1.

THE GREAT MUGHALS

Babur received invitations from Alam Khan, the uncle of Ibrahim Lodi
and Daulat Khan Lodi, the Governor of Punjab, to invade India.
Rana Sanga, the head of the Rajputs was not only powerful but also
ambitious to capture the throne of Delhi.
In South India, there were two major independent kingdoms namely the
Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmini Kingdom. But they mutually
quarrelled with each other.

BABUR (A.D1526-A.D1530)

Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad, Babur was born in A.D.1483 at Farghana in

Central Asia. He was the eldest son of Umar Shaikh Mirza. Babur was a
descendant from his father's side of Timur, the Turk, and mother's
side of Chengizkhan, the Mongol. After the death of his father in
A.D.1494, Babur became the king of Farghana at the early age of
11years.

FIRST BATTLE OF PANIPAT (A.D. 1526)

Between Ibrahim Lodi & Babur on 21st April 1526

His artillery worked wonders; inspite of the superior numerical strength,
Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed in the battlefield. It brought the rule
of Delhi Sultanate to an end. Babur laid the foundation for the Mughal
Empire in India.

Rana Sanga was defeated in the battle of Kanwah in A.D 1527.

Medini Rai of Malwa was defeated in the battle of Chanderi in A.D
1528.
Muhammed Lodi was also defeated in the battle of Gaghra in A.D
1529.

His Empire extended from Bihar in the East to Punjab, Kabul,

Kandhahar and Badakshan in the West.
In A.D 1530 at the age of 47, Babur died of illness,
Babur was a great warrior, scholar and poet. He wrote his Autobiography,
"Tuzuk-i-Babri", populary known as "Memoirs of Babur" in Turkish
language. Babur was the most brilliant Asian Prince of his age.

HUMAYUN (A.D.1530-A.D.1540 and A.D 1555-A.D 1556)

Humayun, the eldest son of Babur, succeeded to the throne in A.D 1530
after the death of his father. He was born in Kabul in A.D.1508. He had
three brothers namely Kamran, Askari and Hindal. At the age of 20, he
was appointed As the Governor of Badakshan.

The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses. He had faced
many difficulties. Babur had no time to consolidate his empire. As there
was no law of primogeniture, (elder son succeeding the throne) war of
Succession arose after the death of Babur. Humayun's brothers were
ambitious to occupy the throne of Delhi. The Rajputs wanted to drive the
Mughals out of India. Bahadur Shah of Gujarat also threatened

Humayun. Sherkhan of Bengal and Bihar was a great challenge to

Humayun. Thus Humayun was surrounded by enemies on all sides.

Sherkhan defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa in A.D 1539 and

again in the battle of Kanauj in A.D.1540. Humayun managed to
escape and became a homeless wanderer for 15 years. He married
Hamida Banu Begum and Akbar was born at Amarkot in A.D 1542.
With the support of Shah of Persia, Humayun recovered Kabul and
Kandhahar from his brother Kamran. He recaptured Delhi and Agra in
A.D 1555, and became the king after 15years of his exile.
"Humayun" means "fortunate", but he was an unfortunate son of Babur.
As a king, he failed. "If there was any possibility of falling, Humayun was
not a man to miss it". According to Lanepoole, "He tumbled through
life and tumbled out of it". Finally, he met his tragic end in A.D 1556.
Before his death, he nominated his son Akbar as his successor and
Bairam Khan as the guardian.

SHERSHAH SUR (A.D.1540-1545)

The original name of Shershah Sur was Farid. He was the son of Hussain. Farid
was born in A.D 1472. He entered into the services of the Afghan Governor of
Jaunpur, who conferred on him the title "Sherkhan" the "Lion King" for his brave
killing of a tiger (Sher) on a hunting expedition. He took up the services under
the Governor of Bengal. Later, he became the ruler of Bihar and called
himself 'Shershah'. The dynasty founded by him was known as "Sur
Dynasty".

CONQUESTS

In the battle of Chausa in A.D 1539, Sherkhan defeated Humayun. After this
victory, he began to dream of capturing the throne of Delhi. He declared
himself the king of Bengal and Bihar. In the battle of Kanauj in A.D.1540,
he once again defeated Humayun and occupied Delhi and Agra and called
himself Sher Shah. Then he conquered Sindh and Multan. Later on, Malwa,
Raisin and Marwar were brought under his control. His last expedition was
against the fort of Kalinjar in Bundlekhand. He was injured by the
explosion of gun powder and died in A.D 1545.

Shershah's Administration Central Administration

Shershah was the architect of a brilliant administrative system. He was not only
an autocratic but also enlightened and vigorous. He did not listen the advice
of Ulemas. He even looked into small details of administration. He was assisted
by a council of ministers. There were four important ministers. Diwan-iWizarat incharge of income and expenditure, Diwa-i-Ariz incharge of
recruitments, organization of army, Diwan-i-Rasalat incharge of
ambassadors
and
envoys, Diwan-iInsha
incharge
of
royal
proclamations and despatches.

Provincial Administration

For the administrative convenience, he divided his empire into number of

Sarkars. It was further divided into number of parganas. Each pargana
comprised of a number of villages. The village was the lowest unit of provincial
administration.
Empire-Sarkars-Parganas-Villages

Revenue Administration

The land revenue system of Shershah occupies an important place. Land was
measured and the tax was fixed according to the fertility of the soil. Land
Tax was important source of income. The share of the state was fixed as
one-third of the average produce of the land. He issued "Patta" to the
cultivators. He introduced the "Ryotwari System". Many of the reforms of
Shershah were followed later by Akbar. Hence Shershah has been called as the
Fore-runner of Akbar.

Military Administration
Shershah was a great warrior and military genius. He followed the main
principles of Ala-ud-din Khilji's military system. He had a well organized
army. His army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery and elephantry, but
great emphasis was laid on cavalry. He appointed the Afghan soldiers in
higher posts. He introduced the Dagh" system (or) "branding the horses"
to avoid false musters. He also maintained a descriptive roll for the soldiers.

Judicial Administration
Shershah was a fountain-head of justice. He had a strong sense of justice. All
were treated as equal before the law. He was the highest court of appeal.
He was assisted by chief Qazi. No one could escape from punishment on
account of his status.

OTHER REFORMS
Intelligence Department
Shershah revived the Dak chauki, the espionage system. This system
worked efficiently and Shershah was able to get information from all parts of his
dominion.

Roads
Shershah improved the means of communication and paid great attention
towards restoring old roads and building new ones. Four important roads were
laid by him to connect all the four corners of his kingdom. He built caravan
sarais all along the roads for the benefit of the people.

Currency Reforms

Shershah abolished old and mixed currency. He fixed the ratio between
copper and silver coins. He issued silver and gold coins. These coins bore
his name in Devanagiri scripts. This currency was useful to improve the
general economic condition of the nation. Hence Shershah has been called as
the father of modern currency".

Estimate
Shershah was a great empire builder. He was an administrative genius. He also
contributed more to the field of architecture. His mausoleum built at
Sasaram in Bihar is a marvel of Indo-lslamic architecture. He also built
Purana Qila at Delhi. He was one of the greatest rulers of India. It is said that
if Shershah had been spared, the mighty Mughals would not have
appeared in the history of India.

AKBAR THE GREAT (A.D.1556-A.D.1605)

Akbar, the Great was one of the greatest rulers of India. Jalaluddin Muhammad
Akbar was born at Amarkot on 23rd November 1542. Humayun made
Bairam Khan Akbar's guardian as he was only 13 years old when he was
crowned Emperor

CONQUESTS
SECOND BATTLE OF PANIPAT (A.D.1556)

The throne inherited by Akbar was not a bed of roses. The immediate problem
facing Akbar was to deal with the rising power of Hemu, the Prime Minister
of Muhammad Shah of Bengal. Hemu tried to capture Delhi. The armies of
Akbar and Hemu met at the historic plains of Panipat in A.D.1556. Hemu was
defeated and killed. Akbar consolidated the Mughal rule strongly in Delhi and
Agra. Akbar was under the control of Bairam Khan for 4 years. After four
years Akbar wanted to become the real ruler of India. Hence he wanted to get rid
of Bairam Khan. In A.D.1560 he sent Bairam Khan on a pilgrimage to
Mecca but he was killed by his commanders. Later Akbar's foster mother
Maham Anaga controlled the affairs for two years. The period of her rule
was also known as "Petticoat Government". As Maham Anaga proved to be
unscrupulous, Akbar wanted to do away with her. So, he killed her son Adam
Khan. Maham Anaga also died of grief. Later Akbar became the real ruler.

Other conquests
Akbar extended his empire by many conquests. He annexed Chunar and
Malwa. Bihari Mal of Amber (Jaipur) accepted his over lordship. He gave his
daughter in marriage to Akbar. Jahangir was born to them. Akbar annexed the
Rajput state of Gondwana, Rani Durgavathi, offered a stiff resistance,
but she was defeated .After that he conquered some territories like Bikaner,
Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. His empire extended from Bengal in the East to
Afganisthan in the West, from Himalayas in the North to Golkonda in the
South.

