0.730
0.519
0.719
0.721
0.686
0.285
0.512
0.188
0.245
61.060
0.072
0.174
0.814
1.740
0.035
0.055
0.149
0.043
0.030
0.040
0.036
0.036
0.249
0.279
0.057
0.047
0.047
0.067
0.098
0.060
0.067
0.108
97
188
120
150
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.902
0.038
0.051
0.051
0.060
2083
1350
1570
1850
1.004
1.17
0.8
0.96
1.30
0.21
0.54 to 0.70
0.260
Polyurethane foam (PUF)

*
Polyvinyl chloride sheet
*
Cork tile
*
Plastic tile
*
PVC asbestos tile
*
Gypsum plasterboard
*
Brown cellulose fibres
*
Thatch (reed)
*
Thatch (straw)
*
Acoustic tile
* compiled from various websites.
30
1350
540
1050
2000
950
37-51
270
240
290
1.570
1.255
1.00
1.07
1.00
0.82
1.35
1.00
1.00
1.34
0.026
0.160
0.085
0.50
0.85
0.16
0.045
0.09
0.07
0.058
APPENDIX - IV.2
GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION AND AMBIENT TEMPERATURE DATA
o
(A) Place: Jodhpur (26 18N, 73 01E)

Month: May
2
Solar radiation (kW/m )
Horizontal
South
East
North
surface [5]
surface
surface
surface
6
0.024
0.012
0.012
0.012
7
0.175
0.070
0.332
0.135
8
0.393
0.130
0.525
0.188
9
0.603
0.176
0.599
0.195
10
0.771
0.234
0.568
0.207
11
0.892
0.292
0.468
0.226
12
0.953
0.321
0.319
0.234
13
0.951
0.322
0.236
0.236
14
0.884
0.291
0.226
0.226
15
0.751
0.236
0.210
0.210
16
0.577
0.177
0.177
0.194
17
0.362
0.127
0.127
0.177
18
0.157
0.066
0.066
0.118
19
0.020
0.011
0.011
0.033
20
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
21
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
22
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
23
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
24
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
3
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
4
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
5
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
LAT: Local Apparent Time
Hour
(LAT)
West
surface
0.012
0.070
0.130
0.176
0.207
0.226
0.234
0.320
0.464
0.550
0.562
0.464
0.277
0.070
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
temperature
o
( C) [5]
28.1
27.1
29.5
31.9
34.0
36.1
37.7
39.1
40.0
40.4
40.4
40.3
39.6
38.5
37.1
35.6
34.5
33.6
32.7
31.9
31.1
30.2
29.6
28.9
Horizontal
surface [5]
0.000
0.005
0.110
0.311
0.491
0.613
0.676
0.677
0.613
0.484
0.307
0.109
0.005
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Month: December
2
South
East
North
surface
surface
surface
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.268
0.428
0.033
0.487
0.577
0.073
0.646
0.553
0.100
0.735
0.417
0.118
0.779
0.232
0.128
0.778
0.129
0.129
0.732
0.120
0.120
0.632
0.101
0.0101
0.481
0.072
0.072
0.265
0.033
0.033
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
West
surface
0.000
0.002
0.033
0.073
0.100
0.118
0.128
0.232
0.416
0.542
0.570
0.421
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
Temperature
o
( C) [5]
13.3
12.9
12.9
14.4
16.5
19.6
22.6
24.4
25.4
25.6
25.4
24.8
22.9
20.7
19.5
18.6
17.9
16.4
16.3
15.6
15.1
14.5
14.1
13.7

o
(B) Place: New Delhi (28 35N, 77 12E)

Month: May
2
Horizontal
South
East
North
surface [5]
surface
surface
surface
6
0.030
0.017
0.017
0.017
7
0.177
0.075
0.300
0.128
8
0.383
0.133
0.491
0.178
9
0.581
0.180
0.563
0.184
10
0.746
0.258
0.545
0.214
11
0.865
0.321
0.459
0.238
12
0.925
0.354
0.327
0.250
13
0.920
0.353
0.251
0.251
14
0.844
0.317
0.238
0.238
15
0.719
0.256
0.215
0.215
16
0.547
0.178
0.178
0.181
17
0.352
0.130
0.130
0.168
18
0.158
0.069
0.069
0.113
19
0.027
0.014
0.014
0.051
20
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
21
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
22
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
23
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
24
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
3
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
4
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
5
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Hour
(LAT)
West
surface
0.017
0.075
0.133
0.180
0.214
0.238
0.250
0.327
0.449
0.522
0.519
0.432
0.252
0.117
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
temperature
o
( C) [5]
26.3
27.1
29.3
31.8
34.1
35.7
36.9
37.7
38.3
38.5
38.7
38.0
37.5
35.9
34.1
32.6
31.5
30.7
29.9
29.1
28.4
27.8
27.2
26.7
Horizontal
surface [5]
0.000
0.003
0.085
0.259
0.425
0.543
0.605
0.605
0.538
0.418
0.255
0.086
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Month: December
2
South
East
North
surface
surface
surface
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.199
0.310
0.031
0.407
0.472
0.072
0.565
0.477
0.104
0.662
0.378
0.126
0.710
0.226
0.138
0.709
0.139
0.139
0.652
0.127
0.127
0.552
0.104
0.104
0.399
0.072
0.072
0.211
0.030
0.030
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
West
surface
0.000
0.001
0.031
0.072
0.104
0.126
0.138
0.226
0.374
0.466
0.462
0.330
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
Temperature
o
( C) [5]
9.7
9.5
9.8
12.3
14.9
17.3
19.0
20.1
20.7
20.9
20.7
19.7
17.2
15.9
14.7
13.9
13.2
12.5
11.9
11.5
11.1
10.6
10.3
10.1

o
(C) Place: Mumbai (19 07N, 72 51E)

Month: May
2
Horizontal
South
East
North
surface [5]
surface
surface
surface
6
0.012
0.006
0.006
0.006
7
0.124
0.056
0.212
0.100
8
0.294
0.115
0.354
0.166
9
0.489
0.166
0.461
0.211
10
0.710
0.205
0.518
0.237
11
0.864
0.226
0.453
0.238
12
0.952
0.238
0.319
0.236
13
0.962
0.235
0.233
0.233
14
0.899
0.219
0.219
0.232
15
0.768
0.195
0.195
0.233
16
0.578
0.157
0.157
0.225
17
0.360
0.113
0.113
0.198
18
0.150
0.058
0.058
0.134
19
0.017
0.007
0.007
0.007
20
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
21
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
22
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
23
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
24
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
3
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
4
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
5
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Hour
(LAT)
West
surface
0.006
0.056
0.115
0.166
0.205
0.226
0.236
0.319
0.468
0.571
0.595
0.517
0.328
0.007
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
temperature
o
( C) [5]
27.2
27.5
28.9
30.4
31.2
31.9
32.3
32.4
32.4
32.3
31.9
31.5
30.7
29.9
29.5
29.1
28.9
28.7
28.4
28.2
28.0
27.7
27.5
27.4
Horizontal
surface [5]
0.000
0.013
0.142
0.342
0.517
0.647
0.717
0.719
0.652
0.524
0.353
0.155
0.017
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Month: December
2
South
East
North
surface
surface
surface
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.237
0.381
0.045
0.425
0.535
0.080
0.546
0.511
0.108
0.627
0.399
0.129
0.669
0.235
0.140
0.670
0.141
0.141
0.630
0.132
0.132
0.551
0.112
0.112
0.436
0.084
0.084
0.269
0.046
0.046
0.007
0.007
0.007
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
West
surface
0.000
0.006
0.045
0.080
0.108
0.129
0.140
0.236
0.402
0.516
0.549
0.437
0.007
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
Temperature
o
( C) [5]
20.3
20.1
21.1
24.2
26.4
28.3
29.6
30.3
30.5
30.1
29.5
28.2
26.6
25.6
25.0
24.3
23.5
22.7
21.9
21.4
21.0
20.7
20.5
20.4

o
(D) Place: Pune (18 32N, 73 51E)

Month: May
2
Horizontal
South
East
North
surface [5]
surface
surface
surface
6
0.012
0.007
0.007
0.007
7
0.144
0.057
0.305
0.128
8
0.364
0.112
0.530
0.203
9
0.585
0.156
0.608
0.229
10
0.764
0.184
0.572
0.229
11
0.890
0.204
0.461
0.223
12
0.957
0.213
0.303
0.218
13
0.950
0.215
0.215
0.220
14
0.858
0.208
0.208
0.226
15
0.708
0.182
0.182
0.222
16
0.524
0.147
0.147
0.210
17
0.327
0.104
0.104
0.183
18
0.139
0.054
0.054
0.125
19
0.016
0.008
0.008
0.008
20
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
21
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
22
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
23
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
24
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
3
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
4
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
5
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Hour
(LAT)
West
surface
0.007
0.057
0.112
0.156
0.184
0.204
0.213
0.303
0.447
0.525
0.535
0.465
0.302
0.008
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
temperature
o
( C) [5]
23.9
24.2
26.1
28.6
30.5
32.5
34.0
35.3
35.9
35.9
35.4
34.2
32.4
30.7
29.2
28.3
27.5
26.9
26.4
25.8
25.5
25.0
24.6
24.3
Horizontal
surface [5]
0.000
0.015
0.148
0.350
0.537
0.673
0.742
0.743
0.667
0.534
0.354
0.154
0.015
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Month: December
2
South
East
North
surface
surface
surface
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.246
0.398
0.045
0.423
0.535
0.085
0.555
0.524
0.115
0.641
0.413
0.135
0.681
0.243
0.145
0.681
0.146
0.146
0.633
0.137
0.137
0.550
0.116
0.116
0.429
0.085
0.085
0.262
0.045
0.045
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
West
surface
0.000
0.008
0.045
0.085
0.115
0.135
0.145
0.243
0.409
0.519
0.543
0.427
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Ambient
Temperature
o
( C) [5]
15.0
14.6
15.5
19.1
22.2
24.9
26.7
28.0
28.7
29.0
28.8
27.9
26.1
23.7
22.1
21.0
19.9
19.0
18.2
17.6
16.9
16.3
15.8
15.4

o
(E) Place: Srinagar (34 05N, 74 50E)

Month: May
Month: December
2
2
Solar
radiation
(kW/m )
Ambient
temperature
South
East
North
West
Horizontal
South
East
North
Horizontal
o
*
( C)**
surface
surface
surface
surface
surface*
surface
surface
surface
surface
6
0.064
0.034
0.034
0.034
0.034
12.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7
0.224
0.098
0.337
0.149
0.098
12.8
0.031
0.019
0.019
0.019
8
0.413
0.153
0.497
0.178
0.153
14.0
0.108
0.160
0.224
0.058
9
0.572
0.223
0.528
0.199
0.199
15.8
0.217
0.283
0.310
0.094
10
0.697
0.304
0.499
0.233
0.233
17.0
0.308
0.375
0.314
0.117
11
0.793
0.365
0.432
0.257
0.257
18.3
0.365
0.420
0.258
0.132
12
0.831
0.393
0.328
0.269
0.269
19.5
0.386
0.430
0.180
0.138
13
0.793
0.375
0.257
0.257
0.313
20.2
0.365
0.404
0.132
0.132
14
0.697
0.324
0.233
0.233
0.381
20.9
0.308
0.341
0.117
0.117
15
0.572
0.254
0.199
0.199
0.406
21.2
0.217
0.232
0.094
0.094
16
0.413
0.169
0.153
0.153
0.369
21.2
0.108
0.094
0.058
0.058
17
0.224
0.098
0.098
0.108
0.229
21.0
0.031
0.019
0.019
0.019
18
0.064
0.034
0.034
0.040
0.064
20.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
19
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
19.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
20
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
18.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
21
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
16.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
22
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
16.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
15.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
24
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
13.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
13.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
* based on procedure outlined in Mani and Rangarajan [11]
** based on procedure outlined in Bansal and Minke [12] with minimum and maximum temperature data from Mani and Rangarajan [11]
Hour
(LAT)
West
surface
0.0
0.019
0.058
0.094
0.117
0.132
0.138
0.171
0.215
0.199
0.100
0.019
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Ambient
Temperature
o
( C)**
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.7
1.8
2.9
4.0
4.8
5.4
5.7
5.5
5.0
4.2
3.5
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.1
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.6

o
(F) Place: Leh (34 09N, 77 34E)

Month: May
Month: December
2
2
Solar
radiation
(kW/m )
Ambient
temperature
South
East
North
West
Horizontal
South
East
North
Horizontal
o
*
( C)**
surface
surface
surface
surface
surface*
surface
surface
surface
surface
6
0.076
0.033
0.033
0.033
0.033
2.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7
0.266
0.096
0.520
0.185
0.096
3.1
0.036
0.017
0.017
0.017
8
0.491
0.152
0.672
0.189
0.152
4.3
0.141
0.483
0.751
0.056
9
0.681
0.234
0.679
0.198
0.198
6.1
0.284
0.500
0.558
0.093
10
0.829
0.334
0.613
0.231
0.231
8.1
0.405
0.599
0.485
0.117
11
0.943
0.409
0.504
0.256
0.256
10.3
0.480
0.649
0.359
0.133
12
0.989
0.445
0.352
0.268
0.268
12.4
0.507
0.656
0.213
0.139
13
0.943
0.424
0.256
0.256
0.336
14.0
0.480
0.619
0.133
0.133
14
0.829
0.363
0.231
0.231
0.444
15.1
0.405
0.535
0.117
0.117
15
0.681
0.279
0.198
0.198
0.500
15.5
0.284
0.389
0.093
0.093
16
0.491
0.176
0.152
0.152
0.478
15.1
0.141
0.208
0.056
0.056
17
0.266
0.096
0.096
0.113
0.328
14.2
0.036
0.083
0.017
0.017
18
0.076
0.033
0.033
0.051
0.119
12.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
19
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
11.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
20
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
21
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
22
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
24
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
* based on procedure outlined in Mani and Rangarajan [11]
** based on procedure outlined in Bansal and Minke [12] with minimum and maximum temperature data from Mani and Rangarajan [11]
Hour
(LAT)
West
surface
0.0
0.017
0.056
0.093
0.117
0.133
0.139
0.202
0.300
0.319
0.230
0.125
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Ambient
Temperature
o
( C)**
-12.4
-11.7
-10.3
-8.4
-6.1
-3.6
-1.2
0.6
1.8
2.2
1.8
0.7
-0.9
-2.9
-4.8
-6.4
-7.9
-9.1
-10.0
-10.8
-11.5
-12.1
-12.6
-12.7
APPENDIX IV.3
EXAMPLES SHOWING ESTIMATION OF U-VALUES
Example 1:
To find U for a 19.00 cm thick brick wall provided with 1.00 cm thick cement
plaster on both sides.
L1 = 0.01 m; k1 = 0.721 W/m-K

L2 = 0.19 m; k2 = 0.811 W/m-K
L3 = 0.01 m; k3 = 0.721 W/m-K
hi = 8.3 W/m2-K; ho = 22.7 W/m2-K
RT = 1/8.3 + 0.01/0.721 + 0.19/0.811 + 0.01/0.721 + 1/22.7 = 0.4266
U = 1/RT = 1/0.4266 =2.344 W/m2-K
Example 2:
To find U for an outside wall made up of two layers of 9.00 cm brick with a 5.00 cm
air gap, plastered with 1.00 cm thick cement plaster on both sides.
Layer 1:
Layer 2:
L1 = 0.01 m; k1 = 0.721 W/m-K

L2 = 0.09 m; k2 = 0.811 W/m-K
Layer 3:
Layer 4:
Layer 5:
Enclosed air conductance C = 6.22 W/m2 -K

L4 = 0.09 m; k4 = 0.811 W/m-K
L5 = 0.01 m; k5 = 0.721 W/m-K
RT = 1/8.3 + 1/22.7 + 0.01/0.721 + 0.09/0.811 + 1/6.22 + 0.09/0.811+ 0.01/0.721

= 0.5750
U = 1/RT
= 1.739 W/m2-K
Example 3:
To find U for a 15.00 cm thick RCC roof slab insulated with 5.00 cm thick
expanded polystyrene, and finished with 4.00 cm thick brick tiles on the top, and
1.00 cm thick cement plaster on the bottom.
hi = 6.1 W/m2-K; ho = 22.7 W/m2-K

Layer 1:
Layer 2:
Layer 3:
Layer 4:
L1 = 0.01 m; k1 = 0.721 W/m-K

L2 = 0.15 m; k2 = 1.580 W/m-K
L3 = 0.05 m; k3 = 0.035 W/m-K
L4 = 0.04 m; k4 = 0.798 W/m-K
RT = 1/6.1 + 1/22.7 + 0.01/0.721 + 0.15/1.580 + 0.05/0.035 + 0.04/0.798

= 1.795
U = 1/RT
= 0.55 W/m2-K
APPENDIX IV.4
AVERAGE EMISSIVITIES, ABSORPTIVITIES AND REFLECTIVITIES OF SOME BUILDING
MATERIALS [4]
Surface
Aluminium, bright
Asbestos cement, new
Asbestos cement, aged
Asphalt pavement
Brass and copper, dull
Brass and copper, polished
Brick, light puff
Brick, red rough
Cement, white portland
Concrete, uncoloured
Marble, white
Paint, Aluminium
Paint, white
Paint, brown, red, green
Paint, black
Paper, white
Slate, dark
Steel, galvanized new
Steel, galvanized weathered
Tiles, red clay
Tiles, uncoloured concrete
Emmisivity or Absorptivity
(Low temperature
(Solar
radiation)
radiation)
0.05
0.20
0.95
0.60
0.95
0.75
0.95
0.90
0.20
0.60
0.02
0.30
0.90
0.60
0.90
0.70
0.90
0.40
0.90
0.65
0.95
0.45
0.55
0.50
0.90
0.30
0.90
0.70
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.30
0.90
0.90
0.25
0.55
0.25
0.70
0.90
0.70
0.90
0.65
Reflectivity
(Solar
radiation)
0.80
0.40
0.25
0.10
0.40
0.70
0.40
0.30
0.60
0.35
0.55
0.50
0.70
0.30
0.10
0.70
0.10
0.45
0.30
0.30
0.35
APPENDIX IV.5
SIMULATION TOOLS
A brief description of a few simulation tools is presented in this appendix.
Therm Version 1.0 (Thermal Evaluation Tool for Buildings) [13]
Therm evaluates the thermal performance of a passive or partly air-conditioned

building, by calculating the hourly floating inside air temperature. The tool considers the
effects of various parameters and variables like building fabric, opening/fenestration type,
orientation, natural ventilation, and internal gains through convection and radiation. Effects
of passive elements such as Trombe wall, evaporative cooling and roof pond can be analysed
using Therm. It is intended as a preliminary tool for the analysis of thermal performance of a
building, to help select a suitable building envelope or passive system appropriate for a
particular climate and function. Therm incorporates various rating criteria such as comfort
fraction, decrement factor, and depression or elevation of mean indoor temperature. The tool
is developed using Microsoft Excel and Visual basic and is in a spread sheet format. It is used
as a plug-in in MS Excel.
Therm has a facility to update the materials library and the climatic database. A
handy tool for calculating the U-value of various building sections is also provided.
2.
TADSIM (Tools for Architectural Design and Simulation) [14]
TADSIM has been developed as a computer interface between building design and
simulation software. The basic philosophy is to ensure that architects can make use of
simulation tools quickly and efficiently. Relevant information on building geometry and
associated details are automatically extracted from the design made in the architectural design
module (TAD Designer). This information can be passed on to a number of simulation tools
namely Dynsim, TRNSYS and DOE2.1E for thermal analysis. Dynsim has been integrated
into TADSIM for dynamic simulation of non-conditioned and conditioned multi-storey,
multi-zone buildings. It estimates the room temperatures and thermal loads. This tool can be
used to quickly analyse the effect of materials, windows, orientation, colour, etc. on the
thermal performance of the building. The effect of shading of external surfaces can be
approximated by specifying a shade fraction for each window.
TADSIM is also capable of generating input files for TRNSYS and DOE2.1E, if the
user wants to use these for simulating the buildings thermal performance. Besides, it has a
module that advises the user on various aspects of passive solar architecture, called TADSIM
adviser. It provides information on climatic design, daylighting, passive solar techniques and
material properties. It also contains a glossary. Additionally the data can be updated by the
user at a later stage.
3.
TRNSYS
TRNSYS is a dynamic simulation tool for estimating the performance of any solar
thermal system. For example, it can estimate the performance of a building, a solar
photovoltaic system, and solar domestic hot water system. It is one of the most widely used
commercially available tool for building simulation. It uses a menu driven interface to
provide the building description (building geometry, materials and their properties,
scheduling, heating and cooling system, etc.) using the PREBID module. This file can also be
edited directly using any text editor (e.g. Notepad, MS Editor), without using PREBID, if one
knows the sequence of information needed for the software.
The weather data, simulation run time, output types can be provided by using the
IISiBat or PRESIM interface, or manually edited using any text editor. TRNSYS can be used
with a general purpose CAD software called SimCAD, to integrate the architectural design
and simulation.
The output of a buildings thermal performance in terms of temperature and loads, can
be obtained both graphically and in text format. Multi-zone, conditioned and nonconditioned buildings can be analysed by using TRNSYS. It can also do quick parametric
analyses by using parameter tables. It has a built-in materials library.
4.
DOE-2.1E [6]
DOE-2.1E predicts the hourly energy use and energy cost of a building. The inputs
required are hourly weather information, building geometric dimensions, and its HVAC
description. Designers can determine the choice of building parameters that improve energy
efficiency, while maintaining thermal comfort and cost-effectiveness. DOE-2.1E has one
subprogram for translation of input (BDL Processor),and four simulation subprograms
(LOADS, SYSTEMS, PLANT and ECONOMICS). LOADS, SYSTEMS, PLANT and
ECONOMICS are executed in sequence, with the output of LOADS becoming the input of
SYSTEMS, and so on. Each of the simulation subprograms also produces printed reports of
the results of its calculations. The Building Description Language (BDL) processor reads
input data and calculates response factors for the transient heat flow in walls, and weighting
factors for the thermal response of building spaces.
The LOADS simulation subprogram calculates the sensible and latent components of
the hourly heating or cooling load for each constant temperature space, taking into account
weather and building use patterns. The SYSTEMS subprogram calculates the performance of
air-side equipment (fans, coils, and ducts); it corrects the constant-temperature loads
calculated by the LOADS subprogram by taking into account outside air requirements, hours
of equipment operation, equipment control strategies, and thermostat set points. The output
of SYSTEMS is air flow and coil loads. PLANTS calculates the behavior of boilers, chillers,
cooling towers, storage tanks, etc., in satisfying the secondary systems heating and cooling
coil loads. It takes into account the part-load characteristics of the primary equipment, to
calculate the fuel and electrical demands of the building. The ECONOMICS subprogram
calculates the cost of energy and so, can be used to compare the cost benefits of different
building designs, or to calculate savings for retrofits to an existing building.
A number of interfaces have been developed to make the program easy to use.
5.
EnergyPlus [16]
EnergyPlus is a modular, structured software tool based on the most popular features
and capabilities of BLAST and DOE-2.1E. It is primarily a simulation engine; input and
output are simple text files. EnergyPlus grew out of a perceived need to provide an
integrated (simultaneous load and systems) simulation for accurate temperature and comfort
prediction. Loads calculated (by a heat balance engine) at user-specified time step (15minute default) are passed to the building system simulation module at the same time step.
The EnergyPlus building systems simulation module, with a variable time step (down to 1
minute as needed), calculates the heating and cooling system, and plant and electrical system
response. This integrated solution provides more accurate space-temperature prediction,
crucial for system and plant sizing, and occupant comfort and health calculations. Integrated
simulation also allows users to evaluate realistic system controls, moisture adsorption and
desorption in building elements, radiant heating and cooling systems, and interzone air flow.
EnergyPlus has two basic components: a heat and mass balance simulation module,
and a building systems simulation module. The heat and mass balance calculations are based
on IBLAST a research version of BLAST with integrated HVAC systems and building
loads simulation. The heat balance module manages the surface and air heat balance, and
acts as an interface between the heat balance and the building system simulation manager.
EnergyPlus inherits three popular windows and daylighting models from DOE-2.1E
fenestration performance based on WINDOW 5 calculations, daylighting using the split-flux
interreflection module, and antistrophic sky models. In addition, a new daylighting analysis
module named Delight has been integrated with EnergyPlus.
6.
eQUEST [17]
eQUEST is an easy to use building energy use analysis tool that provides
professional-level results with an affordable level of effort. This is accomplished by
combining a building creation wizard, an energy efficiency measure (EEM) wizard and a
graphical results display module, with an enhanced DOE-2.2-derived building energy use
simulation program.
eQUEST features a building creation wizard that guides the user through the process
of creating an effective building energy model. This involves following a series of steps that
help one to describe the features of the design that would impact energy use such as
architectural design, HVAC equipment, building type and size, floor plan layout, construction
material, area usage and occupancy, and lightning system. After compiling a building
description, eQUEST produces a detailed simulation of the building, as well as an estimate of
how much energy the building would use.
Within eQUEST, DOE-2.2 performs an hourly simulation of the building design for a
one-year period. It calculates heating or cooling loads for each hour of the year, based on
factors such as walls, windows, glass, people, plug loads, and ventilation. DOE-2.2 also
simulates the performance of fans, pumps, chillers, boilers, and other energy-consuming
devices. During the simulation, DOE-2.2 tabulates the buildings projected use for various
end uses.
eQUEST offers several graphical formats for viewing simulation results. It allows one
to perform multiple simulations and view alternative results in side-by-side graphics. It
offers features like: energy cost estimating, daylighting and lighting system control , and
automatic implementation of common energy efficiency measures (by selecting preferred
measures from a list).
CHAPTER 5
DESIGN GUIDELINES
Contents:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Description of Buildings
5.3 Methodology
5.4 General Recommendations
5.5 Specific Guidelines
5.6 Summary
References
5.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents guidelines for designing buildings for six climatic conditions of India
from the perspective of energy conservation. The guidelines are presented in two parts for each
climate. The first part provides general recommendations based on various aspects of building
design as discussed in Chapters 2 and 3; the second part is more specific, dealing with particular
building types, and is based on studies conducted using simulation tools explained in Chapter 4.
The actual methodology adopted for developing the specific guidelines is discussed in section 5.3
of this chapter. Three types of buildings have been considered for the purpose: commercial,
industrial and residential. The guidelines formulated are based on detailed thermal performance
studies (also referred to as simulation studies) using the commercial software, TRNSYS (version
14.2) [1]. In order to establish confidence in the simulation results of TRNSYS, we have validated
the predictions of this software in the following way. The room temperatures of different floors of
a commercial building located in Mumbai city were measured for a week and then compared with
the predictions of TRNSYS. Based on this comparison, the input parameters of the simulation tool
were calibrated so that the maximum deviation of the prediction from the actual measurement was
less than 5%, and the average deviation (over a 24 hour period) did not exceed 2% [2]. Having
calibrated the simulation software predictions, various calculations were carried out to determine
the heating and cooling load, and/or room temperatures of buildings. For example, it is important
to know how much heat is being lost or gained from the various components of the building
envelope (i.e., walls, roof, windows, etc.). What affects the building heating and cooling loads
more the building envelope or the internal gains? Is the top floor more comfortable than the
ground or intermediate floors? And so forth. Based on the results, several parameters pertaining to
building design and usage have been identified for improving the thermal performance of each
building type, along with recommendations for energy conservation measures for the six climatic
conditions of India. The cities of Jodhpur, Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Srinagar and Leh (respectively
representing hot and dry, composite, warm and humid, moderate, cold and cloudy, and cold and
sunny) have been selected for the investigation. The building plans considered for this purpose are
types that are commonly observed; they are briefly described in the following section. However,
the recommendations are limited to these particular types of buildings, and may give incorrect
results if applied blindly for other cases. The proposed design guidelines are to be used as a
starting point for commencing design of other types of buildings. In such cases, we recommend
that a simulation tool be used to ascertain the performance for best results
5.2
DESCRIPTION OF BUILDINGS
5.2.1 Commercial building

Commercial buildings use air-conditioning (AC) by mechanical means for providing thermally
comfortable indoor conditions. This is mainly aimed at promoting productivity among occupants.
However, the process is energy intensive and the running costs are generally very high. The
monthly electricity bills of a typical commercial building can run into lakhs of rupees. The options
for energy conservation are limited once a building is constructed, especially when aspects of
optimal energy use have not been taken into account in building design. Considering that many
such buildings are being constructed all over India, there is an urgent need to study their thermal
behaviour and explore various means to reduce the AC load. We have analysed an existing
commercial building in Mumbai for this purpose. The building has a basement and 8 floors
(ground and 7 upper floors). A block plan and section of the building is shown in Fig. 5.1. The
typical cross section of the roof, wall and floor are shown in Fig. 5.2. It is a reinforced cement
concrete (RCC) framed structure with brick and concrete block infill panel walls. The building is
rectangular with its longer axis oriented along the northwest and southeast direction. Most of the
southwest, southeast, and northwest faades are glazed. The southwest faade is fully glazed with
reflective coating on the glass panels. The circulation spaces such as the lift lobbies and staircases
are located on the north side of the building. While most of the spaces are open plan offices, cabins
are located on the periphery of the building and are separated from the main office hall by means
of glass partitions. Most of the building is generally occupied only during the daytime on
weekdays. The ground, second and third floors are occupied for 24 hours throughout the week
including Saturdays, Sundays and national holidays. The total built-up area of the building
including the circulation and service areas (but excluding the basement) is approximately 7074 m2.
Out of this area, about 5400 m2 of carpet area is centrally air-conditioned. The first to seventh
floors are fully air-conditioned whereas the ground and basement are partly air-conditioned. All
floors have an air change rate of one per hour except for the ground floor where it is 5 per hour. A
higher air change rate is specified on the ground floor as it is used for loading and unloading of
materials, entailing frequent opening of large doors at the two ends of the building. These
assumptions are based on the calibration of the simulation software TRNSYS (section 5.1). The
upper floors are provided with false ceiling to conceal service ducts and reduce cooling loads.
Lighting is provided mostly by fluorescent tube-lights. On a regular weekday, about 560 people
occupy the building. The internal load is due to the convective load (gain due to occupants and
equipment) and radiative load (lighting). A building automation system has been provided to
control the air-conditioning system. The occupancy and the internal gains have been appropriately
scheduled for all zones. The heat storage capacities of furnishings and structures in the building
have also been considered.
TERR
7TH FLO O R
TERR
TERR
6TH FLO O R
FC
5TH FLO O R
GCW
4TH FLO O R
3RD FLO O R
LEG EN D
2N D FLO O R
TERR = TERRAC E
FC
1ST FLO O R
= FALSE C EI
G C W = G LASS C U
W A LL
G RO U N D FLO O R
G RO U N D LEVEL
BASEM EN T
S E C T IO N
S T A IR C A S E
L
PAN TRY
STO RE
S T A IR C A S E
L IF T
LO B B Y
STO RE
T O IL E T S
T O IL E T S
GCW
O F F IC E H A L L
C A B IN S
GCW
N O TE:
H A T C H E D P O R T IO N IN
A IR - C O N D IT IO N E D A R
C A B IN S
GCW
T Y P IC A L F L O O R P L A N
Fig. 5.1 Block plan and section of the commercial building
Fig. 5.2 Cross section of typical wall, roof and floor of the commercial building
5.2.2 Industrial Building

An existing industrial building in Daman (Union Territory) has been the subject of study. A
block plan of the building is shown in Fig. 5.3. The building is a ground and partly one storeyed
structure. It is an RCC framed structure with brick infill panel walls. The cross-sectional details of
the roof, wall and floor are shown in Fig. 5.4. Most of the south, east, and west faades are glazed.
The building is rectangular, having its longer axis oriented along the north-south direction with
most of the windows facing east and west. It consists of a large shed (59.77m X 18.77m) on the
ground floor and a smaller store room (9.77m X 18.77m) on the first floor. The height of the shed
is 3.65m and that of the store is 3.05m. The flat roof is made of RCC slabs with brick-bat-coba
waterproofing on top. The shed houses 24 machines of rated capacity of 7.5 kW each. It is
considered that at a time, 50% of the machines are in operation. 45 persons work for six days a
week. There are 80 tube lights of 40W each in the shed to provide illumination. The store is
considered to be occupied by a single person. Occupancy, equipment and lighting are considered to
be ON for 24 hours on each working day. Windows are provided as per factory standards, i.e. 20%
of floor area to provide sufficient light and ventilation. The occupancy and the internal gains have
been appropriately scheduled for all zones. The heat storage capacities of furnishings and
structures in the building have also been considered.
Fig. 5.3 Block plans of the industrial shed
Fig. 5.4 Cross section of typical wall, roof and floor of the industrial building and
residential bungalow
5.2.3 Residential Building (Bungalow)

The building considered under this category is a ground and one storeyed structure. It is a
single family dwelling commonly referred to as a bungalow. The construction details are similar to
those of the industrial building as shown in Fig. 5.4. The block plans of the building are given in
Fig. 5.5. The building is an RCC structure with brick infill panel walls. Windows consist of single
clear glazed panes and are openable. The total built-up area of the building is about 288 m2 (145
m2 on ground and 143 m2 on the first floor). It is a rectangular structure with its longer axis along
the east-west direction. The ground floor consists of a common living and dining hall, which is
partly of double height; the kitchen and stores are on the east side, and there is a master bedroom
wth attached toilet on the northwest corner. Most of the living-dining area faces south; the dining
portion faces north. A circular open-well staircase on the south side connects the ground floor with
the first. It is considered to be part of the living-dining area. The first floor consists of four
bedrooms with attached toilets. Three bedrooms are located on the northeast, southeast and
northwest corners of the building with windows on the adjacent external walls. Thus, there is good
potential for cross ventilation in these rooms. The fourth bedroom has only one external wall
facing north. There is an open family room on the southwest corner. This space is contiguous
with that of the living-dining area on the ground floor as there is free exchange of air. Hence, the
living-dining area on ground floor and the
Fig. 5.5 Block plans of the bungalow
family area including circulation areas are considered as a single thermal zone. The bedrooms are
assumed to be occupied only at nights on weekdays. On weekends, they are occupied in the
afternoon hours as well. Two occupants, a television, a fan and a tubelight are considered for the
internal gains of the bedroom whenever it is occupied. The kitchen is occupied by a single person
during breakfast, lunch and dinner times. A hotplate, a tubelight and a fan are considered as
internal gains when occupied. In addition, a refrigerator is assumed to be working throughout the
day. The living room is considered to be occupied by a maximum of 5 persons during mealtimes
and for a few hours on weekdays. On weekends, this room is considered to be used for a longer
period. The internal gains in this room are due to the occupants, 4 fans, 8 tubelights and a
television. The occupancy and the internal gains have been appropriately scheduled for all zones.
The heat storage capacities of furnishings and structures in the room have also been considered.
5.3
METHODOLOGY
The performance studies of the buildings were carried out using TRNSYS. The weather
data for the calculations have been taken from handbooks [3,4]. The methodology adopted was
based on two assumptions, namely, (i) the building is conditioned and (ii) the building is not
conditioned. The commercial building has been considered to be conditioned and the industrial
building, not conditioned. The residential building has been investigated under both conditions.
Comfort requirements are stringent in the conditioned commercial building, hence set points for
heating and cooling were taken as 21 and 24C respectively. For the conditioned bungalow,
however, they were relaxed to 20C for heating and 25C for cooling. For the ground floor of the
commercial building, the corresponding values were 19 and 26C. This is because the ground floor
is used for loading and unloading of materials and hence, the shutters are opened more frequently
to ambient conditions. The monthly as well as annual cooling and heating loads for each building
type and for each of the six cities mentioned earlier, are presented graphically. The share of loads
through various building components is also given. The components are: (i) surfaces: heat transfer
from all surfaces to the room air, (ii) air exchanges: the heat transfer caused by air exchanges, and
(iii) internal gain: the convective heat gains due to metabolic heat released by occupants and that
released by equipment and lights. The percentage-wise heat gains and losses due to the
components on a monthly basis are presented graphically for easier interpretation. It may be noted
that the percentage values are based on absolute numbers.
In the case of non-conditioned buildings, the room temperatures have been calculated.
From these, the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures of each room are used for
comparison. Additionally, two other performance indicators have been used for comparison. One
of them is the percentage of hours in a year that each room is within the comfortable temperature
range. This range is based on the monthly adaptive comfort temperature (ACT) of a place [5],
which is defined as:
(5.1)
ACT = 16.2 + 0.41 Tm
where, Tm is the monthly mean ambient dry bulb temperature. For annual percentage, the lower
limit of the range is ACT-2.2oC for the coldest month of the place, and the upper limit is
ACT+2.2oC for the hottest month of the place.
The other parameter used for comparison of non-conditioned buildings is the comfort
fraction i.e. CF, which is defined as [5]:
CF = 1 - Discomfort Degree Hours / 105.6
(5.2)
where, discomfort degree hours (DDH) is the sum of the hourly room air temperatures outside the
comfort zone defined by ACT 2.2 C.
The procedure for calculation of the comfort fraction is explained as follows:
Calculate monthly ACT from Eq. 5.1 and plot ACT 2.2 C against the hour of the
day. The zone defined by ACT 2.2 C is called as comfort zone. (Figure 5.6 shows an
example).
Find out the hourly room air temperature for the average day of the month and plot it in
the same figure.
Find out the deviations (absolute values) of room air temperatures from the comfort
zone. (Values are tabulated along the side of the plot in Fig. 5.6 for the example case).
The sum of these values are the discomfort degree hours.
Calculate the comfort fraction using Eq. 5.2.
The maximum value of CF is 1, which means quite comfortable. A negative value of CF
indicates acute discomfort. On the other hand, a value approaching 1 indicates comfort.
The graphs for hourly variation of room temperatures for a typical day of January and that
of May representing winter and summer months respectively, are also presented along with the
corresponding ambient temperature and comfort zone. This provides a direct comparison of room
conditions vis--vis ambient along with the comfort requirements (based on ACT).
Following this methodology, the results have been generated both for conditioned and nonconditioned buildings. Such results have been grouped as "base case studies". The parameters
considered for the base case are listed in Table 5.1 for all the three buildings. In order to ascertain
the effects of various design and operational parameters on the thermal performance of a building,
parametric studies have been carried out. The design parameters include building orientation,
window area, window types, shading, roof types, wall-types and colour of external surfaces. The
operational parameters include air change rate with its scheduling effect, internal gain and set
points (in conditioned building), etc. In the commercial building, the scheduling of air changes has
been carried out on all floors except the ground floor. This is because ground floor doors are
frequently opened and closed due to user requirements. Hence, controlling air change rates at
specific times would be difficult in practice. The effect of window area was investigated only in
the case of commercial building; the base case of this building refers to the design where the
window height is of full height, extending from ceiling to the floor. The effect of reducing its size
to 1.2 m was studied. The window types include plain glass, single reflective coated glass, double
glazing, double glazing with one pane of low-emissivity (low-E) glass and double glazing with one
pane of reflective coated glass. Shadings of 10, 20 and 50 % of window area for the commercial
building and bungalow, and 10 and 20 % for the industrial building were considered. The
apartment building has horizontal overhangs on the windows; the effect of the absence of the
overhangs (i.e., no-shading) is investigated for this building. The roof types include RCC roof with
brick-bat-coba waterproofing, plain RCC roof with bitumen felt
RO OM
30. 0
AM BIENT
ACT
ACT+ 2. 2
Temperature (C)
25. 0
ACT-2.2
20. 0
15. 0
10. 0
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Hou r (h)
TEMPERAT URE (C)