RAJPUT POLICY
Akbar followed cordial relations towards the Rajputs who were honest and brave.
He married Jodhbai, the princess of Jaipur. The rulers of Bikaner and
Jaisalmar also gave their daughters in marriage to Akbar. Akbar appointed
the Rajputs in higher positions. Raja Mansingh, Raja Bhagawan Das, Raja
Todar Mal and Birbal were the notable ones. Akbar abolished 'Jizya' and

'Pilgrimage taxes' which were collected from non-Muslims.

DECCAN POLICY
To extend his kingdom and to check the rising power of the Portuguese,
Akbar turned his attention towards Deccan. Ahmed Nagar was being ruled by
Chand Bibi. Akbar defeated her and annexed it. Berar and Khandesh were
also captured by him.

LITERARY WORKS
Though an illiterate, Akbar patronized scholars. Raja Todar Mal translated
Bhagavata Purana into Persian. Abul Fazal and his brother Abul Faizi
translated several Sanskrit works into Persian. Abul Fazl wrote Ain-i-Akbari
and Akbar Nama. Abul Faizi translated Ramayana and Mahabaratha into
Persian from Sanskrit. Tansen was a great musician who adorned Akbar's
Court

RELIGIOUS POLICY (DIN-I-ILAHI)

Akbar was not an orthodox Muslim. He was very tolerant. Akbar's father was a
Sunni Muslim while his mother was a Shia. His guardian Bairam Khan was
a Shia, Sheikh Mubarak; his tutor was also a Shia. All these made Akbar
tolerant towards all religions. In 1575, he constructed a building known as
Ibadat Khana. He invited religious leaders of various faiths and had discussions.
He issued the famous "Infallibility Decree" which made Akbar as the
religious head as well as the King. Finally in 1582, Akbar promulgated a new
religion called "Din-i-llahi" (Divine Faith). Its object was to establish a
National Religion based on universal toleration. It comprised of the
good principles of all religions. Akbar never compelled anyone to follow his
new religion. After Akbar's death, Din-i-llahi Began to disappear.

Land-Revenue Reforms of Akbar

Shershah was the forerunner of Akbar in the field of land revenue system. With
the help of Raja Todar mal, Akbar improved land revenue system. Survey of
land was made and the state revenue was fixed as 1/3 of the actual
produce. The ryots could pay their tax either in cash or in kind.
Loans were provided to them which could be repaid easily by annual
instalments. Every cultivator was given a 'patta' (Title Deed) and required
to sign a qubuliyat (Deed of Agreement).

MANSABDARI SYSTEM
The Mansabdari system of the Mughals was the basis of civil and military
administration of the country. It was introduced by Akbar which he borrowed
from Persia. The word 'Mansab' means 'Grade' or 'Rank'. The Mansabdars
were to recruit their troops and help the emperor when required. Each
Mansabdar was given a piece of land according to his rank. The
Mansabdars drew their salaries from the revenue of the land. This
system worked well under Akbar but later on it deteriorated.

Contribution in the field of art and architecture

Akbar's period witnessed a remarkable growth in the field of art and architecture.
He built the Buland Darwaza, an imposing gateway at Fatehpur Sikri to
commemorate his Gujarat conquest. He constructed a new palace at
Fatehpur sikri. The Akbari Mahal, Jahangiri Mahal, the Lahore Fort, Panch
Mahal, Jodh Bai Palace etc., was built in Red sand stone.

AKBAR'S PLACE IN HISTORY

Akbar died in 1605A.D. after a glorious rule of 50 years. He occupies a unique
position in the history of India. He has been regarded as the real founder of
the Mughal Empire in India.

JAHANGIR (A.D.1605-A.D. 1627)

After the death of Akbar, his eldest son 'Salim' assumed the title Jahangir (or)
"conqueror of the World" and became the emperor of India in A.D 1605.After
a few months of his accession, his eldest son, Prince Khusru revolted against
him. Khusru received the blessings of Guru Arjun Dev the 5th Sikh Guru.
But Khusrau was defeated, arrested and blinded. Later on he was put to
death. Guru Arjun Dev was also not spared. He was also put to death and his
property was confiscated. This incident strained the relationship between
the Sikhs and the Mughals

BRITISH TRAVELLERS
During Jahangir's reign, Captain William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe from
England visited his court. Sir Thomas Roe obtained permission from
Jahangir in A.D.1615 to trade at Surat.

LITERARY WORKS
Jahangir was a great scholar and a good writer. He wrote his autobiography.
"Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri", which gives an account of his reign. He was a lover of
poetry and art.

JUSTICE
Jahangir was famous in the field of justice. He ordered for the setting up of a
"Chain of Justice" between Shah Burji palace in the fort of Agra and a
stone pillar fixed on the banks of the river Yamuna for enabling the
aggrieved persons to pull the chain and ask for justice.

ROLE OF NURJAHAN
The story of Nur Jahan occupies an important place in the history of the Mughals.
She was the daughter of Mirza Ghias Beg. Her original name was Mehr-unNisa. She was extremely beautiful. She was married to Sher Afghan who was
killed by Jahangir. In A.D 1611, Jahangir married her and gave her the title
"Nur Mahal" or "Light of the Palace". Later on she was called as Nur Jahan
or "Light of the World". She was an intelligent, educated and cultured
woman. During Jahangir's reign, she exercised the real power. The period
between 1611-1626 may easily be called as "the Age of Nur Jahan".
However, after the death of Jahangir in A.D.1627, she lost her importance
and died in A.D. 1645

ESTIMATE
Jahangir was a kind and generous ruler. He laid out beautiful gardens. At Srinagar
he laid out the Shalimar and Nishat Gardens. He had a great interest in the
field of architecture. Some of his remarkable buildings are Akbar's Tomb at
Sikhandara, Itmad-uddaula's Tomb near Agra and the
Great mosque at Lahore.

SHAH JAHAN (A.D.1628-A.D 1658)

Shah Jahan was the son of Jahangir. His original name was Khurram. He was
born in A.D. 1592 at Lahore of a Hindu mother. When Jahangir died in
A.D.1627, Nur Jahan summoned her son-in law Shahriyar with a view to put
him on the throne. At that time, Khurram was in Deccan. Nur Jahan proclaimed
Shahriyar as the Emperor. Asaf Khan, the father-in law of Khurram (Shah
Jahan) sent forces against Nur Jahan and Shahriyar, defeated them and
placed Shah Jahan "King of the World on the throne of Delhi.

CONQUEST
Shah Jahan fought with the Portuguese. He sent Mahabat Khan towards
Deccan to conquer Ahmed Nagar. It was annexed with the Mughal empire
in A.D.1636.He tried to re capture Khandhahar and made three attempts
but failed. It exposed the weakness of the Mughal army. He defeated the

rulers of Bijapur and Golkonda. He made Aurangzeb, the Governor of

Deccan.

Golden Age of the Mughals

The reign of Shah Jahan has been considered as the "Golden Age of the
Mughals". The power and prestige of the Mughal empire reached its height
during his time. There was both prosperity and poverty during his period. His
architectural wonders tell about prosperity while poverty is known
through the accounts of foreigners

Prince of Builders
Shah Jahan has been called as the "Prince of Builders", and "Engineer King".
Shah Jahan was the founder of the Mughal cities in Red sandstone and left
them in white marble. He built a new capital "Shahjahanabad". He built
the Red fort in Delhi which consisted of Rang Mahal, Moti Mahal, Diwan-iKham and Diwan-i-khas,"Paradise on Earth".

Jama Masjid
It was built by Shah Jahan at Delhi in white marble. It is considered to be one
of largest mosques in the world.

The Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is the most famous building of Shah Jahan. It was built at Agra on
the banks of river Yamuna, in memory of his Beloved wife Mumtaz.The Taj Mahal
has been considered as one of the Seven Wonders of the World and a
dream in marble. It was built by Ustad Isa, the chief architect of that time.
The estimated cost was about 20 lakhs and took nearly 22 years to
complete it. He also built Moti Masjid or "Peart Mosque" at Agra and the
Tomb of Jahangir. He had a grand collection of precious stones. It included the
'Peacock Throne' and the valuable Kohinoor Diamond. The peacock throne
is a crowning example of Mughal Jewellery. The Persian invader Nadir
Shah took it away in A.D.1739. Fine arts like music, painting and literature
reached high level of development during the reign of Shah Jahan. He
was a great patron of arts and letters. Shah Jahan fell ill in A.D. 1657. A war
of succession broke out among his four sons. Shah Jahan was imprisoned
in A.D.1658 and remained in prison till the last days of his life. He passed away
in A.D.1666.

ESTIMATE
Undoubtedly, Shahjahan was one of the greatest rulers that India had ever
produced. The travellers who had visited India during his period i.e., Bernier
and Travernier, the Frenchmen and Manucci, an Italian adventurer had
left behind good records about Shahjahan's reign.

AURANGAZEB (A-D, 1658-A.D, 1707)

Aurangzeb was the last Great Mughal emperor. He was the third son of Shah
Jahan. When Shah Jahan fell ill in A.D. 1657 a war of succession started among
the four sons of Shah Jahan namely, Dara Shuko, Shahshuja, Aurangazeb
and Murad. On hearing Shahjahan's illness Aurangzeb who was in Deccan
rushed to Delhi. He ascended the throne in A.D.1658 after killing his three
brothers and imprisoning his father. He Assumed the title of "Alamgir*.

Religious Policy
Aurangzeb was a pious, orthodox Sunni Muslim. He regularly read the "Koran".
He hated not only the non-Muslims but also Shia Muslims. He reimposed
Jizya, a tax on the non-Muslims and pilgrimage tax. He took away all the Hindus
from the state service. As a result he had to face the revolts of Rajputs, Jats,
Satnamis, Sikhs and Marathas.

AURANGAZEB AND THE SIKHS

The Mughal-Sikh relations became strained after Jahangir. Guru Tegh Bahadur,
the ninth Sikh Guru protested the anti-Hindu policy of Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb was annoyed and the Guru was summoned to Delhi and compelled
to embrace Islam. As the Guru refused to do so, he was tortured
and beheaded. This infuriated the Sikhs. Guru Gobind Singh who succeeded
his father as the tenth Guru, determined to avenge the mughals. He
organized the Sikhs into a military brotherhood against
the Mughals. The military organization of the Sikhs was called the "khalsa".

AURANGAZEB AND THE MARATHAS

Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, the Governor of Deccan to suppress Shivaji,
the great Maratha leader. Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan with a Band of 400
soldiers in his residence at Poona. In this attempt, Shaista Khan escaped
but lost one of his fingers. Later Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh against Shivaji
and peace was made. Shivaji accepted an invitation to visit the Mughal court
but was not received properly by Aurangzeb. Later on Shivaji was imprisoned.
But he escaped from the prison and continued to be a constant enemy to the
Mughals.

DECCAN POLICY
Aurangzeb spent about years in the Deccan. On account of his continued stay
in the Deccan, the administration went out of gear. He could see his own
empire declining. His endless wars emptied the treasury. Enemies arose
on all sides. It was the "Deccan ulcer" that ruined Aurangzeb. He died in
A.D.1707.

ESTIMATE
Aurangzeb was chiefly responsible for the disintegration of the Mughal empire.
His strict religious policy, long stay in the Deccan, vastness of his
empire and his suspicious nature not only ruined himself but also paved the
way for the downfall of the mighty Mughal empire. Aurangzeb was a
Successful Musalman, but as a king, he thoroughly failed.

MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
Central Administration
The Mughal administrative System was in the nature of a military rule and was
a centralized despotism. The Emperor (or) Badshah had all the powers in his
hands. He was an absolute ruler. He was regarded as the "shadow of God on
Earth". He was assisted by a council of ministers. The most important
among them was the Wazir (or) the Prime Minister.

Provincial Administration
For the administrative convenience the empire was divided into a number
province known as "Subas". Each Suba was under a Subedar (or)
Governor. During the Akbar's time, there were 15 Subas. The Subedar
was incharge of the Subas. The Subas were further divided into Sarkars
and Sarkar into "Parganas. Village was the lowest unit of provincial
administration.

Revenue Administration
The main source of income of the state was land revenue. Raja Todar Mai, the
famous Revenue Minister helped Akbar in this field. He had already worked under
Shershah. Akbar made improvements on Shershah's land revenue system.
Mainly due to this Shershah had been called as the "Fore runner of Akbar. Akbar
introduced "Zabti" system. All the lands were measured with an uniform
standard of measurement. On the basis of the fertility of the soil and
the yield of the crops, lands were classified into three categories. One
third of the average yield was fixed as the land tax. It could be paid either
in cash or in kind. In times of famine or floods, tax remissions were given.
The officers were instructed to be kind to the peasants

Military Administration
The Mughal army was consisted of infantry, artillery, cavalry and
elephantry. Cavalry was an important branch of the army. Akbar introduced a
new system called "Mansabdari system" "Mansab" means "rank" or "place".
Each mansab was valued on the basis of the number of horsemen they
had. There was a grade of Mansabdars. It ranged from 10 to 10,000
mansab. Besides horses; they were to maintain foot soldiers also. The
mansabdars were to help the emperor in times of war. In return for their
help they were given fixed salary.

Judicial Administration

The king was the fountain head of justice. He was assisted by the Chief Qazi.
Cases were tried according to Quaranic Law. Punishments were severe.
Mutilation was an ordinary punishment.

Causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire

Aurangzebs religious policy was the most important cause for the
downfall of the Mughal Empire. His ill-treatment of the Hindus, the Rajputs
and the Sikhs made them deadly enemies against the Mughals. As the Mughal
Empire became vast, it was very difficult for the Mughal rulers to control the
distant parts of the empire. So revolts broke out in many parts. The successors of
Aurangzeb were very weak. They could not check the disintegration of the
empire. The absence of the law of primogeniture was another cause for the
downfall of the empire. After the death of each mughal emperor, there was
a war of succession among his sons and it paved the way for their own
downfall. There was deterioration and demoralization in the Mughal army. The
soldiers cared more about their personal benefits than winning the battles. The
Marathas emerged powerful under the dynamic leadership of Shivaji
and proved to be deadly enemies of the Mughals. The coming of the
Europeans also paved the way for the deterioration of the Mughal
empire. Last, but not the least, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad
Shah Abdali gave a serious blow to the already tottering Mughal Empire. The
mighty Mughal dynasty founded by Babur, consolidated by Akbar began to
disintegrate even during the reign of Aurangzeb. Thus the deterioration of the
Mughal Dynasty came to an end.

2. RISE OF THE MARATHAS

Marathas were people who lived in the hilly region of Deccan in and around
Maharashtra. The physical features of the Maratha region developed certain
special qualities among the people. They worked under the Shia kings of the
Deccan. The hill forts and the hillocks provided them excellent
protection against their enemies. They developed a peculiar type of Warfare
called"GuerillaWarfare .The Marathas had developed hatred against the
Muslims for their atrocities. The spread of the Bhakti Movement created a
spirit of oneness among the Marathas. The important leaders of the Bhakti
Cult likeTukaram, Ramdass, Eknath and Vaman Pandit taught them about
devotion to God and the need to create a strong nation. Under such
circumstances, there emerged a strong leader called "Shivaji". Under his
leadership, the Marathas became strong and resisted the mughals authority

SHIVAJI (A.D.1627-A.D. 1680)

Shivaji was born in A.D.1627 at Shivner hill fort near Poona. His father was
Shahji Bhonsle who worked under the Sultan of Bijapur .His mother was
Jija Bai. Later on, Shahji Bhonsle married Tukabai and neglected his first
wife Jijabai and Shivaji. Hence he was brought up by his tutor and Guru
Dadaji Khonda Dev. During his childhood he learned the Puranic legends
and stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha through his mother.
As a pious lady, his mother did a lot to mould the character of her son. His Guru
trained him in horse-riding, warfare and also taught him the art of
administration.

Conquests
Shivaji wanted to establish an Independent kingdom of his own. He
conquered the forts of Purandhar, Raigarh, Torna and Kalyan from the
sultan of Bijapur in A.D.1646.

Shivaji and Bijapur Sultan

To subdue Shivaji, the Sultan of Bijapur deputed Afzal khan to bring Shivaji,
("Mountain-Rat") dead or alive in A.D.1659. When Shivaji got to know about
Afzal's Khan's treacherous plan he made his own preparations to meet him. At
the appointed place, Afzal khan met and embraced Shivaji and tightened his
grip. With his right hand, he tried to kill Shivaji but the Maratha chief
tore Afzal khans bowels open with the help of the "Tiger Claws"
(Baghnakh) Afzal Khan cried out in agony and fell down. This event led to an
increase in the power and prestige of Shivaji.