TIME (h)
DDH
ROOM
23.0
23.0
22.5
22.0
21.5
20.8
19.0
18.0
18.7
21.0
23.0
25.5
27.0
28.0
29.0
29.0
28.0
27.0
26.0
25.5
24.5
24.0
23.7
23.0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
AMBIENT
14.3
13.8
13.3
12.9
12.6
12.5
12.9
14.1
15.6
17.0
18.2
19.3
20.2
20.8
21.1
21.2
21.0
20.4
19.4
18.2
17.0
16.2
15.5
14.9
Av erage monthly temperature (Tm)=

ACT
CF
=
=
ACT
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
ACT+2.2 ACT-2.2
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
25.3
20.9
SUM DDH =
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
1.9
2.9
2.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
1.7
2.7
3.7
3.7
2.7
1.8
0.7
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
24.6
16.8 C
23.1 C
0.8
DDH = Discomfort Degree Hours
Fig. 5.6 Example of calculation of Adaptive Comfort Temperature (ACT) and Comfort
Fraction (CF)
Table 5.1 Parameters of base case

Parameters
Commercial
building
Reflective coated
(single pane)
RCC with
brick-bat-coba
waterproofing
Concrete block wall
Clear glass
(single pane)
RCC
with brick-bat-coba
waterproofing
Brick
Clear glass
(single pane)
RCC
with brick-bat-coba
waterproofing
Brick
Colour of external
surface
Air exchange rate (ach )
White
Brick red
Brick red
Building orientation
(longer axis)
Heating
Set point (C)
Northwest-southeast
Glazing type
Roof type
Wall type
Cooling
Shading
5.0 (ground floor)

1.0 (Rest floors)
19 (Ground floor)
21 (Rest floors)
26 (Ground floor)
24 (Rest floors)
No shading
Industrial building
6.0
North-south
Bungalow
Conditioned: 0.5 (Srinagar & Leh)

1.0 (other places)
Non-conditioned: 1.5 (Srinagar)
0.5 (Leh)
3.0 (other places)
East-west
20
25
No shading
No shading
waterproofing and RCC roof with polyurethane foam (PUF) insulation. The wall types considered
were brick wall, concrete block wall, autoclaved cellular concrete block wall (e.g. Siporex) and
brick wall with expanded polystyrene insulation. Four colours, namely, white, cream, brick red
(puff shade) and dark grey were considered for the external wall surfaces. Table 5.2 lists various
options investigated for different cases. It also lists the variations studied for air change rates,
internal gain, orientation and set points. The results of the parametric studies are presented in
tabular form for each building type for each of the six cities. The effects of the various parameters
are compared vis--vis the base case. In the conditioned buildings, the energy saved annually is
presented in terms of loads (MJ) and percentage savings (%). A positive value indicates a saving
whereas a negative value shows that the base case is better. In non-conditioned buildings, the
results are presented in terms of the number of comfortable hours in a year. This is also presented
as a percentage improvement over the base case. A positive percentage value means an increase in
number of comfortable hours with respect to the base case. A negative value indicates that the
number of comfortable hours has reduced.
Based on these predictions, specific recommendations are made for each building type, for
each of the six climates vis--vis their design and operational parameters. Additionally, this
information has been summarised in tabular form at the end of this chapter (under section 5.6) for
the readers convenience and for quick reference. From the study of individual parameters, the best
condition is identified and the combined effects of such parameters (excluding building orientation
and internal gain) are investigated. This result is termed as the "best case". In addition to design
and operational parameters listed in Table 5.2, the roof surface evaporative cooling technique has
been evaluated for two building types in warm climates (Jodhpur, Mumbai, Pune and New Delhi).
The performance results for these building types (industrial and residential bungalow) are
presented in Appendix V.1.
The commercial building investigated has large internal gains, a fact that has a significant
bearing on the performance of the building. Therefore, the parametric performance of this building
with zero internal gains was also investigated. Appendix V.2 presents the results of such
calculations for a composite climate (New Delhi).
5.4
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
The general recommendations based on climatic requirements are discussed in this section.
These are applicable to almost all types of building designs.
5.4.1 Hot and Dry Climate
The hot and dry climate is characterised by very high radiation levels and ambient
temperatures, accompanied by low relative humidity. Therefore, it is desirable to keep the heat out
of the building, and if possible, increase the humidity level. The design objectives accordingly are:
(A) Resist heat gain by:
Decreasing the exposed surface
Increasing the thermal resistance
Increasing the thermal capacity
Increasing the buffer spaces
Decreasing the air-exchange rate during daytime
Increasing the shading
Building type
Glazing
type
Commercial**
Industrial
Bungalow
Wall type
Table 5.2 Parameters investigated

Design parameters
Air
Colour of Roof type
Building
Shading
*
external
Orientation exchange
(% of
(ach)
surface
window
area)
White,
Dark Grey
concrete
block wall,
Autoclaved
cellular
concrete
block wall
B
(Conditioned)
Bungalow
RCC with
Northwestbrick-bat-coba southeast;
waterproofing East-west;
North-south;
Northeastsouthwest
D
Northwestsoutheast;
East-west,
North-south;
Northeastsouthwest
D
East-west;
North-south
D
(Nonconditioned)
East-west;
North-south
heating
0, 10, 20,
50
0, 10, 50
24
25
21
20
3.0, 6.0,
9.0, 12.0
0, 10, 20
20, 40
----
-----
0.5, 1.5
0, 10, 20,
50
0, 50
25
26
20
19
0.5, 1.5,
3.0+, 6.0+,
9.0+
0, 10, 20,
50
0, 50
----
------
B
Brick wall
C
Brick Red
Single pane reflective coated glass
Brick wall with expanded polystyrene insulation

(inner side )
Autoclaved cellular concrete block wall
White
Concrete block wall
Dark Grey
Double pane reflective coated glass

Double pane low-E glass
cooling
0.5, 1.0,
2.0, 4.0
A
Single pane clear glass
Double pane clear glass
Operational parameters
Internal gain
Set point (C)
(% of base
case)
Cream
D
RCC with brick-bat-coba
waterproofing
RCC with Bitumen felt water
proofing
RCC with polyurethane foam
insulation
*Scheduling of air exchanges are considered for all buildings (promoting air exchanges when ambient air is comfortable compared to room air )
** Reduction of window height to 1.2 m in place of fully glazed curtain walls considered as an additional parameter for the commercial building
+ Not considered for Srinagar and Leh
(B) Promote heat loss by:

(a) Ventilation of appliances
(b) Increasing the air exchange rate during cooler parts of the day or night-time
(c) Evaporative cooling (e.g. roof surface evaporative cooling)
(d) Earth coupling (e.g. earth-air pipe system)
The general recommendations for the climate are summarised as follows:
(1) Site
(a) Landform: Regions in this zone are generally flat, hence the surrounding areas tend to heat
up uniformly. In case of an undulating site, constructing on the leeward side of the slope is
preferred so that the effect of hot dusty winds is reduced. In case ventilation is assured, then
building in a depression is preferable as cool air tends to sink in valleys (Fig. 5.7).
(b) Waterbodies: Waterbodies such as ponds and lakes not only act as heat sinks, but can also be
used for evaporative cooling. Hot air blowing over water gets cooled which can then be allowed to
enter the building. Fountains and water cascades in the vicinity of a building aid this process (Fig.
5.8 and 5.9).
(c) Street width and orientation: Streets must be narrow so that they cause mutual shading of
buildings (Fig. 5.10). They need to be oriented in the north-south direction to block solar radiation.
(d) Open spaces and built form: Open spaces such as courtyards and atria are beneficial as they
promote ventilation. In addition, they can be provided with ponds and fountains for evaporative
cooling. Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day and radiate the heat back to the ambient at
night. The size of the courtyards should be such that the mid-morning and the hot afternoon sun are
avoided. Grass can be used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid evaporative cooling
(Fig. 5.11). Earth-coupled building (e.g. earth berming) can help lower the temperature and also
deflect hot summer winds.
Fig. 5.7
Fig. 5.8
Fig. 5.9
Fig. 5.10
(2) Orientation and planform
An east-west orientation (i.e. longer axis along the east-west), (Fig. 5.12) should be preferred. This
is due to the fact that south and north facing walls are easier to shade than east and west walls. It may be
noted that during summer, it is the north wall which gets significant exposure to solar radiation in most
parts of India, leading to very high temperatures in north-west rooms. For example, in Jodhpur, rooms
facing north-west can attain a maximum temperature exceeding 38 C. Hence, shading of the north wall is
imperative. The surface to volume (S/V) ratio should be kept as minimum as possible to reduce heat gains
(Fig. 5.13). Cross-ventilation must be ensured at night as ambient temperatures during this period are low.
Fig. 5.11
Fig. 5.12
(3) Building envelope

(a) Roof: The diurnal range of temperature being large, the ambient night temperatures are about
10 C lower than the daytime values and are accompanied by cool breezes. Hence, flat roofs may
be considered in this climate as they can be used for sleeping at night in summer as well as for
daytime activities in winter. The material of the roof should be massive; a reinforced cement
concrete (RCC) slab is preferred to asbestos cement (AC) sheet roof. External insulation in the
form of mud phuska with inverted earthen pots is also suitable. A false ceiling in rooms having
exposed roofs can help in reducing the discomfort level [6]. Sodha et al. [7] have reported that the
provision of roof insulation yields greater lifecycle savings compared to walls in this climate.
Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night-time radiative cooling can also be employed. In
case the former is used, it is better to use a roof having high thermal transmittance (a high U-value
roof rather than one with lower U-value). The larger the roof area, the better is the cooling effect.
The maximum requirement of water per day for a place like Jodhpur is about 14.0 kg per square
metre of roof area cooled. Spraying of water is preferable to an open roof pond system [7]. One
may also consider of using a vaulted roof (Fig. 5.14) since it provides a larger surface area for heat
loss compared to a flat roof.
Fig. 5.13
Fig. 5.14
(b) Walls: In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat gain. It is
estimated that they contribute to about 80% of the annual cooling load of such buildings [6]. So,
the control of heat gain through the walls by shading is an important consideration in building
design. One can also use a wall with low U-value to reduce the heat gain. However, the
effectiveness of such walls depends on the building type. For example, in a non-conditioned
building, autoclaved cellular concrete block wall is not recommended; whereas it is desirable in a
conditioned building.
(c) Fenestration:In hot and dry climates, minimising the window area (in terms of glazing) can
definitely lead to lower indoor temperatures. It is found that providing a glazing size of 10% of the
floor area gives better performance than that of 20% [6]. More windows should be provided in the
north facade of the building as compared to the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation
during the year (Fig. 5.15). All openings should be protected from the sun by using external
shading devices such as chajjas and fins (Fig. 5.16-5.17). Moveable shading devices such as
curtains and venetian blinds can also be used. Openings are preferred at higher levels (ventilators)
as they help in venting hot air. Since daytime temperatures are high during summer, the windows
should be kept closed to keep the hot air out and opened during night-time to admit cooler air.
Radiation (KWh/m -year)
The use of jaalis(lattice work) made of wood, stone or RCC may be considered as they
allow ventilation while blocking solar radiation. Scheduling air changes (i.e. high air change rate at
night and during cooler periods of the day, and lower ones during daytime) can
Fig. 5.15 Yearly beam radiation incident on an unshaded window (1.2m x 1.2 m)
Fig. 5.16
Fig. 5.17
significantly help in reducing the discomfort. The heat gain through windows can be
reduced by using glass with low transmissivity.
(a) Colour and texture: Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for lowering
indoor
temperatures. Colours having low absorptivity should be used to paint the external surface.
Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation. The surface
of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles (china mosaic flooring). The surface of the
wall should preferably be textured to facilitate self shading.
Remarks: As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should be designed such
that they encourage direct gain during this period. Deciduous trees can be used to shade the
building during summer and admit sunlight during winter. There is a general tendency to think that
well-insulated and very thick walls give a good thermal performance. This is true only if the
glazing is kept to a minimum and windows are well-shaded, as is found in traditional architecture.
However, in case of non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls and high
percentage of glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor conditions. This is because the
building will act like a green house or oven, as the insulated walls will prevent the radiation
admitted through windows from escaping back to the environment. Indoor plants can be provided
near the window, as they help in evaporative cooling and in absorbing solar radiation. Evaporative
cooling and earth-air pipe systems can be used effectively in this climate. Desert coolers are
extensively used in this climate, and if properly sized, they can alleviate discomfort by as much as
90% [7].
5.4.2 Warm and Humid Climate
The warm and humid climate is characterised by high temperatures accompanied by very
high humidity leading to discomfort. Thus, cross ventilation is both desirable and essential.
Protection from direct solar radiation should also be ensured by shading.
The main objectives of building design in this zone should be:

(a) Decreasing exposed surface area
(b) Increasing thermal resistance
(c) Increasing buffer spaces
(d) Increasing shading
(e) Increasing reflectivity
(B) To promote heat loss by:
(b) Increasing air exchange rate (ventilation) throughout the day
(c) Decreasing humidity levels
The general recommendations for building design in the warm and humid climate are as follows:
(1) Site
(a) Landform: The consideration of landform is immaterial for a flat site. However, if there
are
slopes and depressions, then the building should be located on the windward side or crest to
take advantage of cool breezes (Fig. 5.18).
(b) Waterbodies: Since humidity is high in these regions, water bodies are not essential.
(c) Open spaces and built form: Buildings should be spread out with large open spaces for
unrestricted air movement (Fig. 5.19). In cities, buildings on stilts can promote ventilation
and cause cooling at the ground level.
Fig. 5.18
Fig. 5.19
(d) Street width and orientation: Major streets should

be oriented parallel to or within 30 of the prevailing
wind direction during summer months to encourage
ventilation in warm and humid regions. A north-south
direction is ideal from the point of view of blocking solar
radiation. The width of the streets should be such that the
intense solar radiation during late morning and early
afternoon is avoided in summer.
Fig. 5.20
Since the temperatures are not excessive, free

plans can be evolved as long as the house is under
protective shade. An unobstructed air path through the
interiors is important. The buildings could be long and
narrow to allow cross-ventilation. For example, a singly
loaded corridor plan (i.e. rooms on one side only) can be
adopted instead of a doubly loaded one (Fig. 5.20). Heat
and moisture producing areas must be ventilated and
separated from the rest of the structure (Fig. 5.21) [8].
Since temperatures in the shade are not very high, semiopen spaces such as balconies, verandahs and porches
can be used advantageously for daytime activities. Such
spaces also give protection from rainfall. In multistoreyed buildings a central courtyard can be provided
with vents at higher levels to draw away the rising hot air
(Fig. 5.22).
Fig. 5.21
Fig. 5.22
(a) Roof: In addition to providing shelter from rain

and heat, the form of the roof should be planned
to promote air flow. Vents at the roof top
effectively induce ventilation and draw hot air
out (Fig. 5.23). As diurnal temperature variation
is low, insulation does not provide any additional
benefit for a normal reinforced cement concrete
(RCC) roof in a non-conditioned building [6].
However, very thin roofs having low thermal
mass, such as asbestos cement (AC) sheet
roofing, do require insulation as they tend to
rapidly radiate heat into the interiors during
daytime. A double roof with a ventilated space in
between can also be used to promote air flow.
(a) Walls: As with roofs, the walls must also be designed to promote air flow. Baffle walls, both
inside and outside the building can help to divert the flow of wind inside (Fig. 5.24). They should
be protected from the heavy rainfall prevalent in such areas. If adequately sheltered, exposed brick
walls and mud plastered walls work very well by absorbing the humidity and helping the building
to breathe. Again, as for roofs, insulation does not significantly improve the performance of a nonconditioned building [6].
Fig. 5.23
Fig. 5.24
(b) Fenestration: Cross-ventilation is important in the warm and humid regions. All doors and
windows are preferably kept open for maximum ventilation for most of the year. These must be
provided with venetian blinds or louvers to shelter the rooms from the sun and rain, as well as for
the control of air movement [9]. Openings of a comparatively smaller size can be placed on the
windward side, while the corresponding openings on the leeward side may be bigger for
facilitating a plume effect for natural ventilation (Fig. 5.25). The openings should be shaded by
external overhangs. Outlets at higher levels serve to vent hot air (Fig. 5.26). A few examples
illustrating how the air movement within a room can be better distributed, are shown in Fig. 5.27 5.29.
Fig. 5.25
Fig. 5.26
Fig. 5.27
Fig. 5.28
Fig. 5.29
(c) Colour and texture: The walls should be painted with light pastel shades or whitewashed,
while the surface of the roof can be of broken glazed tile (china mosaic flooring). Both techniques
help to reflect the sunlight back to the ambient, and hence reduce heat gain of the building. The use
of appropriate colours and surface finishes is a cheap and very effective technique to lower indoor
temperatures. It is worth mentioning that the surface finish should be protected from/ resistant to
the effects of moisture, as this can otherwise lead to growth of mould and result in the decay of
building elements.
Remarks: Ceiling fans are effective in reducing the level of discomfort in this type of climate. Desiccant
cooling techniques can also be employed as they reduce the humidity level. Careful water proofing and
drainage of water are essential considerations of building design due to heavy rainfall. In case of airconditioned buildings, dehumidification plays a significant role in the design of the plant.
5.4.3
Moderate Climate
Temperatures are neither too high nor too low in regions with a moderate climate. Hence, simple
techniques are normally adequate to take care of the heating and cooling requirements of the building.
Techniques such as shading, cross ventilation, orientation, reflective glazing, etc. should be incorporated in
the building. The thermal resistance and heat capacity of walls and roofs need not be high. These simple
measures can reduce the number of uncomfortable hours in a building significantly. For example, in Pune,
the uncomfortable hours in a year can be reduced by as much as 89% by incorporating simple techniques
in building design [6]. The room temperature can be brought within the comfort limit (i.e. less than 30 C)
even in the month of May [6].
The main objectives while designing buildings in this zone should be:
(a) Decreasing the exposed surface area
(b) Increasing the thermal resistance
(c) Increasing the shading
(B) Promote heat loss by:
(b) Increasing the air exchange rate (ventilation)
In this region, the general recommendations are as follows:
(1) Site
(a) Landform: Building the structure on the windward slopes is preferable for getting cool
Breezes (Fig. 5.30).
(b) Open spaces and built form: An open and free layout of the buildings is preferred. Large open
spaces in the form of lawns can be provided to reduce reflected radiation.
.28
Fig. 5.30

It is preferable to have a building oriented in the north-south direction. Bedrooms may be located
on the eastern side, and an open porch on the south - southeast side, while the western side should ideally
be well-shaded. Humidity producing areas must be isolated. Sunlight is desirable except in summer, so the
depth of the interiors may not be excessive [10].
(a) Roof: Insulating the roof does not make much of a difference in the moderate climate [6].
(b) Walls: Insulation of walls does not give significant improvement in the thermal performance
of a building. A brick wall of 230 mm thickness is good enough [6].
(c) Fenestration: The arrangement of windows is important for reducing heat gain. Windows can
be larger in the north, while those on the east, west and south should be smaller. All the windows
should be shaded with chajjas of appropriate lengths. Glazing of low transmissivity should be used.
(d) Colour and texture: Pale colours are preferable; dark colours may be used only in recessed
places protected from the summer sun.
5.4.4
Cold and Cloudy, and Cold and Sunny Climates
These regions experience very cold winters, hence, trapping and using the suns heat whenever it is
available, is of prime concern in building design. The internal heat should not be lost back to the ambient.
The insulation of building elements and control of infiltration help in retaining the heat. Exposure to cold
winds should also be minimized.
The main objectives while designing buildings in these zones are:
(A) Resist heat loss by:
(a) Decreasing the exposed surface area
(b) Increasing the thermal resistance
(c) Increasing the thermal capacity
(d) Increasing the buffer spaces
(e) Decreasing the air exchange rate
(B) Promote heat gain by:
(a) Avoiding excessive shading
(b) Utilising the heat from appliances
(c) Trapping the heat of the sun.
The general recommendations for regions with a cold and cloudy, or cold and sunny climate are given
below.
(1) Site
(a) Landform: In cold climates, heat gain is desirable. Hence, buildings should be located on the
south slope of a hill or mountain for better access to solar radiation (Fig. 5.31). At the same time,
the exposure to cold winds can be minimised by locating the building on the leeward side. Parts of
the site which offer natural wind barrier can be chosen for constructing a building.
(b) Open spaces and built forms: Buildings in cold climates should be clustered together to
minimise exposure to cold winds (Fig. 5.32). Open spaces must be such that they allow maximum
south sun. They should be treated with a hard and reflective surface so that they reflect solar
radiation onto the building (Fig. 5.33).
Fig. 5.31
Fig. 5.32
(c) Street width and orientation: In cold climates, the street orientation should be east-west to
allow for maximum south sun to enter the building. The street should be wide enough to ensure
that the buildings on one side do not shade those on the other side (i.e. solar access should be
ensured) (Fig. 5.34).
Fig. 5.33
Fig. 5.34

In the cold zones, the buildings must be compact with small S/V ratios (Fig. 5.35). This is because
the lesser the surface area, the lower is the heat loss from the building. Windows should preferably face
south to encourage direct gain. The north side of the building should be well-insulated. Living areas can be
located on the southern side while utility areas such as stores can be on the northern side. Air-lock lobbies
at the entrance and exit points of the building reduce heat loss. The heat generated by appliances in rooms
such as kitchens may be recycled to heat the other parts of the building.
Fig. 5.35
Fig. 5.36

(a) Roof: False ceilings are a regular roof feature of houses in cold climates. One can also use
internal insulation such as polyurethane foam (PUF), thermocol, wood wool, etc. An aluminium
foil is generally used between the insulation layer and the roof to reduce heat loss to the exterior. A
sufficiently sloping roof enables quick drainage of rain water and snow. A solar air collector can
be incorporated on the south facing slope of the roof and hot air from it can be used for space
heating purposes. Skylights on the roofs admit heat as well as light in winters (Fig. 5.36). The
skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.
(b) Walls: Walls should be of low U-value to resist heat loss. The south-facing walls (exposed to
solar radiation) could be of high thermal capacity (such as Trombe wall) to store day time heat for
later use. The walls should also be insulated. The insulation should have sufficient vapour barrier
(such as two coats of bitumen, 300 to 600 gauge polyethylene sheet or aluminium foil) on the
warm side to avoid condensation. Hollow and lightweight concrete blocks are also quite suitable
[11]. On the windward or north side, a cavity wall type of construction may be adopted.
(c) Fenestration: It is advisable to have the maximum window area on the southern side of the
building to facilitate direct heat gain. They should be sealed and preferably double glazed. Double
glazing helps to avoid heat losses during winter nights. However, care should be taken to prevent
condensation in the air space between the panes. Movable shades should be provided to prevent
overheating in summers.
(d)Colour and texture: The external surfaces of the walls should be dark in colour for high
absorptivity to facilitate heat gains.
5.4.5
Composite Climate
The composite climate displays the characteristics of hot and dry, warm and humid as well as cold
climates. Designs here are guided by longer prevailing climatic conditions. The duration of
uncomfortable periods in each season has to be compared to derive an order of priorities. India being a
tropical country, most of the design decisions would pertain to cooling. For example, the general
recommendations for hot and dry climates would be applicable for New Delhi for most of the year except
monsoon, when ventilation is essential.
5.5
SPECIFIC GUIDELINES
The specific guidelines for a commercial building (conditioned), an industrial building (nonconditioned) and a residential building (conditioned and non-conditioned) have been formulated based on
simulation studies, and are discussed in this section.
5.5.1 Hot and Dry Climate (Representative city: Jodhpur)
5.5.1.1 Commercial Building
A large multi-storeyed building (Fig. 5.1) has been considered as an example of a commercial
building; it is assumed to be centrally air-conditioned. Figure 5.37 presents the heating and cooling loads of
the building on a monthly as well as annual basis for Jodhpur (hot and dry climate). The heating load is
negligible whereas the cooling load is dominant, cooling being required throughout the year. The load
profiles generally follow the climatic conditions; the highest cooling load occurs in summer (May), lower
loads during monsoon (August and September) and the lowest loads in winter (December, January and
February). The monthly variation of the percentage of loads through various building components is shown
in Fig. 5.38. It is seen that the cooling requirement is primarily because of the heat gains from the surfaces
and internal gains due to equipment and people. Thus, the building construction could be made more
resistant to heat gain by choosing appropriate materials and paints, by shading external surfaces of the
building, by reducing exposed glazing area, etc. Energy efficient equipment and lighting systems may be
used to reduce the internal gains. Scheduling of air changes to promote air exchanges from November to
February, when the ambient air is cooler and more comfortable compared to room air, would help to reduce
the cooling loads. In summer months, air exchanges add to the cooling loads and hence need to be
controlled.
Table 5.3 shows the floor-wise distribution of loads. It is seen that the usage pattern of the building
has a significant impact on the loads. For instance, the energy required for cooling is maximum on the
ground floor. This is because of the frequent opening of the shutters on ground floor, resulting in a high
heat gain due to air exchanges. Besides, there is a significant internal gain due to operation of equipment
and a high occupancy level. Similarly, the cooling loads of the second and third floors are significantly
higher than those of other floors as they are occupied on a 24-hour basis throughout the week. The gain due
to air exchanges may be reduced by preventing the leakage of hot ambient air from entering the building by
sealing all cracks and providing air-lock lobbies on the ground floor.
1000000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
0%
COOLING
100%
Fig. 5.37 Monthly and annual heating and cooling loads of the commercial building
-Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Surface
100%
80%
Internal Gain
60%
Air exchange
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month
Fig. 5.38 Component-wise distribution of percentage heat gains and losses on a monthly
basis of the commercial building- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Table 5.3-Floorwise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the commercial
building Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Cooling load (MJ)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
GR
11044
33614
99715
162474
208599
199222
166567
148625
135993
121739
53564
19623
1360779
F1
23877
29955
47829
57586
70259
62770
58184
57450
49582
55810
39640
25765
578707
F2
31676
46404
89831
120609
148179
140774
124788
116923
107131
105610
65444
37659
1135027
F3
32906
47009
91138
123121
151518
144185
127597
119163
109458
107427
65913
38606
1158040
F4
26290
32841
53215
65744
81004
72729
67132
65656
56474
63100
43798
28286
656269
F5
15262
23368
45454
61059
77330
69448
62433
59721
51120
56316
34396
18191
574097
F6
22024
31969
58930
77418
97427
87696
79505
76557
65379
71415
44968
25204
738493
F7
5407
12660
31078
45044
58629
52430
45738
43093
36736
39934
21124
8187
400061
Total
168486
257819
517190
713055
892943
829255
731944
687189
611873
621350
368847
201521
6601472
F6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F7
64
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
64
Total
64
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
64
Heating load (MJ)

Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
GR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
GR=Ground Floor, F1=First floor, F2=Second floor, F3=Third Floor, F4=Fourth floor,
F5=Fifth floor, F6=Sixth Floor, F7=Seventh floor
The effects of building parameters on the annual loads of the building are presented in Table 5.4.
The consequent percentage load reduction for each parameter compared to the base case is also tabulated.
It may be noted that the total annual load of the building is quite high. Even a one percent reduction in this
load would result in significant energy savings. The following guidelines are recommended for a
commercial building in a hot and dry climatic region like Jodhpur:
(a) Design Parameters
(i) Building orientation
Appropriate orientation of the building can reduce the annual load significantly. The building
(Fig.5.1) with its glazed curtain wall facing northwest shows a substantial reduction in load
compared to the southwest orientation (base case) the percentage reduction being 9.4. The
west and north orientations are also better than the base case.
(ii) Glazing type
Double glazing with reflective coated glass gives the best performance. It reduces the load by
2.1% compared to single pane reflective coated glass (base case). Single pane clear, double
pane clear and double low-E glass increase the annual load by 10.1, 8.0 and 1.4% respectively
and hence are not recommended.
Window size
(a)
The reduction of the glazing size to a 1.2 m height compared to a fully glazed curtain wall
decreases the annual load by 7.0%. This is due to the reduction in solar gain, and thus the use
of larger expanses of glass in such a building is not desirable as it leads to higher annual loads.
(iv) Shading
The reduction in solar gain by shading of windows (by means of external projections such as
chajjas) causes a decrease in the heat gain and hence the annual load is reduced. If 50% of the
window areas are shaded throughout the year, the percentage load reduction is 9.2.
(v) Wall type
A wall having low U-value (insulating type such as autoclaved cellular concrete block) reduces
the load compared to the concrete block wall (base case) by 2.1%. Thus, insulation of walls is
recommended.
(vi) Colour of the external surface
Dark colours on the walls of such a commercial building should be avoided. For example, if
dark grey is used, the percentage increase in load is 4.3 compared to a white surface (base
case).
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is preferable compared to 1, 2 and 4 ach. The percentage
reduction in the annual load is 2.0 compared to the base case of 1 ach.
(b) Operational Parameters
The operational parameters such as internal gain, set point and scheduling of air changes can
help in reducing the annual load of the building. The effects are summarised as follows.
(i) Internal gain
The lower the internal gain, the better is the performance of the building in reducing the
annual load.
Table 5.4 Annual savings due to building design and operational parameters
for the commercial building- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Parameter
Base case
Orientation (longer axis)
North-south
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Glazing type
Single clear
Double clear
Double low-E
Double reflective coated
Glazing size (restricted to 1.2m
height)
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
Autoclaved cellular concrete
Colour of external surface
Dark grey
Air exchange rate
0.5
2
4
Internal gain
10%
50%
No internal gain
Set point
cooling: 25 C
heating: 20 C
Scheduling of air exchanges
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling Heating
Total
6601472
64
6601536
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
6088713
5978737
6385516
1850
1476
389
6090563
5980213
6385905
510973
621323
215631
7.7
9.4
3.3
7269940
7128218
6690662
6465326
6139193
0
0
0
0
14
7269940
7128218
6690662
6465326
6139207
-668404
-526682
-89126
136210
462329
-10.1
-8.0
-1.4
2.1
7.0
6479553
6357878
5995191
167
287
949
6479720
6358165
5996139
121816
243371
605397
1.8
3.7
9.2
6460568
20
6460588
140948
2.1
6883389
6883390
-281854
-4.3
6469405
6886651
7524210
0
1297
28560
6469405
6887948
7552770
132131
-286412
-951234
2.0
-4.3
-14.4
3578640
4857419
3278665
6161889
25472
1513
43330
0
3604112
4858932
3321995
6161889
2997424
1742604
3279541
439647
45.4
26.4
49.7
6.7
6429115
15621
6444735
156801
2.4
(ii) Set Point

The annual load of the building reduces if the set points for comfort cooling and heating are
relaxed. If the cooling and heating set points of 25 and 200C respectively are used (compared
to 24 and 210C), the percentage reduction in annual load is 6.7. Thus, a change in the
expectation of comfort can lead to significant savings.
(a)
The scheduling of air changes to promote air entry during cooler periods (such as nights or
winters) and controlling it during warmer periods (during daytime or summer) can lead to
significant reduction of annual load the percentage reduction being 2.4.
The combination of all design and operational parameters discussed (excluding building orientation
and internal gain), results in a load reduction of 26.1 percent.
5.5.1.2 Industrial Building

Figure 5.3 shows the plan of an industrial building investigated for developing design
guidelines. It is a non-conditioned building and hence indoor room temperatures are estimated.
Table 5.5 presents the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures. It also shows the
yearly comfortable hours, both in numbers as well as percentage, of the shed and store for the
Jodhpur climate. It has been found that the maximum temperatures of the rooms (i.e. the shed on
ground floor and store on first floor) can exceed 40 C. The yearly average room temperature of
the shed is 34.5 C and is about 7.6 C above the yearly average ambient temperature. Thus, the
emphasis should be on cooling considerations. Overheating in the shed occurs due to high internal
gains because of the operation of large machines, occupants, and lighting. The number of
comfortable hours in a year does not exceed 35% for both the shed and the store. In other words,
the shed and store are uncomfortable for more than 65% of the year.
Table 5.5 Performance of the industrial building on an annual basis- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Room
Shed
Store
Ambient
Yearly room temperature (C)

MIN
22.0
17.1
11.4
MAX
45.1
40.2
40.3
Comfortable hours in a
year (h)
Percentage of yearly
comfortable hours
3098
4098
4838
35
47
55
AVG
34.5
30.2
26.9
MIN = Minimum, MAX = Maximum, AVG = Average

Table 5.6 Performance of the industrial building on a monthly basis- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Comfort index
Comfort
fraction
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Room
Shed
Store
0.79
0.72
0.56
0.91
-0.06
0.80
-0.81
0.28
-1.22
-0.15
-1.19
-0.15
-0.82
0.25
0.02
0.19
-0.54
0.54
-0.36
0.66
0.32
0.95
0.72
0.80
Table 5.6 shows the monthly performance of the shed and store in terms of the comfort
fraction. The shed is extremely uncomfortable from March to July, and from September to
October. The store is relatively more comfortable during the same period. The hourly variation of
room temperatures for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are presented in
Fig. 5.39 and 5.40 respectively. The figures show that in January, both the shed and the store are
within or close to the comfort zone. The shed is mostly comfortable at night, while the store is
mostly comfortable
45.0
SHED
40.0
STORE
AMBIENT
Temperature ( C)
35.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
30.0
ACT-2.2
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
Fig. 5.39 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in January
- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
50.0
45.0
40.0
Temperature ( C)
35.0
30.0
25.0
SHED
STORE
20.0
AMBIENT
15.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
10.0
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.40 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in May Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
during daytime. In May, both the rooms are well above the comfort zone. The store temperature
exceeds 35 C almost throughout the day. The shed is even worse, with temperatures exceeding 40
C and almost touching 45 C. Thus both rooms are extremely hot in May. The main reason for
such thermal behaviour of the building is because of its large internal gains due to equipment and
occupancy level. The results show that cooling is a prime consideration for design. Comfortable
conditions could be achieved by reducing heat gains and promoting heat loss. Heat gain from the
building surfaces may be reduced by appropriate orientation, shading, glazing, colour, etc. Energy
efficient equipment could be used for reducing the internal heat gains. Further, ventilation can
promote heat loss during cooler periods (such as nights or winters) and control heat gain during
warmer periods (during daytime or summers). Higher air change rates (compared to the base case
of 6 ach) is recommended for all hours of the day in the summer months, and between 12 to 18
hours in the winter months (Fig. 5.39 and 5.40).
Table 5.7 presents the number of comfortable hours in a year due to various parameters for
the shed. The corresponding percentage increase or decrease (-) in comfortable hours compared to
the base case is also presented in the table.
The building orientation has no significant because the building has substantial internal
gains.
(ii) Glazing type
Single pane reflective coated glass is recommended over plain glass (base case) because
it shows a marginal increase (about 3.4%) in yearly comfortable hours.
(iii) Shading
The shading of windows reduces heat gain and increases the yearly comfortable hours.
(iv) Wall type
A concrete block wall is better than the brick wall (base case); the performance
improves by about 4.7%.
(v) Roof type
Insulation of the roof is not desirable. An RCC roof with bitumen felt water proofing
layer increases the yearly comfortable hours by 4.1% compared to RCC with brick-batcoba water proofing.
White and cream colours are desirable over puff shade (base case) or dark grey. The
percentage increase in comfortable hours due to these colours compared to the base
case are 6.2 and 4.4 respectively.
(vii) Air exchanges
Higher air change rates are desirable; air change rates of 9 and 12 ach compared to the
base case oh 6 ach improve the performance by about 12.9 and 19.1% respectively.
(i) Internal gain
The lower the internal gain, the better is the performance of the building.
(ii) Scheduling of air exchanges
Promoting higher air change rates when the ambient air temperature is within the
comfortable range as compared to the indoor temperature improves the performance of
the building by 30.9% compared to a constant air change rate. However, in the reverse
situation, air exchange needs to be minmised.
The combinations of all design and operational parameters discussed, (excluding building
orientation and internal gain) significantly improves the yearly comfortable hours in the
industrial shed; the percentage increase is 43.8 compared to the base case.
Table 5.7 Improvement of in the performance of the industrial building due to design and
operational parameters- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Parameter
year (h)
Percentage increase in
Comfortable hours
Base case
3089
Orientation
Northwest-southeast
Northeast-southwest
3106
3110
0.6
0.7
3100
0.4
Glazing type
Single reflective
Double clear
3195
2953
3.4
-4.4
Double low-E
2973
-3.8
3029
-1.9
10%
3133
1.4
20%
3157
2.2
Wall type
Thermocol (EPS) insulated brick wall
2909
-5.8
Concrete block wall
3234
4.7
Autoclaved cellular concrete block
2929
-5.2
Roof type
RCC with bitumen felt water proofing
3215
4.1
RCC with PUF insulation
2796
-9.5