Shivaji and Mughals

In A.D.1660 Aurangzeb sent Sayista khan, the Governor of Deccan to check
the activities of Shivaji. Sayista khan camped at Poona. At night, Shivaji entered
the House in the guise of a marriage party and attacked Sayista khan, who was
fast asleep. Sayista khan escaped losing his thumb. Aurangzeb again sent Raja
Jai Singh to deal with Shivaji. Shivaji was surrounded on all sides. Finding
himself helpless, Shivaji agreed to come to terms with Jai Singh. In A.D.1665,
Treaty of Purandhar was signed between them. Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to
meet Aurangzeb in his court. When Shivaji and his son Sambaji reached Agra
in A.D.1666, they were not respected properly. Shivaji was upset and when he
opposed it, he was imprisoned by Aurangzeb. But Shivaji pretended to be ill and
escaped from prison by hiding himself in a large basket filled with apples.
Aurangzeb called Shivaji a "Mountain-Rat". After the great escape Shivaji
became the Bitter enemy of Aurangzeb. In A.D.1674, Shivaji got himself
coronated at Raigarh and assumed the title of "Chatrapati". A new Maratha

Empire came into existence. The coronation ceremony cost the Royal
treasury dearly. Due to the financial crisis, he was compelled to invade the
Carnatic region. He Captured Jinji, Vellore and many other important
forts. His kingdom included a large part of Mysore, Konkan and
Maharashtra. Unfortunately, he did not live long. His reign lasted only for six
years. He died in A.D.1680 at Raigarh.
Administration of Shivaji
Shivaji was a great administrator. He always had the welfare of his people in his
mind. He had a council of eight ministers called "Ashtapradhan" to assist his
Administration.

Each minister was in charge of a department. The kingdom was divided into
several provinces. They were further divided into Parganas and villages. The
territory under Shivaji was known as "Swarajya".
Revenue Administration
Shivaji abolished the Zamindari system. He had direct contact with the ryots
(cultivators). The land was assessed after a careful survey. 2/5 of the produce
was fixed as the share of the state. It would be paid either in cash or in kind.
Loans were provided to the farmers in times of famine. His land revenue
system resembled the system followed by Raja Todar Mal under Akbar.
The state also collected custom duties and professional taxes. The two other
important taxes collected during his time were Chauth and Sardeshmuk.
Judicial Administration
Justice was administered according to Hindu Laws. Panchayats settled the
disputes in the villages. Patel, an officer equal to the present day
Tahsildar, enquired the criminal cases. All civil and criminal appeal cases were
enquired by'Nyayadhish, who was a member of Ashtapradhan.
Military Administration
Shivaji was a great warrior and a military genius. He maintained a standing
army with great discipline. His army consisted of infantry, cavalry,
artillery, elephantry, camel corps and even a navy. The cavalry was the
most important force. Forts played a very important role and they were
considered as Mother". Soldiers were paid regularly in cash and even
after their death, their families were taken care of. Women were not
permitted in the military camps. Standing corps were not destroyed. Soldiers
were given strict orders not to kill or torture women, children and the
aged.
Estimate
Shivaji was a born leader. Though an illiterate, he understood the complicated
problems of the state and tackled them diplomatically. His greatness lies in
creating a strong nation for the Marathas. He continued to be a formidable foe to

the Mughals who were scared of his diplomatic moves. Shivaji took the glory of
the Maratha kingdom to its zenith with firm determination.
Successors of Shivaji
After the death of Shivaji, his eldest son Sambhaji ascended the throne. He was
not as efficient as his father. Aurangzeb arrested Sambhaji and his son
Sahu after capturing Bijapur and Golconda. Sambhaji was put to death.
Rajaram, another son of Shivaji became the Chatrapathi. When he died in
A.D.1700, his wife Tara Bai Began to rule the empire on behalf of her minor son
Shivaji-ll. After Aurangzebs death, Bahadur Shah I became the emperor. He
released Sahu. A civil war broke out between Sahu and Tara Bai. Tara Bai was
defeated and Sahu became the Maratha king in A.D.1708. His success was
mainly due to Balaji Viswanath, whom he appointed as the "Peshwa" or
"Prime Minister. As the successors of Shivaji were weak, the Peshwas became
the actual rulers of the Maratha Empire, and proved to be efficient
administrators.
Peshwas
The Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire was called the "Peshwa". Their rule
started from A.D.1713.
Peshwa Balaji Viswanath (1713A.D-1720A.D.)
He became the first Peshwa under the Maratha emperor Sahu. He was
called as the founder of the Peshwa rule. He made Peshwa ship
hereditary. He appointed the feudal chiefs to collect the taxes like Chauth
and Sardeshmuki. He revived the greatness of the Marathas. He died in
1720A.D.
Peshwa Baji Rao (1720A.D-1740A.D)
After the death of Balaji Viswanath, his son Baji Rao became the Peshwa. On
account of his great ability, he was generally regarded as the "greatest of the
Peshwas". He wanted to expand the Maratha power in the north and followed a
"Forward Policy". He compelled the Nizam of Hyderabad to sign a peace
treaty. He captured Bassein from the Portuguese and captured Thana and
Salsette. He died in 1740 A.D. The Maratha empire became powerful in India
during his period
Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao (1740A.D-1761A.D.)
He was the 3rd Peshwa. He had the able guidance of his cousin Sadasiva Rao
and the Maratha power attained its zenith in 1758 A.D. The Marathas
occupied Punjab and the Maratha flag was unfurled over the fort of Attock.
In 1761A.D. the Maratha power reached its climax but they received a severe
blow at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
The Third Battle of Panipat (A.D. 1761)
The conquest and occupation of Punjab by the Marathas had brought them into
conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali, the king of Afghanistan. He made huge
preparations to invade India with the help of Nazib-ud-daulah of Rohilkhand
and Shuja-ud-daulah of Oudh. He met the Maratha forces led by Sadasiva
Rao plains of Panipat in 1761 A.D. It was called third battle of Panipat.
Sadasiva Rao over estimated his artillery strength. Abdali was able to cut
off the line of communication of the Marathas. Initially, the Marathas had an
upper hand but ultimately they were defeated. This battle decided the fate of
Marathas. It lowered their prestige and paved the way for the rise of the British.
Causes for the defeat of the Marathas
Maratha's policy of aggression and plunder brought their downfall. The
Marathas lost the sympathies of their own religionists, Rajputs, Jats and
Sikhs. Ahmad Shah Abdali's army was well trained and disciplined than the
Maratha army. The Marathas failed to get their regular supplies. The
Maratha leaders were no match to Ahmad Shah Abdali. After the third battle of

Panipat, the Maratha empire continued to be ruled by inefficient peshwas. This

led to the disintegration of the Maratha empire and paved the way for their
downfall in the history of India.
Invasion of Nadir Shah (A.D.1739)
Nadir Shah was one of the greatest warriors of Persia. He was a mere
shepherd who rose into prominence because of his abilities. In A.D.1739, he
invaded India for a variety of reasons. He wanted to plunder the immense
wealth of India. He also wanted to earn name and fame by conquering
the distant territories. He came to know that India was ruled by a weak
and incompetent ruler, Muhammad Shah.
Events
He had sent an envoy to Muhammad Shah requesting him not to provide
shelter to the Afghans fleeing from Khandhar and Ghazni. As Muhammad
Shah did not reply, Nadir Shah invaded India in A.D.1739. After capturing
Peshawar, he faced the Mughal army at Karnal. The Mughal emperor was
defeated and Nadir shah marched towards Delhi to receive the huge war
indemnity of 20 crore of rupees as promised by the Mughal emperor. He
stayed for 15 days at Delhi and plundered it. Thousands of residents of Delhi
were killed. He did not spare the Mughal emperor and deprived him of the
famous Koh-I-Noor Diamond and the Peacock Throne. After two months,
Nadir Shah returned to his country with huge booty. However he was killed by
his own soldiers in A.D.1747.
Results The invasion of Nadir Shah gave a death blow to the Mughal empire and
hastened its downfall. It exposed the weakness of the Mughal empire to the
world. The weakness of Mughals led to the rise of many powers like the
Marathas, Jats, Sikhs, and Rohillas etc. India was deprived of much of its
wealth. In short, the invasion of Nadir Shah left the country quite "prostrate
and bleeding".
Invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali (A.D.1761)
Ahmad Shah Abdali was the head of the Abdali tribe of the Afghans. He was
made as the general by Nadir shah. On the demise of Nadir shah, Abdali
became the ruler of Afghanistan. He invaded India many times from
A.D. 1748 to A.D.1767.
Causes
Like Nadir shah, Abadali too wanted to plunder the abundant wealth of India. He
also wanted to earn name and fame for himself through his invasions. Events
before facing the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in A.D.1761, Abdali
had invaded India for four times. After conquering, Punjab, he reached
Delhi and Plundered the city. He had looted Mathura, Agra and several
other places. In the Third Battle of Panipat in A.D.1761, he came out successful
against the Marathas and shattered their power. In 1767 he invaded Punjab,
against the Sikhs. But he could not proceed too far and returned to
Afghanistan.
Results
The invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali gave a severe death blow to the Maratha
empire. The wealth of India was plundered and thousands of people were killed.
Due to Abdali's invasion, confusion prevailed in Punjab, which provided a golden
opportunity to the Sikhs to establish their power. Ahmad Shah Abdali
gave a crushing blow both to the Maratha and the Mughal emperors. It
cleared the way for the British to establish their sovereignty in India

EUROPEANS

3. ADVENT OF THE

India had commercial contact with European countries from time immemorial.
With the arrival of Alexander the Great these relations became still more
intimate. There was a great demand for Indian goods like silk, spices, muslin and
handloom fabrics in Europe. India exported pepper, cloves, chillies, cinnamon,
ginger, coconut, cane sugar, indigo etc to western
Countries through three main trade routes .
The three important trade routes were,
1. Through Afghanistan, Central Asia and the Caspian Sea and terminating at the
Black Sea Coast.
2. Through Persia and Syria leading to the port of Alexandria on the
Mediterranean coast of Europe.
3. The Sea route passing through the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.