White
3282
6.2
Cream
3224
4.4
Dark grey
2934
-5.0
2186
-29.2
East-west
Shading
Air exchanges
3 ach
9 ach
3486
12.9
12 ach
3678
19.1
20%
4569
47.9
40%
4029
4043
30.4
30.9
Internal gain
5.5.1.3 Residential Building (Bungalow)

Figure 5.5 shows the plan of the bungalow chosen for developing design guidelines. Both
conditioned as well as non-conditioned options are considered for the building.
(A) Conditioned building
Figure 5.41 shows the distribution of the annual and monthly heating and cooling
loads of the building for the Jodhpur climate. Clearly, the building requires cooling
throughout the year. The general features are similar to those observed in the case of the
commercial
50000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
0%
COOLING
100%
Fig. 5.41 Monthly and annual heating and cooling loads of the conditioned
bungalow- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Surface
100%
Internal Gain
80%
60%
Air exchange
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
Month
Fig. 5.42 Component-wise distribution of percentage heat gains and losses on

a monthly basis of the conditioned bungalow - Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
building (section 5.5.1.1). The highest cooling load occurs in the summer months and the
lowest load in the winter months. The monthly variation of the percentage of loads through
various building components is presented in Fig. 5.42. The cooling requirement is primarily
due to surface gains. Hence it is essential to decrease the heat gain by choosing appropriate
materials, shading, colour, reducing exposed glazing area, etc. In summer months, air
exchanges add to cooling loads and hence need to be controlled. The scheduling of air
change rates could reduce cooling loads. Decreasing lighting and equipment loads through
energy efficient devices can reduce the internal gain. The room-wise behaviour is presented
in Table 5.8. It may be noted that the usage of the building and the configuration of spaces
affect the loads. For instance, the cooling load of the living room is higher than that of
other rooms. This is because of the fact that this room is partly double storeyed and has a
large volume. Similarly the cooling load of the kitchen is also very high due to operation of
various appliances.
The effects of building parameters on the annual loads are presented in Table 5.9.
The consequent percentage load reduction due to each parameter, compared to the base
case are also shown in the table. The following recommendations are made for a
conditioned bungalow in Jodhpur:
Changing the orientation of the building does not increase the load significantly.
(ii) Glazing type
Double glazing with reflective coated glass gives the best performance. It gives a
saving of 13.5% in comparison with plain glass (base case). Single reflective coated
glazing shows an improvement of 9.0%. Double low-E glass and double glazing
with clear glass can also be used to reduce the loads by 10.6% and 4.1%
respectively.
Table 5.8 Room-wise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the conditioned bungalow Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
Cooling load (MJ)

BED1
0
LIVDIN
0
KIT
264
BED2
0
BED3
0
BED4
0
BED5
0
Total
264
8
1135
2429
3362
3313
2712
2310
2014
1566
217
0
19066
1151
6576
12229
16432
15960
12886
11118
10249
9158
3277
51
99089
775
2630
4118
5308
5156
4392
3951
3592
3269
1506
488
35448
0
1519
3411
4762
4692
3810
3225
2797
2067
182
0
26465
8
1353
2738
3745
3679
3022
2583
2277
1780
258
1
21443
6
1441
3070
4221
4136
3368
2857
2516
1918
223
0
23755
124
1665
3164
4244
4136
3377
2887
2658
2239
561
3
25058
2071
16318
31159
42073
41073
33567
28932
26102
21997
6224
543
250324
BED4
9
BED5
0
Total
141
Month
Heating load (MJ)

BED1
2
LIVDIN
35
KIT
0
BED2
95
BED3
1
JAN
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
FEB
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
APR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAY
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUL
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
AUG
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
SEP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
OCT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NOV
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
DEC
2
35
0
96
1
9
0
142
Total
BED1=Bed room1, LIVDIN= Living and dining room, KIT=Kitchen, BED2=Bed room2, BED3=Bed
room3, BED4=Bed room4, BED5=Bed room5
(iii) Shading
The reduction in solar gain by shading of windows (by means of external projections
such as chajjas) can significantly reduce the heat gain and consequently the annual
load. If 50% of the window areas are shaded throughout the year, the percentage load
reduction is 11.7.
(iv) Wall type
Insulation of walls helps to improve the performance appreciably. Thermocol
insulation can save annual loads by upto 12.0% and autoclaved cellular concrete
block walls (e.g., Siporex) can save 10.1% as compared to a brick wall (base case).
Plain concrete block wall increases cooling load by 9.5% and hence needs to be
avoided.
for the conditioned bungalow - Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Annual load (MJ)
Energy saving
Cooling
250324
Heating
142
Total
250466
(MJ)
--
(%)
--
927
250535
251462
-996
-0.4
Glazing type
Double clear
240182
240182
10284
4.1
Single reflective coated
226874
1020
227894
22572
9.0
216658
12
216670
33795
13.5
Double low-E
224032
224032
26433
10.6
10%
244027
283
244310
6155
2.5
20%
237835
500
238335
12131
4.8
50%
219795
1453
221247
29218
11.7
Shading
Wall type
220314
220316
30149
12.0
Concrete block wall
272527
1828
274354
-23888
-9.5
225116
25350
10.1
225114
Roof type
Uninsulated RCC roof
261057
551
261608
-11143
-4.4
PUF insulated RCC roof
228671
32
228703
21763
8.7

White
237743
530
238273
12192
4.9
Cream
241921
367
242288
8178
3.3
Dark grey
263125
43
263168
-12702
-5.1
Air exchanges
0.5 ach
245244
40
245283
5182
2.1
1.5 ach
255363
509
255872
-5406
-2.2
50%
229586
587
230173
20293
8.1
No internal gain
210426
220150
1564
0
211989
220150
38476
30316
15.4
12.1
245211
38
245250
5216
2.1
Internal gain
SET POINT
cooling: 26 C
heating: 19 C
(v) Roof type

Insulation of the roof improves the performance of the building. Polyurethane foam
insulation (PUF) brings down the cooling loads by 8.7%. In contrast, a plain
uninsulated RCC slab increases the cooling load by 4.4%.

Light colours are suitable due to their lower absorptivity. White improves
performance by upto 4.9%. Similarly, cream colour also improves performance by
3.3%. Dark colours must be avoided as the performance decreases by 5.1%.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is desirable for reducing loads; the reduction is
2.1% as compared to the base case of 1.0 ach. Increasing the air change rate to 1.5
increases the load by 2.2%. Although lower air change rates decrease the load, they
may be undesirable for reasons of health.
The operational parameters such as internal gain, set point and scheduling of air
changes can help in reducing the annual load of the building. The effects are
summarised as follows.
(i) Internal gain
The lower the internal gain, the better is the performance of the building in reducing
the annual load. The annual load can be reduced by 8.1% if internal gains are
reduced by 50%. Therefore, more energy efficient equipment should be used.
(ii) Set point
Lowering the operating parameters for comfort cooling and heating can reduce the
cooling loads by 12.1%. Thus a change in the expectation of comfort can lead to
significant savings.
(iii) Scheduling of air exchanges
The scheduling of air changes to promote air entry during cooler periods (such as
nights or winters) and controlling air entry during warmer periods (during daytime
or summer) can reduce the annual load by 2.1 percent.
By combining all design and operational parameters discussed (excluding building
orientation and internal gain), an appreciable load reduction of 60.7% can be obtained
in a conditioned bungalow for Jodhpur climate.
(B) Non-conditioned building
Table 5.10 gives the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures, and the
number of comfortable hours in a year for all the rooms of a non-conditioned bungalow, for
the Jodhpur climate. The maximum temperatures of all rooms exceed 37.8 C in a year,
indicating acute discomfort. The average room temperatures are generally high, ranging
from 29.2 C to 30.2 C. Thus, cooling of the building is required in summers. The range of
comfortable hours for all the rooms lies between 46 to 55% only. In other words, all rooms
are uncomfortable for more than 45% of the year. Table 5.11 presents the performance of
the building for each room on a monthly basis in terms of the comfort fraction (CF). It is
seen that most of the rooms are comfortable in the months of February and November
(having CF values of more than 0.9). December, January, March and October are also
comparatively comfortable months. Most rooms are uncomfortable from April to July. June
is the most uncomfortable month with values of CF ranging from -0.1 to 0.11. Thus a
change in design is desirable to reduce discomfort. The hourly values of room temperatures
for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are plotted in Figs. 5.43 and
5.44 respectively. In January, all rooms are close to the lower limit of the comfort zone,
hence some heating may be required. In May, all the rooms are well above the comfort
zone with temperatures exceeding
Table 5.10 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on an annual basis - Jodhpur (hot and dry
climate)
Room
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Ambient
Yearly room temperature

(C)
MIN
18.1
18.1
19.2
17.5
18.2
18.0
18.5
11.4
MAX
37.8
38.5
39.6
38.8
38.4
38.2
38.3
40.3
year(h)
comfortable hours
4745
4911
4788
3997
4168
4141
4530
4838
54
56
55
46
48
47
52
55
AVG
29.2
29.6
30.2
29.5
29.5
29.6
30.1
26.9

Table 5.11 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on a monthly basis - Jodhpur (hot and dry
climate)
Comfort
index
Comfort
fraction
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Room
BED1
0.73
LIVDIN
0.8
KIT
0.91
BED2
0.6
BED3
0.67
BED4
0.71
BED5
0.88
0.95
0.97
0.50
0.14
0.11
0.46
0.64
0.76
0.90
0.99
0.83
0.96
0.88
0.48
0.12
0.10
0.46
0.63
0.69
0.75
0.99
0.88
1
0.85
0.37
0.01
0
0.34
0.5
0.58
0.71
0.99
0.96
0.93
0.95
0.37
-0.06
-0.10
0.29
0.49
0.65
0.87
0.98
0.74
0.97
0.97
0.37
-0.04
-0.08
0.32
0.51
0.65
0.87
1
0.81
0.97
0.95
0.35
-0.04
-0.07
0.32
0.51
0.63
0.86
1
0.84
0.99
0.86
0.31
-0.04
-0.05
0.33
0.5
0.56
0.70
1
0.94
35 C. Thus heat gain needs to be reduced in May, and heat loss promoted. Since
temperatures are in excess of 35 C, additional cooling features are required for alleviating
discomfort.
Table 5.12 presents the change in the number of comfortable hours in a year due to
various parameters for a bedroom (Bed2). The numbers in brackets show the percentage
increase or decrease (-) of comfortable hours compared to the base case.

The north-south orientation of the building vis--vis the base case (east-west)
reduces the yearly comfortable hours by 5.9 percent.
40.0
35.0
BED1
LIVDIN
Temperature ( C)
30.0
KIT
BED2
25.0
BED3
20.0
BED4
BED5
15.0
AMBIENT
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
Fig. 5.43 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the non-conditioned bungalow in January
- Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
45.0
40.0
BED1
LIVDIN
35.0
Temperature ( C)
KIT
30.0
BED2
BED3
25.0
BED4
20.0
BED5
AMBIENT
15.0
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.44 Hourly variation of room temperatures of non-conditioned bungalow
in May - Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Table 5.12 Improvement in the performance of the non-conditioned bungalow due to building design
and operational parameters - Jodhpur (hot and dry climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
Cream
Dark grey
White
Air exchanges
0.5 ach
1.5 ach
6 ach
9 ach
Internal gain
No internal gain
50%
year(h)
3997
comfortable hours
-
3761
-5.9
3874
3996
4181
4132
-3.1
0.0
4.6
3.4
4077
4133
4327
2.0
3.4
8.3
4102
4014
2.6
0.4
4001
0.1
3940
4245
-1.4
6.2
4085
3913
4125
2.2
-2.1
3.2
3744
3763
4270
4590
-6.3
-5.9
6.8
14.8
4206
4123
5072
5.2
3.2
26.9
(ii) Glazing type

A single pane reflective coated glass increases the yearly comfortable hours by
4.6% compared to plain glass (base case). This type of glazing is therefore
recommended.
(iii) Shading
Reduction in solar radiation by shading windows can reduce the heat gain and
consequently increase comfort. If windows are shaded by 50% throughout the year,
the number of comfortable hours can be increased by 8.3%.
(iv) Wall type
A concrete block wall increases the yearly comfortable hours by 2.6% compared to
the brick wall (base case). Wall insulation is not recommended.
(v) Roof type

Insulating the roof with polyurethane foam insulation (PUF) increases performance
by 6.2% as compared to a roof with brick-bat-coba waterproofing. However, an
uninsulated roof i.e., plain RCC roof having a higher U-value decreases the number
of comfortable hours by about 1.4%.
White and cream colours are desirable rather than puff shade (base case) or dark
grey. The percentage increase in comfortable hours compared to the base case is 3.2
and 2.2 respectively.
(vii) Air exchanges
An air change rate of 9 ach is better than both 6 and 3 ach (base case); it gives an
improvement of about 14.8%. Comparatively, an air change rate of 6 ach gives an
improvement of 6.8%. Reducing air change rate reduces the yearly comfortable
hours.
(i) Internal gain
The lower the internal gain, the better is the performance. The performance
increase is about 3.2% if the internal gains are reduced by 50%. Thus, energy
efficient lights and equipment should be employed to reduce discomfort.
(ii) Scheduling of air changes
Scheduling of air changes to promote more air during cooler periods and
controlling it during warmer periods (during daytime or summers) can increase the
number of comfortable hours by about 26.9%.
Combining all the best parameters (excluding building orientation and internal gain)
can significantly improve the buildings performance, resulting in a 37.3% increase in
the yearly number of comfortable hours in a non-conditioned bungalow in Jodhpur.
5.5.2 Warm and Humid Climate (Representative city: Mumbai)
A distribution of the annual and monthly heating and cooling loads of the commercial
building in Mumbai is shown in Fig. 5.45. On an annual basis, the heating load is zero and the
cooling load is predominant. The monthly load profiles generally follow the climatic conditions;
the highest cooling load occurs in May (summer), the lowest in January (winter), and relatively
lower cooling loads occur during the monsoons (June to September). Figure 5.46 shows the
monthly variation of the percentage of loads through various building components. The heat gain
through surfaces dominates from February to December (i.e. eleven months). However in January,
the convective heat gain due to people and equipment is higher. In the months from April to June,
air exchanges cause significant heat gain, while they reduce cooling loads from December to
February. Hence, a scheduling of air changes (more in winter and less in summer) could lead to a
reduction in cooling loads. It is essential to reduce surface gains in all months to bring down the
cooling loads. This could be achieved by reducing glazing areas and by shading of surfaces
exposed to direct solar radiation.
800000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
600000
400000
200000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
0%
COOLING
100%
-Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Surface
100%
80%
Internal Gain
60%
Air exchange
40%
20%
0%
-20%
JAN
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
JUL
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month

a monthly basis of the commercial building - Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
The floor-wise monthly and annual loads are presented in Table 5.13. It is seen that the usage
pattern of the building has a significant impact on the loads. For instance, the energy required for cooling is
maximum on the ground floor. This is because of the frequent opening of the shutters on the ground floor
resulting in a high heat gain due to air exchanges. Besides, there is a significant internal gain due to
operation of equipment and a high occupancy level. Similarly, the cooling loads of the second and third
floors are significantly higher than those of other floors, as they are occupied on a 24-hour basis throughout
the week. The heat gain due to air exchanges may be reduced by preventing the leakage of hot ambient air
into the building by sealing all cracks and providing air-lock lobbies on the ground floor.
Table 5.14 presents the effects of building parameters on the annual loads of the building. The
consequent percentage load reduction for each parameter compared to the base case are also tabulated. It
may be noted that the total annual load of the building is quite high. Even a one percent reduction in this
load would result in a significant energy saving. The following guidelines are recommended for a
commercial building in a warm and humid place like Mumbai:
Appropriate orientation of the building can reduce the annual load significantly. The building
(Fig.5.1) with its glazed curtain wall facing northwest shows a substantial reduction in load
compared to the base case (southwest orientation); the percentage reduction being 7.7. The
west and north orientations are also better than the base case.
(ii) Glazing type
Double glazing with reflective coated glass gives the best performance. It reduces the load by
2.2% compared to single pane reflective coated glass (base case). Single pane clear glass,
double pane clear glass and double low-E glass increase the annual load by 9.3, 6.9 and 0.9%
respectively, and hence are not recommended.
Table 5.13-Floorwise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the commercial building
- Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Month
GR
63878
70627
103451
125044
147294
129676
114413
107454
107236
118927
102219
80902
1271121
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
F1
43936
40956
48620
50069
57340
48239
46072
47059
42681
53848
49975
43263
572056
F2
73654
72662
92718
101305
115473
101056
93601
91791
89342
103541
93345
80849
1109337
Cooling load (MJ)

F3
F4
F5
74247
48404
39123
73512
45207
37590
94162
54319
46871
103159
56709
50748
117634
65336
59358
102988
54892
48833
95163
52262
45253
93103
53085
45294
90985
48199
41685
105250
60870
53958
94776
55988
48677
82028
47986
40190
1127008 643258 557579
F6
51070
48882
60836
65563
76643
63268
58999
59327
54246
69072
62227
51772
721904
F7
24833
24797
32231
35974
42895
34207
30421
30162
28213
37730
33656
26514
381631
Total
419144
414232
533207
588571
681973
583158
536185
527274
502587
603195
540863
453505
6383894
Month
Heating load (MJ)

GR
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JAN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
FEB
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
APR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAY
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUL
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
AUG
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
SEP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
OCT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NOV
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
DEC
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
GR=Ground Floor, F1=First floor, F2=Second floor, F3=Third Floor, F4=Fourth floor, F5=Fifth floor,
F6=Sixth Floor, F7=Seventh floor
(iii) Window size

The reduction of the glazing size to a 1.2 m height, compared to a fully glazed curtain
wall, decreases the annual load by 6.5%. This is due to the reduction in solar gain, and
thus the use of larger expanses of glass in such buildings can lead to higher annual
loads.
(iv) Shading
such as chajjas) causes a decrease in the heat gain and hence reduces annual loads. If
50% of the window areas are shaded throughout the year, the percentage load reduction
is 8.5.
(v) Wall type
A wall having low U-value (insulating type such as autoclaved cellular concrete block)
reduces the load compared to the concrete block wall (base case) by 2.4%.
for the commercial building- Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Glazing type
Single clear
Double clear
Double low-E
GLAZING SIZE(restricted to 1.2m height)
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
COLOUR
Dark grey OF EXTERNAL SURFACE
0.5
2
4
10%
50%
No internal gain
Set point
- cooling: 25 C
- heating: 20 C
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling
Heating
Total
6383894
0
6383894
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
6002430
5892333
6252495
0
0
0
6002430
5892333
6252495
381464
491561
131400
6.0
7.7
2.1
6979643
6826246
6441024
6244698
5970620
0
0
0
0
0
6979643
6826246
6441024
6244698
5970620
-595749
-442352
-57130
139196
413274
-9.3
-6.9
-0.9
2.2
6.5
6274825
6165743
5838423
0
0
0
6274825
6165743
5838423
109069
218151
545471
1.7
3.4
8.5
6233224
6233224
150670
2.4
6642237
0
AIR CHANGE RATE
6276724
0
6605700
0
7072726
0
Internal gain
3091302
0
4527790
0
2738870
0
5929078
0
6642237
-258342
-4.0
6276724
6605700
7072726
107170
-221806
-688832
1.7
-3.5
-10.8
3091302
4527790
2738870
5929078
3292592
1856104
3645024
454816
51.6
29.1
57.1
7.1
6293870
90024
1.4
6293870

Dark colours on the walls of such a commercial building should be avoided. For
example, if dark grey is used, the percentage increase in load is 4.0 compared to white
colour (base case).
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is better than higher rates of 1, 2 and 4 ach. The
percentage reduction in the annual load is 1.7 compared to the base case of 1 ach.

(i) Internal gain
The performance of the building in reducing annual loads is better when the internal
gains are lower.
(ii) Set Point
The annual load of the building reduces if the set points for comfort cooling and heating
are relaxed. If the cooling and heating set points of 25 and 200C respectively are used
(compared to 24 and 210C), the percentage reduction in annual load is 7.1. Thus, a
change in the expectation of comfort can lead to significant energy savings.
The scheduling of airchanges to promote air entry during cooler periods (such as nights
or winters) and controlling during warmer periods (during daytime or summer) can
reduce annual load by 1.4%.
The combination of all design and operational parameters discussed so far (excluding
building orientation and internal gain), results in a significant load reduction of 23.2 percent
in the commercial building.
Table 5.15 presents the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures for the
industrial building. It also shows the yearly comfortable hours, both in numbers as well as in
percentage, of the shed and store for the Mumbai climate. It is found that the maximum
temperatures of the rooms (i.e. the shed on the ground floor and store on the first floor) can exceed
35C. The yearly average room temperature of the shed is 34.4C, which is about 7.6 C above the
yearly average ambient temperature. Thus, the emphasis should be on cooling considerations.
Overheating in the shed occurs due to high internal gains because of the operation of large
machines, occupants and lighting. The number of comfortable hours in a year does not exceed 8%
for the shed; the store relatively more comfortable (about 57% of the year). In other words, the
building is uncomfortable for more than 86% of the year.
Table 5.15 Performance of the industrial building on an annual basis- Mumbai (warm and humid
climate)
Room
Yearly room temperature
(C)
year (h)
comfortable hours
MIN
MAX
AVG
27.8
39.5
34.4
711
8
Shed
23.5
35.7
30.1
5011
57
Store
18.4
32.4
26.8
6394
73
Ambient
Table 5.16 shows the monthly performance of the shed and store in terms of the comfort
fraction. The shed is extremely uncomfortable from March to July, and from September to
November. The store is relatively more comfortable during the same period. The hourly variation
of room temperatures for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are presented in
Fig. 5.47 and 5.48 respectively. The figures show that in January, the store is within or close to the
comfort zone unlike the shed. In May, both the rooms are hot and well above the comfort zone
the store touching 36oC and the shed reaching 40oC. The main reason for such thermal behaviour
of the building is the large internal gain due to equipment and occupancy. The results show that the
prime consideration for design is cooling, which could be achieved by reducing heat gains and
promoting heat loss. Heat gain from the building surfaces may be reduced by appropriate
orientation, shading, glazing, colour, etc. Energy efficient equipment could be used for reducing
the internal heat gains. Further, higher air change rates can be encouraged to promote heat loss.
Table 5.16 Performance of the industrial building on a monthly
basis- Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Comfort
index
Comfort
fraction
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Room
Shed
0.18
0.14
-0.14
-0.50
-0.70
-0.50
-0.30
0.46
-0.25
-0.37
-0.21
0.04
Store
0.95
0.90
0.8
0.62
0.41
0.61
0.83
0.71
0.84
0.70
0.79
0.91
Table 5.17 presents the change in the number of comfortable hours in a year due to various
parameters for the industrial shed. The corresponding percentage increase or decrease (-) of comfortable
hours compared to the base case is also presented in the table.
There is an improvement of 3.7 and 3.4 %, if the building orientation is taken as northeastsouthwest or northwest-southeast compared to north-south (base case) orientation.
(ii) Glazing type
Single pane reflective coated glass is recommended. It increases the yearly comfortable hours
by 13.1% compared to the single pane clear glass (base case).
(iii) Shading
40.0
35.0
Temperature ( C)
30.0
25.0
SHED
20.0
STORE
AMBIENT
15.0
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
40.0
35.0
Temperature ( C)
30.0
25.0
SHED
STORE
20.0
AMBIENT
15.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
10.0
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.48 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in May Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
(iv) Wall type

improves by about 32.9%.
(v) Roof type
Insulation of the roof is not desirable. An RCC roof with bitumen felt water proofing
layer increases the yearly comfortable hours by 34.6% compared to RCC with brickbat-coba water proofing.
White and cream colours are desirable rather than puff shade (base case) or dark grey.
The increase in comfortable hours due to these colours compared to the base case are
40.9 and 25.3 respectively.
Table 5.17 Improvement in the performance of the industrial building due to building design and
operational parameters- Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Parameter
Comfortable hours in a year (h)
comfortable hours
Base case
711
Orientation
Northwest-southeast
Northeast-southwest
735
737
3.4
3.7
710
-0.1
Glazing type
Single reflective
804
13.1
Double clear
516
-27.4
Double low-E
543
-23.6
586
-17.6
10%
733
3.1
20%
East-west
Shading
754
6.0
Wall type
563
-20.8
Concrete block wall

945
548
32.9
-22.9
Roof type
957
361
34.6
-49.2

White
Cream
1002
891
40.9
25.3
Dark grey
516
-27.4
Air exchanges
3 ach
94
-86.8
9 ach
1548
117.7
12 ach
2353
230.9
20%
6190
770.6
40%
3885
446.4
Internal gain
(vii) Air exchanges

There is a good improvement in the number of yearly comfortable hours when the air
changes are higher. The number of such hours increase from 711 h to 1548 h for air
change rate of 9 ach, and from 711 to 2353 h for 12 ach.

(i) Internal gain
The reduction in the internal gain substantially improves the building performance. If
20% of the base case internal gain exists, there is a nine-fold increase in the yearly
comfortable hours (from 711 h to 6190 h)., whereas if it is 40%, the yearly
comfortable hours increase only 3.5 times. Thus the lower the internal gain , the better
is the performance of the building.
The combination of all design and operational parameters discussed (excluding building
orientation and internal gain) results in a five-fold increase in the yearly comfortable hours
in the shade (from 711 h to 3624 h).
loads of a conditioned bungalow for the Mumbai climate. The figure shows that the
building requires cooling throughout the year. The general features are similar to those
observed in the case of the commercial building (section 5.5.2.1). The highest cooling load
occurs in summer months and the lowest in winter months. The monthly variation of the
percentage of loads through various building components is presented in Fig. 5.50, which
shows that the cooling requirement is primarily due to surface gains. Hence, decreasing the
heat gain by choosing appropriate materials, shading, colour, reducing exposed glazing
area, etc. is essential. Likewise, the internal gain needs to be reduced by decreasing lighting
and equipment loads through energy efficient devices. The room-wise behaviour is
presented in Table 5.18. It may be noted that the usage of the building and the
configuration of spaces have an impact on the loads. The cooling load of the living room is
higher than that of other rooms. This is because this room is partly double storeyed and has
a large volume. The cooling load of the kitchen is also very high due to operation of
various appliances.
The effects of building parameters on the annual loads are presented in Table 5.19.
The table also shows that the consequent percentage load reduction compared to the base
case. Accordingly, the following recommendations can be made for a conditioned
bungalow:
Design Parameters
(i)
Changing the building orientation with respect to the base case (east-west) does not
increase the load significantly.
(ii) Glazing type
with clear glass can also be used to reduce the loads by 8.5% and 1.3% respectively.
40000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
30000
20000
10000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
0%
COOLING
100%
Fig. 5.49 Monthly and annual heating and cooling loads of the conditioned bungalow
Surface
100%
80%
Internal Gain
60%
Air exchange
40%
20%
0%
-20%
JAN
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month
a monthly basis of the conditioned bungalow - Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Table 5.18-Room-wise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the conditioned bungalow Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Month
Cooling load (MJ)
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Total
426
3939
1824
471
568
488
822
8540
JAN
683
4566
1967
853
844
808
1063
10786
FEB
1310
7021
2777
1794
1537
1616
1773
17827
MAR
1826
8918
3253
2582
2088
2273
2319
23259
APR
2311
11030
3889
3287
2619
2863
2851
28850
MAY
1941
9026
3409
2697
2174
2372
2357
23976
JUN
1599
7236
2992
2179
1784
1936
1935
19660
JUL
1446
6592
2844
1958
1620
1748
1755
17963
AUG
1487
7046
2814
2035
1673
1793
1843
18693
SEP
1635
8747
3201
2230
1861
1983
2167
21824
OCT
1223
7461
2806
1592
1423
1481
1789
17774
NOV
754
5496
2273
888
917
880
1257
12466
DEC
16641
87078
34048
22567
19107
20243
21933
221617
Total
Month
Heating load(MJ)
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JAN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
FEB
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
APR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAY
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUL
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
AUG
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
SEP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
OCT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NOV
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
DEC
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
for the conditioned bungalow - Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Parameter
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling
Heating
221617
0
Total
221617
219606
219606
2011
0.9
218761
194390
193129
202750
0
0
0
0
218761
194390
193129
202750
2856
27227
28488
18867
1.3
12.3
12.9
8.5
214403
207234
185830
0
0
0
214403
207234
185830
7214
14383
35787
3.3
6.5
16.1
200848
232880
205102
0
0
0
200848
232880
205102
20769
-11263
16515
9.4
-5.1
7.5
229563
203093
0
0
229563
203093
-7946
18524
-3.6
8.4
207068
211869
236069
0
0
0
207068
211869
236069
14549
9748
-14452
6.6
4.4
-6.5
0.5 ach
1.5 ach
220817
222415
0
0
220817
222415
800
-798
0.4
-0.4
50%
No internal gain
196190
171078
183290
0
0
0
196190
171078
183290
25427
50539
38327
11.5
22.8
17.3
218542
218542
3075
1.4
Base case
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type

Concrete block wall
Roof type

White
Cream
Dark grey
Air exchanges
Internal gain
Set point
cooling: 26 C
heating: 19 C
(iii) Shading
Shading of windows (by means of external projections such as chajjas) can
significantly reduce the solar heat gain and consequently the annual load. If 50% of
the window areas are shaded throughout the year, the load reduction is 16.1%.
(iv) Wall type

Insulation of walls helps to improve the thermal performance. Thermocol insulation
can save annual loads by upto 9.4% and autoclaved cellular concrete block walls
(e.g., Siporex) can save 7.5% as compared to a brick wall (base case). A plain
concrete block wall increases the cooling load by 5.1% and hence should be avoided.
(v) Roof type
insulation (PUF) brings down the cooling loads by 8.4%, whereas, a plain
Light colours are suitable due to their lower absorptivities. White improves
performance by upto 6.6%. Similarly, cream colour also improves performance by
4.4%. Dark colours should be avoided as the performance decreases by 6.5%.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is desirable for reducing loads; the resultant
reduction is 0.4% as compared to the base case of 1.0 ach. Increasing the air change
rate to 1.5 increases the load by 0.4%. Thus, there is no significant effect on loads;
the rate can be decided on the basis of creating a healthier indoor environment.
(i) Internal gain
the annual load. The annual load is reduced by 11.5%, if internal gains are reduced
by 50%. Therefore, more energy efficient equipment should be used.
(ii) Set point
nights or winters) and controlling it during warmer periods (during daytime or
summer) can lead to a 1.4% reduction of annual load.
The combination of all design and operational parameters discussed so far (excluding
building orientation and internal gain), results in a significant load reduction. The
percentage load reduction is 58.6.

number of comfortable hours in a year for all the rooms in a non-conditioned bungalow for the
Mumbai climate. It is seen that the maximum temperatures of all rooms exceed 33.5 C. The
average room temperatures are generally high, ranging from 29.2 C to 30.0 C. The performance
of the building on a monthly basis is presented in terms of the comfort fraction (CF) in Table 5.21.
The table shows that the rooms are mostly comfortable in the winter months of November to
March, and in the monsoon months of July to September (i.e. CF values of more than 0.9).
Generally, the house is comfortable throughout the year except in summer i.e. April and May. May
is the most uncomfortable month with values of CF ranging from 0.44 to 0.62. The hourly values
of room temperatures for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are plotted in
Figs. 5.51 and 5.52 respectively. The figures show that in January, all rooms are mostly
comfortable, whereas in May, all the rooms are well above the comfort zone by about 2 to 3 C.
The room temperatures exceed 30 C, indicating discomfort. Thus heat gain needs to be reduced
and heat loss must be promoted by higher air change rates.
Table 5.20 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on an annual basis
-- Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Room
Yearly room
temperature(C)
comfortable hours
MAX
AVG
33.5
29.2
6756
77
33.7
29.4
6472
74
34.8
30.0
5473
62
34.4
29.5
6263
71
34
29.5
6297
72
33.9
29.6
6264
72
33.8
29.9
5891
67
32.4
26.8
6394
73
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Ambient
MIN
24.1
24.1
24.9
24.0
24.7
24.2
24.6
18.4
year(h)
Table 5.21 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on a monthly basis

-- Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Comfort
Month
Room
index
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
JAN
1
0.98
0.97
1
1
1
1
Comfort
fraction
FEB
1
0.95
0.93
1
1
1
0.97
MAR
0.96
0.89
0.84
0.92
0.94
0.93
0.86
APR
0.78
0.77
0.69
0.65
0.67
0.66
0.65
MAY
0.61
0.62
0.51
0.44
0.47
0.47
0.49
JUN
0.77
0.80
0.65
0.64
0.66
0.66
0.68
JUL
0.96
0.96
0.84
0.89
0.91
0.90
0.90
AUG
0.99
0.98
0.87
0.94
0.95
0.94
0.94
SEP
0.96
0.94
0.85
0.89
0.92
0.91
0.89
OCT
0.89
0.81
0.74
0.82
0.83
0.83
0.74
NOV
0.98
0.85
0.82
0.97
0.97
0.97
0.83
DEC
0.94
0.93
0.96
40.0
35.0
BED1
LIVDIN
30.0
Temperature ( C)
KIT
BED2
25.0
BED3
20.0
BED4
BED5
15.0
AMBIENT
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
5.0
ACT-2.2
0.0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
BED1=Bed room1, LIVDIN= Living and dining room, KIT=Kitchen, BED2=Bed room2, BED3=Bed room3,
BED4=Bed room4, BED5=Bed room5
40.0
35.0
BED1
LIVDIN
30.0
Temperature ( C)
KIT
BED2
25.0
BED3
20.0
BED4
BED5
15.0
AMBIENT
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.52 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the non-conditioned bungalow in

May - Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
increase or decrease (-) in comfortable hours compared to the base case.
(i)
Changing the orientation of the building with respect to the base case does not affect
its thermal performance.
(ii)
Glazing type
A single pane reflective coated glass increases the yearly comfortable hours by 10.3%
compared to plain glass (base case). This type of glazing is, therefore, recommended.
(iii) Shading
Reduction in solar radiation by shading windows can reduce the heat gain and
consequently increase the comfort. An increase of 12.6% in the number of comfortable
hours can be achieved, if windows are shaded by 50% throughout the year.
(iv) Wall type
A concrete block wall increases the yearly comfortable hours by 2.8% compared to the
brick wall (base case). However, wall insulation is not recommended.
(v) Roof type

Insulating the roof using polyurethane foam insulation (PUF) increases performance
by 2.2% as compared to a roof with brick-bat-coba waterproofing. However, an
uninsulated roof i.e. plain RCC roof having a higher U-value decreases the number of
comfortable hours by about 16.8%.
Table 5.22 Improvement in the performance of non-conditioned bungalow due to building design
and operational parameters - Mumbai (warm and humid climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
Cream
Dark grey
White
Air exchanges
0.5 ach
1.5 ach
6 ach
9 ach
Internal gain
No internal gain
50%
Comfortable hours in a year

(h)
6263
comfortable hours
-
6210
-0.8
5698
6172
6906
6472
-9.0
-1.5
10.3
3.3
6442
6599
7054
2.9
5.4
12.6
6438
5433
2.8
-13.3
5506
-12.1
5208
6401
-16.8
2.2
6448
5800
6565
3.0
-7.4
4.8
4148
5337
6849
7010
-33.8
-14.8
9.4
11.9
6849
6585
7215
9.4
5.1
15.2

White and cream colours are desirable compared to puff shade (base case) or dark grey.
The percentage increase in comfortable hours compared to the base case are 4.8 and 3.0
respectively.
(vii) Air exchanges
An air change rate of 9 ach is better than 3 ach (base case), giving an improvement of
about 11.9%. An air change rate of 6 ach gives an improvement of 9.4%. The
reduction of air change rate below 3 ach is not desirable.
Internal gain
(i)
The lower the internal gain, the better is the performance. The performance increase is
about 5.1% if the internal gains are reduced by 50%. Thus, energy efficient lights and
equipment should be employed to reduce internal gains and subsequently improve
comfort.
Air change rates of 3 ach during cooler periods and 9 ach during warmer and humid
periods lead to an increase in the number of comfortable hours by about 15.0%.
Combining all the best parameters (excluding building orientation and internal gain)
can significantly improve the buildings performance, resulting in a 28.6% increase in
the yearly number of comfortable hours.
5.5.3 Moderate Climate (Representative city: Pune)
building is shown in Fig. 5.53 for the Pune climate. On an annual basis, the heating load is zero
and the cooling load is predominant. The monthly load profiles generally follow the climatic
conditions; the highest cooling load occurs in May (summer) and the lowest cooling load occurs in
December (winter). Relatively lower cooling loads occur during the monsoons (June to
September). Figure 5.54 shows the distribution of percentage of loads through various building
components on a monthly basis. Convective heat gain dominates from July to February (i.e. eight
months). This indicates that the cooling requirements are primarily due to internal gains, which
need to be dissipated. In contrast, in the summer months from March to June, the surface gains are
more. Air exchanges help to reduce heat gains in the 8 months from July to February. In the
summer months, infiltration adds to the cooling loads. Hence, a scheduling of air changes to
promote ventilation from July to February and the control of infiltration in summer could reduce
cooling loads. Additionally, it is essential to reduce surface gains in all months to aid the cooling
process. This could be achieved by reducing glazing areas and shading of surfaces exposed to
direct solar radiation.
The floor-wise monthly and annual loads are presented in Table 5.23. It is seen that the
usage pattern of the building has a significant impact on the loads. For instance, the maximum
energy required for cooling is on the ground floor. This is because the shutters are frequently
opened here, resulting in a high heat gain due to air exchanges. Additionally, there is a significant
internal gain due to operation of equipment and a high occupancy level. Similarly, the cooling
loads of the second and third floor are much higher than those of other floors as they are occupied
on a 24-hour basis throughout the week. The gain due to air exchanges may be reduced by
preventing the leakage of hot ambient air into entering the building by sealing all cracks and
providing air lock lobbies on the ground floor.
800000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
600000
400000
200000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
0%
COOLING
100%
Fig. 5.53 Monthly and annual heating and cooling loads of the
commercial building -Pune (moderate climate)
Surface
100%
80%
Internal Gain
60%
Air exchange
40%
20%
0%
-20%
JAN
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
JUL
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month
a monthly basis of the commercial building - Pune (moderate climate)
Table 5.23 Floor wise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the commercial building - Pune
(moderate climate)
Month
Cooling load (MJ)
GR
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
Total
39660
34426
53481
54629
39196
28498
38914
16031
304835
JAN
55746
35206
59772
60748
40034
31524
42040
19727
344797
FEB
99113
47121
88910
90530
53517
45796
59855
31536
516380
MAR
130446
50901
103158
105360
58529
52711
68140
37946
607192
APR
130746
54214
105858
107962
62307
55661
72614
39955
629316
MAY
98045
43254
86047
87731
49552
42485
56319
29027
492459
JUN
69526
38064
71601
72664
43340
34786
47184
21601
398767
JUL
62226
38774
69732
70557
43896
34530
47202
21083
388000
AUG
65412
35331
67738
68870
39982
32069
43452
20185
373038
SEP
77635
44941
80920
82089
50921
42359
56020
28044
462929
OCT
52855
38249
64760
65522
43316
33979
45314
20961
364956
NOV
39849
32095
52742
53722
36402
26735
36331
15074
292949
DEC
921259
492576
904719
920382
560992
461134
613386
301171
5175618
Total
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
GR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Heating load (MJ)