But in 1453 A.D. the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople and troubled the
European merchants. They blocked the land route through Afghanistan. The
other two routes were also closed as a result of the Arab conquest in the 8th
century A.D. So the Europeans were forced to discover a new sea route to India.

The Portuguese
The Portuguese were the first to discover a new sea route to India.
Prince Henry of Portugal started a school for training seamen on scientific
navigation. Due to his interest and enthusiasm in the field of Navigation, he has
been called "Henry, the Navigator".

Bartholomew Diaz

He was the first sailor from Portugal who set out on his voyage in 1487 A.D. He
came up to the southernmost tip of Africa. As there was a storm when he
reached there he named it the Cape of Storm. Later on, the Portuguese King
re named it, The Cape of Good Hope with a definite hope of discovering a
sea route.

Vascodagama
On 27th May 1498, a Portuguese sailor, Vasco-da-Gama crossed the Cape of
Good Hope and reached Calicut in India. He was given a warm reception by the
Hindu ruler king Zamorin of Calicut. In 1501 he came to India for the second
time and set up a factory at Cannanore. Thus the Portuguese established their
factories at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore, on the West Coast of India.

Francisco-de-Almeida (1505-1509A.D.)
Francisco-De-Almeida was the first viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in
India. During his period the Portuguese defeated the Arab traders. His policy
was to increase the Portuguese naval power so that they might become the
masters of the Indian Ocean. This policy of controlling the settlement by
naval force was known as the "Blue Water Policy". In 1509 Almeida was
defeated and killed by the Egyptians.

Alfonso-De-Albuquerque (1509-1515A.D.)
Albuquerque was the second viceroy of the Portuguese in India. He was a great
conqueror. He captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 and made it
the capital. He also strengthened his relationship with the Vijayanagar
Empire. In 1511, he captured Malacca in the Far East and in 1515 he built
the port of Ormuz in the Persian Gulf. He can be rightly called the Real
Founder of Portuguese Power in India. He was a good administrator. He
treated the Hindus well and opened schools for their education. The
Muslims became an enemy of the Portuguese because of their religious
policy. He encouraged marriages between the Portuguese and the Indian
women. He died at Goa in 1515. After the death of Albuquerque, the
Portuguese conquered Diu, Daman, Bombay, Ceylon, Salsette, Bassein and
Hughli. After about a century the Portuguese power declined.

Causes for the decline of the Portuguese power in India.

Albuquerque's successors were weak. They could not strengthen the

Portuguese hold over India. The Portuguese often indulged in piracy against the
Indian merchants. The Portuguese often forcibly converted the natives to
Christianity. They also destroyed some temples in India Their religious
policy created enmity of the Muslims. The Portuguese maintained a good
relationship only with Vijayanagar kingdom. Therefore the fall of
Vijayanagar kingdom in the battle of Talikotta 1565 A.D. was a great blow to
the Portuguese. In 1580, Portugal came under the rule of Spain. The
arrival of the Dutch and the English weakened the Portuguese power in
India.

The Dutch
After the decline of the Portuguese power, the Dutch arrived India. The Dutch
people of Holland founded the Dutch East India Company in 1602 and
began to trade with Eastern countries. They concentrated on East Asia
called "Spice Islands". The Dutch company established its trading centres at
Chinsura, Nagapattinam, Surat and Masulipatnam. They founded Pulicat
near Madras in 1610 and built a fort there. They also established
trading centres at Surat, Broach, Cambay, Ahmedabad, Patna and
Kazimbazaar. Meanwhile the English also sent their merchants to do the spice
trade but the Dutch did not like the British interference over there. They made a
plan against the English merchants and killed many of the English
merchants at Amboyna in 1623A.D. which came to be known as Amboyna
Massacre. This incident created enmity between the English and the Dutch. Then
the English left the Spice Islands and concentrated their trade in India.
In India the English had grown very powerful and the Dutch were no match for
them. In 1759 the English captured Chinsura from the Dutch and a little
later they also captured Nagapattinam. Thus the Dutch power in India came
to an end.

The British
In 1588, the English defeated the Spanish Armada and consequently they
became the most important naval power of Europe. Then they thought of
establishing colonies in the Eastern countries. So the English East India Company
was started by 100 London Merchants who received permission from Queen
Elizabeth-I on December 31st 1600 to carry on trade with the East. In 1608,
King James I of England sent Captain William Hawkins to the court of
the Mughal Emperor Jahangir to obtain permission to establish a factory at
Surat. However permission was not given as the Emperor was influenced by the
Portuguese. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe arrived at the court of Jahangir and
succeeded in getting permission to set up their trading centres at Agra,
Broach and Ahmedabad. In 1639, Francis Day, bought a piece of land
from the Raja of Chandragiri and laid foundation for modern Madras for
a small rent. In 1640 the English built Fort St.George to protect their
trade. Charles II the king of England married Catherine the daughter of
the king of Portugal .He got Bombay, a small village as a part of dowry.
In 1668 Charles II gave Bombay on lease to the English East India Company
on a nominal rent of 10. In 1699 they got permission from Aurangzeb
and set up a factory at Calcutta. Later they built a fort and named it Fort
William after King William III. Then they established factories at Hariharpur,
Balasore, Hughli and Kazimbazaar. The British settlements soon developed
into centres of commercial activities. Thus the English East India Company
expanded its influence and control over India till 1858, when the administration
of India was taken over by the British Crown from the East India Company.

The Danish
The people of Denmark were known as Danish. They began to trade with India. In
1620 they established their trading centre at Tranquebar and in 1676 at
Serampore in Bengal. But they never concentrated in India and sold their
trading centres to the British and left India.

The French
Like other European countries, France too realized the importance of trading with
India. The French East India Company was established in 1664 by Colbert, the
minister of Louis XIV, the king of France. They set up their factories at Surat in
1668 and Masulipatnam in 1669. In 1674 they got a place to the south of
Madras from the ruler of Tanjore and laid the foundation of Pondicherry,

which became the headquarters of the French settlements in India. In

1690 they established their settlement at Chandranagore. They got Mahe in
1725 and Karaikal in 1739. Dupleix came to India 1742 as the Governor
of the French possessions. Under him the French increased their influence all
around. Under such circumstances there was bound to be a conflict between
the French and the English to establish supremacy in India. The clash of
trade interests between the two ultimately led to a series of wars called the
Carnatic Wars. Finally the English came out successful and established their
power in India by sending the French out of India.
Order of arrival : Portuguese,Dutch,English,Danish,French

Diu, Daman, Goa, Calicut Portuguese

Cochin, pulicat, sadras, Nagapattinam, Patna, Calcutta-Dutch
Surat, Bombay, madras-English
Tranquebar Danish
Karaikal, Pondicherry-French

4. ANGLO

FRENCH STRUGGLE (CARNATIC WARS)

The English and the French East India companies were established with the
motive of trading with India. In course of time their competition turned into
rivalry and both the powers tried to remove the other from the Indian scene.
Their trade interest was also diverted towards politics. Making use of the
situation and the rivalry among the native rulers, the English and the French
tried to capture power in India and to establish their supremacy. Between 17401763 the rivalry between the English and French led to three wars in India.
These wars were known as Carnatic Wars as they were fought in the Carnatic
region. Carnatic was originally a Mughal Province under the Nawab. It was ruled
by Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic. The Nawab ruled the territory as an
independent ruler. Arcot was the capital of Carnatic. The British and the
French exploited the region to strengthen their power. In the end, the British
drove the French out of India by 1763 and established their supremacy over the
Carnatic region.

The First Carnatic War (AD.1746-AD.1748)

Causes
This war was an echo of the Austrian war of succession. In this First Carnatic
war, the English and the French took opposite sides. They began to fight in India
in 1746. Dupleix, the French Governor of Pondicherry had an ambition to
establish the French power in India.