F4
F5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
GR=Ground Floor, F1=First floor, F2=Second floor, F3=Third Floor, F4=Fourth floor, F5=Fifth floor, F6=Sixth Floor, F7=Seventh floor
The effects of building parameters on the annual loads of the commercial building are
presented in Table 5.24 for Pune. The consequent percentage load reduction for each parameter
compared to the base case are also tabulated. It may be noted that the total annual load of the
building is quite high. Even a one percent reduction in this load would result in significant energy
savings. The following guidelines are recommended for a commercial building located in Pune,
which has a moderate climate.
Appropriate orientation of the building can reduce the annual load significantly. The
building (Fig.5.1) with its glazed curtain wall facing northwest shows a substantial
reduction in load compared to the southwest orientation (base case) the percentage
reduction being 9.2. The west and north orientations are also better than the base case.
(ii) Glazing type
Single pane reflective coated glass (base case) is recommended for the moderate
climate. All other glazing types increase the annual load of the building.
(iii) Window size
The reduction of the glazing size to a 1.2 m height, compared to a fully glazed curtain
thus the use of larger expanses of glass in such a building is not desirable as it leads to
higher annual loads.
Shading
(b)
Shading of windows (by means of external projections such as chajjas) reduces solar
gains and subsequently the heat gain, and hence the annual load is also reduced. If 50%
of the window areas are shaded throughout the year, loads can be reduced by 10.6%.
(c)
Wall type
A wall having a low U-value (insulating type such as autoclaved cellular concrete
block) increases the load compared to the concrete block wall (base case) by 2.2%.
Thus insulation of walls is not recommended.
(d)
Colour of the external surface
example, using dark grey increases the cooling load by 5% compared to white (base
case).
(e)
Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is more effective than 1, 2 and 4 ach. The percentage
reduction in the annual load is 1.0 compared to the base case of 1 ach.
(i) Internal gain

annual loads.
for the commercial building- Pune (moderate climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Glazing type
Single clear
Double clear
Double low-E
Glazing size (restricted to 1.2m height)
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Cooling
5175618
Annual load (MJ)

Heating
Total
0
5175618
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
4794997
4701236
5032393
0
0
0
4794997
4701236
5032393
380621
474382
143225
7.4
9.2
2.8
5774996
5773435
5413338
5198221
4847464
0
0
0
0
0
5774996
5773435
5413338
5198221
4847464
-599378
-597817
-237720
-22603
328154
-11.6
-11.6
-4.6
-0.4
6.3
5065938
4956314
4628063
0
0
0
5065938
4956314
4628063
109680
219304
547555
2.1
4.2
10.6
5291517
5291517
-115899
-2.2
5434774
-259156
-5.0
0
0
720
5123889
5298637
5605068
51729
-123019
-429450
1.0
-2.4
-8.3
Wall type
Dark grey
5434774
Air exchange rate
0.5
2
4
5123889
5298637
5604347
10%
50%
No internal gain
2084676
3389009
1788504
4725865
0
0
106
0
2084676
3389009
1788611
4725865
3090941
1786609
3387007
449753
59.7
34.5
65.4
8.7
5004165
124
5004289
171329
3.4
Internal gain
Set point
- cooling: 25 C
- heating: 20 C
(ii) Set Point

are relaxed. If cooling and heating set points of 25 and 200C respectively are used
(instead of 24 and 210C), the percentage reduction in annual load is 8.7. Thus a change
in the expectation of comfort can lead to significant savings.
The scheduling of air changes to promote air entry during cooler periods (such as nights
or winters) and controlling the same during warmer periods (during daytime or
summer) can reduce the annual load significantly the percentage load reduction being
3.4.
The combination of all design and operational parameters discussed (excluding
building orientation and internal gain), results in a significant load reduction 24.7%.
number of comfortable hours in a year for the shed and store for the Pune climate. The
average temperature of the store room is about 3.2 C higher than the ambient, while that of
the shed is about 7.5 C. The yearly maximum temperatures of both rooms exceed 35 C,
indicating acute discomfort. The comfortable hours in a year for the shed is about 25%
indicating acute discomfort. The store is more comfortable i.e. for 72% of the year. The
monthly comfort fractions (Table 5.26) show that the shed is acutely uncomfortable in the
months from March to June and October (negative values indicate discomfort). It is most
uncomfortable in the month of May (CF=-0.58). August is the most comfortable month
(CF=0.76). The store is generally much more comfortable than the shed with CF values
ranging from 0.51 in April to 0.98 in July. The hourly values of room temperatures for a
typical winter day of January and summer day of May are plotted in Figs. 5.55 and 5.56
respectively. It is seen that in January, the store is within or close to the comfort zone. The
shed temperature is mostly above the comfort zone except in the morning. Hence, it is
desirable to have higher air change rates during periods (10 h to 24 h) when the shed
temperature is higher than the comfort zone. In May, both the rooms are above the comfort
zone. So, a higher change rate throughout the day would be desirable.
Table 5.25 Performance of the industrial building on an annual basis- Pune (moderate climate)
Room
Yearly room temperature (C)
Comfortable hours in
a year(h)
comfortable hours
Shed
MIN
24.6
MAX
40.8
AVG
32.5
2155
25
Store
20.1
35.5
28.2
6326
72
Ambient
13.4
37.3
25.0
5000
57
Table 5.26 Performance of the industrial building on a monthly basis- Pune (moderate climate)
Comfort
index
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Comfort
fraction
Room
Shed
0.44
0.30
-0.09
-0.57
-0.58
-0.29
0.03
0.76
0.07
-0.05
0.24
0.45
Store
0.90
0.88
0.75
0.51
0.52
0.77
0.98
0.93
0.96
0.88
0.95
0.93
40.0
35.0
Temperature ( C)
30.0
25.0
20.0
SHED
15.0
STORE
AMBIENT
10.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
5.0
ACT-2.2
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
Fig. 5.55 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in January - Pune
(moderate climate)
40.0
35.0
Temperature ( C)
30.0
25.0
20.0
SHED
15.0
STORE
10.0
AMBIENT
ACT
5.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.56 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in May Pune (moderate climate)
Table 5.27 presents the number of comfortable hours in a year due to various
parameters for the shed. The corresponding percentage increase or decrease (-) in
comfortable hours compared to the base case is also presented in the table.
There is a marginal improvement in performance if the building orientation is taken as
northeast-southwest or northwest-southeast compared to the north-south (base case)
orientation.
(ii) Glazing type
Single pane reflective coated glass is recommended, it increases the yearly comfortable
hours by 11.6% compared to the single pane clear glass (base case).
(iii) Shading
(iv) Wall type
improves by about 18.9%. Insulation on walls is not recommended.
(v) Roof type
An RCC roof with a bitumen felt water proofing layer increases the yearly comfortable
hours by 19.9% compared to one with brick-bat-coba water proofing. Insulation of the
roof is not desirable.

White and cream colours are desirable compared to puff shade (base case) or dark grey.
The percentage increase in comfortable hours due to these colours as compared to the
base case is 23.6 and 15.6 respectively.
Table 5.27 Improvement in the performance of the industrial building due to building
design and operational parameters- Pune (moderate climate)
Parameter
Base case
Orientation
Northwest-southeast
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Glazing type
Single reflective
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
White
Cream
Dark grey
Air exchanges
3 ach
9 ach
12 ach
Internal gain
20%
40%
year (h)
comfortable hours
2155
--
2202
2199
2188
2.2
2.0
1.5
2405
1930
1970
2058
11.6
-10.4
-8.6
-4.5
2204
2293
2.3
6.4
1933
2563
1928
-10.3
18.9
-10.5
2583
1695
19.9
-21.3
2664
2492
1876
23.6
15.6
-12.9
617
4015
4953
-71.4
86.3
129.8
6658
6137
5089
209.0
184.8
136.1
(vii) Air exchanges

Higher air change rates will considerably improve the number of yearly comfortable
hours. Compared to the base case air change rate of 3 per hour (that yields 2155
comfortable hours in a year), promoting air change rates of 9 and 12 per hour will yield
4015 and 4953 hours respectively.
(i) Internal gain
The building performance improves substantially when internal gains are reduced.
Promoting higher air change rates when the ambient air temperature is within the
comfortable range as compared to the indoor temperature improves the performance of
the building significantly. It shows approximately a two and half-fold increase over the
base case of 2155 h. However, when the ambient temperatures not within the
comfortable range, then the air exchange needs to be restricted.
orientation and internal gain), results in a significant improvement in the yearly
comfortable hours of the shed the increase is about three fold, from 2155 h to 6115 h in
a year.
5.5.3.3
Residential Building (Bungalow)
loads of the conditioned residential building for the Pune climate. Clearly, the building
requires cooling throughout the year. The general features are similar to those observed in
the case of the commercial building (section 5.5.3.1). The highest cooling load occurs in
the summer months and the lowest in the winter months. The monthly variation of the
percentage of loads through various building components is presented in Fig. 5.58, which
shows that the cooling requirement is primarily due to surface gains. Hence it is essential to
decrease heat gain by choosing appropriate materials, shading, colour, reducing exposed
glazing area, etc. The internal gain needs to be reduced by decreasing lighting and
equipment loads through energy efficient devices.
Table 5.28 presents the room-wise behaviour. It may be noted that the usage of the
building and the configuration of spaces appreciably affect the loads. For instance, the
cooling load of the living room is higher than that of other rooms. This is because of the
fact that this room is partly double storeyed and has a large volume. Similarly, the cooling
load of the kitchen is also very high due to the operation of various appliances.
Table 5.29 presents the effects of building parameters on the annual loads. The
percentages of the consequent load reduction due to these parameters compared to the base
case are also shown in the table. The following recommendations are made based on the
results, for a conditioned bungalow in the Pune climatic conditions:
(a)
Design Parameters
Changing the orientation of the building with respect to the base case (east-west)
does not increase the load significantly.
30000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
20000
10000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
0%
COOLING
100%
bungalow- Pune (moderate climate)
Surface
100%
80%
Internal Gain
60%
Air exchange
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
JAN
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
JUL
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month
a monthly basis of the conditioned bungalow - Pune (moderate climate)
Table 5.28 Room-wise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the conditioned Bungalow - Pune
(moderate climate)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
29
319
1241
1956
2046
1530
951
793
819
948
350
58
11038
1998
3503
6839
9654
9846
7155
4132
3465
3913
5453
3497
2168
61623
1023
1485
2722
3485
3637
2921
2179
2018
2035
2387
1648
1130
26670
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
Month
Cooling load (MJ)

BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Total
9
387
1701
2772
2917
2132
1264
1045
1102
1264
393
23
15009
44
427
1491
2261
2377
1777
1117
955
1001
1166
478
83
13179
28
414
1604
2525
2625
1907
1152
969
1032
1213
429
54
13952
226
663
1772
2568
2606
1884
1147
974
1082
1406
720
277
15327
3357
7198
17371
25221
26054
19306
11941
10219
10984
13837
7514
3793
156798
Heating load (MJ)

BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JAN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
FEB
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAR
APR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MAY
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JUL
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
AUG
SEP
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
OCT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NOV
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
DEC
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
for the conditioned bungalow - Pune (moderate climate)
Parameter
Annual load (MJ)

Heating
156798
0
Total
156798
156279
156279
519
0.3
161446
131052
136708
147103
0
0
0
0
161446
131052
136708
147103
-4648
25745
20089
9695
-3.0
16.4
12.8
6.2
10%
20%
50%
149955
143111
123066
0
0
0
149955
143111
123066
6843
13687
33731
4.4
8.7
21.5

Concrete block wall
150178
161525
153101
0
0
0
150178
161525
153101
6619
-4727
3697
4.2
-3.0
2.4
163082
144658
0
0
163082
144658
-6285
12140
-4.0
7.7
142979
147583
170869
0
0
0
142979
147583
170869
13819
9215
-14071
8.8
5.9
-9.0
0.5 ach
1.5 ach
158718
155209
0
0
158718
155209
-1920
1588
-1.2
1.0
50%
No internal gain
133253
111028
122370
0
0
0
133253
111028
122370
23544
45770
34428
15.0
29.2
22.0
150669
150669
6128
3.9
Cooling
Base case
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
Wall type
Roof type

White
Cream
Dark grey
Air exchanges
Internal gain
Set point
- cooling: 26 C
- heating: 19 C
(ii) Glazing type

Single pane reflective coated glass gives the best performance; it gives a saving of
16.4% in comparison with plain glass (base case). Double pane reflective coated
glazing and double low-E glass show an improvement of 12.8 and 6.2% respectively.
(iii) Shading
load. If 50% of the window areas are shaded throughout the year, the load can be
reduced by 21.5%.
(iv) Wall type
Insulation of walls helps to improve the thermal performance of the building.
Thermocol insulation can save annual loads by upto 4.2%, and autoclaved cellular
concrete block walls (e.g., Siporex) can save 2.4% as compared to the base case
(brick wall). A plain concrete block wall increases the cooling load by 3.0% and
hence should be avoided.
(v) Roof type
(PUF) insulation brings down the cooling load by 7.7%. In contrast, a plain
Light colours are suitable due to their lower absorptivities. White improves the
performance by upto 8.8%. Similarly, cream colour also improves the performance
by 5.9%. Dark colours should be avoided as the performance decreases by 9.0%.
(vii) Air exchanges
A higher air change rate of 1.5 ach (compared to base case of 0.5 ach) is desirable in
this climate as the ambient conditions are quite comfortable. Bringing the ambient
air into the building is recommended.
(i) Internal gain
Lowering the internal gain, improves the performance of the building in reducing
the annual load. The annual load reduces by 15.0% if internal gains are reduced by
50%. Therefore, more energy efficient equipment should be used.
(ii) Set point
cooling loads by 22.0%. Thus, a change in the expectation of comfort can bring
about good savings.
nights or winters) and controlling the same during warmer periods (during daytime
or summer) can reduce of annual load by 3.9%.

building orientation and internal gain), results an appreciable reduction of 68.4%.
number of comfortable hours in a year for all the rooms of a non-conditioned bungalow for
the Pune climate. It is seen that the maximum temperatures of all rooms exceed 33.0 C in
a year, indicating acute discomfort. The average temperatures are quite comfortable ranging
from 27.4 C to 28.3 C. Thus, cooling may be required only in summers. Table 5.31
presents the performance of the building on a monthly basis in terms of the comfort
fraction (CF). It is seen that the rooms are comfortable in the winter months of November
to February, and in the monsoon months of July to October (indicated by CF values of
more than 0.9). Generally, the house is comfortable throughout the year except in summer
from April and May. April is the most uncomfortable month with values of CF ranging
from 0.57 to 0.72. The hourly variation of room temperatures for a typical winter day of
January and summer day of May are plotted in Figs. 5.59 and 5.60 respectively. It is seen
that in January, all the rooms are comfortable throughout the day. In May, all the rooms are
above the comfort zone by about 2 to 3 C. Hence, it is desirable to have lower air change
rates during periods (11 h to 17 h) when the ambient temperature is higher than the comfort
zone, and higher air change rates during remaining hours.
increase or decrease (-) in comfortable hours compared to the base case.
(a)
Changing the orientation of the building does not affect its thermal performance. The
base case is in fact marginally better.
(b)
Glazing type
A single pane reflective coated glass increases the yearly comfortable hours by 4.8%
compared to the plain glass base case. This type of glazing is therefore recommended.
(iii) Shading
Reducing solar radiation by shading windows can reduce the heat gain and
consequently increase the comfort. If windows are shaded by 50% throughout the year,
the number of comfortable hours can be increased by 4.7%.
(c)
Wall type
A brick wall (base case) is better than other wall types.
(d)
Roof type
Insulating the roof with polyurethane foam (PUF) insulation increases performance by
3.1% as compared to a roof with brick-bat-coba waterproofing. However, an
uninsulated roof i.e. plain RCC roof decreases the number of comfortable hours.

White and cream colours are desirable as compared to puff shade (base case) or dark
grey. The percentage increases in comfortable hours due to these colours compared to
the base case are 2.6 and 2.4 respectively.
Table 5.30 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on an annual basis - Pune (moderate
climate)
Room
Yearly room
temperature(C)
year(h)
comfortable hours
BED1
MIN
21.4
MAX
33.2
AVG
27.4
7159
82
LIVDIN
21.3
33.9
27.6
7072
81
KIT
22.4
34.9
28.3
6853
78
BED2
21.1
34.0
27.6
6612
75
BED3
21.9
33.3
27.7
6887
79
BED4
21.5
33.6
27.8
6836
78
BED5
21.9
33.7
28.2
6741
77
Ambient
13.4
37.3
25.0
5000
57

Table 5.31 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on a monthly basis - Pune (moderate
climate)
Comfort
index
Comfort
fraction
Month
JAN
Room
BED1
0.96
LIVDIN
0.97
KIT
0.99
BED2
0.94
BED3
0.98
BED4
0.97
BED5
0.99
FEB
0.99
0.97
0.97
0.99
MAR
0.94
0.86
0.83
0.91
0.94
0.91
0.84
APR
0.72
0.69
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.58
0.57
MAY
0.73
0.74
0.61
0.60
0.62
0.58
0.60
JUN
0.90
0.90
0.79
0.81
0.84
0.82
0.83
JUL
0.95
AUG
0.97
SEP
0.96
OCT
0.95
0.91
0.99
0.99
0.94
NOV
0.99
0.98
DEC
0.98
0.99
0.99
0.96
0.99
0.99
40.0
35.0
BED1
LIVDIN
Temperature ( C)
30.0
KIT
BED2
25.0
BED3
20.0
BED4
BED5
15.0
AMBIENT
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
- Pune (moderate climate)
40.0
35.0
BED1
LIVDIN
Temperature ( C)
30.0
KIT
BED2
25.0
BED3
BED4
20.0
BED5
15.0
AMBIENT
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.60 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the non-conditioned bungalow in May Pune (moderate climate)
Table 5.32 Improvement in the performance of the non-conditioned bungalow due to

building design and operational parameters - Pune (moderate climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
Cream
Dark grey
White
Air exchanges
0.5 ach
1.5 ach
6 ach
9 ach
Internal gain
No internal gain
50%
year (h)
6612
comfortable hours
-
6547
-1.0
6493
6686
6932
6863
-1.8
1.1
4.8
3.8
6719
6829
6921
1.6
3.3
4.7
6516
6447
6418
-1.5
-2.5
-2.9
6504
6815
-1.6
3.1
6771
6416
6787
2.4
-3.0
2.6
6392
6429
6712
6732
-3.3
-2.8
1.5
1.8
6812
6724
7426
3.0
1.7
12.3
(vii) Air exchanges

The effects of higher air change rates are marginal. For an air change rate of 9 per
hour, the number of yearly comfortable hours increases by 1.8 over the base case of 3
ach; for 6 ach, the corresponding increase over the base case is 1.5%.

Internal gain
(a)
Reducing internal gains increases the performance. The performance increase is about
1.7% if the internal gains are reduced by 50%. Thus, energy efficient lights and
equipment should be considered to reduce discomfort.
Scheduling of air changes to promote more air during cooler periods (nights or winters)
and controlling it during warmer periods (during daytime or summers) can increase the
Combining all the best parameters (excluding building orientation and internal gain) can
significantly improve the buildings performance and increase the yearly number of
comfortable hours by 11.6% in Punes climate.
5.5.4 Composite Climate (Representative city: New)
building in New Delhi is shown in Fig. 5.61. On an annual basis, the heating load is negligible and
the cooling load is predominant. The monthly load profiles generally follow the climatic
conditions, the highest cooling load occurring in June (summer) and the lowest in January (winter).
In fact, some heating is also required in December and January. The months from April to October
display relatively higher cooling loads. Lesser cooling is required in the winter months of
November to March. The table shows that the cooling loads of May and June are almost equal to
the sum of the cooling loads of the five cooler months. Figure 5.62 shows the distribution of
percentage of loads through various building components on a monthly basis. The convective heat
gain dominates from November to March (five months), whereas from April to October, the
surface gains are more. Air exchanges help to reduce heat gains from November to March, while it
adds to the cooling loads during the other months. Hence, a scheduling of air changes to promote
ventilation from November to March and control of infiltration in summer could lead to a
reduction in cooling loads. It is also essential to reduce surface gains in all months except
December and January, to reduce the cooling loads. This can be achieved by reducing glazing areas
and shading of surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation.
The floor-wise monthly and annual loads of the commercial building are presented in Table
5.33. It is seen that the usage pattern of the building has a significant impact on the loads. For
instance, the energy required for cooling is maximum on the ground floor. This is because of the
high heat gain due to air exchanges caused by the frequent opening of the shutters on ground floor.
Besides, there is a significant internal gain due to operation of equipment and a high occupancy
level. Similarly, the cooling loads of the second and third floors are significantly higher than those
of other floors as the former are occupied on a 24-hour basis throughout the week. The heat gain
due to air exchanges may be reduced by preventing the leakage of hot ambient air into the building
by sealing all cracks and providing air lock lobbies on the ground floor.
1000000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
0%
COOLING
100%
-New Delhi (composite climate)
Surface
100%
Internal Gain
80%
60%
Air exchange
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
Month

a monthly basis of the commercial building New Delhi (composite climate)
Table 5.33 Floor wise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the commercial building
- New Delhi (composite climate)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
Cooling load (MJ)

GR
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
Total
0
8694
50245
124501
176467
192241
156901
132146
120884
84925
23878
12
1070894
9473
19394
36431
50414
64293
61932
55512
53123
46214
47710
29759
11595
485851
12849
27126
62380
102382
133099
138818
120234
108588
100080
87763
44457
14991
952766
14683
28415
63129
104513
136203
142454
123234
110882
102492
89299
45468
16665
977437
12233
22338
41177
57973
74723
72613
65118
61724
53513
54610
33957
14228
564208
2894
12626
31572
52021
69966
69193
60141
55245
47741
46621
23358
5037
476415
6423
19076
43002
67132
89101
87508
76880
71386
61554
60460
32313
9121
623956
0
4213
19037
37277
52372
52295
43637
39047
33738
31546
12000
30
325192
58557
141882
346974
596214
796222
817054
701657
632142
566215
502935
245188
71679
5476720
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
Heating load (MJ)

GR
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
Total
236
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
236
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
2230
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
853
3084
3518
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1313
4831
142
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
144
1373
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
645
2017
1154
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
461
1614
3093
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1813
4938
11753
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5087
16872
The effects of building parameters on the annual loads of the building are presented in
Table 5.34 for the New Delhi climatic conditions. The consequent percentages of load reduction
due to these parameters compared to the base case are also tabulated. It may be noted that the total
annual load of the building is quite high. Significant savings are possible by effecting even a one
percent reduction in total loads. The following guidelines are recommended for a commercial
building in New Delhi, which has a composite climate:
Appropriate orientation of the building can reduce the annual load appreciably. The
building (Fig.5.1) with glazed curtain wall facing northwest shows a substantial
reduction in load compared to southwest orientation (base case); the percentage
reduction being 8.6. The west and north orientations are also better than the base case.
(ii) Glazing type
Double glazing with reflective coated glass gives the best performance. It reduces the
load by 1.4% compared to single pane reflective coated glass (base case). Plain glass,
double glazing and double low-E glass increase the annual load by 10.7, 9.5 and 2.5%
respectively and hence are not recommended.
(iii) Window size
The reduction of the glazing size to a height of 1.2 m instead of a fully glazed curtain
thus the use of larger expanses of glass in such a building is not desirable as it leads to
higher annual loads.
(iv) Shading
such as chajjas) causes a decrease in the heat gain, hence reducing the annual loads. If
50% of the window areas are shaded throughout the year, loads can be reduced by
9.3%.
(v) Wall type
A wall having a low U-value (insulating type such as autoclaved cellular concrete
block) increases the load compared to the concrete block wall (base case) by 0.3%.
example, if dark grey is used in place of white (base case), the increase in load is 4.3%.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is better than higher rates of 1, 2 and 4 ach. The

summarised as follows:
for the commercial building- New Delhi (composite climate)
Parameter
Annual load (MJ)
Energy saving
Base case
North-south
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Cooling
5476720
Heating
16872
Total
5493592
(MJ)
--
(%)
--
5066737
4976333
5299057
45454
46828
28293
5112191
5023161
5327351
381402
470431
166241
6.9
8.6
3.0
Single clear
Double clear
Double low-E
GLAZING SIZE (restricted to 1.2m height)
6073518
6018065
5633546
5417676
5093091
5849
21
65
452
7577
6079368
6018086
5633611
5418128
5100668
-585776
-524494
-140019
75465
392924
-10.7
-9.5
-2.5
1.4
7.2
19776
23096
35581
5389245
5286096
4984387
104347
207496
509205
1.9
3.8
9.3
7244
5511221
-17629
-0.3
10504
5731164
-237572
-4.3
242265
87621
300215
3047473
3984834
2852410
2446119
1508758
2641182
44.5
27.5
48.1
Glazing type
Shading
10%
20%
50%
5369469
5263000
4948807
Wall type
5503977
Dark grey
5720660
Internal gain
10%
50%
No internal gain
2805208
3897213
2552194
AIR CHANGE RATE
0.5
2
4
Set point
- cooling: 25 C
- heating: 20 C
5393737
5677914
6158970
5062976
6260
58825
181916
3574
5399997
5736739
6340886
5066550
93596
-243147
-847294
427042
1.7
-4.4
-15.4
7.8
5379180
73365
5452545
41047
0.8
(i) Internal gain

Lower the internal gain, better is the performance of the building in reducing the
annual load.
(ii) Set Point
are relaxed. If cooling and heating set points of 25 and 200C respectively are used
change in the expectation of comfort can lead to significant energy savings.
The scheduling of air changes to promote air entry during cooler periods (such as nights
or winters) and controlling it during warmer periods (during daytime or summer) does
not show any significant load reduction; the percentage of load reduction is 0.8.
orientation and internal gain), results in a significant load reduction 23.0%.
Table 5.35 gives the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures, and the number
of comfortable hours in a year for the shed and store for the New Delhi climate. The average
temperature of the store room is about 3.3 C higher than the ambient, while that of the shed is
about 7.6 C. The yearly maximum temperatures of both rooms exceed 39 C, indicating acute
discomfort. Even the average temperatures are quite high more than 28 C in the store and 32 C
in the shed. The shed is comfortable for about 42% in terms of number of comfortable hours in a
year indicating acute discomfort for more than half the year. The store is only slightly better, being
comfortable for 46% of the year. The values of monthly comfort fractions (Table 5.36) show that
the shed is acutely uncomfortable in the months from April to July, September and October (as
shown by negative CF values) and is most uncomfortable in the month of June (CF = -1.16). In
contrast, January is the most comfortable month (CF = 0.97). The store is generally more
comfortable than the shed with CF values ranging from -0.15 in June to 0.96 in March. The hourly
values of room temperatures for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are
plotted in Figs. 5.63 and 5.64 respectively. It is seen that in January, the shed is within or close to
the comfort zone. The store is cool, with temperatures going below the comfort zone. In May, the
shed is very uncomfortable with temperatures exceeding 38 C and reaching a high of 44 C. At
this time, the store temperature ranges between 32 C and 38 C. Thus both rooms are extremely
hot in May. Consequently, higher air change rate is desirable to promote heat loss in summer,
while in winter, higher air change between 13 and 17 h would reduce discomfort.
parameters for the shed. The corresponding percentage increase or decrease (-) of comfortable
hours compared to the base case is also shown in the table. The effect of building orientation,
glazing type, wall type, roof type, colour of external surfaces, air exchanges and shading of
windows do not show any significant effect in this climate due to large internal gain of the
building. If the internal gain is 20% of the base case, then the performance of the building
improves by 28%. Promoting higher air changes when the ambient air temperature is within the
comfortable range as compared to the indoor temperature improves the performance of the
building by 25%. However, when the reverse situation prevails, then the air exchange needs to be
minimized.
Table 5.35 Performance of the industrial building on an annual basis- New Delhi
(composite climate)
Room
Shed
Store
Ambient
Yearly room
temperature(C)
MIN
MAX
AVG
18.9
44.1
32.5
13.9
39.9
28.2
8.7
38.5
24.9
year(h)
comfortable hours
3662
3982
5146
42
46
59
Table 5.36 Performance of the industrial building on a monthly basis- New Delhi
(composite climate)
Comfort
index
Comfort
fraction
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Room
Shed Store
0.97
0.35
0.80
0.78
0.35
0.96
-0.52
0.53
-0.99
0.07
-1.16
-0.15
-0.76
0.31
0.19
0.35
-0.43
0.62
-0.09
0.84
0.61
0.90
0.95
0.45
45.0
SHED
STORE
40.0
AMBIENT
Temperature ( C)
35.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
30.0
ACT-2.2
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
50.0
45.0
40.0
Temperature ( C)
35.0
30.0
SHED
25.0
STORE
20.0
AMBIENT
15.0
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.64 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in May New Delhi (composite climate)
design and operational parameters- New Delhi (composite climate)
Parameter
Base case
Orientation
Northwest-southeast
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Glazing type
Single reflective
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
RCC with Bitumen felt water proofing
White
Cream
Dark grey
Air exchanges
3 ach
9 ach
12 ach
Internal gain
20%
40%
year (h)
3662
comfortable hours
--
3677
3678
3706
0.4
0.4
1.2
3648
3663
3672
3688
-0.4
0.0
0.3
0.7
3671
3659
0.2
-0.1
3647
3563
3621
-0.4
-2.7
-1.1
3571
3517
-2.5
-4.0
3666
3672
3641
0.1
0.3
-0.6
2996
3622
3735
-18.2
-1.1
2.0
4689
4158
4577
28.0
13.5
25.0
orientation and internal gain), results in an increase in the yearly comfortable hours of the
shed by 27.2% compared to the base case.

loads of the conditioned bungalow for the New Delhi climate. The building requires
cooling throughout the year and the general features are similar to those observed in the
case of the commercial building (section 5.5.4.1). The highest cooling load occurs in the
summer months and the lowest in the winter months. The monthly variation of the
percentage of loads through various building components is presented in Fig. 5.66. As the
cooling requirement is primarily due to surface gains, it is essential to reduce the heat gain
by choosing appropriate materials, shading, colour, reducing exposed glazing area, etc. In
summer months, air exchanges add to cooling loads and hence need to be controlled. The
scheduling of air change rates can reduce cooling loads. The internal gain during winter
months is responsible for cooling loads and hence can be reduced by decreasing lighting
and equipment loads through energy efficient devices. The room-wise distribution of
monthly and annual loads is presented in Table 5.38. It may be noted that the usage of the
building and the configuration of spaces have a significant impact on the loads. The cooling
load of the living room is higher than that of the other rooms. This is because of the fact
that this room is partly double storeyed and has a large volume. The cooling load of the
kitchen is also very high due to operation of various appliances.
Table 5.39 presents the effects of building parameters on the annual loads of a
conditioned bungalow. The consequent percentages of load reduction due to these
parameters as compared to the base case are also shown in the table. The following
recommendations are made for such a building for the New Delhi climatic conditions:
Changing the orientation of the building does not increase the load significantly. In
fact, the east-west orientation (base case) is better than the north-south orientation.
(ii) Glazing type
with clear glass can also be used to reduce the loads by 11.9% and 6.3%
respectively.
(iii) Shading
load. If 50% of the window areas are shaded throughout the year, the percentage load
reduction is 8.9.
50000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
HEATING
5%
COOLING
95%
Surface
100%
80%
Internal Gain
60%
40%
Air exchange
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%
Month

a monthly basis of the conditioned bungalow New Delhi (composite climate)
(iv) Wall type

Insulation of walls helps to improve the buildings thermal performance
significantly. Thermocol insulation can save annual loads by upto 13.9% and
autoclaved cellular concrete block walls (e.g., Siporex) can save 12.0% as compared
to a brick wall (base case). Plain concrete block wall increases the cooling load by
11.4% and hence needs to be avoided.
(v) Roof type
(PUF) insulation brings down the cooling loads by 9.7%. In contrast, a plain
Light colours are suitable due to their lower absorptivities. White improves the
performance by 3.9%. Similarly, cream colour improves the performance by 2.6%.
Dark colours should be avoided as the performance decreases by 4.0%.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is desirable for reducing the loads; the reduction is
2.7% as compared to the base case of 1.0 ach. Increasing the air change rate to 1.5
increases the load by 2.7%. Although, lower air change rates decrease the load, they
may be undesirable for reasons of health.
Table 5.38 Room-wise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the conditioned
bungalow - New Delhi (composite climate)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
BED1
0
0
319
1881
2916
3296
2624
2089
1869
1090
13
0
16097
LIVDIN
0
0
3017
9670
14434
16055
12428
10041
9495
6691
772
0
82602
KIT
0
296
1537
3435
4779
5197
4309
3696
3414
2641
770
38
30112
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
BED1
619
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
370
1002
LIVDIN
2369
69
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1620
4058
KIT
275
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
183
463
Cooling load (MJ)

BED2 BED3
0
0
0
0
404
458
2639
2164
4133
3289
4653
3660
3668
2912
2902
2336
2581
2112
1406
1283
12
20
0
0
22398 18234
BED4
0
0
435
2393
3680
4104
3248
2579
2321
1333
15
0
20108
BED5
0
0
634
2494
3710
4112
3261
2616
2455
1629
59
0
20969
Total
0
296
6803
24676
36940
41077
32450
26258
24247
16073
1661
38
210520
Heating load (MJ)

BED2 BED3 BED4
1287
699
900
30
14
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
951
418
599
2268
1131
1516
BED5
556
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
284
852
Total
6704
161
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4425
11290
BED1=Bed room1, LIVDIN= Living and dining room, KIT=Kitchen, BED2=Bed room2,
BED3=Bed room3, BED4=Bed room4, BED5=Bed room5
for the conditioned bungalow - New Delhi (composite climate)
Parameter
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling
Heating
210520
11290
Total
221810
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
211536
13744
225280
-3470
-1.6
202246
191024
182608
188869
5566
15177
8437
6444
207812
206201
191045
195313
13998
15609
30765
26497
6.3
7.0
13.9
11.9
205267
200027
185162
12179
13152
16871
217446
213179
202033
4364
8631
19777
2.0
3.9
8.9
Wall type
Concrete block wall
185365
228622
189369
5617
18571
5739
190982
247193
195108
30828
-25383
26702
13.9
-11.4
12.0
Roof type
219638
191699
13286
8546
232924
200245
-11113
21565
-5.0
9.7

White
Cream
Dark grey
199945
203436
221290
13242
12556
9486
213187
215991
230776
8623
5819
-8966
3.9
2.6
-4.0
0.5 ach
1.5 ach
206859
214225
8900
13655
215759
227879
6051
-6069
2.7
-2.7
50%
No internal gain
192340
175219
183830
14203
18152
6590
206544
193371
190420
15266
28439
31390
6.9
12.8
14.2
206834
9023
215858
5953
2.7
Base case
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Air exchanges
Internal gain
Set point
cooling: 26 C
- heating: 19 C

summarised as follows:
(i) Internal gain
Lower the internal gain, better is the performance of the building in reducing the
annual load. The annual load can be reduced by 6.9% if internal gains are reduced
by 50%. Therefore, more energy efficient equipment should be used to facilitate
load reduction.
(ii) Set point
cooling loads by 14.2%. Thus, a change in the expectation of comfort can lead to
nights or winters) and controlling air entry during warmer periods (during daytime
or summer) can lead to a 2.7% reduction of the annual load.
building orientation and internal gain), results in a significant load reduction of
62.6%.
Table 5.40 gives the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures, and
number of comfortable hours in a year for all the rooms of a non-conditioned bungalow for
New Delhi. It is seen that the maximum temperatures of all rooms exceed 37.0 C in a year,
indicating acute discomfort. The average temperatures are quite comfortable ranging from
27.4 C to 28.3 C. Thus, cooling may be required only in summers. The percentage of
comfortable hours in a year for all rooms is between 49 and 56 only. In other words, all
rooms are uncomfortable for more than 44% of the year. Thus, a change in design is
indicated to reduce discomfort. The performance of the building on a monthly basis is
presented in terms of the comfort fraction (CF) in Table 5.41. It is seen that the rooms are
comfortable in the months of March, October and November. Generally, June is the most
uncomfortable month with values of CF ranging from -0.11 to 0.10. Most rooms are also
uncomfortable in the months of January, May and December. The hourly variation of room
temperatures for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are plotted in
Figs. 5.67 and 5.68 respectively. It is seen that in January, all the rooms are uncomfortably
cold throughout the day with temperatures ranging from 15 to 20C. Thus, heating is
required in winter and lower air change rates throughout the day is desirable. In May, all
the rooms are well above the comfort zone by about 2 to 3 C. The room temperatures
exceed 32.5 C, indicating acute discomfort. Thus, heat gain needs to be reduced in May,
and heat loss promoted. Higher air change rates during nights, and lower air change rates
during days are desirable in summers.
Table 5.40 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on an annual basis - New Delhi
(composite climate)
Room
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Ambient
Yearly room
temperature(C)
MIN
15.0
14.9
16.0
14.3
15.0
14.9
15.3
8.7
MAX
37.6
38.1
39.3
38.6
38.3
38.1
38.1
38.5
AVG
27.4
27.7
28.3
27.6
27.7
27.8
28.2
24.9
year(h)
comfortable hours
4918
4783
4700
4276
4605
4505
4360
5146
56
55
54
49
53
51
50
59

Table 5.41 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on a monthly basis - New Delhi
(composite climate)
Comfort
index
Month
Room
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
JAN
0.32
0.45
0.63
0.17
0.23
0.29
0.5
FEB
0.82
0.84
0.94
0.74
0.79
0.84
0.92
MAR
1
1
0.98
1
1
1
1
APR
0.73
0.68
0.60
0.62
0.62
0.60
0.55
MAY
0.32
0.30
0.18
0.14
0.16
0.15
0.15
Comfort
JUN
0.1
0.09
-0.01
-0.11
-0.09
-0.07
-0.06
fraction
JUL
0.52
0.51
0.38
0.36
0.38
0.38
0.39
AUG
0.75
0.75
0.61
0.63
0.64
0.63
0.62
SEP
0.82
0.76
0.65
0.72
0.72
0.71
0.64
OCT
0.99
0.89
0.87
0.98
0.99
0.99
0.88
NOV
0.93
0.95
1
0.89
0.94
0.95
0.98
DEC
0.43
0.58
0.73
0.28
0.35
0.39
0.62
40.0
35.0
BED1
LIVDIN
Temperature ( C)
30.0
KIT
25.0
BED2
BED3
20.0
BED4
15.0
BED5
AMBIENT
10.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
5.0
ACT-2.2
0.0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
45.0
40.0
BED1
LIVDIN
Temperature ( C)
35.0
KIT
30.0
BED2
25.0
BED3
20.0
BED4
BED5
15.0
AMBIENT
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
5.0
ACT-2.2
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.68 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the non-conditioned bungalow in May New Delhi (composite climate)

building design and operational parameters - New Delhi (composite climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Thermocol (EPS) insulated brick
wall
Roof type
Cream
Dark grey
White
Air exchanges
0.5 ach
1.5 ach
6 ach
9 ach
Internal gain
No internal gain
50%

(h)
4276
comfortable hours
-
4192
-2.0
4129
4398
4747
4629
-3.4
2.9
11.0
8.3
4382
4557
4778
2.5
6.6
11.7
4245
4004
-0.7
-6.4
4015
-6.1
4019
4488
-6.0
5.0
4392
4090
4506
2.7
-4.3
5.4
3660
3945
4630
4751
-14.4
-7.7
8.3
11.1
4625
4467
5171
8.2
4.5
20.9
increase or decrease (-) of comfortable hours compared to the base case.
East-west orientation of the building is better than the north-south orientation.