Course
Dupleix wanted to make the French Power supreme in South India. When the war
started in Europe, Dupleix sent an appeal to La Bourdonnais, the Governor of
Mauritius to capture Madras. He besieged Madras and captured it in 1746. The
Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar ud din did not like this. So he sent an army
against the French. At Santhome on the banks of the river Adayar, Anwaruddin's
army was defeated. Then Dupleix tried to capture Fort St. David from the English
but failed. Later the English attacked Pondicherry but the French successfully
defended the city. In 1748 the war of Austrian Succession came to an end
in Europe. So the Carnatic war also came to an end in India

Results
The First Carnatic war came to an end by the treaty of Aix-la- Chappelle
(1748) As a result the English got back Madras.

The Second Carnatic War (A.D.1748-A.D.1754)

Causes
The second Carnatic war was connected with the succession disputes between
the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Nawab of Carnatic. The Nizam of
Hyderabad, Asaf Shah died in 1748. There arose a competition between his son
Nasir Jung and his grandson Muzzafar Jung. At the same time the Nawab of
Carnatic, Dost Ali died. There was a dispute between Anwar-ud-din and his
son in- law Chanda Sahib for the throne of Arcot. The French supported
Muzzafur Jung and Chanda Sahib. Hence Nasir Jung and Anwarud-din were
forced to seek the assistance of the English. So a war broke out in 1748. '

Course
With the help of the French, Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib defeated and killed
Anwar-ud-din at the battle of Ambut in 1749. But his son Mohammad Ali
took refuge in the fort of Trichirappalli. Chanda Sahib became the
Nawab of Carnatic. In Hyderabad, both Nasir Jung and Muzzaffar Jung
were killed.

General Bussy, the French Governor made Salabat Jung the Nizam of
Hyderabad. In return for the French help, he handed over the Northern
Circars to the French. The condition of the English became very critical. Robert
Clive a clerk in the English East India Company changed the course of
the war. He attacked Arcot, the Capital of Carnatic. He defeated Chanda
Sahib and made Mohammed Ali, the Nawab of Arcot. Clive was called as
the "Hero of Arcot". Dupleix was recalled in 1754 and was succeeded by
Godeheu.

Results
The Second Carnatic war came to an end with the Treaty of Pondicherry in
1755. By this treaty both the sides agreed not to interfere in the internal
affairs of the Indian princely states and returned each others
territories captured during the war. Mohammad Ali was acknowledged as
the Nawab of Carnatic.

The Third Carnatic War (AD 1756-AD 1763)

Causes

In 1756 the Seven Years war broke out in Europe and the same war echoed in
India as the Third Carnatic war.

Course

The French General Count de Lally captured Fort St. David. Bussy the
French General at Hyderabad was asked to attack Madras which was a
great blunder committed by the French. When Bussy left Hyderabad the
British captured Hyderabad. Count de Lally and Bussy together attacked
Madras. But the British general, Sir Eyre Coote defeated both the French
generals at the battle of Wandiwash in 1760. In the next year 1761 Count
de- Lally surrendered Pondicherry to the British.

Results
The war came to an end with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Pondicherry,
Karaikal, Chandranagore and Mahe were returned to the French but
they were not allowed to fortify them. The French lost all their prestige and
influence in India. British became more powerful in India .

Causes for the Success of the British

Britain was commercially superior and the British in India were supported by
the Home Government. The naval power of the British was far superior
to that of the French. There was full co-operation among the English
Officers. The mistakes committed by Count de -Lally enabled the British to
capture Madras. The British could concentrate on wars as there was peace in
England while the French were too busy fighting wars in Europe.

Establishment of British Supremacy over Bengal

Bengal a very rich province of the Mughal Empire developed into an independent
kingdom under Alivardi Khan .After his death, his grandson Siraj-ud-daulah
became the Nawab of Bengal. The Battle of Plassey was a result of a
quarrel that arose between Siraj-ud-daulah and the British in 1757.

Battle of Plassey (AD 1757)

Causes

The English and the French were strengthening their fortification in

Bengal. Siraj-ud-daulah, Nawab of Bengal asked them not to fortify their
Forts. The French obeyed but the English refused to do so. More over the British
were misusing their trade privileges. It enraged the Nawab. Siraj-ud-daulah
marched with his army and captured Calcutta. One hundred and forty six
British soldiers were taken as captives and they were locked up in a

very small room. Most of them died due to suffocation. Only twenty three of
them were survived. This incident in history is called as the Black Hole
Tragedy. On hearing about this tragedy, Admiral Watson and Robert Clive
were sent to Bengal. They re captured Calcutta.

Course
On 23rd June 1757 Siraj-uddaulah met Robert Clive in a village called Plassey
near Calcutta. Within a few hours, the Nawab was defeated and killed. British
appointed Mirjafaras the Nawab of Bengal.

Battle of Buxar

After few years Mir Jafar was removed and Mir Qasim was made the Nawab of
Bengal. A misunderstanding developed between Mir Qasim and the British. Mir
Qasim was also removed, so he entered into an alliance with Shujaud- daulah
the Nawab of Oudh and Shah Alam II the Mugal Emperor against the
British and invaded Bengal. A battle between the combined army of Indian
rulers and the British took place at Buxar on October 22, 1764. In this battle,
Mir Qasim and others were defeated. Mir Qasim fled from the battlefield
while Shuja-ll surrendered to the British.

Results
The Treaty of Allahabad was signed in 1765 between the English on one side
and Shah Alam-ll and Shuja-Ud-Daulah on the other side. Shuja-ud-Daulah
was asked to pay a war indemnity of 50 lakhs to the British and also gave
Kara and Allahabad to the British. The Mughal Emperor was given an annual
pension of rupees 26 lakhs. Shah Alam II granted the Diwani rights of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English. Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Carnatic
practically came under the control of the British. The Battle of Buxar made the
English East India Company a sovereign power in India. After the Battle of Buxar,
Robert Clive became the Governor of Bengal in1765.A.D.

Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali was born in 1722. He was the son of a Faujdar and he started his
career as an ordinary soldier. He rose to the position as the chief of the Army due
to his hard work. When a Civil War broke out in Mysore, Hyder was in Dindigul.
The king of Mysore asked his help. After arriving at Mysore, he over threw the
king and ascended the throne of Mysore. Though he was an illiterate, he
was very intelligent. He treated both the Hindus and the Muslims alike. He was
known for his impartial Justice.

The First Anglo-Mysore War (A.D.1767-A.D.1769)

Causes
Mysore under Hyder Ali emerged as one of the most powerful kingdoms. Hyder
Ali's growing power and his friendly relations with the French became a matter of
concern for the English East India Company. This led to the First AngloMysore War.

Course

In 1766, the British, the Marathas and the Nizam formed a coalition
against Hyder Ali. But Hyder Ali was very clever and he bribed the Marathas
and the Nizam and won over their support. But in 1767 Hyder Ali and
Nizam were defeated at Changma by the British. But Hyder Ali captured
Ambur, Mangalore and established his rule. Then he captured Baramahal,
Karur, Tanjore and Cuddalore. He then besieged Madras which forced the
English to sign the Treaty of Madras in 1769.

Results
The Treaty of Madras was signed in 1769. Both the sides agreed to restore
places. The first Mysore war ended in favour of Hyder Ali.

Robert Clive
Robert Clive became the Governor of Bengal in 1765. During his first tenure
as a governor he was known for his conquests and during his second tenure
for his administrative reforms.

Administrative Reforms
The servants of the company were forbidden to receive any gift from Indians.
They were forbidden to indulge in private trade. He increased the salaries of the
company's servants. Robert Clive gave double Bhatta (field allowances) to the
officers in times of peace .He set up a Fund known as Lord Clive's Fund with a
view to help poor servants of the company and widow's of those who
died in service. After receiving the Diwani (Civil) and Nizamat (criminal) rights
from the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, Robert Clive introduced a new
system called Dyarchy or Dual or Double Government. According to this
system, the British enjoyed all powers but no responsibility. The Nawab
was reduced to a position of all responsibility and no power. In this
system of Government, neither the Nawab, nor the English cared for the
welfare of the people. The Dual Government was finally abolished in 1772.
Bengal was brought under the direct rule of the company.

RULE OF THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY

FROM A.D.1773-A.D.1857
LORD WARREN HASTINGS (A.D1772-AD 1785)
Warren Hastings became the Governor of Bengal in 1772.Later he was raised to
the position of Governor General of Bengal. As soon as he assumed office, he
had to face many difficulties. In 1772 a terrible famine affected Bengal. The
Dual Government had ruined the economy of Bengal. The farmers and
artisans led a miserable life. The officials of the English East India Company
were misusing their privileges and amassing great wealth. The
administration was crippled. So the company had to ask the British
Government for a huge amount as a loan. At this stage, the British
Government decided to interfere in the affairs of the Company. To regulate the
affairs of the East India Company in 1773 the British Parliament passed the
Regulating Act in 1773. This was the first landmark Act in the Constitutional
development of India.