(ii) Glazing type
Single pane reflective coated glass is recommended over plain glass (base case). It
shows an increase in the yearly comfortable hours by 11.0%. Insulation in the form of
double glazing with reflective coated glass and double low-E glass improve the
performance by 8.3 and 2.9% respectively.
(iii) Shading
Reducing solar radiation by shading windows can reduce heat gain and consequently
increase the comfort. If windows are shaded by 50% throughout the year, an increase
of 11.7% in the number of comfortable hours can be achieved.
(iv) Wall type
A brick wall (base case) is better than all other wall types.
(v) Roof type
Insulating the roof with polyurethane foam (PUF) insulation increases performance by
5.0% as compared to a roof with brick-bat-coba waterproofing. However, an
uninsulated roof i.e., plain RCC roof decreases the number of comfortable hours by
about 6.0%.
White and cream colours are preferable to puff shade (base case) or dark grey. The
percentage increases of comfortable hours compared to the base case are 5.4 and 2.7
respectively.
(vii) Air exchanges
An air change rate of 9 ach is better than one of 3 ach (base case). It gives an
improvement of about 11.1%. Comparatively, an air change rate of 6 per hour gives an
improvement of 8.3%.
(a) Internal gain
Lowering the internal gain betters the performance. The performance increase is about
4.5% if the internal gains are reduced by 50%. Thus, energy efficient lights and
equipment may be considered to reduce discomfort.
Scheduling of air changes to promote more air during cooler periods and controlling it
during warmer periods (during daytime or summers) can lead to an increase in the
Combining all the best parameters (excluding building orientation and internal gain) can
significantly improve the non-conditioned buildings performance, resulting in an increase in
the yearly number of comfortable hours by 27.9% in New Delhi.
5.5.5 Cold and Cloudy Climate (Representative city: Srinagar)

building in Srinagar is shown in Fig. 5.69. Although the heating load is predominant on an annual
basis, the building tends to overheat in summer and hence cooling is also required (922.79
GJ/year). The heating season starts from November and ends in March, the heating load being
highest in January. Heating as well as cooling loads are small in April, May and October. The
cooling requirement is predominant from June to September, the cooling load being highest in
July. June and August also display significantly high cooling loads. Out of twelve months, five
months require only heating, four months require only cooling, and in remaining three months both
heating and cooling are required. Figure 5.70 shows the distribution of percentage of loads through
various building components on a monthly basis. The building loses net heat from October to April
primarily due to air exchanges and surface losses. The heat loss through surfaces is generally
higher than that through air exchanges. The building gains net heat from May to September, the
main gain being from people and equipment. In the months of July and August, heat is also gained
through surfaces. Air exchanges help to lose heat in these months and hence, a scheduling of air
changes to promote ventilation in July and August, and their control in other months could lead to
a reduction in the annual loads. It is essential to reduce surface gains and losses in all months to
reduce the heating and cooling loads. This could be achieved by reducing glazing areas, using
appropriate building materials, and through control of surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation.
Table 5.43 gives the floor-wise monthly and annual loads for the commercial building. It is
seen that the usage pattern of the building has a significant impact on the loads. For instance, the
energy required for heating is maximum on the ground floor. This is because the shutters are
opened frequently on ground floor resulting in high heat loss due to air exchanges. Such loss may
be reduced by sealing all cracks, providing air lock lobbies, etc. on ground floor. Similarly, the
loads of the second and third floor are significantly higher than those of other floors as they are
occupied on a 24-hour basis throughout the week.
The effects of building parameters on the annual loads of the building are presented in
Table 5.44 for the Srinagar climatic conditions. The consequent percentage load reduction for each
parameter compared to the base case are also tabulated. It may be noted that the total annual load
of the building is quite high. Energy can be well saved by even one percent reduction in this load.
The following guidelines are recommended for a commercial building in Srinagar, which belongs
to cold and cloudy climatic zone:
(b) Design Parameters
The building (Fig.5.1) with its glazed curtain wall facing south-west (base case) is
recommended. Other orientations show an increase in annual loads.
(ii) Glazing type

A double glazing with low-E glass gives the best performance. It reduces the load by
20.6% compared to single pane reflective coated glass (base case). Double glazing and
double reflective coated glass decrease the annual load by 16.0 and 20.1 respectively.
700000
Cooling
Heating
600000
LOAD
(MJ)
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
COOLING
30%
HEATING
70%
-Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Surface
100%
Internal Gain
80%
60%
40%
Air exchange
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%
Month

a monthly basis of the commercial building Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
(iii) Window size

The reduction of the glazing size to 1.2 m height, compared to a fully glazed curtain
wall, decreases the annual load by 11.8%. Thus, the use of larger expanse of glass in
such a building is not desirable as it leads to higher annual loads. This is due to high
internal gains of the commercial building.
(iv) Shading
The shading effect is insignificant in this climate for the commercial building because
the internal gain of the building is very high.
(v) Wall type
Walls having a low U-value (insulating type such as autoclaved cellular concrete block)
reduce the load compared to the concrete block wall (base case) by 10.9%. Thus
insulation of walls is recommended.
Dark colour of the external surfaces does not show any significant effect as the building
has high internal gains.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is better than air change rates of 1, 2 and 4 ach. The
(i) Internal gain
In cold climates, the internal gains help to keep the building warm and hence are
preferable.
Table 5.43 Floor wise distribution of monthly and annual loads of the commercial building
- Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
Cooling load (MJ)

GR
0
0
0
0
0
9883
25395
19102
1092
0
0
0
55472
F1
0
0
0
0
3517
17572
26280
25444
12179
583
0
0
85575
F2
0
0
0
1478
11508
34228
53368
49888
23721
6454
0
0
180645
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
F3
0
0
0
3339
14201
36904
55946
52270
26577
8913
0
0
198149
F4
0
0
0
1229
11829
27459
37098
36722
21004
6040
0
0
141382
F5
0
0
0
0
2142
17183
27543
26267
11248
95
0
0
84479
F6
0
0
0
0
7977
27999
40478
39097
19520
1489
0
0
136559
F7
0
0
0
0
0
7399
15708
14207
3214
0
0
0
40528
Total
0
0
0
6047
51173
178626
281816
262997
118555
23575
0
0
922789
F6
60757
37959
17327
3067
62
0
0
0
0
2474
20549
45030
187225
F7
59898
40963
26949
10709
1332
0
0
0
0
6473
28866
46678
221867
Total
633991
424010
231659
69141
5226
0
0
0
0
56594
268332
508909
2197862
Heating load (MJ)

GR
178128
123511
67180
17256
938
0
0
0
0
18088
84242
147753
637097
F1
35510
21975
9604
2278
91
0
0
0
0
2170
11018
25877
108521
F2
101613
70088
41164
14728
1205
0
0
0
0
11088
45823
86554
372262
F3
104134
71399
42306
15328
1325
0
0
0
0
12006
46936
88122
381556
F4
35993
20343
6464
1092
3
0
0
0
0
864
8254
24981
97994
F5
57958
37772
20666
4683
270
0
0
0
0
3431
22645
43914
191339
GR=Ground Floor, F1=First floor, F2=Second floor, F3=Third Floor, F4=Fourth floor,
F5=Fifth floor, F6=Sixth Floor, F7=Seventh floor
for the commercial building- Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Parameter
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling
Heating
Total
922789
2197862
3120651
Base case
North-south
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
834912
798639
889677
2386840
2398312
2298717
3221752
3196951
3188394
-101100
-76299
-67743
-3.2
-2.4
-2.2
1171012
1290793
1149217
1039267
845570
1989599
1329102
1327081
1452705
1906361
3160611
2619895
2476298
2491972
2751931
-39959
500756
644353
628679
368721
-1.3
16.0
20.6
20.1
11.8
879800
837786
718081
2238764
2280564
2410994
3118564
3118350
3129074
2087
2301
-8423
0.1
0.1
-0.3
Wall type
1380828
1399604
2780432
340219
10.9

Dark grey
1020408
2094909
3115317
5334
0.2
0.5
2
4
956856
879446
852113
1890403
2813760
4034756
2847259
3693206
4886869
273392
-572555
-1766218
8.8
-18.3
-56.6
10%
50%
No internal gain
109948
371609
68812
739562
4140111
3187899
4405124
1971306
4250060
3559509
4473937
2710868
-1129408
-438858
-1353285
409783
-36.2
-14.1
-43.4
13.1
907997
1971302
2879299
241352
8.4
Glazing type
Single clear
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Air change rate
Internal gain
Set point
- cooling: 25 C
heating: 20 C
(ii) Set Point

(compared to 24 and 210C), the annual load is reduced by 13.1%. Thus, a change in the
expectation of comfort can lead to significant savings.
The scheduling of air changes to control air entry during cooler periods (such as nights
or winters) and promote the same during warmer periods (during daytime or summer)
can reduce annual loads by 8.4%.
orientation and internal gain) results in a load reduction of 38.4%.
Table 5.45 gives the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures, and the number
of comfortable hours in a year for the shed and store of the industrial building for the Srinagar
climate. The average temperature of the store room is about 3.1 C higher than the ambient, while
that of the shed is about 7.5 C. The winters are very cool and minimum temperatures can be as
low as 1.6 C in store and 5.3 C in the shed, making heating essential in winters. The yearly
maximum temperatures of both rooms exceed 29.8 C and the shed can attain a temperature as
high as 34.1 C. Hence cooling is required in summers to alleviate discomfort. The shed is
comfortable for about 49% in terms of number of comfortable hours in a year indicating
discomfort for nearly half the time. The store is slightly more comfortable i.e. for 53% of the year.
The values of the monthly comfort fractions (Table 5.46) show that the shed is very uncomfortable
in the month of January with a CF of -0.23 (negative values of CF indicate acute discomfort). It is
comfortable in the months of April, May, August and October (CF values being more than 0.9).
The store is uncomfortably cold for a number of months (November to March), January being the
most uncomfortable month. June to September are comfortable months for the store. The hourly
values of room temperatures for a winter typical day of January and summer day of May are
plotted in Figs. 5.71 and 5.72 respectively. It is seen that in January, both the rooms are extremely
cold and well below the comfort zone. The temperature in the store is always lower than 5 C,
while the shed temperature varies and is about 10 C. Hence, heating is required in January and the
air change rate should be minimum in this month. In May, both the rooms are more or less
comfortable.
parameters for the shed. The corresponding percentage increase or decrease (-) of comfortable
hours compared to the base case is also shown in the table. The effect of building orientation,
glazing type, wall type, roof type, colour of external surfaces, air exchanges and shading of
windows do not show any significant effect in this climate due to the large internal gain of the
building. Single pane reflective coated glass is marginally better in increasing the yearly
comfortable hours (by about 2%) than plain glass. Having an insulated roof increases the yearly
comfortable hours by 2.6% compared to the base case. If the internal gain is 20% of the base case,
then the performance of the building improves by 14.5%. Promoting higher air changes when the
ambient air temperature is within the comfortable range compared to indoor temperature improves
the performance of the building by 31.8% compared to a constant air change rate.
Table 5.45 Performance of the industrial building on an annual basis- Srinagar (cold and
cloudy climate)
Room
Shed
Store
Ambient
Yearly room
temperature(C)
MIN
MAX
AVG
5.3
34.1
20.4
1.6
29.8
16.0
-1.1
28.8
12.9
year(h)
comfortable hours
4245
4666
3911
49
53
45
Table 5.46 Performance of the industrial building on a monthly basis- Srinagar (cold and
cloudy climate)
Comfort
index
Comfort
fraction
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Room
Shed
-0.23
0.07
0.70
1
0.90
0.48
0.19
0.98
0.73
0.98
0.60
0.02
Store
-1.59
-1.12
-0.38
0.26
0.75
0.99
0.95
0.96
0.91
0.30
-0.60
-1.29
SHED
30.0
STORE
AMBIENT
25.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
20.0
Temperature ( C)
ACT-2.2
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
-5.0
1
-10.0
10 11 12
13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
30.0
25.0
Temperature ( C)
20.0
15.0
SHED
STORE
10.0
AMBIENT
ACT
5.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
0.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
-5.0
-10.0
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.72 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in May Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
design and operational parameters- Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Parameter
Base case
Orientation
Northwest-southeast
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Glazing type
Single reflective
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
White
Cream
Dark grey
Air exchanges
3 ach
9 ach
12 ach
Internal gain
20%
40%

(h)
comfortable hours
4245
--
4266
4253
4301
0.5
0.2
1.3
4330
4254
4264
4267
2.0
0.2
0.4
0.5
4265
4288
0.5
1.0
4246
4279
4238
0.0
0.8
-0.2
4221
4355
-0.6
2.6
4382
4360
4160
3.2
2.7
-2.0
4363
4495
4675
2.8
5.9
10.1
4862
4796
5595
14.5
13.0
31.8
The combined effect of all the best design and operational parameters (excluding
building orientation and internal gain), results in an increase of the yearly comfortable hours
of the shed by 40.4% compared to the base case.

A distribution of the annual and monthly heating and cooling loads of the
conditioned bungalow in Srinagar is shown in Fig. 5.73. The figure shows that on an
annual basis, the heating load is predominant (91%) with heating being required throughout
the year except in June, July and August. The load profiles generally follow the climatic
conditions. For example, the highest heating load occurs during the peak winter period in
January. The heating load in December is also quite high. Only cooling loads occur in the
summer months from June to August. The monthly variation of the percentage of loads
through the various building components is presented in Fig. 5.74. The heating requirement
is primarily due to surface losses. During most of the year, the combined heat loss through
surfaces and air exchanges is higher than heat gain due to people and equipment. Therefore,
insulation of surfaces and control of air exchanges could lower the heating loads. In May
and September, which represents the spring and autumn months respectively, the heat gains
and losses more or less balance each other and hence, the loads are small. In the summer
months of July and August, heat gain through surfaces needs to be minimised. It could be
done by reducing the glazing area and by shading of surfaces exposed to direct solar
radiation.
Table 5.48 presents the room-wise annual loads for the conditioned bungalow in
Srinagar. It is seen that the heating load of the living and dining room is significantly higher
than that of other rooms. This is because of the fact that this room is very large and is also
partly double storeyed. The heating load of the kitchen is the least due to internal gains
from appliances (refrigerator and cooking range). A comparison of the bedrooms shows
that the first floor bedroom (Bed3) facing north and having only one window is the
warmest. The ground floor bedroom (Bed1) in the northwest corner of the house is also
warm. The bedroom located directly above it is the coolest. This is primarily due to heat
losses from larger exposed surfaces and glazed area.
The effects of building parameters on annual loads are presented in Table 5.49. The
table also shows the consequent percentage load reduction for each parameter compared to
the base case. Based on the results, the following are recommended for a conditioned
bungalow in Srinagar:
East-west orientation (base case) is better than a north-south orientation.
(ii) Glazing type
Double-glazing with low-E coated glass gives the best performance. It reduces the
load by 20.2% in comparison with plain glass (base case). Single reflective coated
glazing is not recommended. Double-glazing with reflective coated glass and

double-glazing with clear glass can also be used to reduce the loads by 16.7 and
19.1% respectively.
60000
Cooling
Heating
50000
LOAD
(MJ)
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
COOLING
9%
HEATING
91%
bungalow - Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Surface
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%
-100%
Internal Gain
Air exchange
Month
a monthly basis of the conditioned bungalow- Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Table 5.48 Room-wise distribution of the monthly and annual loads of the conditioned bungalow - Srinagar
(cold and cloudy climate)
Month
Cooling load (MJ)
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Total
0
0
0
0
0
47
459
270
1
0
0
0
777
0
0
0
0
0
713
2851
2252
9
0
0
0
5825
0
0
0
0
60
789
1497
1297
487
7
0
0
4137
0
0
0
0
0
277
1119
780
6
0
0
0
2182
0
0
0
0
0
316
1019
772
12
0
0
0
2119
0
0
0
0
0
197
883
602
4
0
0
0
1686
0
0
0
0
0
203
900
659
6
0
0
0
1769
0
0
0
0
60
2542
8728
6633
525
7
0
0
18495
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Total
4187
3094
2112
964
59
0
0
0
0
864
2429
3724
17434
20852
14916
10079
4262
737
3
0
0
0
3005
10712
17860
82426
2908
2011
1134
467
119
0
0
0
0
382
1302
2409
10731
6
4
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
5
24
4223
3040
1935
686
13
0
0
0
0
628
2330
3711
16565
5299
3864
2561
1043
24
0
0
0
0
984
3037
4690
21502
5219
3757
2461
977
23
0
0
0
0
731
2752
4541
20461
48634
35029
23168
9592
1010
3
0
0
0
7768
26026
42225
193452
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
Heating load (MJ)
BED1=Bed room1, LIVDIN= Living and dining room, KIT=Kitchen, BED2=Bed room2, BED3=Bed room3, BED4=Bed room4, BED5=Bed room5
for the conditioned bungalow - Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)

Parameter
Base case
North-south
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling
Heating
Total
18495
193452
211948
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
19860
197797
217657
-5710
-2.7
20635
12540
14725
17355
150914
207456
161847
151847
171549
219996
176572
169202
40399
-8048
35376
42746
19.1
-3.8
16.7
20.2
16847
15239
10978
197154
200872
212205
214001
216110
223183
-2053
-4163
-11235
-1.0
-2.0
-5.3
Wall type
Concrete block wall
20055
18461
20176
135295
241827
139658
155350
260288
159834
56598
-48340
52114
26.7
-22.8
24.6
Roof type
20096
15791
206701
168847
226797
184637
-14849
27310
-7.0
12.9

White
Cream
Dark grey
15137
16228
22063
201122
198554
186040
216259
214782
208103
-4311
-2834
3845
-2.0
-1.3
1.8
1.0 ach
1.5 ach
17444
16525
211442
228943
228886
245469
-16938
-33521
-8.0
-15.8
50%
No internal gain
12331
7689
175620
207650
222912
11120
219981
230601
186740
-8033
-18653
25208
-3.8
-8.8
11.9
17152
193458
210610
1338
0.6
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Air exchanges
Internal gain
Set point
- cooling: 26 C
- heating: 19 C
(iii) Shading
Shading of windows is not desirable in this cold and cloudy climate. If 50% of the
window areas are shaded throughout the year, the annual load increases by 5.3%.
(iv) Wall type
Insulation of walls helps to improve the performance significantly. Thermocol insulation

can save annual loads by 26.7% and autoclaved cellular concrete block walls (e.g., Siporex)
can save 24.6% as compared to a brick wall (base case). Plain concrete block wall increases
the load by 22.8% and hence needs to be avoided.
(v) Roof type
Insulation of the roof improves the performance of the building. Polyurethane foam (PUF)
insulation brings down the loads by 12.9%. In contrast, a plain uninsulated RCC roof
increases the load by 7.0%.
Dark grey colour is suitable due to its higher absorptivity.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is desirable for reducing the loads.
The operational parameters such as internal gain, set point and scheduling of air changes can
help in reducing the annual load of the building. The effects are summarised as follows.
(i) Internal gain
In cold climates, internal gains help to keep the building warm and hence are preferable.
(ii) Set point
Lowering the operating parameters for comfort cooling and heating can reduce the cooling
loads by 11.9%. Thus, a change in the expectation of comfort can lead to significant
savings.
The scheduling of air changes does not have a significant effect on the annual load.
orientation and internal gain), results in a load reduction of 73.4% for a conditioned bungalow in
Srinagar.

The yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures and the number of
comfortable hours in a year for all the rooms are given in Table 5.50 for a non-conditioned
bungalow in the Srinagar climatic conditions. It is seen that the yearly minimum values of
room temperatures are about 1.8 to 3.4C indicating acute discomfort in winters. The room
attaining the lowest temperature of 1.8 C is the bedroom on the first floor (Bed2), in the
northwest corner of the house. The maximum temperatures are quite comfortable ranging
from 27.6 to 29.5 C. The warmest room is the kitchen, attaining a maximum temperature
of 29.5 C and average temperature of 16.7 C in a year. Thus, the minimum and maximum
values of room temperatures are higher than those of the ambient. In terms of number of
hours in a year,
Table 5.50 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on an annual basis

Room
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Ambient
Yearly room
temperature(C)
MIN
2.6
2.3
3.4
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.5
-1.1
MAX
27.6
28.3
29.5
28.7
28.7
28.3
28.4
28.8
AVG
15.6
15.8
16.7
15.8
15.9
15.9
16.3
12.9
Comfortable
hours in a
year(h)
comfortable hours
5112
5134
5090
5035
5053
5128
5138
3911
58
59
58
57
58
59
59
45

Table 5.51 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on a monthly basis
(a) Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Comfort
index
Month
Room
BED1 LIVDIN KIT

BED2
BED3 BED4
BED5
JAN
-1.48
-1.49
1.18
-1.65
-1.59
-1.53
-1.46
FEB
-1.02
-0.99
0.72
-1.13
-1.08
-1.03
-0.94
MAR
-0.36
-0.32
0.09
-0.38
-0.34
-0.31
-0.24
APR
0.27
0.28
0.45
0.32
0.35
0.36
0.40
MAY
0.71
0.73
0.84
0.84
0.84
0.84
0.86
JUN
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Comfort
JUL
1
1
0.98
1
1
1
1
fraction
AUG
1
1
0.99
1
1
1
1
SEP
0.93
0.94
0.98
0.97
0.99
0.98
0.99
OCT
0.21
0.36
0.51
0.23
0.29
0.28
0.44
NOV
-0.61
-0.45
0.26
-0.71
-0.63
-0.61
-0.41
DEC
-1.2
-1.17
0.88
-1.36
-1.29
-1.24
-1.13
all the rooms are comfortable for 57 to 59% of the time. In other words, all rooms are
uncomfortable for more than 40% of the year. The performance of the building on a
monthly basis is presented in terms of the comfort fraction (CF) in Table 5.51. It is seen
that the rooms are very uncomfortable in winters (November to March), as negative CF values
indicate acute discomfort. January is the most uncomfortable month with CF values ranging from 1.18 to -1.59. Hence, heating is a prime requirement from the design point of view. The house is
comfortable from June to September. The hourly variation of room temperatures for a typical
winter day of January and summer day of May are plotted in Figs. 5.75 and 5.76 respectively. It is
seen that in January, all the rooms are uncomfortably cool throughout the day with temperatures
being less than 5C. Thus, heating is required in winter and the air change rate should be minimum
in this season. In May, all the rooms are very close to the lower limit of the comfort zone.
40.0
BED1
35.0
LIVDIN
KIT
Temperature ( C)
30.0
BED2
25.0
BED3
BED4
20.0
BED5
15.0
AMBIENT
ACT
10.0
ACT+2.2
5.0
ACT-2.2
0.0
-5.0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
30.0
BED1
25.0
LIVDIN
KIT
Temperature ( C)
20.0
BED2
BED3
15.0
BED4
BED5
10.0
AMBIENT
ACT
5.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
0.0
-5.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 4.76 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the non-conditioned bungalow in May Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
various parameters for a bedroom (Bed2). The corresponding percentage increase or
decrease (-) in comfortable hours compared to the base case is shown in the table. None of
the parameters show any significant effect, which implies that the base case design of the
bungalow is reasonably satisfactory in this climate.
building design and operational parameters - Srinagar (cold and cloudy climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Thermocol (EPS) insulated brick
wall
Roof type
Cream
Dark grey
White
Air exchanges
0.5 ach
1.0 ach
Internal gain
No internal gain
50%
Comfortable hours in a year (h)

5035
comfortable hours
-
4893
-2.8
4852
5045
5103
5116
-3.6
0.2
1.4
1.6
5107
5110
5061
1.4
1.5
0.5
4937
4747
-1.9
-5.7
4805
-4.6
4861
5071
-3.5
0.7
5101
4861
5105
1.3
-3.5
1.4
4869
4925
-3.3
-2.2
5078
5092
0.9
1.1
5.5.6 Cold and Sunny Climate (Representative city: Leh)

Figure 5.77 shows a distribution of the annual and monthly heating and cooling loads of a
commercial building located at Leh. On an annual basis, the heating load is predominant. It is
significantly high during the months from October to April, being maximum in January. The
months from May to September require comparatively less heating. In addition to heating, cooling
is also required for about four months, from June to September. Figure 5.78 shows the distribution
of percentage of loads through various building components on a monthly basis. The building loses
net heat throughout the year primarily due to air exchanges and surface losses. The heat loss
through surfaces is generally higher than that through air exchanges. In the months of July and
August, the heat gains and losses more or less balance each other out, the main gain being due to
people and equipment. During the other months, annual loads can be reduced by controlling air
exchanges and surface losses. This could be achieved by reducing glazing areas, using appropriate
building materials, and controlling the surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation.
The floor-wise monthly and annual loads are presented in Table 5.53 It is seen that the
usage pattern of the building has a significant impact on the loads. For instance, the energy
required for heating is maximum on the ground floor. This is because the shutters are frequently
opened on ground floor, resulting in a high heat loss due to air exchanges. Measures such as
sealing all cracks, providing air lock lobbies, etc. on ground floor can reduce such heat loss.
Similarly, the loads of the second and third floor are significantly higher than those of the other
floors as they are occupied on a 24-hour basis throughout the week.
Table 5.54 presents the effects of building parameters on the annual loads of the
commercial building for Leh conditions. The consequent percentage load reductions compared to
the base case are also tabulated. It may be noted that the total annual load of the building is quite
high and hence even a one percent reduction in this load would result in significant energy savings.
The following guidelines are recommended for improving the performance of the commercial
building for the Leh climate:
Appropriate orientation of the building can reduce the annual load significantly. The
building (Fig.5.1) with its glazed curtain wall facing south-west (base case) is
recommended over other orientations.
(ii) Glazing type
Both double-glazing with low-E glass and double clear glass perform better than single
pane reflective coated glass (base case); the annual load is reduced by 29.7% in both
cases. Plain glass and double reflective coated glass also decrease the annual load by
7.2 and 25.4 respectively.
1200000
Cooling
Heating
1000000
LOAD
(MJ)
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
COOLING
1%
HEATING
99%
-Leh (cold and dry climate)
Surface
60%
40%
Internal Gain
20%
0%
Air exchange
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%
-100%
JAN
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
JUL
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month

a monthly basis of the commercial building Leh (cold and dry climate)
Table 5.53 Floor wise distribution of the monthly and annual loads of the commercial building - Leh (cold and
dry climate)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
F1
F2
F3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
454
396
0
0
0
0
850
0
0
0
0
0
1534
8087
8308
2383
0
0
0
20312
0
0
0
0
6
3401
10949
11282
4206
15
0
0
29860
GR
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
Total
335259
268276
223315
167668
94480
49381
19402
23316
56770
138321
210467
287767
1874423
63826
47500
38232
26507
13758
6303
2243
2674
6912
20098
34418
49286
311756
174469
138344
114101
85522
47187
25935
9720
9972
28752
65259
101885
151585
952731
178341
140984
115390
86725
47344
25867
9749
10116
28541
65704
103109
154298
966167
66427
48059
35279
22043
8414
2694
351
369
3260
14216
30414
49934
281459
95462
70437
56810
41009
21792
8189
2039
2302
8792
31100
51515
73305
462751
106071
76172
58422
39571
17109
5788
1100
1360
6843
28992
53521
79488
474437
95428
70219
57821
43124
27757
13583
4117
4657
13299
36117
53524
72890
492535
1115284
859990
699369
512171
277840
137740
48720
54766
153167
399806
638853
918553
5816259
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
Cooling load (MJ)

F4
F5
GR
0
0
0
0
0
957
8154
8412
1583
0
0
0
19106
0
0
0
0
0
0
790
745
0
0
0
0
1535
F6
F7
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
5437
5158
33
0
0
0
10628
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
5893
33871
34301
8205
15
0
0
82291
Heating load (MJ)
for the commercial building- Leh (cold and dry climate)

Parameter
Base case
North-south
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling
Heating
Total
82291
5816259
5898550
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
56723
41363
77314
6312067
6378534
6057868
6368790
6419897
6135182
-470240
-521347
-236632
-8.0
-8.8
-4.0
168325
241331
181171
136910
65854
5307770
3907648
3963253
4264346
5271611
5476094
4148979
4144425
4401255
5337465
422456
1749571
1754126
1497295
561086
7.2
29.7
29.7
25.4
9.5
70201
59284
33554
5914816
6014895
6324528
5985017
6074179
6358082
-86467
-175629
-459532
-1.5
-3.0
-7.8
Wall type
343802
3855500
4199302
1699248
28.8

Dark grey
107487
5567823
5675310
223240
3.8
0.5
2
4
97199
62926
43126
5192740
7043581
9444231
5289939
7106507
9487358
608611
-1207956
-3588807
10.3
-20.5
-60.8
10%
50%
No internal gain
0
324
0
32268
8840177
7422661
9209868
5434517
8840177
7422985
9209868
5466785
-2941626
-1524435
-3311317
431766
-49.9
-25.8
-56.1
7.3
96520
5320991
5417511
481039
8.2
Glazing type
Single clear
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Air exchange rate
Internal gain
Set point
- cooling: 25 C
- heating: 20 C
(iii) Window size

Compared to a fully glazed curtain wall, the reduction of the glazing size to a 1.2 m
height decreases the annual load by 9.5%. Thus, the use of larger expanse of glass in
such a building is not desirable as it leads to higher annual loads. This is due to high
internal gains of the commercial building.
(iv) Shading
The shading of windows in this climate is not desirable. If 50% of the window areas are
shaded throughout the year, the percentage load increase is 7.8.
(v) Wall type
Walls having a low U-value (insulating type such as autoclaved cellular concrete block)
reduce loads compared to the concrete block wall (base case) by 28.8%. Thus,
insulation of walls is recommended.
(vi) Colour of external surface
Dark colours should be preferred for external surfaces due to their high absorptivities.
For example, if dark grey is used, the percentage reduction in load is 3.8 compared to
white surfaces (base case).
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate (0.5 ach) is more effective than higher ones of 1, 2 and 4 per
hour. It reduces the annual load by 10.3% compared to the base case of 1 ach.
(i) Internal gain
In cold climates, the internal gains help to keep the building warm and hence are
preferable.
(ii) Set Point
change in the expectation of comfort can lead to significant savings.
The scheduling of air changes to control air entry during cooler periods (such as nights
or winters) and promote it during warmer periods (during daytime or summer) can lead
to significant reduction of annual load; the percentage load reduction is 8.2.
orientation and internal gain), results in a significant load reduction of 62.3% for the
commercial building at Leh.
The yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures, and the number of comfortable
hours in a year for the shed and store are given in Table 5.55 for the Leh climate. Winters are very
cold with the minimum temperature going as low as -8.7 C in store and -3.4 C in the shed,
making heating essential in this season. The yearly maximum temperatures of both rooms are quite
comfortable, ranging from 22.7 to 27.7 C, and the average temperatures are quite cool 7.7 C in
Table 5.55 Performance of the industrial building on an annual basis- Leh (cold and dry
climate)
Room
Shed
Store
Ambient
Yearly room
temperature(C)
MIN
MAX
AVG
-3.4
27.7
12.2
-8.7
22.7
7.7
-13.9
24.5
4.5
year (h)
comfortable hours
4535
3769
2839
52
43
32

Table 5.56 Performance of the industrial building on a monthly basis- Leh (cold and dry
climate)
Comfort
index
Comfort
fraction
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Room
Shed Store
-1.41
-2.74
-1.13
-2.3
-0.44
-1.55
0.16
-1.01
0.72
-0.23
0.91
0.25
0.87
0.65
0.91
0.83
0.83
0.08
0.35
-0.76
-0.36
-1.55
-1.01
-2.29
the store and 12.2 C in the shed. The shed is comfortable for about 52% in terms of number of
comfortable hours in a year. The store is slightly less comfortable i.e. for 43% of the year. The
values of monthly comfort fractions (Table 5.56) show that the shed is very uncomfortable in the
months from November to March (negative values of CF indicate acute discomfort). January is the
most uncomfortable month with CF value of -1.41; June and August are relatively comfortable
months. The store is very uncomfortable from October to May, January being the most
uncomfortable month. August is the most comfortable month for the store. The hourly values of
room temperatures for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are plotted in Figs.
5.79 and 5.80 respectively. It is seen that in January, both the rooms are close to or below the
freezing line, indicating acute discomfort. The shed temperature varies between -2.5 to 2.5 C. The
store temperature is much lower, varying between -7.5 to -4.0 C. However, the temperatures of
both rooms are higher than the ambient. In May, the shed is comfortable in the late afternoons and
evenings. During nights and early mornings, the shed temperature is below the comfort zone. The
store temperature in May ranges between 10 and 15 C and is therefore quite uncomfortable. Thus,
heating is required and the air change rate should be minimum
25.0
SHED
STORE
20.0
AMBIENT
Temperature ( C)
15.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
10.0
ACT-2.2
5.0
0.0
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
- Leh (cold and dry climate)
25.0
20.0
Temperature ( C)
15.0
10.0
5.0
SHED
0.0
STORE
AMBIENT
-5.0
ACT
ACT+2.2
-10.0
ACT-2.2
-15.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
Fig. 5.80 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the industrial building in May Leh (cold and dry climate)
design and operational parameters- Leh (cold and dry climate)
PARMETERS
year (h)
comfortable hours
Base case
Orientation
Northwest-southeast
Northeast-southwest
East-west
Glazing type
Single reflective
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
White
Cream
Dark grey
Air exchanges
3 ach
9 ach
12 ach
Internal gain
20%
40%
4535
--
4539
4536
4579
0.1
0.0
1.0
4417
4633
4631
4585
-2.6
2.2
2.1
1.1
4512
4471
-0.5
-1.4
4624
4376
4619
2.0
-3.5
1.9
4534
4760
0.0
5.0
4357
4386
4643
-3.9
-3.3
2.4
4674
4137
4031
3.1
-8.8
-11.1
3623
3971
-20.1
-12.4
parameters for shed. The corresponding percentage increase or decrease (-) in comfortable hours
compared to the base case is shown in the table.
The effect of building orientation does not show any significant effect. East-west
orientation is better than the north-south (base case) orientation.
(ii) Glazing type

There is no significant effect of different glazing types compared to plain glass (base
case). Double-glazing with clear glass as well as with low-E glass show a marginal
increase (about 2.2 %) in yearly comfortable hours.
(iii) Shading
Shading of windows is not desirable in this climate, since the solar gain is needed in
this climate. If 20% of the window areas are shaded throughout the year, the annual
load increases by 1.4%.
(iv) Wall type
Insulation of walls shows a marginal increase in yearly comfortable hours compared
to brick walls (base case).
(v) Roof type
(PUF) insulation increases the yearly comfortable hours by 5.0%.
Dark grey is suitable due to its higher absorptivity as compared to light colours.
(vii) Air exchanges
Air change needs to be reduced compared to the base case of 6 ach.
(i) Internal gain
In cold climates, internal gains help to keep the building warm and hence are
preferable.
building orientation and internal gain), results in a 7.9% increase in the yearly comfortable
hours for the shed compared to the base case design.
loads of the conditioned building for the cold and sunny climate of Leh. On an annual
basis, the heating load is predominant, heating being required throughout the year. The load
profiles generally follow the climatic conditions. For example, the highest heating load
occurs in January, which is the peak winter month. The load in December is also
significantly high. The months from June to September display relatively lower heating
loads.
The monthly variation of the percentage of loads through various building
components is presented in Fig. 5.82. It shows that the heating requirement is primarily due
to surface losses. The heat loss through surfaces and air exchanges are higher than the heat
gain due to people and equipment throughout the year. Therefore, insulation of surfaces and
control of air exchanges could lower the heating loads. In July and August, which
represents summer months, the heat gains and losses more or less balance each other and
hence the loads are small.
80000
Cooling
Heating
LOAD
(MJ)
60000
40000
20000
0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month
ANNUAL LOAD
COOLING
0%
HEATING
100%
Surface
40%
20%
Internal Gain
0%
Air exchange
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%
-100%
JAN
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month

a monthly basis of the conditioned bungalow- Leh (cold and dry climate)
Table 5.58 presents the room-wise annual loads for the conditioned bungalow. It is
seen that the heating load of the living and dining room is significantly higher than that of
other rooms. This is because of the fact that this room is very large and is also partly double
storeyed. The heating load of the kitchen is the least due to internal gains from appliances
(refrigerator and cooking range). The comparison of bedrooms shows that, the first floor
bedroom on the north (Bed3) is the warmest in the house. The bedroom located in the
north-west corner (Bed3) on the same floor is the coolest. This is primarily due to heat
losses from larger exposed surfaces and glazed windows.
The effects of building parameters on the annual load are presented in Table 5.59.
The consequent percentage load reductions due to these parameters compared to the base
case are also shown in the table. Based on the data, the following recommendations are
made for increasing the performance of the conditioned bungalow at Leh:
The east-west orientation (base case) is better than a north-south orientation.
(ii) Glazing type
Double-glazing with clear glass gives the best performance. It reduces the load by
20.9% in comparison with plain glass (base case). Double-glazing with low-E glass
and reflective coated glass can also be used to reduce the loads by 20.2 and 15.5%
respectively.
(iii) Shading
Shading of windows is not recommended for this climate. If 50% of the window
areas are shaded throughout the year, the annual load increases by 9.0%.
Table 5.58 Room-wise distribution of the monthly and annual loads of the conditioned
bungalow - Leh (cold and dry climate)
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
Cooling load (MJ)

BED1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
LIVDIN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
KIT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Month
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Total
BED2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
BED3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
BED4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
BED5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
BED4
8160
6567
5455
4106
2335
1157
160
251
1572
3653
5395
7256
46066
BED5
7914
6344
5286
4006
2293
1141
159
209
1339
3289
4957
6952
43889
Total
74145
59262
49669
37476
21899
11398
2847
3403
13264
31254
46803
64995
416414
Heating load (MJ)

BED1
6531
5294
4484
3474
2116
1215
356
438
1476
3017
4349
5849
38599
LIVDIN
31004
24627
20923
15839
9706
5312
1719
1939
5411
12640
18898
26845
174863
KIT
4961
3953
3255
2412
1291
676
264
282
722
1886
2991
4241
26934
BED2
9093
7299
6035
4525
2516
1210
158
252
1717
4037
6023
8115
50979
BED3
6482
5178
4232
3114
1643
686
31
32
1028
2732
4190
5737
35083
for the conditioned bungalow - Leh (cold and dry climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Annual load (MJ)

Cooling
Heating
Total
0
416414
416414
Energy saving
(MJ)
(%)
---
11
421989
421999
-5585
-1.3
7
0
0
0
329279
444371
351721
332115
329286
444371
351721
332115
87128
-27957
64693
84299
20.9
-6.7
15.5
20.2
10%
20%
50%
0
0
0
423797
431212
454003
423797
431212
454003
-7383
-14798
-37589
-1.8
-3.6
-9.0
Wall type
Concrete block wall
197
14
122
299289
513533
308259
299487
513547
308381
116927
-97133
108033
28.1
-23.3
25.9
Roof type
0
0
442260
369257
442260
369257
-25846
47157
-6.2
11.3

White
Cream
Dark grey
0
0
36
431877
426690
401241
431877
426690
401277
-15463
-10276
15137
-3.7
-2.5
3.6
Air exchanges
1.0 ach
1.5 ach
0
0
451872
486393
451872
486393
-35458
-69979
-8.5
-16.8
0
0
0
438643
462050
391280
438643
462050
391280
-22229
-45636
25134
-5.3
-11.0
6.0
416414
416414
0.0
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
Internal gain
50%
No internal gain
Set point
- cooling: 26 C
- heating: 19 C
(iv) Wall type

Insulation of walls helps to improve the performance significantly. Thermocol
insulation can save annual loads by 28.1% and autoclaved cellular concrete block
walls (e.g., Siporex) can save annual loads by 25.9% as compared to a brick wall
(base case). Plain concrete block wall increases the load by 23.3% and hence should
be avoided.
(v) Roof type
(PUF) insulation brings down the loads by 11.3%. In contrast, a plain uninsulated
RCC roof increases the load by 6.2%.
Dark grey is suitable due to its higher absorptivity, it improves performance by
3.6%.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is desirable for reducing loads.
(i) Internal gain
desirable.
(ii) Set point
The scheduling of air changes is not desirable in this cold climate.
orientation and internal gain), results an appreciable load reduction of 73.0% for a
conditioned bungalow at Leh.
Table 5.60 presents the yearly minimum, maximum and average temperatures, and the
number of comfortable hours in a year for all the rooms of the non-conditioned bungalow for Leh.
It is seen that the yearly minimum values of room temperatures are below freezing point, indicating
acute discomfort in winters. The room attaining the lowest temperature of -7.2 C is the bedroom
on the first floor (Bed2) in the northwest corner of the house. The maximum temperatures are quite
comfortable ranging from 20.1 to 22.2 C. The warmest room is the kitchen, which attains a
maximum temperature of 22.2 C and has an average temperature of 9.2 C in a year. Therefore,
summers are comfortable whereas winters are extremely uncomfortable. In terms of the number of
hours in a year, all rooms are comfortable in a range of 42 to 47% of the year only. In other words,
all rooms are uncomfortable for more than 53% of the year. Thus, a change in design is indicated
to reduce discomfort. Table 5.61 presents the performance of the building on a monthly basis in
terms of the comfort fraction (CF). The rooms are very uncomfortable from October to May, as
shown by negative CF values, which
Table 5.60 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on an annual basis - Leh (cold
and dry climate)
Room
BED1
LIVDIN
KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
Ambient
Yearly room
temperature(C)
MIN
-6.0
-6.0
-4.7
-7.2
-6.3
-6.4
-6.0
-13.9
MAX
20.1
21
22.2
21.3
21.4
21.0
21.1
24.5
AVG
7.8
8.4
9.2
7.8
8.1
8.1
8.7
4.5
Comfortable
hours in a
year(h)
comfortable hours
3676
3963
4097
3686
3708
3691
4014
2839
42
45
47
42
42
42
46
32

Table 5.61 Performance of the non-conditioned bungalow on a monthly basis - Leh (cold
and dry climate)
Comfort
Month
Room
index
BED1 LIVDIN KIT
BED2
BED3
BED4
BED5
JAN
-2.47
-2.35
-2.03
-2.72
-2.6
-2.55
-2.35
FEB
-2.03
-1.91
-1.64
-2.23
-2.12
-2.09
-1.89
MAR
-1.37
-1.27
-1.03
-1.45
-1.37
-1.35
-1.22
APR
-0.85
-0.81
-0.61
-0.85
-0.79
-0.78
-0.70
MAY
-0.23
-0.19
-0.01
-0.11
-0.08
-0.10
-0.07
Comfort
JUN
0.15
0.18
0.33
0.33
0.35
0.33
0.33
fraction
JUL
0.57
0.64
0.73
0.80
0.82
0.78
0.79
AUG
0.51
0.60
0.69
0.71
0.74
0.69
0.74
SEP
-0.05
0.13
0.25
0.05
0.10
0.07
0.23
OCT
-0.76
-0.52
-0.39
-0.81
-0.71
-0.74
-0.49
NOV
-1.46
-1.17
-1.01
-1.63
-1.5
-1.51
-1.18
DEC
-2.09
-1.92
-1.64
-2.31
-2.18
-2.15
-1.91
indicate acute discomfort. January is the most uncomfortable month with CF values
ranging from -2.03 to -2.72. Hence, heating is a prime requirement from the design point of
view. The house is relatively comfortable in July (CF values ranging from 0.57 to 0.82),
and August (CF values ranging from 0.51 to 0.74). The hourly variation of room
temperatures for a typical winter day of January and summer day of May are plotted in
Figs. 5.83 and 5.84 respectively. It is seen that in January, all rooms are below the freezing
line. In fact, the temperatures are below the comfort zone in the month of May as well.
Hence, heating is essential not just in winter but also in the month of May.
25.0
20.0
BED1
LIVDIN
Temperature ( C)
15.0
KIT
BED2
10.0
BED3
5.0
BED4
BED5
0.0
AMBIENT
ACT
-5.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
-10.0
-15.0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
January
25.0
20.0
BED1
LIVDIN
Temperature ( C)
15.0
KIT
BED2
10.0
BED3
BED4
5.0
BED5
0.0
AMBIENT
ACT
-5.0
ACT+2.2
ACT-2.2
-10.0
-15.0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour (h)
May
BED1=Bed room1, LIVDIN= Living and dining room, KIT=Kitchen, BED2=Bed room2, BED3=Bed room3, BED4=Bed room4,
BED5=Bed room5
Fig. 5.84 Hourly variation of room temperatures of the non-conditioned bungalow in May Leh (cold and dry climate)
Table 5.62 Improvement of the non-conditioned bungalow performance due to building

design and operational parameters - Leh (cold and dry climate)
Parameter
Base case
North-south
Glazing type
Double clear
Double low-E
Shading
10%
20%
50%
Wall type
Concrete block wall
Roof type
Cream
Dark grey
White
Air exchanges
1.0 ach
1.5 ach
Internal gain
No internal gain
50%
year(h)
3686
comfortable hours (%)
-
3698
0.3
3824
3722
3654
3693
3.7
1.0
-0.9
0.2
3674
3665
3641
-0.3
-0.6
-1.2
3614
3937
3911
-2.0
6.8
6.1
3681
3702
-0.1
0.4
3674
3700
3669
-0.3
0.4
-0.5
3679
3671
-0.2
-0.4
3653
3669
-0.9
-0.5
various parameters for a bedroom (Bed 2). The corresponding percentage increase or
decrease (-) in comfortable hours compared to the base case is shown in the table.
Changing the orientation of the building with respect to the base case (east-west)
does not affect its thermal performance.
(ii)Glazing type
Double-glazing with clear glass gives the best performance. It increases the yearly
comfortable hours by 3.0%. compared to plain glass (base case). Double-glazing
with low-E glass shows a marginal improvement.
(iii) Shading
Shading of windows is not desirable in this climate.
(iv) Wall type
Insulation of walls helps to improve the performance significantly. Thermocol
insulation and autoclaved cellular concrete block walls increase the yearly
comfortable hours by 6.8 and 6.1% respectively.
(v) Roof type
Insulating the roof using polyurethane foam (PUF) insulation increases the
performance marginally (0.4%) compared to a roof with brick-bat-coba
waterproofing.
Dark grey colour shows an improvement in the buildings performance, but the
effect is not very significant over other colours.
(vii) Air exchanges
A lower air change is desirable in this climate.
(i) Internal gain
preferable.
The scheduling of air changes is not desirable in this climate.
The combination of all design and operational parameters (excluding building
orientation and internal gain) significantly improves the buildings thermal
performance, resulting in an increase in the yearly comfortable hours by 41.5% in the
cold and sunny climate of Leh.
5.6
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have seen how adopting energy efficient practices in architectural design
can appreciably reduce the annual loads of buildings. While the first part this chapter (section 5.4)
has dealt with general recommendations for designing of buildings in different climates, the major
part has been devoted to the detailed analysis of design and operational parameters for three
building types (commercial, industrial and residential bungalow) for each of the six climatic zones
of India.
For quick and easy reference, the information has been summarised in a set of tables and
presented in this section. Table 5.63 summarises the comfort requirements for each climatic zone
based on the characteristics of the climate. The corresponding physical manifestations are also
given alongside the comfort requirements. Table 5.64 presents the passive techniques that can be
used in different climates. The specific guidelines and recommendations for each of the three
building types that were elaborated in section 5.5 are summarised in the Tables 5.65 through 5.68.
Passive solar aspects should become an integral part of the overall process of architectural
design. Figure 5.85 elucidates such integration process of design step by step. The upper layer
shows the normal sequence that an architect follows, whereas the lower layer shows additional
considerations for incorporating the passive solar aspects. While the process of design is
essentially iterative, the given diagram is shown to be linear for the sake of simplicity.
The importance of evaluating the thermal performance of the building being designed using
simulation techniques, to understand the effectiveness of the design in achieving energy efficiency,
cannot be overemphasised. The ultimate benefits of incorporating passive principles far outweigh
any apprehensions that an architect may have of the additional work involved.
Table 5.63 Comfort requirements and physical manifestation

1)Hot and Dry Region
OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain
a)Decrease exposed surface area
b)Increase thermal resistance
c)Increase thermal capacity (Time lag)
d)Increase buffer spaces
e)Decrease air exchange rate
(Ventilation during day-time)
f)Increase shading
Insulation of building envelope
Massive structure
Air locks/ lobbies/balconies/verandahs
Weather stripping and scheduling air changes
g)Increase surface reflectivity
External surfaces protected by overhangs,

fins and trees
Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles etc.
2)Promote heat loss

a)Ventilation of appliances
b)Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation
during night-time)
c)Increase humidity levels

openings
Trees, water ponds, evaporative cooling
2)Warm and Humid Region

OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain
e)Increase surface reflectivity

Roof insulation and wall insulation.
Reflective surface of roof
Balconies and verandahs
Walls, glass surfaces protected by
overhangs, fins and trees
2)Promote heat loss

b)Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation
throughout the day)
c)Decrease humidity levels

Ventilated roof construction. Courtyards, wind
towers and arrangement of openings
c)Increase buffer spaces

d)Increase shading
3)Moderate Region
OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain
d)Increase surface reflectivity

Roof insulation, and east and west wall
insulation
East and west walls, glass surfaces protected
by overhangs, fins and trees
2)Promote heat loss

b)Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation)

Courtyards and arrangement of openings
c)Increase shading
4)Cold and Cloudy Region/Cold and Sunny Region

OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat loss
f)Increase surface absorptivity
2)Promote heat gain
a)Reduce shading
b)Utilise heat from appliances
c)Trapping heat
as wind barriers
Roof insulation, wall insulation and double
glazing
Thicker walls
Air locks/ Lobbies
Weather stripping
Darker colours
Walls and glass surfaces
Sun spaces/ green houses/ Trombe walls etc.
5)Composite Region
OBJECTIVES
1)Resist heat gain in summer and Resist
heat loss in winter
f)Increase shading
g)Increase surface reflectivity
2)Promote heat loss in summer/ monsoon
b)Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation)
c)Increase humidity levels in dry summer
d)Decrease humidity in monsoon

as wind barriers.
Roof insulation and wall insulation
Thicker walls
Air locks/ Balconies
Weather stripping
Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs,
fins and trees.
Provide exhausts
openings
Trees and water ponds for evaporative cooling
Table 5.64 Advanced techniques in different climates

CLIMATE
TECHNIQUES
1
Hot and dry
Warm and
humid
Moderate
Cold and
cloudy
Cold and
sunny
Composite*
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
No advanced techniques required
19
* If cooling is the major requirement, the techniques listed under hot and dry climate may be adopted. In case of heating requirement, the
techniques for cold climates may be used. Techniques such as roof pond, roof radiation trap, solar chimney, earth berming, etc. which find
dual usage can also be incorporated.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Direct gain
Trombe wall
Water wall
Solar chimney
5.
6.
Transwall
Roof pond
7.
8.
9.
10.
Roof radiation trap

Solarium
Evaporative cooling
Nocturnal radiation
cooling
11. Desiccant cooling
12. Induced ventilation
13.
14.
15.
16.
Earth berm
Wind tower
Earth-air tunnel
Curved roof / air vents
17. Cavity wall / insulation

18. Varytherm wall
19. Daylighting
Table 5.65 Design recommendations for the commercial building

Parameter
Jodhpur (Hot &

Dry Climate)
Mumbai (Warm &

Humid Climate)
Pune (Moderate
Climate)
Building
NE-SW
NE-SW
NE-SW
Orientation
(south east)
(south east)
(south east)
(Due direction
of the glazed
curtain wall)
Glazing Type Reflective
Reflective coated
Reflective coated
coated glass
glass (double pane) glass (single
(double pane)
pane)
Shading of
50
50
50
glazing
(percent of the
total area)
Wall Type
Autoclaved
Autoclaved cellular Concrete block
cellular concrete concrete block
block
Surface
White
White
White
Colour
(External)
Air exchanges 0.5
0.5
0.5
(ach)
NE-SW: Northeast-southwest; NW-SE: Northwest-southeast
New Delhi
(Composite Climate)
Srinagar (Cold &

Cloudy Climate)
Leh (Cold &

Sunny Climate)
NE-SW
(south east)
NW-SE
(south west)
NW-SE
(south west)
Reflective coated
glass (double pane)
Low-E glass
(double pane)
Low-E glass
(double pane)
50
Concrete block
White
Autoclaved
cellular concrete
block
Dark grey
Autoclaved
cellular concrete
block
Dark grey
0.5
0.5
0.5
Table 5.66 Design recommendations for the industrial building

Parameter
Jodhpur (Hot &

Dry Climate)
Mumbai (Warm &

Humid Climate)
Pune (Moderate
Climate)
New Delhi
(Composite Climate)
Srinagar (Cold &

Cloudy Climate)
Leh (Cold &

Sunny Climate)
Building
Orientation
Glazing Type
NE-SW
NE-SW
NW-SE
E-W
E-W
E-W
Reflective
coated glass
(single pane)
20
Concrete block
Reflective coated
glass (single pane)
Reflective coated
glass (single
pane)
20
Concrete block
Reflective coated
glass (double pane)
Reflective coated
glass (single pane)
Clear glass
(double pane)
10
Brick
20
Concrete block
RCC with
bitumen felt
waterproofing
White
RCC with bitumen

felt waterproofing
RCC with brick-batcoba waterproofing
RCC with PUF

insulation
0
Brick wall with
thermocol
insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
White
Grey
12
Shading
Wall Type
Roof Type
20
Concrete block
RCC with
bitumen felt
waterproofing
White
Surface
White
Cream
Colour
(External)
Air exchanges 12
12
12
12
(ach)
NE-SW: Northeast-southwest; NW-SE: Northwest-southeast; E-W: east-west
Table 5.67 Design recommendations for the bungalow (conditioned)

Parameter
Jodhpur (Hot &

Dry Climate)
Mumbai (Warm &

Humid Climate)
Pune (Moderate
Climate)
New Delhi
(Composite Climate)
Srinagar (Cold &

Cloudy Climate)
Leh (Cold &

Sunny Climate)
Building
Orientation
Glazing Type
NE-SW
(south east)
Reflective
coated glass
(double pane)
50
Brick wall with
thermocol
insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
White
NE-SW
(south east)
Reflective coated
glass (double pane)
NE-SW
(south east)
Reflective coated
glass (single
pane)
50
Brick wall with
thermocol
insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
White
NE-SW
(south east)
Reflective coated
glass (double pane)
NW-SE
(south west)
Low-E glass
(double pane)
NW-SE
(south west)
Clear glass
(double pane)
50
Brick wall with
thermocol insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
White
0
Brick wall with
thermocol
insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
Dark grey
0
Brick wall with
thermocol
insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
Dark grey
0.5
0.5
0.5
Shading
Wall Type
Roof Type
50
Brick wall with
thermocol
insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
White
Surface
Colour
(External)
Air exchanges 0.5
0.5
1.5
(ach)
NE-SW: Northeast-southwest; NW-SE: Northwest-southeast
Table 5.68 Design recommendations for the bungalow (non-conditioned)

Parameter
Jodhpur (Hot &

Dry Climate)
Mumbai (Warm &

Humid Climate)
Pune (Moderate
Climate)
New Delhi
(Composite Climate)
Srinagar (Cold &

Cloudy Climate)
Leh (Cold &

Sunny Climate)
Building
Orientation
Glazing Type
Base case
(East-west)
Reflective
coated glass
(single pane)
50
Concrete block
Base case
(East-west)
Reflective coated
glass (single pane)
Base case
(East-west)
Reflective coated
glass (single pane)
50
Brick
Base case
(East-west)
Reflective coated
glass (double
pane)
20
Brick
North-south
50
Concrete block
Base case
(East-west)
Reflective coated
glass (single
pane)
50
Brick
RCC with PUF

insulation
White
RCC with PUF

insulation
White
RCC with PUF

insulation
White
RCC with PUF

insulation
White
RCC with PUF

insulation
White
0
Brick wall with
thermocol
insulation
RCC with PUF
insulation
Grey
1.5
0.5
Shading
Wall Type
Roof Type
Surface
Colour
(External)
Air exchanges
(ach)
Clear glass
(double pane)
Site Analysis
Site Layout
Building Design
(Schematic)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
View
Access
Control
Services
Connectivity
1.
Zoning/Landuse
2. Plan
3. Landscape
Features
4. Services
Network
5. Road layout
Bye-laws
Conformity
1.
1.
Microclimatic
Factors
Orientation
(solar access)
Wind Direction
Topography
1.
1.
Bye-laws
1.
Climatic Data
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Landscaping,
Choice of trees
etc.,for shading/
wind break
Mutual shading
Wind
Channelling
Ground
Character
Water Bodies
Functional rooms
layout
2.
3.
4.
Circulation
Entry/Exit
Internal
Services
5. Openings
(Solids-voids)
Bye-laws
Conformity
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Orientation of
Rooms
Ventilation
Daylighting
Shading
Solar Passive
Features
(Advanced)
Energy Audit/
Assessment
Working Drawing
Details
1. Materials/
details
2. Specifications
3. HVAC
4. Lighting
5. Structural
Design
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Insulation
Heat and Light
Filters
Colour and
Texture
Reflectance
Glazing Type
No Existing Bye-Laws for Energy Conservation and Passive Solar

Architecture
Fig. 5.85 Integrated design process
Feasibility
1.
Final
Design
Bill of
quantities
Estimates
Simulation
Cost Benefits
Evaluation
POST OCCUPANCY
EVALUATION
Information
Collection
1. Building
Program
2. Site Survey
References:
1. TRNSYS, A Transient Simulation Program, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin,
Wisconsin, 1990.
2. Prajapati J. and Nayak J.K., Energy conservation measures in the design of a commercial
building for three climatic zones of India, ICORE 2005, Pune, pp. 281 294, 2005.
4. Mani A. and Rangarajan S., Solar radiation over India, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1982.
5. Gupta C.L. and Jajoo K., Energy efficiency in design of buildings: an evaluation technique and
rating criterion, SESI Journal 12, pp. 59 72, 2002.
6. Nayak J.K. and R. Hazra, Development of design guidelines on solar passive architecture and
recommendations for modifications of building bye-laws, Final Report , R & D Project no.
10/86/95-ST, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources, Government of India, New Delhi,
1999.
7. Sodha M.S., Sawhney R.L., Singh S.P., Kaur J., Deshmukh M.K. and Sharma A.K., Design
patterns for solar passive cooling and demonstration of novel concepts, Final Report, R & D
Project no. 15/40/87-ST, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources, Government of India,
New Delhi, 1991.
8. AIA Research Corporation, Regional guidelines for building passive energy conserving homes,
Washington D. C., 1980.
9. Climatic data for design of buildings - Bombay Region, National Buildings Organisation, New
Delhi, 1958.
10. Olgyay V., Design with climate, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1963.
11. SP: 41 (S&T) -1987 - Handbook on functional requirements of buildings, Bureau of Indian
APPENDIX V.1
ROOF SURFACE EVAPORATIVE COOLING (RSEC)
Roof surface evaporative cooling (RSEC) can reduce the ceiling surface temperature, consequently
leading to a drop in indoor temperatures and cooling loads. This technique is generally adopted in warm
climates. We have examined the effect of RSEC for an industrial shed and a residential bungalow (Fig. 5.3
and 5.5). The performance studies of these buildings have been carried out for Jodhpur, Mumbai, Pune and
New Delhi which represent hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate and composite climates respectively.
Further, the effect of the U-value of the roof on the indoor temperatures of the bungalow and industrial
shed has been studied for the climate of Jodhpur. (The U-value of the roof for the base case is taken as 2.07
W/m2K). The effect of the set point on the cooling loads of the bungalow incorporating RSEC has also
been found. We have used the bio-climatic chart to identify the months during which cooling is required in
the cities mentioned, and the calculations for RSEC have been done for these months.
Table V.1 presents the effect of RSEC on the maximum indoor temperature of the industrial shed
as compared to a shed without RSEC in the month of May for Jodhpur, Mumbai, Pune and New Delhi. It is
seen that RSEC is effective in Jodhpur, Pune and New Delhi; the temperature drops are about 2.3, 2.2 and
2.0oC respectively in comparison with a shed without RSEC. In humid climate of Mumbai, the RSEC is not
very effective with a drop in temperature of 1.1 C only.
Table V.1 Performance of roof surface evaporative cooling on the room temperature of the
industrial building in May in four cities representing warm climates
Place
Jodhpur
Month
May
Maximum temperature of room(C )
Without
RSEC
45.6
Difference in
temperature (C)
With RSEC
43.2
2.4
Mumbai
May
39.8
38.7
1.1
Pune
May
40.7
39.4
1.3
New Delhi
May
43.9
41.9
2.0
RSEC= Roof surface evaporative cooling

The effect of the U-value of the roof on the performance of RSEC in Jodhpur has also been
studied. In this case, a higher U-value of 3.48 W/m2-K has been considered compared with the base case Uvalue of 2.07 W/m2-K. The results for the industrial shed are presented in Tables V.2. It is seen from these
tables that the RSEC system is more effective when the U-value of the roof is high; the difference in
temperature between indoors and outdoors can be as high as 5.1 C in May. The table also shows the
maximum room temperatures for various months. The RSEC is most effective in the months of May and
June and least effective in the month of August (when the humidity is high due to monsoons).
The effect of RSEC on the maximum room temperature of Bedroom 2 of the bungalow in various
months has been studied for all the four cities. It is seen from Table V.3 that in Jodhpur, RSEC is most
effective in May with a difference in room temperature of about 2.7 C. In Mumbai, there is hardly any
difference in the performance during various months, the temperature difference ranging from 1.2 to 1.3 C
only. In Pune, the RSEC system is most effective in April with a difference in temperature of 1.9 C. In
New Delhi, the system is effective in May and June; the temperature difference being 2.3 C.
The effect of the RSEC system on the cooling load of the conditioned bungalow has also been
studied in order to determine how much load can be saved in the cooling season. In this case, the cooling
load in kitchen has been ignored. The set point for cooling has been considered as 25 C. The results of the
study are presented in Table V.4. It is seen from the table that the savings effected are quite high, ranging
from 15.5 % in New Delhi to 22.7% in Pune.
Table V.5 presents the effect of set points on the cooling loads of the conditioned bungalow
incorporating the RSEC system. The set points considered for cooling were 24, 25, 26 and 27 C. The table
shows that for all cities, the higher the set point, the better is the performance in reducing cooling loads.
For example in Jodhpur, the savings achieved can be upto 22.4 % for a set point of 27 C as compared to
17.4% for the base case (25 C).
Table V.2 Effect of U-value of roof on RSEC (Place: Jodhpur;

Building : Industrial shed)
Month
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
U = 3.14 W/m2-K
U = 2.07 W/m2-K
Maximum temperature Difference in Maximum temperature Difference in
of room (C)
temperature of room (C)
temperature
(C)
(C)
without
with
without
with
RSEC
RSEC
RSEC
RSEC
37.9
36.5
1.6
39.0
35.5
3.5
42.7
40.6
2.1
44.0
39.3
4.7
45.6
43.2
2.4
46.9
41.8
5.1
44.8
42.9
1.9
45.9
41.7
4.2
41.3
40.1
1.2
42.1
39.3
2.8
39.9
38.9
1.0
40.7
38.1
2.6
39.8
38.8
1.0
40.7
38.0
2.7
39.5
38.1
1.4
40.4
37.1
3.3
Table V.3 Performance of roof surface evaporative cooling on the temperature of bedroom2 of the
Place
Jodhpur
Month
March
Pune
New Delhi
Without RSEC
30.8
Difference in
temperature (C)
With RSEC
29.0
1.8
35.9
33.5
2.4
May
39.1
36.4
2.7
June
38.8
36.6
2.2
July
35.6
34.1
1.5
August
34.2
32.9
1.3
September
33.4
32.2
1.2
October
32.3
30.5
1.8
March
31.0
29.7
1.3
April
32.9
31.7
1.2
May
34.5
33.2
1.3
March
31.6
29.9
1.7
April
34.1
32.2
1.9
May
34.1
32.5
1.6
June
31.6
30.3
1.3
July
28.6
27.8
0.8
August
28.2
27.4
0.8
September
28.5
27.7
0.8
October
29.5
28.4
1.1
April
33.7
31.8
1.9
May
37.4
35.1
2.3
June
38.8
36.5
2.3
July
35.1
33.8
1.3
August
33.2
32.1
1.1
September
32.8
31.7
1.1
April
Mumbai
Maximum temperature of room (C )
Table V.4 Effect of roof surface evaporative cooling on the cooling loads of the conditioned
Place
Set point
Cooling Load (GJ)
(Period)
(C)
Without RSEC With RSEC
25
366.7
302.8
Jodhpur
(March to October)
25
102.5
86.4
Mumbai
(March to May)
25
189.3
146.3
Pune
(March to October)
25
281.8
238.0
New Delhi
(April to September)
Difference
GJ
%
63.9
17.4
16.1
15.7
43.0
22.7
43.8
15.5
Table V.5 Effect of cooling set points on the loads of the conditioned bungalow with RSEC
system
Place
(Period)
Jodhpur
(March to
October)
Mumbai
(March to
May)
Pune
(March to
October)
New Delhi
(April to
September)
Set point
Cooling Load (GJ)
Difference
(C)
Without RSEC With RSEC
GJ
24
410.3
346.1
64.2
25
366.7
302.8
63.9
26
322.8
259.3
63.5
27
280.1
217.4
62.7
24
118.9
102.8
16.1
25
102.5
86.4
16.1
26
86.1
70.1
16.0
27
70.1
54.4
15.7
24
232.2
188.4
43.8
25
189.3
146.3
43.0
26
148.1
106.9
41.2
27
109.6
72.1
37.5
24
314.5
270.9
43.6
25
281.8
238.0
43.8
26
249.0
204.6
44.4
27
215.9
172.1
43.8
%
15.6
17.4
19.7
22.4
13.5
15.7
18.6
22.4
18.9
22.7
27.8
34.2
13.9
15.5
17.8
20.3
To summarise, the RSEC system works well in hot and dry weather with low humidity levels. If
installed over a roof having a high U-value, indoor temperatures appreciably reduced compared to that of a
roof with low U-value. From the point of view of conserving energy, the set points for cooling may be
raised to 27 C (as recommended by Indian Standard).
APPENDIX V.2
PERFORMANCE OF A COMMERCIAL BUILDING WITH ZERO INTERNAL GAIN IN A
COMPOSITE CLIMATE - (NEW DELHI).
The effects of building parameters on the annual loads of a conditioned commercial building with
zero internal gain are discussed in this Appendix. The results of these studies are presented in
Table V.6. The possible percentage of savings that could be achieved compared to the base case is
also presented in the table. Table 5.1 lists the various parameters investigated. The following
conclusions are drawn:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Restricting the glazing size to a height of 1.2m instead of a fully glazed curtain wall can
reduce the annual load by 14.7%. Thus, reduction in the penetration of direct solar
radiation can cause significant savings. It can also be surmised that larger expanses of
glass in a building can lead to higher cooling loads.
Double-glazing with reflective coated glass is most effective, being better than the base
case (single reflective coated glass) by 14.9%. Double low-E glass also improves the
performance by 11.8%. Double clear glass shows the same performance as the base
case. Plain glass should be avoided as it increases the loads by 12.9%. It may be noted
that double-glazing per se is better than single glazing.
Appropriate orientation can reduce cooling loads by upto 2.8%. In general, a building
with its glass wall facing north-west shows better performance than one facing west,
north or southwest (base case).
cooling loads by 13.7%. Thus, a change in the expectation of comfort can lead to
Reduction in solar radiation by shading windows causes a decrease in the heat gains,
and consequently the cooling loads are reduced. The shading of windows by 50%
throughout the year can improve the performance by upto 8.8%.
Dark colours on walls should be avoided. If dark grey is used in place of white, the
cooling load can increase by 4.7%.
A wall type having low U-value (i.e. insulating property) improves the performance
significantly as compared to the base case (concrete block wall). The loads are reduced
by 8.8%.
Table V.6 Annual savings due to building design and operational parameters for Commercial
building with zero internal gains (New Delhi)
PARAMETER
BASECASE
GLAZING SIZE
(restricted to 1.2m
height)
GLAZING TYPE
Single clear
Double clear
Double low-E
Double reflective
coated
ORIENTATION
(longer axis)
North-south
Northeastsouthwest
East-west
SETPOINT
- cooling: 25 C heating: 20 C
SHADING
10%
20%
50%
WALL C OL OU R
- dark grey
WALL T YPE
Autoclaved
cellular concrete
block (e.g.
Siporex)
ANNUAL LOAD (GJ)

COOLING
HEAT ING
T OTAL
2552.19
300.22
2852.41
ENERGY SAVING
(GJ)
(%)
N.A.
N.A.
2142.88
290.18
2433.05
419.36
14.7
3011.32
2743.27
2389.09
208.49
109.07
127.84
3219.80
2852.34
2516.93
-367.39
0.07
335.48
-12.9
0.0
11.8
2261.73
166.42
2428.15
424.26
14.9
2345.12
489.62
2834.74
17.67
0.6
2270.46
2469.92
501.33
384.48
2771.79
2854.41
80.62
-2.00
2.8
-0.1
2236.83
224.54
2461.37
391.04
13.7
2473.42
2395.52
2172.30
321.99
345.80
428.37
2795.41
2741.32
2600.67
57.00
111.09
251.74
2.0
3.9
8.8
2735.70
251.52
2987.21
-134.80
-4.7
2343.97
257.91
2601.87
250.53
8.8
CHAPTER 6
INTEGRATION OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
Contents:
6.1
Renewable Energy Technologies
6.2
Promotional Incentives
6.3
Conservation Measures
6.4
Examples
References
A large number of technologies are now available which when integrated into
buildings would result in substantial reductions in their demand for conventional energy.
These pertain to renewable energy sources and energy conservation measures. Energy
used in buildings for cooking, lighting, pumping of water and providing hot water (to
bath rooms and kitchens) can be saved substantially by using appropriate renewable
systems. Besides, proper energy conservation and management practices would lead to
additional energy savings. To promote extensive use of renewable energy technology, the
Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources, Government of India has been operating
an interest subsidy scheme through the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
(IREDA), and a few designated banks. Co-operative housing societies and developers of
real estates are eligible to seek soft loans from these institutions for installing renewable
systems.
In this chapter, we will examine the various ways in which renewable energy
technology and energy conservation features can be adopted. The basic principle of each
option has been explained. We have described a few case studies to help the reader
appreciate the overall integration of these features in building design. More information
is available in the references listed at the end of this chapter.
6.1
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
Systems based on renewable energy sources that are being used in the building
sector include solar hot water systems, solar hot air systems, solar cookers, solar
photovoltaic units, gasifiers and biogas plants. These are commercially available and can
easily be integrated into a building for reducing its dependence on conventional power.
Some of them can become elements of the architectural design; examples have been
presented to demonstrate how this is done.
6.1.1
Solar Water Heating
Solar water heating is one of the most economically attractive applications of

solar energy and is widely used throughout the world. There are broadly two types of
water heating systems: (i) Forced and (ii) Thermosyphon. Also known as active systems,
the former are suitable for large capacity systems and find applications in hotels, hostels,
hospitals, multistoreyed buildings, industries, etc. The latter are usually meant for small
capacity systems, and are commonly used in low-rise buildings or bungalow-type
buildings. They are also called natural-circulation or passive systems.
INSULATED
STORAGE TANK
COLLECTOR
COLD WATER
HOT WATER
OUTLET
AUXILIARY
HEATER
Fig. 6.1 Thermosyphon solar water heating system
(A) Thermosyphon water heating system