The Regulating Act 1773 Provisions

'Appointment of a Governor General in Calcutta who was superior to the
Governors of Bombay and Madras. 'Provision was made to set up a Supreme
Court in Calcutta with a chief justice and three judges. Sir Elijah Impey
was the first Chief Justice.
*An Executive Council consisting of four members was set up to assist
Governor General.

Defects of the Regulating Act

The Regulating Act did not clearly define the jurisdiction of the Supreme
Court or the powers of the Governor General and the members of his
executive Council. The members of the executive council of the Governor
General often created problems. The Governors of Bombay and Madras did not
obey the orders of the Governor General of Bengal. This Act made the position of
the Governor General weak. In order to remove the defects of the Regulating Act,
the British Prime Minister William Pitt, the Younger, passed the Pitts
India Act in 1784.

Provisions of the Pitts India Act

The Governor General was to be appointed with the approval of the
British Crown. The number of members in Governor General's Council was
reduced from four to three. For administrative purposes, a Board of
Control consisting of six members was established in Britain to monitor
the affairs in India. The Governor General was made the Commander-inChief of the British troops in India and was given total control over the
Presidencies of Bombay and Madras. This Act helped the British Government to
have control over the company's affairs.

Reforms of Warren Hastings

Administrative Reforms
He put an end to the Dual Government introduced in Bengal by Robert Clive.
The East India Company took over the administration of the provinces. The
treasury was shifted from Murshidabad to Calcutta.

Judicial Reforms
Two courts of Appeal namely the Sadar Diwani Adalat (Civil) and the Sadar
Nizamat Adalat (Criminal) were established at Calcutta. Civil and criminal

courts were set up in each district. A digest of Hindu and Muslim law was
compiled.

Commercial Reforms
A Board of Trade was set up to buy quality goods for the company. Company
servants were not allowed to carry on private trade. In order to encourage
Indian trade, he reduced the customs duty by 2.5%to merchants. Many
of the customs houses were abolished and he set up only five customs
houses at Calcutta, Dacca, Hoogly, Patna and Murshidabad.

Revenue Reforms
A Board of Revenue was set up at Calcutta to look into the revenue
administration. English Collectors were appointed in every district. The land
was given for 5 years to the highest bidder. The land owners got the right
to collect land revenue and pay it to the Government

Educational Reforms

Warren Hastings was also a great patron of learning. In 1781 he founded the
Calcutta Madarasa for the promotion of Islamic studies.

The Rohilla War (A.D.1774)

The Rohillas were Afghans and were frequently attacked by the
Marathas. They sought the help of the Nawab Oudh to subdue the Marathas.
The Nawab demanded Rs.40 lakhs and the Rohillas accepted the demand.
When the Marathas appeared in Rohilkhand in 1773, they saw the forces of
Nawab of Oudh behind the Rohillas, so the Marathas retreated without fighting
Shuja-ud-daulah. The Nawab of Oudh demanded the promised 40 lakhs from
the Rohillas. The Rohilla Chief refused to pay the money. The Nawab of
Oudh approached the English for help. He even agreed to pay 40 lakhs to the
British. So warrens Hastings send an army against the Rohillas. Rohillas
were defeated and their territory was annexed to Oudh.

The Second Anglo-Mysore War (A.D.1780-A.D.1784)

The treaty of Madras was signed in 1769 between Hyder Ali and the British;
both agreed to help each other against the common enemy-The
Marathas. But in 1771, when the Marathas invaded Mysore, the English did not
come forward to help Hyder Ali. The English also captured the French port Mahe
which was of great importance to Hyder Ali so he protested and declared war
against British. In 1781 the British army under Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder
Ali at Porto Novo and at Ami in 1782. Hyder Ali died of cancer during the
course of the war. Hyder Ali's son Tipu Sultan continued the war. In 1784 Tipu
Sultan and the English signed the Treaty of Mangalore by which the
conquered territories were restored to both the parties.

The First Anglo-Maratha War (AD 1775-AD 1782)

Warren Hastings declared war against Marathas in A.D.1775. This war came to
an end with the signing of the Treaty of Salbai in 1782. Madhava Rao
Narayan became the Peshwa after the signing of the treaty .

Impeachment of Warren Hastings

The First Anglo-Maratha war put the English under a great financial
strain. So Warren Hastings demanded additional revenue from Raja Chait
Singh of Benares. On his refusal to pay the revenue, Hastings deposed
the ruler. Similarly he took away the personal treasures of the Begums of
Oudh. Warren Hastings is also believed to have been responsible for
sentencing a person called Nanda Kumar to death on false charges of
forgery. Warren Hastings was criticized and later on impeached by the British
Parliament for his actions. Later he was acquitted from all charges because he
had rendered great services to British power in India.

2. LORD CORNWALLIS (A.D. 1786

-A.D. 1793)

Lord Cornwallis became the Governor General of India in 1786. He tried to follow
the policy of non intervention. In 1793, Cornwallis introduced the Permanent
Settlement of Bengal. The Zamindars were required to pay a fixed amount in
cash on a fixed date as land revenue to the treasury, irrespective of what they
could collect. Slowly the Zamindars brought more areas under cultivation and
made more money while they paid the same fixed amount to the company. Many
Zamindars benefited more than either the company or the peasants.

Merits
This system was beneficial to the Zamindars. They were the owners of the lands
and they became very loyal to the company. This system secured a fixed and
stable income for the company. This settlement avoided the evils of periodical
settlements.

Demerits
1) Zamindars became the masters of the land and were benefited.
2) The worst affected people were the cultivators who were left at the mercy of
the zamindars.
3) To meet the increasing expenses the government had to increase the tax in
other provinces.
4) The government had no direct contact with the people .

Administrative Reforms

Cornwallis introduced a new administrative civil service system. The

civil servants were appointed to administer the British territories
effectively in India. He introduced strict regulations, raised their salaries and
gave promotions on the basis of merit. The employees were not permitted to
carry on private trade. All high posts were reserved only for the English.
Indians could only be selected for subordinate posts .

Police Reforms
Lord Cornwallis created a permanent police force in India. In 1791 a
Commissioner of Police was appointed in Calcutta. The districts were
divided into Thanas. Each Thana was headed by a Daroga.
As in the civil services in the police department too, the Indians were
excluded from the higher posts.

Judicial Reforms
Lord Cornwallis improved the judiciary. The collector was relieved of his
judicial duties. He was responsible for revenue collection. Civil and
Criminal Courts were set up at the district level. Provincial courts of
appeal were set up at Dacca, Calcutta, Murshidabad and Patna. Cornwallis
increased the salary of the judges to check bribery and corruption. He
abolished the court fees. A new code of regulations known as "Cornwallis
code" was compiled in 1793 by Sir George Barlow.

Revenue Reforms
He reorganized the Revenue Department. In 1787 the province of Bengal was
divided into many areas and each area was placed under a collector. He
established the Board of Revenue to supervise the work of the collectors.

Commercial Reforms
Cornwallis revived the old practice of making direct contact with the
Indian merchants and improved trade and commerce.

Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan was born in 1753 near Mysore. He was an industrious ruler like his
father. He was well educated and a great soldier. He was against the
presence of British in India. He built many strong forts like Dorrg to defend
his kingdom. He was al over of art and architecture.

The Third Anglo-Mysore War (AD1790-AD1792)

Tipu wanted to improve his position by driving the English out of India. Therefore
he sought help from Turkey and France. Cornwall believed that Tipu, having
allied with the French, would strike against the English. To check Tipu Sultan
the English formed alliances with the Nizam and the Marathas. Tipu
attacked Travancore a friend of British. So the English declared war
against Tipu Sultan in 1790. Tipu was defeated at Srirangapatnam and the
third Mysore war ended with the treaty of Srirangapatnam signed by
Cornwallis and Tipu Sultan in 1792. Tipu Sultan was called the "Tiger of
Mysore". The Tiger emblem was sculpted on his throne and the military
uniforms also bore the Tiger emblem. He was buried at Srirangapatnam.

Lord Wellesley (AD1796-AD1805)

After Cornwallis, Sir John Shore became the Governor General of India. He
followed the policy of non intervention. He was succeeded by Lord Wellesley. He
followed the policy of expansion and extended the British territories through
Subsidiary Alliance.

Subsidiary Alliance
Lord Wellesley introduced the system of Subsidiary Alliance to bring the
princely states under the control of the British.

Main features of the Subsidiary Alliance

In the subsidiary alliance system, an Indian ruler had to maintain British

troops in his state, either by giving some of his territory or by paying
for the maintenance of the troops. The Indian ruler could not fight or sign
treaties with any other power. This system allowed the British to
maintain a large army at the expense of the local rulers.

Merits
It helped the Company to maintain a large army at the expense of the Indian
rulers. The English became the supreme power in India. They began to
control the foreign policy of the native states. The French influence was
excluded from the Indian States. The extent of British Empire in India
increased.

Demerits
The native rulers lost their prestige and dignity. Both the British and the native
rulers neglected the welfare of the people. States which entered into the
subsidiary Alliance .The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to enter into the
subsidiary Alliance with the English. He gave Bellary, Cuddapah,
Ananthapur and Karnool to the British. The Nawab of Oudh was forced by
Wellesley to enter into the Subsidiary Alliance. He ceded half of his
territories, Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur and the territories between the
Ganges and the Yamuna to the British. Peshwa Baji Rao-ll also entered
into the subsidiary Alliance with British.

The Fourth Anglo

Causes

Mysore War (1799)

The fourth Anglo-Mysore war was fought in 1799 between the British and Tipu
Sultan. Tipu Sultan wanted to recover his territories which he lost in the Third
Mysore War and he did not accept the Subsidiary Alliance. He wanted to take
revenge on the English. Tipu Sultan sent emissaries to Kabul,
Constantinople, Arabia and France to get their support against British.
So war became inevitable between Tipu and the British. Tipu was defeated at
Malavalli. He died on 4th May 1799 while defending his capital Srirangapatnam.
With his death, the war came to an end in 1799. The important territories of
Kanara, Coimbatore and Srirangapatnam were annexed by the British. A
small part of the Mysore Kingdom was restored to Krishna III, a member
of the old Hindu royal family from whom Hyder Ali had captured the
throne of Mysore. Tipu's family was sent to Vellore fort. This war put an
end to Muslim rule in Mysore and made the British the strongest power in
South India.

The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803)

Peshwa Baji Rao-ll accepted the Subsidiary Alliance with the British and
signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802. The Maratha leaders Scindia and
Bhonsle refused to acknowledge this treaty. So they joined together and
attacked the British. In 1803 Arthur Wellesley defeated the Marathas. As a
result Maratha Power was weakened and the English expanded their
power and authority.

Estimate

Wellesley was one of the greatest governor generals of the English East India
Company. He defeated Tipu Sultan and humbled the Marathas. He transformed
the trading English East India Company into a strong political power in India

3. MARQUESS OF HASTINGS (A.D. 1813

1823)

-A.D.

Marquess of Hastings better known as Lord Hastings became Governor General

in 1813. He completed the work begin by Lord Wellesley. When he became the
Governor General, the Gurkhas of Nepal, the Pindaris and the Maratha
chiefs wanted to overthrow the British power. But Hastings boldly faced all
these problems and made English the paramount power in India. During his
tenure the Charter Act of 1813 was passed by the British Government.

Provisions of the Charter Act of 1813

The Charter Act of 1813 renewed the trading rights of the East India Company for
another twenty years. The company was deprived of its monopoly to trade with
India. The British Government allotted one lakh rupees every year for the
development of education in India. The Act made provisions for the appointment
of a Bishop and three Arch Deacons [Priests] to look after the welfare of the
Europeans in India. The British merchants and missionaries were allowed to
settle in India after getting licence from the Board of Control .

Importance of the Charter Act of 1813

The monopoly of the company's trade came to an end. The missionaries
preached Christianity Western education was provided to the Indians .

The Gurkha War (AD1814-AD1816)

The Gurkhas of Nepal were a great challenge to British. They captured
Sheoroj and Butwal in 1814. The British regarded it as a
challenge and declared war on
them. The English defeated the

Gurkha leader Amarsingh. The

Gurkhas were compelled to sign the
treaty of Sagauli in 1816 with
English. Thus the war came to an
end.
ThePindariWar
(AD 1816-AD1818)
The Pindaris were the gang of
robbers in Central India. The
important leaders of the Pindaris
were Amirkhan, Wasil Muhammad,
Karim Khan and Chettu. Hastings
sent a huge army to subdue the
Pindaris. Thus Hastings
exterminated the Pindaris and
relieved the people of Central India
Fromtheir suffering.
The Fourth Anglo-Maratha War
(AD 1817-AD 1818)
The Marathas were jealous of
the growing power of the English.
Peshwa Baji Rao II tried to form a
confederacy of all the Maratha
Chiefs against the English. In 1817
the Peshwa attacked the British
residency at Pune. It resulted in
Fourth Anglo-Maratha war. The
Marathas were completely defeated
after this war. Results

The office of the Peshwa was

abolished. Baji Rao II was paid an
annual pension of 8 lakh rupees.
The small kingdom of Satara was
created and one of the descendants
of Chatrapathi Shivaji, Pratab Singh
was placed on the throne. Thus the
mighty Maratha power lost its power.
The British became the paramount
power in India.
Reformsof LordHastings
Hastings passed the Bengal
Tenancy Act in 1822 to protect the
interests of the tenants. He took
efforts to promoteeducationamong

the people. In 1817 a college was

opened in Calcutta for the
development of the English
Language. He removed the
restrictions on the press. The first
vernacular (Regional) newspaper
'Samachar Patrika' was published.
He appointed Indians to higher
posts in administration. During his
period the Ryotwari system of
revenue collectionwas introduced in
the Madras Presidency. It was a
settlement between the ryots and
the British. This system made ryot
the owner of the land as long as
he paidthe revenuewithout default

1.Lord William Bentinck (A.D.1828-A.D.1835)

Lord Hastingswas succeeded by
Lord Amherst. During his period,the
Burmese tried to capture Assam. So,
in 1824, Lord Amherst declared war
on Burma. This war was called the
First Burmese war. The English
defeated the Burmese. The war
came to an end by the Treaty of
Yandaboo in 1826. The English got
Arakan and Tenasserim.
Lord Amherst was succeeded by
Lord William Bentinck. Hefollowed a
policy of non-interference with
regard to the dependent Indian
states. He is famous for his reforms.
He is considered to be one of the
greatest Governors General of India.
His reforms can be classified as
follows.
Financialreforms
In order to improve the finance of
the East India Company, he reduced
the salaries of the civil servants. He
appointed several Indians on low
salaries. He regulated the opium
trade and increased the income of
the company. He reduced the bhatta
or allowance of the military officers of

the company.
Judicial reforms
He abolished the provincial
courts of appeal and he set up a
Sadar Diwani Adalat [civil court] and
a Sadar Nizamat Adalat [criminal
court] inAllahabad.
Administrative reforms
He combined the office of the
Collector with that of the Magistrate.

\H e took charge of the

commander-in-chief of the army and
introduced several reforms. He
abolished Persian as the court
language and introduced vernacular
languages. A new post of law
member in the executive council of
the Governor-General was created
by the Charter Act of 1833. Lord
Macaulay was made the first law
member.
Social Reforms
Abolition of Sati
Among all the evils that
prevailed in the Indian society, the
cruel practice was sati.As per sati, a
Hindu widow burnt herself alive on
the funeral pyre of her deceased
husband. At first it was a voluntary
act but as days went on, the widow
was forced by the relatives to die. It
was prevalent mostly among the
Rajputs.
Lord Bentinck could not tolerate
such an inhuman act. So Sati
Prohibition Act was passed in 1829
with the help of Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, a social reformer. Lord
Bentinck declared sati as a criminal
and illegal offence. As per the Act,
everyone who forced a woman to
perform sati would be given capital
punishment.
Abolition of female infanticide
Another evil practice that existed
among the tribes of Rajaputana and

Kathiawarwas female infanticide. It

was the practice of killing the female
children at the time of their birth,
mainly to avoid economic burden. So Bentinck abolished this evil
practiceand declared it as a crime.
The wild tribes of Odesa
followed the practice of human
sacrifice, to please their Gods.
Lord Bentinck declared that
any person who practised this
barbarous act would be treated as a
murderer.
Suppression of Thugs
The Thugs were gang of robbers
who lived in central India.They used
to loot and plunder. They robbed the
innocent travellers and put them to
death. Lord William Bentinck
decided to stop this evil practice.
Under Major Sleeman a new
department was set up to suppress
the Thugs. The thugs were caught in
large numbers; They were either put
to death or punished severely.
Educational reforms
Bentinck decided to use the
money sanctioned by the Charter
Act of 1813 to promote western
education through the medium of
English.As a result English became
a medium of instruction in India. He
opened a medical college at
Calcutta and established Elphinston
college at Bombay.
The CharterAct of 1833
The Charter Act of 1833 was
passed during the time of Lord
William Bentinck. Accordingly
monopoly of the company was
abolished. Governor General in
Bengal became the Governor
General of India. This Act added
law memberto the executive council
of the Governor General. The
Bishops of Bombay, Madras and
Calcutta were to be appointed for

the benefit of the Christians in India.

Estimate
He carried out many useful
reforms in the social, administrative,
financial and judicial fields. For his
sympathetic attitude towards the
Indians, he can be compared
Lord Ripon. He promoted English
education in India and did a lot for
the welfare of the people.

2. Lord Dalhousie (A.D.1848-A.D.1855)

3. The Great Revolt of 1857

4. The Nayak Rule inTamil Country

-A.D.1855)