The thermosyphon water heating system consists of a solar liquid flat-plate
collector and a storage tank (Fig. 6.1). Water in the collector gets heated up by solar
energy, becomes lighter and rises to the top of the storage tank. The cooler water from
the tank moves to the collector, setting up a natural circulation loop. For such a loop to
work, the storage tank must necessarily be located at a higher level than the collector.
Hot water is withdrawn from the top of the tank and cold water enters into the bottom of
the tank. The typical temperature variation of hot water in the thermosyphon system over
a day (with no hot water withdrawals) is shown in Fig. 6.2. As solar radiation incident on
the collector plane increases with the time of the day, the temperature of hot water
increases. If water is withdrawn, the temperature would be lower than the values shown
in the figure. The nature of variation would strongly depend on the water withdrawal
pattern.
TEMPERATURE ( OC)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
TIME (h)
Fig. 6.2 Typical variation of storage water temperature over a few hours in a day
The system is quite simple to install and operate. Most of these systems have
capacities of 100 or 150 litres per day, and use one flat plate collector having a face area
of 2 m2. The installed cost is about Rs.110 per litre per day, and the temperature of the
hot water ranges from 50 to 80C. A provision for auxiliary heating may be required for
use on cloudy or rainy days. An electrical back-up heating is available with many
systems. The technical feasibility and economic viability of solar water heating are
beyond doubt. Depending on the site, type of utilisation and electricity or fuel pricing,
the payback period varies from 3 to 5 years. A 100 litres capacity system can replace an
electric geyser for residential use, saving about 1500 units of electricity annually [1]. The
life of such a system is normally 15 to 20 years.
A large number of such systems are successfully being used in the country.
Thermosyphon water heating systems can be located on the roof of a building. Such
installations exist at the Solar Energy Centre, Gwal Pahari (Gurgaon) and LEDeG
Trainees Hostel, Leh among others [2]. The hot water systems may also be easily
installed on parapets or the roof of a lift house, and be an integral part of the architecture.
Such installations are being used at the residence of Mahendra Patel, Ahmedabad,
Tapasya Block, Aurobindo Ashram (New Delhi), and the residence of Sudha and Atam
Kumar, New Delhi to name a few [2]. The additional load due to the entire set-up
consisting of a storage tank of 125 litres capacity, one collector and associated stands
would be approximately 215 kg. Figure 6.3 shows a photograph of Sudha and Atam
Kumars residence with solar hot water system.
Fig. 6.3 Solar hot water systems in Sudha and Atam Kumars residence in New
Delhi [2]
Another version of a natural circulation water heating system is shown in Fig. 6.4.
This has a simpler design with the functions of the collector and storage tank combined
into one unit. It consists of a rectangular box kept in a housing, and is insulated on all
sides except the top which has a glass cover. The box is filled with water in the morning,
which gets heated through the day and is withdrawn for use in the evening. It can also
have an insulated lid for covering the glazing to reduce overnight loss of heat from the
storage. It may be mentioned that the cost of a collector-cum-storage solar water heater is
relatively less. However, it is less efficient and yields water at a lower temperature
compared to the thermosyphon-type (Fig 6.1)
TRANSPARENT COVER
WATER IN
SHALLOW BOX
INSULATION
CASING
STAND
Fig. 6.4 Collector-cum-storage solar water heating system

VENT
COLD MAKE-UP
WATER
HOT WATER
FOR USE
COLLECTOR
ARRAY
STORAGE
TANK
AUXILIARY
HEATER
CONTROLLER
NON RETURN
VALVE
PUMP
Fig. 6.5 Forced circulation solar water heating system
(B) Forced circulation solar water heating system

Figure 6.5 shows the schematic of a forced circulation system. It consists of an
array of collectors (connected appropriately), storage tank, pump, controller and vent. It
uses a water pump for maintaining the flow through the collector. The storage tank can
be placed in any position and need not be at a higher level than the collectors. Whenever
hot water is withdrawn for use, cold make-up water replaces it. A controller takes care of
the schedule of flow circulation in the system. The pump is switched on or off based on
the difference between the temperature of the exit water from the collectors, and the
temperature of the storage water measured at a suitable location. Auxiliary heating is
usually provided for meeting the hot water demand. These systems are suitable for
hospitals, hotels, hostels, etc. The rows of collectors are spread out such that one bank of
collectors does not shade the other bank.
Forced hot water systems are used in many buildings such as MLA Hostel,
Shimla and Solar Passive Hostel, Jodhpur [2]. There are many variations possible in the
configuration shown in Fig 6.5. For locations where freezing conditions can occur,
antifreeze mixture is used as the working fluid. In such cases, an expansion tank and a
pressure relief valve are used in the collector loop to accommodate the thermal expansion
of water.
The forced water heating systems are more complex than other types. As
mentioned earlier, they are more suitable when a large amount of hot water is required.
In addition to providing hot water for the building, these systems can be also used for
space heating purposes. Hot water from the storage tank can be used to heat air using a
water-to-air heat exchanger and the hot air can be used to heat the desired space.
However, the systems, meeting both the requirements, become expensive and are not
commonly used in India.
6.1.2
Solar Air Heating
The space heating system using water-to-air heat exchanger has been explained in
the previous section. An alternative approach is to heat air directly in the collectors and
store the heat in a tank packed with rock, gravel or pebbles. Such a system is shown in
Fig 6.6. When hot air is needed for a living space, cool air is pushed through the storage
to get heated up before it is circulated in the room. Auxiliary heating may be required to
augment the solar heat. Figure 6.7 shows the photograph of an installation of an air
heating system in H.P. State Co-operative Bank, Shimla [2]. In principle, one can also
obtain hot water for the building through an air to water heat exchanger. Such systems
are, however, expensive and are not commonly used in India.
It may be mentioned that in addition to space heating, hot air can also be used for
drying purposes. Many types of solar dryers are available to suit different needs.
COLLECTOR
SYSTEM
BLOWER
HOT AIR
AUXILIARY
HEATING
STORAGE
BLOWER
COOL AIR
Fig. 6.6 Solar space heating system
Fig. 6.7 Photograph of solar air heating system at the HP State Co-operative Bank,
Shimla [2]
6.1.3
Solar Cooking
Cooking is another important and successful domestic thermal application of solar

energy. Though a number of designs have been developed, it is the box type cooker that
is widely used in India. It consists of a square box insulated on the bottom and sides and
having double glazing on the top. Solar radiation gets transmitted through the top and
heats up the cooking vessels kept inside the box. A typical size is about 50 cm x 50 cm
and 10-15 cm deep. On sunny days, a temperature of about 100o C can be easily
achieved inside, and pulses, vegetables, rice etc. can be readily cooked. The time
required for cooking varies depending on the level of solar radiation; it may be from half
an hour to 21/2 hours. A solar cooker can cook four dishes at a time and save three to four
LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) cylinders a year, if used regularly. Cookers with electrical
back up are also available for use during non-sunshine hours.
TRANSPARENT
COVER
MIRROR
GUIDE FOR
ADJUSTING LID
INSULATED
BOX
INSULATED
BOX
COOKING
POTS
Fig. 6.8 Schematic view of a box type solar cooker
The box is provided with an insulated lid fitted with a mirror in the inner side.
The lid can be adjusted to reflect radiation onto the cooking vessels and augment the
level of radiation. Figure 6.8 shows a sketch of the box type cooker. Such cookers have
been integrated into kitchen walls (Fig. 6.9) [2]. There are many other designs of the solar
cooker available in literature [3]. Not all of these can be integrated into the building. A
noteworthy model is the community solar cooker (also known as Scheffler cooker),
which can be used for indoor cooking. It has a large reflector standing outside the
kitchen and is automatically tracked. Solar rays are reflected into the kitchen through an
Fig. 6.9 Box type solar cooker integrated in MLA hostel, Shimla [2]
opening in its north wall (in the northern hemisphere). A secondary reflector further
concentrates the radiation onto the bottom of the cooking pot. The community solar
cooker can cook all types of food for about 40-50 people, and can save upto 30 LPG
cylinders in a year.
6.1.4
Solar Photovoltaic Devices
Photovoltaic conversion is the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity by

means of solar cells. The main advantage of solar photovoltaic devices is that they can
produce power from microwatts upto kilowatts. Consequently, they are used in many
applications such as calculators, watches, water pumps, buildings, communications,
satellites, space vehicles, etc.
To obtain desired voltages and currents, individual cells are connected in series
and parallel to form a module. A number of modules are interconnected to form an array.
Based on the power requirement, arrays of appropriate sizes are used. Currently the cost
of solar photovoltaic modules is around Rs.125-130 per peak watt (Wp). The Ministry of
Non-conventional Energy Sources, Government of India is promoting five different
configurations of solar home systems. They are: 18 Wp PV module (typically 532 mm x
448 mm) with one 9W compact fluorescent lamp (CFL); 40 Wp PV module (typically
828 mm x 433 mm) with two 9W CFLs or one 9 W CFL and a fan; and 75 Wp PV
module (typically 1208 mm x 538 mm) with four 9W CFLs or two 9W CFLs and a
fan/TV [1]. As far as applications in buildings are concerned, there are various usages
such as, domestic lighting, street lighting, water pumping, etc.
The photovoltaic industry is growing rapidly. As a result of technological

innovations, the Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) systems have become a reality
[4]. Photovoltaic panels can be made to form components of a building. Positioned on
the faades or roof of a building, PV panels can generate electricity either for internal use
or for distribution to an external network. They may become elements of the
architectural design. Examples of such buildings including the RETREAT, Gwal Pahari
(Gurgaon) and residence of Mahendra Patel, Ahmedabad are discussed by Majumdar [2].
Figures 6.10 6.13 show a few configurations of PV integration in buildings.
Table 6.1 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of different types of PV modules
as far as integration into buildings is concerned. It is desirable to use non-corrosive
construction materials because small current leakages invariably occur on PV faades.
Secondly, the construction should not shade the PV modules and dust and rainwater
should not accumulate on it.
Fig. 6.10 Curtain wall with PV panels
Fig. 6.11 PV panels on shading devices
Fig. 6.12 Roof integrated PV panels
Fig. 6.13 Atrium with PV panel skylight

Table 6.1
Suitability of module types for building integration [4]
Module Type
Sloped roof
Standard laminates without
frames
Standard modules with
plastic or metal frame
(glass multi-layer nontransparent back sheet)
Roofing modules
(tiles/slates)
Glass-glass modules with
predefined transparency
Glass modules with
transparent plastic back
sheet (predefined
transparency possible)
Module with metal back
sheet and plastic cover
Custom-designed modules
+
0
-
= high suitability
= low suitability
= not suitable
Application suitability
Flat roof Wall Windows Shading
6.1.5
Biomass
Biomass is a versatile source of energy. It can be burnt directly for heat,

fermented for alcohol fuels, anaerobically digested for biogas production, or gasified to
get producer gas. It includes all plant life (trees, agricultural plants, bush, grass, algae,
etc.), agricultural residues (crop and agro-processing), and wastes (municipal waste,
animal and human wastes). The resource is highly decentralized and scattered.
In India, the potential of biomass as an energy resource is very large. The aim of
biomass conversion is to convert biomass into more useful forms: gaseous or liquid fuels.
Examples of conversion to gaseous fuels include anaerobic fermentation of wet livestock
(or human) wastes to produce biogas, a mixture of methane (45 to 70%) and carbon
dioxide; and high temperature gasification of dry biomass to produce producer gas, a
mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. As far as
conversion of biomass to liquid fuel is concerned, one route is the fermentation of sugars
to ethanol; another is the thermochemical conversion of biomass to pyrolysis oils or
methanol. The processing of vegetable oils to biodiesel is also a method to produce liquid
fuel. The resulting liquid and gaseous fuels can be used to produce heat and power. When
burnt in silk mantle lamps, biogas serves as a source of lighting. It can also be used in
dual-fuel engines to substitute upto 75 per cent diesel oil for motive powers. Besides,
biomass can be converted to heat and power by directly burning it the examples are
boilers and steam power plants.
Gasification systems with 5 kW to 1000 kW unit capacity suitable for using a
variety of biomass, have been developed in the country. There are various types of
gasifiers; the suitability of a particular type depends on the application and type of
biomass. For engine applications, a downdraft gasifier is the most suitable. Updraft and
crossdraft gasifiers are suitable for thermal applications. Figure 6.14 shows the sketch of
a downdraft gasifier.
The Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources has been promoting the family
type of biogas plants. The models promoted include:
Floating gas holder type. It is called as KVIC (Khadi and Village Industries
Commission) model
Fixed dome type, commonly known as Deenbandhu model
Bag type portable digester made of rubberized nylon fabric
A sketch of a floating dome type biogas plant is shown in Fig. 6.15.
Fig. 6.14 Sketch of a downdraft gasifier
Fig. 6.15 Sketch of a floating dome-type biogas plant
As far as applications in buildings are concerned, the output of a biomass gasifier

can be used for a variety of purposes such as cooking, drying, heating water, generating
steam, etc. The producer gas can be used as fuel in internal combustion engines to obtain
mechanical shaft power or electrical power. Similarly, biogas is an excellent fuel for
cooking and lighting. It can also be used as fuel in engines. As cooking accounts for a
significant proportion of household energy consumption, integration of the use of the
above options with buildings leads to considerable energy savings.
6.2
PROMOTIONAL INCENTIVES
The Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES) as well as various

state governments provide many incentives for adoption of renewable energy
technologies. The MNES provides partial assistance for preparation of detail project
reports (DPR) of buildings based on energy conscious design. According to the current
scheme, 50% of the cost of the DPR, subject to a maximum of Rs. 2 lakhs, is paid for
preparation of DPRs, including building plan and architectural drawings for
public/private institutional buildings. A maximum of 10 DPRs are supported in each
state. Besides, partial funding (currently 10% of the cost of the construction subject to a
maximum of Rs. 50 lakhs for each project) is provided towards the construction of
demonstration buildings. The support is available for buildings of state nodal agencies
and other public/government buildings. Active solar systems installed in such buildings
are not covered under the scheme. Two buildings in each state are currently supported
through this scheme. The state government of Himachal Pradesh has made it mandatory
for all government buildings situated at 2000m above MSL to have passive solar
techniques incorporated in them.
There are various types of promotional schemes floated by central as well as state
government as far as solar water heating, air heating, cooking, biomass gasification,
biogas etc are concerned. For example, the States of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan & Union Territory of Dadra &
Nagar Haveli have made it mandatory to install water heating systems in state
government buildings. A few municipal bodies such as Thane in Maharashtra and Rajkot
in Gujarat have modified building bye-laws to enforce solar water heating systems in new
buildings.
In addition to government incentives, certain companies also offer
promotional schemes. For example, the Bangalore Electricity Supply Company Limited
currently offers Rs.0.40 rebate on every unit of electricity used subject to a maximum of
Rs.40/- per month.
The MNES has been implementing a soft loan programme for various renewable
energy systems. Under this, loans at reduced interest rates are currently available to
customers from IREDA and seven designated banks (Andhra Bank, Bank of Maharashtra
Canara Bank, Punjab National Bank, Punjab & Sind Bank, Union Bank of India and
Syndicate Bank). Also, for certain areas and for certain types of renewal energy systems,
subsidies are available from the MNES through state nodal agencies.
6.3
CONSERVATION MEASURES
In addition to designing building along bioclimatic principles and using

appropriate materials, it is desirable to adopt proper conservation and management
practices for a building to remain both economically and environmentally viable. Both
designer and user must work together to achieve this objective. While the designer
should provide facilities, the user must properly understand, apply and practice the
conservation measures. Recycling household wastes (such as bio-waste, kitchen waste,
water, etc.), buying energy-efficient home appliances and non-hazardous products,
reducing consumption of water and electricity, are some of the measures that should be
implemented. Some of these can be achieved through very moderate investments. Using
auto flush and auto taps in washrooms for air handling units, and water management
systems such as hydro-pneumatic system including sewage pump, transfer pump and
water pressurisation pumps, can also result in substantial energy saving. Similarly,
vermiculture can be adopted for waste management. Biodegradable kitchen-waste can be
decomposed by vermiculture to produce good quality manure, which can be used in
lawns, parks etc.
Energy consumption can be reduced by the use of energy efficient home
appliances, or building management systems (BMS) in offices and public buildings [5].
These work automatically depending on the building occupation status. But some of
these systems may require substantial investment.
Water is a precious commodity and water conservation measures are very
essential. Rainwater harvesting and recycling of water are important measures for
tackling the growing shortage of pure and safe water.
(A) Rain water harvesting
Rainwater is an ideal source that can be conserved and used by people. Broadly,
water harvesting is defined as the direct collection of rainwater. The total amount of
rainfall over an area is called as the Rain Water Endowment of that area, and the part
that can be effectively collected is called as the Water Harvesting Potential. One can
devise any technique to collect and store rain water in an open land. However, for urban
and semi urban areas, two most suitable systems are [6]:
Roof top rain water harvesting
Artificial ground water recharge
In the first case, water is collected in tanks through roof gutters and down-take pipes
(Fig.6.16). There should be a provision for discarding water after the first rainfall so that
dust, soot, leaves etc. are drained away. The water tank should be located in an area
protected from contamination by any other water. The water should not be allowed to
stagnate for a long period, and it must be chlorinated appropriately.
Fig. 6.16 Sketch of a rooftop rain water harvesting system
Alternatively, the rain water may be used to recharge the ground water by
artificial means. Figure 6.17 shows a schematic sketch of a recharging structure usable in
any urban and semi-urban area. It is important that the well be terminated at least 5 m
above any natural source of water so that the rain water flows through naturally, and
contamination hazards from ground water is avoided [6]. These wells should not be used
for drawing water for any purpose. A publication from Centre for Science and
Environment [7] provides detailed information on water harvesting.
Rain water harvesting has been practiced in many parts of the country. In fact, it
is mandatory in many cities, facing scarcity of water. In many places, the withdrawal rate
of ground water is very high compared to its replenishment. Artificial recharge
programmes are already being implemented for increasing the level of ground water in
some places [8]. One of the very successful programs is the construction of percolation
tanks for holding rain water. This recharges the underground water of the area so that any
well dug on the slopes downstream of the embankment will have plenty of water. The
most successful example has been the Ralegan Siddhi area of Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
[9]. It has resulted in an overall development of that area.
Fig. 6.17 Sketch of a recharging structure
(B) Recycling of water

Recycling of water is another important aspect of water conservation. One way of
recycling is by using aquatic plants [10]. Raw sewage is recycled using aquatic plants
(such as duckweed, water hyacinth, etc.) to produce clean water suitable for re-use in
irrigation and industry. The plants themselves can be harvested and used for producing
biogas, thus providing additional benefits. The technique can also be used for treating
animal manure and other farm wastes.
The main energy saving in these
ecological/biological systems occurs due to the fact that natural processes are fully
utilised in the cleaning process.
(C) Energy-efficient lighting
The lighting load in some buildings could be very high and hence energy efficient
lighting assumes prime importance. This depends on:
the illuminance level for an application (Appendix VI.1 provides a list of

recommended values of illuminance)
the efficiency of various components (lamps, ballasts, luminaires)
control
maintenance
There are a number of ways through which energy can be conserved by lighting systems.
To name a few, one can install automatic voltage stabilizers for the entire lighting
circuits. This increases the bulb life as also its efficiency; it can save upto 20% of the
lighting bill. Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) can be used in areas such as lobbies,
corridors, showrooms, etc. These are highly energy efficient lamps. The chokes
(magnetic ballasts) of tube lights can be replaced by energy conserving electronic
ballasts. Key card systems in hotel rooms and offices, or circuit breakers for lighting and
appliances in residential buildings can help reduce energy wastage. Dimmers can also be
used to reduce lighting levels when bright light is not required.
6.4
EXAMPLES
There are a number of buildings that use renewable energy and energy
conservation measures. Majumdar [2] has reviewed such buildings in great detail . Table
6.2 presents a few of such buildings; it lists the renewable energy features incorporated in
these buildings.
Table 6.2 List of buildings using renewable energy and energy conservation
measures [2]
S. No.
1.
Name of the building

Himurja Office
Location
Shimla
2.
3.
HP State Co-operative Bank

Residence of Mohini Mullick
4.
MLA Hostel
Shimla
Bhowali
Nainital
Shimla
5.
6.
10.
LEDeG Trainees Hostel

Residence of Madhu and
Anirudth
PEDA Office Complex
Tapasya Block, Sri Aurbindo
Ashram
Residence of Sudha and
Atam Kumar
RETREAT
11.
Solar Energy Centre
12.
National Media Centre

Cooperating Housing
Complex
American Institute of Indian
studies
Sangath
Residence of Mahendra
Patel
7.
8.
9.
13.
14.
15.
Leh
Panchkula
Chandigarh
New Delhi
New Delhi
Gwal Pahari,
Gurgaon
Gwal Pahari,
Gurgaon
Gurgaon
Gurgaon
Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad
16.
17.
18.
Solar Passive Hostel

Residence of Mary Mathew
TERI office building
Jodhpur
Bangalore
Bangalore
19.
WBREDA
Kolkata
20.
Kolkata
21.
WB Pollution Control Board

Laboratory
Silent valley
22.
Vikas Apartments
Kalasa
Auroville,
Pondicherry
Features
Water heating, PV for
lighting
Air heating
Integrated solar cooker,
water heating
Integrated solar cooker,
water heating
Water heating
Water heating,
PV for lighting
BIPV, water heating
Water heating
Water heating, integrated
solar cooker
BIPV, gasifier, water
heating, water recycling,
building management
system
Water heating
Rain water harvesting,
solid waste recycling,
water heating
Water heating
Rain water harvesting
Roof integrated PV, water
heating, building
automation system
Water heating
Water heating
Rain water harvesting,
PV, water heating
Roof-mounted gridinteractive PV
Waste water recycling
Water harvesting, waste
water and sewage
recycling, biomass heater
for water heating
Waste water treatment,
PV, water heating, solar
pumps
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources, Government of India, New

Delhi. website: http://www.mnes.nic.in
Majumdar M (Ed.), Energy-efficient buildings in India, Tata Energy Research
Institute, New Delhi, 2001
Sukhatme S.P., Solar energy, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi,
1996.
Sick F. and Erge T. (Ed.) Photovoltaic in buildings: a design handbook for
architects and engineers, James and James (Science publishers) Ltd., London,
1996
Bradshaw P.E.V., Building control systems, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1985.
SP 7: 2005, National building code of India 2005, Bureau of Indian
Water harvesting manual for urban areas: case study from Delhi, Centre for
Science and Environment, Delhi, 2003
Reddy I.V., Water resources in Pondicherry, Indian Architect and Builder, 6,
pp. 54-55, 1992.
Mehta K., The greening of a village, Indian Architect and Builder, 6, pp. 6266, 1992.
Baetens T., Waste water recycling using aquatic plants, Indian Architect and
Builder, 6, pp. 34-40, 1992.
SP: 41 (S&T) -1987 - Handbook on functional requirements of buildings, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1987.
APPENDIX VI.1
Recommended values of illumination for a few building types [11]
Buildings and Processes
A. Offices, Schools and Public Buildings
Airport buildings
Reception area (desks)
Customs and immigration halls
Circulation areas, lounges
Assembly and concert buildings
Foyers, auditoria
Platforms
Corridors
Stairs
Banks
Counters, typing, accounting book area
Public areas
Cinemas
Foyers
Auditoria
Corridors
Stairs
Offices
Entrance halls and reception areas
Conference rooms, executive offices
General offices
Business machine operation
Assembly halls of schools and colleges
General
When used for examinations
Platforms
Class room desks
Class room blackboards
B. Homes
Kitchens
Bathrooms
Stairs
Workshops
Garages
Reading (Casual)
Homework and sustained reading
Recommended Illumination (lux)
300
300
150
100 to 150
450
70
100
300
150
150
50
70
100
150
300
300
450
150
300
300
300
200 to 300
200
100
100
200
70
150
300
CHAPTER 7
CASE STUDIES
Contents:
7.1
Inspector General of Police (IGP) Complex, Gulbarga
7.2
Auroville Ecohouse, Auroville
7.3
Centre for Application of Science and Technology for Rural Areas (ASTRA), Bangalore
7.4
Solar Energy Centre, Gurgaon
7.5
H.P. State Co-operative Bank, Shimla
7.6
S.O.S. Tibetan Children's Village, Choglamsar
References
This chapter presents examples of buildings incorporating various aspects of energy
conscious design. They demonstrate the successful use of passive solar architecture, sustainable
materials, conservation of resources, and integration of renewable energy technologies. The
examples are chosen from different climatic zones so as to present a wide variety of techniques.
7.1
INSPECTOR GENERAL OF POLICE (IGP) COMPLEX, GULBARGA [1]
Location : Gulbarga, Karnataka

Climate : Hot and dry
Brief description of the building:
This building is a ground and two-storeyed structure designed by Kembhavi Architecture
Foundation to house the offices of the Inspector General of Police, Gulbarga. The building is
constructed using innovative materials. For example, the external walls are composite walls (i.e.
granite blocks on the outer side and rat-trap bond brick walls on the inner side) and the roof is
made of filler slab. The U-values of the walls and roof are 1.53 W/m2-K and 2.15 W/m2-K
respectively. The building is roughly rectangular with the longer axis along the north-south
direction. Most windows face east or west. A layout plan of the building is given in Fig. 7.1. As
the building is located in a hot and dry climate, evaporative cooling has been used for providing
comfort. Most of the offices are cooled by passive downdraft evaporative cooling (PDEC) tower
system. Figure 7.2 shows a photograph of the building as well as a sketch section of a typical
PDEC tower to explain its principle.
Energy conscious features:
- Passive downdraft evaporative cooling (PDEC) towers for providing comfort
- Tinted glasses to reduce glare
- Alternative building materials such as composite walls to reduce heat gain and filler
slabs to reduce the quantity of concrete in the structure
- A central atrium to enhance cross ventilation and provide daylighting
- Solar PV lighting and pumps, rainfall harvesting and water conservation facilities
incorporated
SUMP FOR
RE-CIRCULATING
WATER
SUPPLY LINE
RETURN LINE
PDEC TOWER
Fig. 7.1 Layout plan of I.G.P. Complex, Gulbarga
Performance of the PDEC system:

The building is in the final stage of construction. The PDEC systems design is
based on the shower tower (discussed in Chapter 3) concept developed by Givoni [2].
Preliminary measurements taken in May and September, 2005 showed that the
temperature of the air exiting from the tower is lower by about 10C and 4C
respectively, compared to that of ambient air. Figure 7.3 presents the hourly values of the
temperature of air exiting from the tower on a typical day in September. The
corresponding measured values of ambient temperature are also plotted for comparison.
Additionally, the figure shows the theoretically calculated values based on Givonis
model of the shower tower. It is seen that the measurements agree reasonably well with
the predictions. Figure 7.4 shows the estimated performance of a tower in various months
during daytime. It presents the results of exit temperature of air leaving the tower and the
corresponding ambient dry bulb temperature. It is seen from the figure that the
performance of the cooling tower is quite satisfactory in the summer months. The drop in
temperature is about 12 - 13 C in March, April and May. Considering that the PDEC
system is used in these months, the predictions of the energy savings of the building per
annum, as compared to an air-conditioned building maintained at 27.5 C, are as follows:
Estimated Cost of PDEC system
Estimated savings per annum
Simple payback period
= Rs. 17,50,000
= Rs. 3,52,000
= 5 years (approximately)
CROSS BAFFLE WALL

TO DIVERT WIND
INTO TOWER
INLET OF TOWER
WATER SPRINKLER
TO COOL AIR BY
EVAPORATION

WOOD CHARCOAL LAYER

TO FILTER OUT DUST
AND INSECTS
BAFFLE TO DIVERT
AIR FLOW TO
DIFFERENT ROOMS

COOL AIR EXITING

FROM PDEC TOWER
WATER COLLECTED IN
DRAIN FOR RE-CIRCULATION
Fig. 7.2 Photgraphs of IGP Complex, Gulbarga and sketch showing the principle of
a PDEC tower
29.0
27.0
Temperature (C)
25.0
23.0
21.0
MEASURED AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE
19.0
MEASURED EXIT
TEMPERATURE
17.0
CALCULATED EXIT
TEMPERATURE
15.0
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
Hour
Fig. 7.3 Comparison of measured and predicted temperature of air exiting PDEC
tower
Ambient
40.0
PDEC tower
Temperature (C)
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
Jan Feb
Mar
Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov Dec
Month
Fig. 7.4 Monthly prediction of the temperature of air exiting the PDEC tower
7.2
AUROVILLE ECOHOUSE, AUROVILLE [3]
Location : Auroville, Pondicherry

Climate : Warm and humid
The Ecohouse was built in 1976 by a team co-ordinated by Dr. C. L. Gupta at
Auroville. This house can be considered as one of the first prototypes of an ecologically
sustainable building to be constructed in India in modern times. It is a two storeyed
structure with longer axis along the east-west direction, designed for catching wind. A
courtyard is provided in the building which is cooled by Venturi effect. The overhangs
above the windows and doors are designed for optimal shading from the sun. A sketch
plan and section of the Ecohouse are given in Fig. 7.5.
- Optimum orientation of built form for cooling by ventilation
- Shading of windows to reduce heat gain
- Alternative building materials such as (i) structurally insulated roof units (size
1.0m X 0.5m), developed by Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee,
(ii) jack arches of hollow ceramic Gunna tiles
- A courtyard to enhance cross ventilation and provide daylighting
- Other features such as solar cooker integrated in south facing kitchen, rainfall
harvesting system, biogas plant for waste management and production of
methane gas for cooking, an aero- generator for domestic electric load and a
thermosyphon solar water heater are also incorporated into the building design
Performance of the house:
The house has no fans and is reported to be one of the coolest houses in Auroville
as observed by the occupants.
7.3
CENTRE FOR APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR

RURAL AREAS (ASTRA), BANGALORE [4]
Location : Bangalore, Karnataka

Climate : Moderate
The building is a ground and one-storeyed structure and is used as an office
building. The salient feature of the building is the use of various alternative building
(a) Section of Ecohouse
(b) Sketch plan of Ecohouse

Fig. 7.5 Section and sketch plan of Ecohouse, Auroville
materials that are affordable, environment friendly and energy efficient. It was built in
1999 in the campus of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Figure 7.6 shows the
typical floor plan of the building. A photograph of the building is given in Fig. 7.7.
- Sized stone masonry with composite mortars in foundations, steam-cured
stabilized blocks for ground floor load-bearing walls, and soil-cement blocks
for the first floor walls. The external exposed walls are coated with
transparent silicone paint for protection from erosion
- Precast chajjas and brackets are made of ferrocement
- Reinforced blockwork lintels are used above openings such as doors and
windows
- Soil-cement block filler slabs are used for floors and roof. An additional
weatherproof course using tiles is provided on the roof
Performance of the building:
The cost of construction of this building was Rs. 4247 per square metre of plinth
area in 1999. The component-wise cost of the building and the corresponding percentage
of total cost are presented in Table 7.1.
7.4
SOLAR ENERGY CENTRE, GURGAON [5,6]
Location : Gurgaon, Haryana.

Climate : Composite (predominantly hot)
Brief description of building :
It is a single storeyed research centre. The buildings include a guest house, a
workshop, offices and laboratories. Being situated on a large open plot of land, the
buildings are spread out and possess courtyards around which the various activities are
clustered. A plan and section of the administrative block of the same is given in Fig. 7.8.
- Roof surface evaporative cooling system
- Appropriate planning in which laboratories requiring air conditioning are put
together in a well-insulated building
- Hollow concrete block walls to resist heat gain by conduction
- Reflective finish on roof surface
- Windows designed for cross ventilation and daylighting. The east and westfacing windows incorporate openable louvered shutters
Fig. 7.6 Ground floor plan of ASTRA building, Bangalore
Fig. 7.7 Photograph of ASTRA building, Bangalore
Table 7.1 Component-wise distribution of costs of ASTRA building at I.I.Sc.,

Bangalore
Effective plinth area = 280m2, Carpet area = 223.64m2
Cost of construction per m2 of plinth area = Rs.4247/m2 (Rs.395/ft2 )
Component
Structure
Foundation
Plinth
Walls/beams
Roof & Floor slabs
Staircase
Openings
Doors & Windows
Lintel & Chajjas
Cost (Rs.)
1,01,799.00
6,797.00
3,28,022.00
1,88,811.00
10,828.00
Sub-total 6,36,257.00
8.8
0.6
28.2
16.3
0.93
54.8
1,08,720.00
16,039.00
Sub-total 1,24,759.00
9.4
1.4
10.8
38,233.00
32,377.00
70,610.00
3.3
2.8
6.1
Finishes
Flooring
Painting
Sub-total
Services
Plumbing & Sanitary
Electrical
Architect fee
% of total cost
1,40,861.00
1,58,829.00
Sub-total 2,99,690.00
30,000.00
Miscellaneous
27,942.00
Total cost 11,89,258.00
12.1
13.7
25.8
2.5
Materials used:
(A)
Cement: 842 bags
(B)
Lime: 5.5 tonnes
(C) Steel: 2.66
1MT
1)
Volume of bed concrete (1:4:8) : 9.86 m3
2)
Size tone masonry in foundation : 71.68m3
3)
Plinth beam: a) Concrete : 1.497m3,
b) steel : 420 kgs (Reinforced
masonry)
4)
Volume of masonry walls (load bearing) : 101.33 m3
5)
a) Roof area : 271.56m2 a) Concrete: 34.03m3, b) Steel: 2.241MT
b) Floor area : 223.64 m2
6)
Area: a) Doors: 24.80 m2,
b) Windows : 24.08 m2
Miscellaneous items:
Jali works, Parapet
Fig. 7.8 Administration block of Solar Energy Centre, Gurgaon
38.0
36.0
A.O. Room
Temperature
(C)
34.0
Verandah
Reception
Room
32.0
30.0
28.0
10:30
11:30
12:30
13:30
14:30
15:30
16:30
Time (h)
July 2nd, 1997
Fig. 7.9 Comparison of indoor temperatures Solar Energy Centre, Gurgaon

The Solar Energy Centre conducted a post-occupancy evaluation of this building
[5]. It was observed that the roof surface evaporative cooling (RSEC) system caused a
lowering of temperature by 2-3C in comparison with rooms without RSEC system.
Figure 7.9 shows the comparison of measured temperatures of the reception room (with
RSEC system) with those of A.O. room and verandah, both being without RSEC system.
One advantage of the RSEC system is that it cools in a healthy manner as it does not
humidify the ambient air of the room. On the other hand if a desert cooler were to be
used, it would pump moist air inside the room and increase the humidity, which would
cause discomfort and affect the health of occupants.
7.5
H.P. STATE CO-OPERATIVE BANK BUILDING, SHIMLA [6,7]
Location : Shimla, Himachal Pradesh

Climate : Cold and Cloudy
Brief description of building :
This building is a ground and three-storeyed structure with its longer axis facing
the east-west direction. The smaller northern wall faces the prevailing winter winds from
the north-eastern direction. The building shares a common east wall with an adjoining
structure. Its west faade overlooks a small street from which the building draws its main
requirements of ventilation and daylighting. A plan and section of the building showing
the various passive techniques incorporated is given in Fig. 7.10.
Fig. 7.10 Section and plan of H. P. state co-operative bank, Shimla

- South-facing Trombe wall and sunspace heats up the interior
- South-facing solar collectors on the roof provide warm air, which is circulated
by means of ducts
North face is protected by a cavity wall that insulates the building from
prevailing winter winds
Western wall is provided with insulation as well as double glazing
Daylighting is enhanced by providing light shelves. Skylight on the terrace
also provides daylighting
Air lock lobbies are provided to reduce air exchange

The predictions of the energy savings of the building (component-wise) per
annum, as compared to a conventional building are as follows:
West wall (double glazing and insulation) = 43248 kWh
Roof insulation = 23796 kWh
Roof top solar collector = 10278 kWh
Trombe wall = 7398 kWh
Total = 84720 kWh
7.6
S.O.S. TIBETAN CHILDREN'S VILLAGE, CHOGLAMSAR [8]
Location : Choglamsar, Leh

Climate : Cold and dry
Twenty existing ground storey structures acting as dormitories have been
retrofitted with an attached green house and vented Trombe walls, in the extremely cold
region of Leh. The original construction consists of solid adobe for walls (U-value 1.64
W/m2-K) and wooden roof with mud topping (U-value 2.44 W/m2-K). The floor is of
wooden deck over a crawl space. A sketch plan and section of a typical building are
given in Fig. 7.11.
Techniques:
- The common room in the centre is provided with an attached green house
facing south for trapping heat. The extended floor of the green house consists
of solid masonry to provide good thermal storage mass of 1.44 MJ/m2-K. The
green house is fitted with a movable internal shade for the ceiling. The
common room receives heated air by opening the vents of the adjacent glass
wall of the green house.
- Two end rooms on the south side are provided with double glazed, vented
Trombe walls for heating.
DORMITORY
(a) Sketch plan
(b) Elevation
Fig. 7.11 Sketch plan and elevation of S.O.S building, Choglamsar

Table 7.2 gives the measured temperature data, namely, the maxima and minima
for the Trombe wall room, green house, a room without solar heating (control room) and
ambient temperature. It is seen that in winter months, the maximum and minimum
temperature can be appreciably higher than both the ambient temperature as well as the
room without solar heating (control room).
Table 7.2 Monthly mean measured temperature (S.O.S. Tibetan childrens
village)
Year
1980
1981
Maximum Temperature (OC)

Trombe
Greenhouse
Ambient
Solar Control Solar Control
Minimum Temperature (OC)

Trombe
Greenhouse
Ambient
Solar Control Solar Control
September
32.2
27.0
29.6
26.2
17.4
20.0
16.6
17.6
14.5
6.3
October
29.4
20.7
25.6
11.6
16.2
11.4
13.4
1.2
November
21.8
13.7
20.5
7.1
11.6
5.9
5.8
-5.6
December
21.6
10.2
17.0
2.8
6.8
2.4
4.6
-9.4
April
24.0
19.0
24.8
11.6
17.0
14.0
15.0
-1.6
May
25.8
23.6
25.2
22.2
16.6
21.0
19.0
19.0
17.0
3.2
June
27.8
26.8
29.4
25.0
19.6
21.0
20.4
21.0
20.0
7.0
July
31.1
29.2
31.8
28.6
25.0
25.4
23.6
24.0
23.0
12.8
Month
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Prajapati J., Draft Report - design of passive downdraft evaporative cooling

towers for proposed I.G.P. Complex at Gulbarga, Monarch - Architects and
Designers, Mumbai, 2005.
Givoni B., Peformance of the shower cooling tower in different climates,
Renewable Energy, 10, 173, 1997.
Gupta C.L., Personal communication, 2005.
Report on alternative building technologies, Centre for Sustainable
Technologies and Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, 2003.
Kumar A., Negi B.S. and Agarwal P.K., Preliminary - monitoring and
performance evaluation of roof surface evaporative cooling system -a
technical report, Solar Energy Centre, MNES, Gurgaon, 1998.
Nayak J.K., Hazra R., Prajapati J., Manual on solar passive architecture,
Solar Energy Centre, MNES, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1999.
Lall A. B., Re-development of H. P. state co-operative bank building at mall
road - Shimla, MNES Project Report, New Delhi, 1996.
Gupta C.L., Solar passive buildings for developing countries, Proceedings of
Indian Academy of Sciences (Engg. Sciences), Sadhana, 18, pp 77-104, Part
1,1993
GLOSSARY
Absolute humidity the weight of water vapour per unit volume.
Absorbent a material which due to an affinity for certain substances, extracts one or more such
substances from a liquid or gaseous medium with which it contacts, and which changes
physically or chemically or both during the process. Calcium chloride is an example of a solid
absorbent, while solutions of lithium chloride, lithium bromide, and ethylene glycol are liquid
absorbents.
Absorber the blackened surface in a solar collector that absorbs solar radiation and converts it
to heat.
Absorptance the ratio of the radiation absorbed by a surface to the total energy falling on that
surface.
Active solar energy system a system that requires auxiliary energy for its operation, e.g.,
energy to operate fans and pumps.
Activated alumina a form of aluminium oxide which adsorbs moisture readily and is used as a
drying agent.
Adfreezing the process whereby wet soils freeze to below grade materials such as fountains,
walls or insulation, forcing movement of the material.
Adiabatic process a thermodynamic process during which no heat is extracted from or added
to the system.
Adsorbent a material which has the ability to cause the molecules of gases, liquids, or solids to
adhere to its internal surfaces without changing itself physically or chemically. Certain solid
materials such as silica gel and activated alumina have this property.
Air barrier a material carefully installed within a building envelope assembly to minimize the
uncontrolled passage of air into and out of a dwelling.
Air change the replacement of a quantity of air in a volume within a given period of time. This
is expressed in number of changes per hour. If a house has 1 air change per hour, all the air in the
house will be replaced in a 1-hour period.
Air change per hour (ach) a unit that denotes the number of times a house exchanges its entire
volume of air with outside air in an hour.
Air cleanser - a device used to remove airborne impurities.
Air leakage the uncontrolled flow of air through a component of the building envelope, or the
building envelope itself, when a pressure difference is applied across the component. Infiltration
refers to inward flowing air leakage and exfiltration refers to outward flowing air leakage.
Air permeability the property of a building component to let air pass when it is subjected to a
differential pressure.
Air pressure the pressure exerted by air. This may refer to static (atmospheric) pressure, or
dynamic components of pressure arising from airflow, or both acting together.
Air sealing the practice of sealing unintentional gaps in the building envelope (from the
interior) in order to reduce uncontrolled air leakage.
Air tightness the degree to which unintentional openings have been avoided in a buildings
structure.
Air, ambient surrounding air.
Air, saturated moist air in which the partial pressure of water vapour equals the vapour
pressure of water at the existing temperature. This occurs when dry air and saturated water vapour
co-exist at the same dry-bulb temperature.
Air, standard dry air at a pressure of 101.325 kPa at a temperature of exactly 20 C. Under
these conditions, the density is 1.2041 kg/m3
Altitude angle the angular height of a point above the horizontal plane, i.e. solar altitude the
angle between the line joining the center of the sun and its projection on the horizontal plane.
Anemometer an instrument for measuring the velocity of air.
Angle of incidence the angle that the suns rays subtend with a line perpendicular to a surface.
Atomize reduce to fine spray.
Attached sunspace solar collector that doubles as useful building space; also attached
greenhouse, solarium. The term attached specifically implies a space that shares one common
wall with the associated building. Compare with semi-enclosed sunspace.
Awning an exterior, movable and usually flexible element. Protects detaining or diffusing solar
radiation at certain angles.
Azimuth angle, solar the angle on a horizontal surface between true south and the projection of
suns ray on the horizontal surface (negative before noon, positive after noon.)
Backdraft (flow reversal) the reverse flow of chimney gases into the building through the
barometric damper, draft hood, or burner unit. This can be caused by chimney blockage or it can
occur when the pressure differential is too high for the chimney to draw.
Beam or direct radiation radiation coming directly from the sun without its direction
undergoing any change.
Berm a man-made mound or small hill of earth.
Bimetallic element - an element formed of two metals having different coefficients of thermal
expansion, used as a temperature control device.
Black body a perfect absorber and emitter of radiation. A cavity is a perfect black body.
Lampblack is close to a black body, while aluminium (polished) is a poor absorber and emitter of
radiation.
Brightness the subjective human perception of luminance.
Building orientation the siting of a building on a plot, generally used to refer to solar
orientation.
Calorific value the energy content per unit mass (or volume) of a fuel, which will be released
in combustion. (kWh/kg, MJ/kg, kWh/m3, MJ/m3)
Candela (cd) an SI unit of luminous intensity . An ordinary candle has a luminous intensity of
one candela .
Chimney effect the tendency of air or gas in a duct or other vertical passage to rise when
heated, due to its lower density in comparison with that of the surrounding air or gas. In
buildings, the tendency towards displacement (caused by the difference in temperature) of heated
internal air by unheated outside air, due to the difference in their densities.
Clear sky A sky condition with few or no clouds, usually taken as 0-2 tenths covered with
clouds. Clear skies have high luminance and high radiation, and create strong shadows relative to
more cloudy conditions. The sky is brightest nearest the sun, whereas away from the sun, it is
about three times brighter at the horizon then at the zenith.
Clerestory a window that is placed vertically (or near vertical) in a wall above ones line of
vision to provide natural light in a building.
Clo clothing factor , a measure of the insulating value of clothing. For example, 0.3 clo is
typical for light summer clothing and 0.8 is typical for heavy winter clothing.
Collector, flat plate an assembly containing a panel of metal or other suitable material, usually
a flat and black in colour on its sun side, that absorbs sunlight and converts it into heat. This panel
is usually in an insulated box covered with glass or plastic on the sun side to take advantage of
the greenhouse effect. In the collector, the heat transfers to a circulating fluid such as air, water,
oil or antifreeze.
Collector, focusing a collector that has a parabolic or other reflector which focuses sunlight
onto a small area for collection. A reflector of this type can obtain considerably higher
temperatures but will only work with direct beam sunlight.
Collector, solar a device for capturing solar energy, ranging from ordinary windows to
complex mechanical devices.
Combustion air the air required to provide adequate oxygen for fuel burning appliances in the
building. The term combustion air is often used to refer to the total air requirement of a fuel
burning appliance including both air to support the combustion process and air to provide
chimney draft (dilution air).
Comfort chart a chart showing dry-bulb temperatures and humidities (and sometimes air
motion) by which the effects of various air conditions on human comfort may be compared.
Comfort zone on the bioclimatic chart , the area of combined temperatures and humidities that
80% of people find comfortable. People are assumed to be in the shade, fully protected from
wind, engaged in light activity, and wearing moderate levels of clothing that increases slightly in
winter.
Condensation the process of vapour changing into the liquid state. Heat is released in the
process.
Conditioned and unconditioned spaces - conditioned spaces need air treatment such as heat
addition , heat removal , moisture removal, or pollution removal. Unconditioned spaces do not
need such air conditioning , and no effort is made to control infiltration.
Conductance (C) - a measure of the ease with which heat flows though a specified thickness of a
material by conduction. Units are W/m2 C.
Conduction the process by which heat energy is transferred through materials (solids, liquids
or gases) by molecular excitation of adjacent molecules.
Conductivity the quantity of heat that will flow through one square metre of material, one
metre thick, in one second, when there is a temperature difference of 1C between its surfaces.
Convection the transfer of heat between a moving fluid medium (liquid or gas) and a surface,
or the transfer of heat within a fluid by movements within the fluid.
Cooling load a load with net cooling required.
Cross ventilation ventilative cooling of people and spaces driven by the force of wind. When
the outside air is cooler than the inside air , heat can be transferred from the space to the
ventilation air. Cross ventilation also removes heat from people by convection and by increasing
the rate of sweat evaporation . The cooling rate from cross ventilation is determined by wind
speed , opening sizes and temperature difference between the inside and outside. See also, stack
ventilation.
Daylight illuminance from radiation in the visible spectrum from the diffuse sky, reflected
light, and direct sun that lights a room.
Daylight envelope the maximum buildable volume on a site that will not unduly restrict
daylight available to adjacent buildings.
Daylight factor (DF) the proportion of interior horizontal illuminance (usually taken on the
work plane) to exterior horizontal illuminance under an unobstructed sky . It is sum of the sky
component and the internal reflected component. The range is 0-100%, but for most rooms it is
usually limited to 1-10%.
Decrement factor ratio of the maximum outer and inner surface temperature amplitudes taken
from the daily mean.
Density the mass of a substance, expressed in kilograms per cubic metre.
Diffuse radiation radiation that has travelled an indirect path from the sun because it has been
scattered by particles in the atmosphere such as air molecules, dust and water vapour. Indirect
sunlight comes from the entire skydome.
Direct gain the transmission of sunlight through glazing directly in to the spaces to be heated ,
where it is converted to heat by absorption on interior mass surfaces.
Direct sunlight the component of visible spectrum radiation that comes directly from the sun
without being diffused or reflected.
Direct radiation the component of solar radiation that comes directly from the sun without
being diffused or reflected.
Diffuse reflectance reflectance is the ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation. Diffuse
reflectance spreads the incident flux over a range of reflected angles/directions.
Diurnal relating to a 24-hr cycle. A diurnal temperature swing is the cycle of temperatures over
the course of one 24-hr period.
Downdraft evaporative cooling tower - a cooling system that humidifies and cools warm dry air
by passing it though a wetted pad at the top of a tower. The cooled air being denser, falls down
the tower and into the occupied spaces below, drawing in more air through the pads in the
process. Consequently, no distribution fans are required.
Dry bulb temperature the temperature of a gas of mixture or gases indicated by an accurate
thermometer after correction for radiation.
Earth-air heat exchangers a strategy of pre-tempering fresh air for ventilation , and in some
cases , providing building cooling by passing incoming air through buried ducts.
Earth contact - the strategy of placing building surfaces in contact with the ground to reduce the
temperature difference between inside and outside, reduce infiltration, and /or use the subsurface
soil temperature to cool the building.
Emissivity the property of emitting heat by radiation, possessed by all materials to a varying
extent. Emittance is the numerical value of this property.
Envelope heat gain or loss heat transferred through the skin of a building or via infiltration
/ventilation.
Equinox meaning equal light. The dates during the year when the hours of daylight are equal to
the hours of darkness. On the equinox, the sun rises from the horizon at due east and sets due
west. The equinoxes fall on March 21 and September 21.
Evaporation phase change of a material from liquid to vapour at a temperature below the
boiling point of the liquid. Cooling occurs during the process of evaporation.
Evaporative cooling - A heat removal process in which water vapour is added to air, increasing
its humidity while lowering its temperature. The total amount of heat in the air stays constant, but
is transferred from sensible heat in the air to latent heat in the moisture. In the process of
changing from liquid to vapour (evaporating), the water must absorb large amount of heat.
Evaporative cooling , Direct a cooling process where the warm and dry air moves through a
wetted medium to evaporate moisture in the air. The cool humid air is then used to cool a place.
Evaporative cooling , Indirect a cooling process where the evaporative process is remote from
the conditioned space. The cooled air is then used to lower the temperature of the building
surface, such as in a roof spray, or is passed through a heat exchanger to cool indoor air. The
indirect process has the advantage of lowering temperatures without adding humidity to the air,
thus extending the climate conditions and regions in which evaporate cooling is effective.
Glare the perception caused by a very bright light or a high contrast of light, making it
uncomfortable or difficult to see.
Glazing Transparent or translucent materials, usually glass or plastic, used to cover an opening
without impeding (relative to opaque materials) the admission of solar radiation and light.
Greenhouse effect refers to the characteristic tendency of some transparent materials such as
glass to transmit shortwave radiation and block radiation of longer wavelengths.
Heat exchanger a device usually consisting of a coiled arrangement of metal tubing used to
transfer heat through the tube walls from one fluid to another.
Heat gain an increase in the amount of heat contained in a space, resulting from direct solar
radiation and the heat given off by people, lights, equipment, machinery and other sources.
Heat island the increased temperatures, relative to surrounding open load, found in the centre
cities and areas of high development density. Heat islands are caused by concentrations of heat
sources, decreased vegetation cover, increased massive and dark surfaces , decreased wind flows ,
and narrow sky view angles.
Heat loss a decrease in the amount of heat contained in a space, resulting from heat flow
through walls, windows, roof and other building envelope components.
Heat pump a thermodynamic device that transfers heat from one medium to another; the first
medium cools while the second warms up.
Humidity water vapour within a given space.

HVAC mechanical system for heating, ventilating and air-conditioning that controls
temperature, humidity , and air quality.
Hybrid system a solar heating or cooling system that combines active and passive elements.
Hygroscopic absorptive of moisture , readily absorbs and retains moisture.
Illuminance the measure of light intensity striking a surface . Specifically, the concentration of
incident luminous flux, measured in foot candle(I-P) or Lux(SI).
Illumination lighting of the surface by daylight or electric light.
Index of refraction a property of glazing materials that determines the reflection/refraction
characteristics of the glazing.
Infiltration the uncontrolled movement of outdoor air into the interior of a building through
cracks around windows and doors or in walls, roofs and floors. This may work by cold air leaking
in during winters, or the reverse in summers.
Infrared radiation Electromagnetic radiation having wavelength above the wavelength range
of visible light. This is the predominant form of radiation emitted by bodies with moderate
temperatures such as the elements of a passive building.
Internal gains the energy dissipated inside the heated space by people and appliances. A
portion of this energy contributes to the space heating requirement.
Isothermal an adjective used to indicate a change taking place at constant temperature.
Jalousie (jali) an exterior fixed element made up of a perforated frame which covers the whole
window. It allows natural ventilation and protects against direct solar radiation and view from the
exterior.
Latitude the angular distance north(+) or south (-) of the equator, measured in degrees of arc.
Latent heat change of enthalpy during a change of state , usually expressed in J/kg(Btu per lb).
With pure substances, latent heat is absorbed or rejected at constant temperature at any pressure.
Lighting, diffused lighting in which the light on a working plane or on an object is not incident
predominantly from a particular direction.
Longwave radiation radiation emitted between roughly 5 and 30 m wavelength , as in thermal
radiation from the surface of a room, or from the outside surface of the roof.
Longitude the arc of the equator between the meridian of a place and Greenwich meridian
measured in degrees east or west.
Louvre - an assembly of sloping vanes intended to permit air to pass through and to inhibit
transfer of water droplets
Lumen SI unit of luminous flux; it is the luminous flux emitted in unit solid angle by a uniform
point source having a luminous intensity of 1 candela.
Lux SI unit of illuminance; it is the illuminance produced on a surface of unit area (square
metre) by a luminous flux of 1 lumen uniformly distributed over that surface.
Masonry concrete, concrete block, brick, adobe, stone, and similar other building materials.
Negative pressure a pressure below the atmospheric. In residential construction, negative
pressure refers to pressure inside the house envelope that is less than the outside pressure.
Negative pressure will encourage infiltration.
Night insulation movable insulation that covers a glazing at night and is removed during the
day.
Night ventilation of mass - a cooling process whereby a building is closed during the hot
daytime hours. Its heat gains are stored during that time in the buildings structure or other
thermal mass. At night, the building is opened and cooler outdoor air is used to flush heat from
the mass, lowering its temperature, to prepare for another cycle.
Night sky radiation - a reversal of the day time insolation principle. Just as the sun radiates
energy during the day through the void of space, so also heat energy can travel unhindered at
night from the earths surface back into space. On a clear night, any warm object can cool itself
by radiating longwave heat energy to the cooler sky. On a cloudy night, the cloud cover acts as an
insulator and prevents the heat from travelling to the cooler sky.
Opaque - not able to transmit light; for example, unglazed walls.
Passive system - a system that uses non-mechanical and non-electrical means to satisfy heating,
lighting, or cooling loads. Purely passive systems use radiation, conduction, and natural
convection to distribute heat, and daylight for lighting.
Pond, spray arrangement for lowering the temperature of water in contact with outside air by
evaporative cooling of the water. The water to be cooled is sprayed by nozzles in to the space
above a body of previously cooled water and allowed to fall into it by gravity.
Positive pressure a pressure above atmospheric. In residential construction, this refers to
pressure inside the house envelope that is greater than the outside pressure; a positive pressure
difference will encourage exfiltration.
Pressure the normal force exerted by a homogenous liquid or gas, per unit area, on the wall of
container.
Pressure difference the difference in pressure between the volume of air enclosed by the
building envelope and the air surrounding the envelope.
Pressure , vapour the pressure exerted by the molecules of a given vapour.
Radiant heat transfer the transfer of heat by radiation. Heat radiation is a form of
electromagnetic radiation. Radiant heating due to infrared radiation is commonly employed in
passive systems.
Radiant temperature - the average temperature of surfaces surrounding a person or surface, with
which the person or surface can exchange thermal radiation.
Reference design a detailed specification of the passive solar features of a hypothetical passive
solar building used as the subject of performance analysis.
Reflectance - the ratio of radiation reflected by a surface to the radiation incident on it. The range
is 0-1.0.
Reflection process by which radiation is returned by a surface or a medium, without change of
frequency of its monochromatic component.
Relative humidity - the percentage of water vapour in the atmosphere relative to the maximum
amount of water vapour that can be held by the air at a given temperature.
Resistivity the thermal resistance of unit area of a material of unit thickness to heat flow caused
by a temperature difference across the material.
Reverse thermocirculation thermocirculation in the reverse direction, that is, from the heated
space to the solar collector. This can occur at night when the heated space is warmer than the
collector. In the reference design, the process is assumed to be prevented by dampers.
Roof pond system - an indirect gain heating and cooling system in which the mass, which is
water in plastic bags, is located on the roof of the space to be heated or cooled and covered with a
movable insulation. A roof pond system absorbs solar radiation for heating in the winter and
radiates heat to the sky for cooling in the summer.
Selective coating finishes applied to materials to improve their performance in relation to
radiation of different wavelengths. Those applied to solar absorbers have a high absorptance of
solar radiation accompanied by a low emittance of long wave radiation, while those for glazing
have a high transmittance to solar radiation and high reflectance of long wavelengths.
Selective surface - a surface used to absorb and retain solar heat in a solar heating system such as
a Trombe wall or in a solar collector. Selective surfaces have high absorptance and low
emittance.
Sensible heat - heat that results in a change in air temperature, in contrast with latent heat.
SI units - Standard International units; the metric system.
Sky component - the portion of the daylight factor (at a point indoors) contributed by luminance
from the sky, excluding direct sunlight.
Sky cover - a measure of the fraction of the sky covered in clouds. Range is 0-10 tenths.
Skylight - a roof window, horizontal or sloped.

Sol-air temperature an equivalent temperature which will produce the same heating effect as
the incident radiation in conjunction with the actual external air temperature.
Solar absorptance - the fraction of incident solar radiation that is absorbed by a surface. The
radiation not absorbed by an opaque surface is reflected. The range is 0-1.0.
Solar gain - heat transferred to a space by solar radiation through glazing.
Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) - the fraction of incident solar radiation (for the full
spectrum) which passes though an entire window assembly, including the frame, at a specified
angle. Range is 0-0.85. A higher SHGC is preferred in solar heating applications to capture
maximum sun, whereas in cooling applications, a low SHGC reduces unwanted solar heat gain.
Solar load - the demand for energy required at any moment to compensate for the difference
between desired indoor conditions and heat gains from solar radiation.
Solar radiation - radiation emitted by the sun, including infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation,
and visible light. The radiation received without change of direction is called beam or direct
radiation. The radiation received after its direction has been changed by scattering and reflection
is called diffuse radiation. The sum of the two is referred to as global or total radiation.
Specific heat a measure of the ability of a material to store heat. Specifically, the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by one degree. (kJ/kg C ).
Stack ventilation - the cooling process of natural ventilation induced by the chimney effect,
where a pressure differential occurs across the section of a room. Air in the room absorbs heat
gained in the space, loses density, thus rising to the top of the space. When it exits through high
outlet openings, a lower pressure is created low in the space, drawing in cooler outside air from
low inlets.
Sunlight - beam daylight from the sun only, excluding diffuse light from the sky dome.
Surface resistance the surface resistance is the resistance to heat flow at the surface of a
material. It has two components , the surface resistance for convection and for conduction.
Task light - lighting on a specific area used for a specific task. Task lighting is usually from an
electric source and is of a higher illuminance level than the surrounding ambient light level. It is a
good strategy to combine task light with ambient daylight.
Temperature swing the range of indoor temperatures in the building between the day and
night.
Thermal break (thermal barrier) an element of low thermal conductivity placed within a
composite envelope construction in such a way as to reduce the flow of heat across the assembly.
Thermal bridge - an element of high thermal conductivity within a construction of otherwise low
thermal conductivity. Small areas of materials that conduct heat at high rates can substantially
reduce the insulating effectiveness of an assembly. Examples are metal frame windows without
thermal brakes and metal stud walls, where the metal conducts heat at a much higher rate than the
insulation in between.
Thermal conductivity (k) - a measure of the ease with which heat flows though a unit thickness
of a material by conduction; specifically, the heat flow rate in Watt per metre of material
thickness, and degree of temperature difference. Units is W/m-0C
Thermal radiation - energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves from a body by virtue
of its temperature, including infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and visible light.
Thermal resistance - a measure of the insulation value or resistance to heat flow of building
elements or materials; specifically, the reciprocal of the thermal conductance.
Thermal storage mass - high-density building elements, such as masonry or water in containers,
designed to absorb solar heat during the day for later release when heat is needed.
Thermal storage wall - a Trombe wall or water wall.
Thermocirculation - the circulation of a fluid by convection . For example, the convection from
a warm zone (sunspace or Trombe wall air space) to a cool zone through openings in a common
wall.
Thermosyphon the convective circulation of a fluid which occurs in a closed system where
warm fluid rises and is replaced by a cooler fluid in the same system.
Tilt the angle of a plane relative to a horizontal plane.
Time-lag the period of time between the absorption of solar radiation by a material and its
release into a space. Time-lag is an important consideration in sizing a thermal storage wall or
Trombe wall.
Transmittance the ratio of the radiant energy transmitted through a substance to the total
radiant energy incident on its surface.
Ultraviolet radiation electromagnetic radiation having wavelengths shorter than those of
visible light. This invisible form of radiation is found in solar radiation and plays a part in the
deterioration of plastic glazing materials, paint and furnishing fabrics.
U-value (coefficient of heat transfer) - the number of Watts that flow through one square metre
of building component (e.g. roof, wall, floor, glass), in one second, when there is a 1 C
difference in temperature between the inside and outside air, under steady state conditions. The
U-value is the reciprocal of the resistance.
Ventilation load - the energy required to bring outdoor air to the desired indoor conditions. In
this book, ventilation load refers to fresh air ventilation, which may be provided either naturally
or by a mechanical system. The rate of required ventilation varies with the use of the space and
the number of occupants. Ventilation load depends on the rate of fresh air ventilation and on the
temperature difference between inside and outside. It may be reduced by pre-tempering or the use
of heat exchangers.
Ventilation losses the heat losses associated with the continuous replacement of warm , stale
air by fresh cold air.
Ventilation (natural) - air flow through and within a space stimulated by either the distribution
of pressure gradients around a building, or thermal forces caused by temperature gradients
between indoor and outdoor air.
Visible spectrum that part of the solar spectrum which is visible to the human eye; radiation
with wavelength roughly between 380 and 700 nm.
Visible transmittance (VT) - the fraction of incident visible light that passes though glazing.
Watt (W) - a measure of power commonly used to express heat loss or heat gain, or to specify
electrical equipment. It is the power required to produce energy at the rate of one joule per
second.
Weather stripping narrow or jamb-width sections of thin metal or other material to prevent
infiltration of air and moisture around windows and doors.
Wet-bulb temperature - the air temperature measured using a thermometer with a wetted bulb
moved rapidly through the air to promote evaporation. The evaporating moisture and changing
phase lowers the temperature measured relative to that measured with a dry bulb. Wet bulb
temperature accounts for the effects of moisture in the air. It can be used along with the dry-bulb
temperature on a psychrometric chart to determine relative humidity.
Zenith - the top of the sky dome. A point directly overhead, 90o in altitude angle above the
horizon.
SI Units
Quantity
SI Unit
Base units
amount of
mole
substance
electric current
ampere
length
metre
luminous intensity
candela
mass
kilogram
thermodynamic
Kelvin
temperature
time
second
Supplementary units
plane angle
radian
solid angle
steradian
Some derived units
area
square metre
density
kilogram per cubic metre
energy
joule
force
Newton
power
Watt
pressure
Pascal
velocity
metre per second
volume
cubic metre
Prefix
tera
giga
mega
kilo
milli
micro
nano
pico
SI Prefixes
Symbol
T
G
M
k
m
n
p
Symbol
mol
A
m
cd
kg
K
s
rad
sr
m2
kg/m3
J (N m)
N (kg m/s2)
W (J/s)
Pa (N/m2)
m/s
m3
Multiplication factor
1012
109
106
103
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
Greek Alphabets
A
B
E
Z
H
I
K
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu
Nu
Xi
Omicron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Upsilon
Phi
Chi
Psi
Omega
Conversion Factors
Unit
Acre
Multiplying Factor
4.356 0 x 104
Resulting Unit
Square feet
Physical Quantity
Area
Acre
4.046 9 x 10-1
Hectares
Area
Acre
Square meters
Area
-3
Square miles
Area
Square yards
Area
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
Atmosphere
Bar
7.600 0 x 10
2.992 1 x 101
1.033 2 x 104
1.013 3 x 105
1.469 6 x 10
9.869 2 x 10-1
Centimeters of mercury
Inches of mercury
Kilograms/square meter
Newtons/square meter
Pounds/square inch
Atmospheres
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Bar
1.000 0 x 106
Dynes/square centimeter
Pressure
Bar
7.500 6 x 10
Millimeters of mercury
Pressure
Bar
1.000 0 x 10
Newtons/square meter
Pressure
Bar
Barrel (U.S.)
Barrel (U.S.)
British thermal unit (Btu)
British thermal unit/minute
(Btu/min)
(Btu/min)
(Btu/min)
(Btu/min)
(Btu/min)
(Btu/min)
(Btu/min)
Calorie (cal)
1.450 4 x 10
3.150 0 x 10
1.192 4 x 10-1
2.518 0 x 102
7.781 7 x 102
1.055 1 x 1010
3.930 1 x 10-4
1.055 1 x 103
1.055 1 x 103
2.930 2 x 10-4
1.055 1 x 103
4.199 9
Pounds/square inch
Gallons
Cubic meters
Calories
Foot-pounds
Ergs
Horsepower-hours
Joules
Newton-meters
Kilowatt-hours
Watt-seconds
Calories/second
Pressure
Volume
Volume
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Power
1.754 8 x 108
Ergs/second
Power
1.297 0 x 10
Foot-pounds/second
Power
2.358 1 x 10-2
Horsepower
Power
1.754 8 x 10
Joules/second
Power
1.793 1
Kilogram-meters/second
Power
1.754 8 x 10
Watts
Power
3.968 3 x 10-3
British thermal units
Energy
Acre
Acre
4.046 9 x 10
1.562 5 x 10
4.840 0 x 10
Calorie (cal)
Calorie (cal)
Calorie (cal)
Calorie (cal)
Calorie (cal)
Centimeter (cm)
Centimeter (cm)
Centimeter (cm)
Centimeter (cm)
Centimeter (cm)
Centipoise
3.088 0
4.186 8 x 107
4.186 8
1.163 0 x 10-6
4.186 8
3.280 8 x 10-2
3.937 0 x 10-1
1.000 0 x 10-5
1.000 0 x 10-2
1.093 6 x 10-2
6.719 7 x 10-4
Foot-pounds
Ergs
Joules
Kilowatt-hours
Watt-seconds
Feet
Inches
Kilometers
Meters
Yards
Pounds(mass)/second-foot
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Distance
Distance
Distance
Distance
Distance
Viscosity
Centipoise
Cord
3.600 0
1.280 0 x 102
Kilograms/hour-meter
Cubic feet
Viscosity
Volume
Cubic centimeter (cm3)

Cubic inch (in3)
Cubic inch (in3)
Cubic inch (in3)
Cubic inch (in3)
Cubic inch (in3)
Curie
1.000 0 x 10-3
3.531 5 x 10-5
6.102 4 x 10-2
1.000 0 x 10-6
1.308 0 x 10-6
1.638 7 x 10
1.638 7 x 10-2
5.787 0 x 10-4
1.638 7 x 10-5
2.143 3 x 10-5
3.700 0 x 1010
Cubic decimeters
Cubic feet
Cubic inches
Cubic meters
Cubic yards
Cubic centimeters
Cubic decimeters
Cubic feet
Cubic meters
Cubic yards
Disintegrations/second
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Radioactivity
Degree (deg)
Degree (deg)
Degree (deg)
Degree (deg)
dyne
6.000 0 x 10
1.745 3 x 10-2
2.777 8 x 10-3
3.600 0 x 103
1.019 7 x 10-3
minutes
radians
revolutions
seconds
grams
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Force
dyne
1.019 7 x 10-6
kilograms
Force
dyne
1.000 0 x 10
-5
newtons
Force
dyne
3.597 0 x 10-5
ounces
Force
dyne
2.248 1 x 10
-6
pounds
Force
2.953 0 x 10
-5
inches of mercury
Pressure
1.019 7 x 10
-2
kilograms/square meter
Pressure
dyne/square centimeter
7.500 6 x 10
-4
millimeters of mercury
Pressure
1.000 0 x 10
1.450 4 x 10-5
newtons/square meter
pounds/square inch
Pressure
Pressure
electron volt (eV)

electron volt (eV)
erg
3.826 8 x 10-20
1.602 2 x 10-12
9.478 2 x 10-11
calories
ergs
Energy
Energy
Energy
erg
2.388 5 x 10-8
calories
Energy
erg
erg
1.000 0
7.375 6 x 10-8
dyne-centimeters
foot-pounds
Energy
Energy
erg
1.000 0 x 10-7
erg/second
erg/second
erg/second
erg/second
erg/second
joules
Energy
5.68 69 x 10
-9
British thermal units/minute
Power
2.388 5 x 10
-8
calories/second
Power
7.375 6 x 10
-8
foot-pounds/second
Power
1.000 0 x 10
-7
joules/second
Power
1.000 0 x 10
-7
watts
Power
-1
flow rate, fuel (lb/h)

foot-pound (ft-lb)
foot-pound (ft-lb)
foot-pound (ft-lb)
foot-pound (ft-lb)
foot-pound (ft-lb)
foot-pound (ft-lb)
furlong
furlong
4.535 9 x 10
1.285 1 x 10-3
1.355 8 x 107
5.050 5 x 10-7
1.355 8
3.766 2 x 10-7
1.355 8
1.000 0 x 10
2.200 0 x 102
kilograms/hour
ergs
horsepower-hours
joules
kilowatt-hours
newton-meters
chains
yards
Mass Flow
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Distance
Distance
furlong
2.011 7 x 102
meters
Distance
US gallon (gal)
US gallon (gal)
US gallon (gal)
US gallon (gal)
US gallon (gal)
Gram (g)
Gram (g)
Gram (g)
Gram (g)
Gram (g)
hectare
hectare
-1
1.336 8 x 10
3.785 4
3.785 4 x 10-3
8.000 0
4.000 0
1.000 0 x 10-3
3.527 4 x 10-2
2.204 6 x 10-3
9.806 7 x 102
9.806 7 x 10-3
2.471 1
1.000 0 x 102
cubic feet
liters
cubic meters
pints
quarts
kilograms
ounces
pounds
dynes
newtons
acres
ares
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
Area
Area
hectare
1.000 0 x 104
square meters
Area
hectare
3.861 0 x 10-3
square miles
Area
Horsepower (hp)
Horsepower (hp)
Horsepower (hp)
Horsepower (hp)
Horsepower (hp)
Horsepower (hp)
imperial gallon
4.243 6 x 10
5.500 0 x 102
3.300 0 x 104
7.457 0 x 102
7.604 0 x 10
7.457 0 x 102
2.7742 x 102
British thermal units/minute

foot-pounds/second
foot-pounds/minute
joules/second
kilogram-meters/second
watts
cubic inches
Power
Power
Power
Power
Power
Power
Volume
imperial gallon
1.2009
US gallons
Volume
imperial gallon
Joule (J)
Joule (J)
Joule (J)
Joule (J)
Joule (J)
Joule (J)
Joule (J)
Kilogram (kg)
Kilogram (kg)
Kilogram (kg)
Kilogram (kg)
Kilogram (kg)
Kilogram (kg)
km/h
km/h
km/h
km/h
kW/h
kW/h
kW/h
kW/h
kW/h
kW/h
Liter (l)
Liter (l)
Liter (l)
Liter (l)
meter/second
metric horsepower
4.546
9.477 1 x 10-4
2.388 9 x 10-1
1.000 0 x 107
1.000 0 x 107
7.375 6 x 10-1
1.000 0
1.000 0
1.000 0 x 103
3.527 4 x 10
2.20 46
6.852 1 x 10-2
9.806 7
7.929 0 x 10
9.113 0 x 10-1
5.396 0 x 10-1
6.213 7 x 10-1
2.777 8 x 10-1
3.412 8 x 103
2.656 0 x 106
1.341 4
3.600 0 x 106
3.672 1 x 105
3.600 0 x 106
6.102 4 x 10
3.531 5 x 10-2
2.641 7 x 10-1
1.000 0 x 10-3
3.280 8
9.863 2 x 10-1
liters
calories
dyne-centimeters
Ergs
foot-pounds
newton-meters
watt-seconds
Grams
Ounces
Pounds
Slugs
Newtons
Poundals
feet/second
knots
miles/hour
meters/second
foot-pounds
horsepower-hours
joules
kilogram-meters
watt-seconds
cubic inches
cubic feet
gallons
cubic meters
feet/second
horsepower
Volume
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
Speed
Speed
Speed
Speed
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Speed
Power
metric horsepower
7.355 0 x 10-1
kilowatts
Power
mile/hour
Newton (n)
pound
(mass) (lb)
pound
(force) (lbf)
pound/square inch (psi)
1.466 7
1.000 0 x 105
4.535 9 x 102
feet/second
dynes
grams
Speed
Force
Mass
4.448 2
newtons
Force
6.804 6 x 10-2
6.894 8 x 104
2.036 0
2.768 1 x 10
7.030 7 x 102
atmospheres
dynes/square centimeter
inches of mercury
inches of water
kilograms/square meter
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure

Radian (rad)
Radian (rad)
Radian (rad)
Radian (rad)
Revolution (rev)
Revolution (rev)
Revolution (rev)
Revolution (rev)
Second (angle) (sec)
Second (angle) (sec)
Watt (joule/second) (W)
6.894 8 x 103
5.729 6 x 10
3.437 8 x 103
1.591 6 x 10-1
2.062 6 x 105
3.600 0 x 102
2.160 0 x 104
6.283 2
1.296 0 x 106
2.777 8 x 10-4
4.848 1 x 10-6
3.412 1
2.390 0 x 10-1
1.000 0 x 107
7.375 6 x 10-1
1.341 0 x 10-3
1.019 7 x 10-1
newtons/square meter
degrees
minutes
revolutions
seconds
degrees
minutes
radians
seconds
degrees
radians
British thermal units/hour
calories/second
ergs/second
foot-pounds/second
horsepower
kilogram-meters/second
Pressure
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Angle
Power
Power
Power
Power
Power
Power

Handbook On Energy Conscious Buildings

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HANDBOOK ON ENERGY CONSCIOUS BUILDINGS

Prepared under the interactive R & D project no. 3/4(03)/99-SEC

Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

3.4.3 Nocturnal Radiation Cooling

5.4.4 Cold and Cloudy and Cold and Sunny Climate

(A) Solar radiation

SOLAR RADIATION ON SURFACES NORMAL TO SUNS' RAYS

SUN IN NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

SUN IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

Fig. 2.1 Factors affecting solar radiation

SUNLIGHT CUT-OFF IN MONSOON

EFFECT OF SKY COVER

SUN DIRECTLY OVERHEAD AT NOON

SUN AT AN ANGLE IN EVENING

Fig. 2.1 Factors affecting solar radiation (cont.)

(B) Ambient temperature

DECIDUOUS TREES PROVIDE SHADE

TREE SHADES GROUND, HENCE SURROUNDING

EVAPORATION OF WATER REDUCES

EFFECT OF WATER BODY

COOL NIGHT AIR CAN

ON CLEAR NIGHTS RE-RADIATION

EFFECT OF SKY CONDITION

Fig. 2.2 Factors affecting ambient temperature

(C) Air humidity

EVAPORATIVE COOLING CAN

e.g. USE OF DESERT COOLERS

HIGH HUMIDITY AND HIGH TEMPERATURE

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

DRY AIR LEADS TO FASTER RATE OF

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

CONDENSATION MAY LEAD

VERY LOW TEMPERATURE AND HIGH HUMIDITY

EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE

Fig. 2.3 Effects of air humidity

- OFTEN LEADS TO DECAY

RAINFALL IN WARMER REGIONS TENDS TO

PRECIPITATION IN THE FORM OF SNOW

Fig. 2.4 Precipitation

TERRAIN AND MASSING OF BUILDINGS

Fig. 2.5 Factors affecting wind

(F) Sky condition

BUILDINGS SHADED BY CLOUD COVER

Fig. 2.6 Effect of sky condition

In addition to these factors, a number of natural elements such as hills, valleys,

Fig. 2.7 Distribution of annual sunshine hours [2]

Fig. 2.8 Distribution of annual global solar radiation (kWh/m2-year) [2]

Fig. 2.9 Distribution of annual diffuse solar radiation (kWh/m2-year) [2]

Fig. 2.10 Maximum temperature isopleths [8]

Fig. 2.11 Minimum temperature isopleths [8]

- THE ARROWS SHOW THE MAIN LINES OF AIR MOTION

Fig. 2.12 Average rainfall and main wind direction [8]

2.3 CLIMATIC ZONES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Criteria of SP 7: 2005 [9]