Agabekyan
Agabekyan
Agabekyan
ABOUT MYSELF
I. [i], [i:].
II. Text A: About myself,
Text B: My Biography.
III. , ,
.
Phonetic warm-up ( )
[i] [i]
: [] , [i]: it, sit,
in
[i:] [i:] ,
, . []
, , , [i:].
, [i:]. , meet, peat.
.
: feet () fit (), steel () still ( )
Exercise A
beat bin
lead lid
it seat
if it tip kit
steel still
did bill
feel fill feet
mill meal
fit eat bean
pill peel
simple Pete feel peel
keel kill
meet meat ill bill steel feel Exercise D
sit seat
be been bean
Exercise
did deed
me meet meat
pit peat
see seat seed
fit feet
meal seal mean
it eat
pea Pete peat
lid lead
sea see meet
Exercise
bee been feet
bin bean
mean lean keen
Exercise E
I see a sea. I see a clean sheet. I eat meat. I like meat.
I like tea. I make tea. I take tea. I like fine tea. I like fine meals.
People make steel. People make fine steel. People make steel pipes. People make fine steel planes. I like
life. I like kind people. I like kind smiles. I feel fine. I smile.
Text A: ABOUT MYSELF
Hello, friends. Let me first introduce myself. My name is Ann or Anya for my friends. My surname or last
name is Sokolova. I was born on the 2 nd of October in Sochi, Krasnodarsky Krai. This is the most beautiful city in
Russia situated on the Black Sea coast. Now I am a first-year student at the Technical Academy. In five years I'll
be an engineer.
Now let me describe my appearance. I am tall and slim and have fair hair and blue eyes. My friends say
that I am pretty. I think I am just good-looking. I love sports and music. I was very serious about a career in
gymnastics when I was in the 5th form. But then I broke my arm and doctors didn't let me go in for gymnastics. I
love to listen to modern music and dance. I dance a lot and I hope I am good at it. I also love swimming. I always
swim in the Black sea when I visit my parents, my dear family.
I would like to tell you about my family. There are five people in our family. My father's name is Vladimir
Stepanovich. He is a mathematician by education and businessman by profession. My mother's name is Tatyana
Petrovna. She is a housewife. She has much work about the house because I have a younger sister. She is a
pupil. My sister Natasha is in the fifth form. My grandmother, my mother's mother, lives with us. She is very kind
and helps us a lot.
Our family is very friendly, we have many friends. In summer many relatives come to visit us. And, of course,
they use a chance to spend several weeks in beautiful Sochi.
In May I have finished school No 5 in Sochi. I did well in all the subjects but my favourite subjects at school
were Physics and Computer Science. I also enjoyed English lessons.
I am very interested in learning English because I always wanted to become a programmer or maybe a
businesswoman. I also think that the knowledge of foreign languages helps in everyday life and career.
Two years ago I travelled much around Europe. I have visited France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands
and the United Kingdom. There the knowledge of English helped me a lot.
As you see,' my biography isn't very long yet. But we'll meet again in the next lesson and I'll tell you more
about myself. See you later...
Vocabulary:
introduce ,
housewife
Black Sea coast
several
a first-year student ()
to do well .
region
chance ,
appearance
kind
slim
a lot
career
the Netherlands
gymnastics
the United Kingdom
mathematician
()
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY
( ):
tall
stupid ,
short
boring
stout ,
fun to be with
slim
easy to go along
fat
quiet
plumpy
impulsive ,
fair hair
aggressive
blonde ()
rude ,
brunette ()
shy, confused
gray hair
active
bold headed
talkative
short sighted
enthusiastic ,
smart, clever, bright ()
Exercise 1.1. Please, introduce yourself. The questions below will certainly help you:
1. What is your name?
2. Where and when were you born?
3. How old are you?
5. Have you got a family?
6. How many people are there in your family?
7. Do you have brothers, sisters, grandparents in your family?
8. Where do you live?
9. Did you study well at school?
10. What school did you finish?
11. Did your teacher of English help you to choose your future profession?
12. What was your favourite subject?
13. What do you like to read?
14. What sport do you go in for?
15. What are you going to be?
16. Do you still live with your parents?
17. Do you have a girlfriend / boyfriend?
Exercise 1.2. Bring a picture of a person you know well (mother, father, grandfather, friend) to class.
Show it and describe that person. Use the active vocabulary of the unit.
Text B: MY BIOGRAPHY
after Mark Twain
I was born on the 30-th of November 1835 in the village of Florida, Missouri. My father was John Marshal
Clemens.
According to tradition some of my great-great parents were pirates and slave traders a respectable trade
in the 16-th century. In my time I wished to be a pirate myself.
Florida contained a hundred people and when I was born I increased the population by one per cent. It had
two streets and a lot of lanes. Both the streets and the lanes were paved () with the same material black
mud in wet times, deep dust in dry. Most of the houses were of wood there were none of brick and none of
stone. Everywhere around were fields and woods.
My uncle was a farmer. I have never met a better man than he was. He was a middle-aged man whose head
was clear and whose heart was honest and simple. I stayed at his house for three months every year till I was
thirteen years old. Nowhere else was I happier than at his house. He had eight children and owned about fourteen
Negro slaves whom he had bought from other farmers. My uncle and everyone on the farm treated the slaves
kindly. All the Negroes on the farm were friends of ours and with those of our own age we were playmates. Since
my childhood I have learned to like the black race and admire some of its fine qualities. In my school days nobody
told me that it was wrong to sell and buy people. It is only much later that I realized all the horror of slavery.
The country school was three miles from my uncle's farm. It stood in a forest and could take in about twenty
five boys and girls. We attended school once or twice a week. I was a sickly () child and lived mainly on
is your turn, Peter. After all... jokes, I would like to hear ... sad story. Tell us ... long and interesting story with ...sad
end. ... story which I am going to tell you, said Peter, is sad enough. We left... key to our room in ...hall.
.
( , -ch, -s, -ss,
-sh, -) -s: a boy boys, a trick tricks, a pen pens,
a girl girls.
, -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x,
, , , -,
-es; a bench benches, a bus- buses, a glass glasses, a box boxes, a potato potatoes.
, - ( )
-ies: an army armies, a fly flies, a lady ladies. f(-fe), ,
-ves:
a calf calves, a knife knives, a shelf shelves,
a wife wives (: roof roofs).
:
) :
a man - men, a woman - women, a foot - feet, a tooth - teeth, a goose - geese, a mouse - mice
) -en:
an ox oxen. a child children.
) :
a formula - formulae (formulas), a crisis - crises, a criterion - criteria, an index - indices, a bacterium
bacteria, an axis axes
, ()
: a deer () - deer (), a sheep () - sheep (), a fish ) - fish
(), a swine () swine ().
: advice, information, news.
knowledge, furniture, luggage.
- , clothes, riches, damages, goods, looks, manners,
thanks.
:
this is these are
that is - those are
there is there are
it is they are
Exercise 1.7. Decide which of the following nouns are countable () or uncountable
():
Time, water, machine, music, snow, word, coffee, money, idea, family, darkness, knowledge, sea hour. tree,
silver, meat, happiness, information, speed, book, news, house, friend, milk, student, pen, paper, clothes picture,
air, goods.
Exercise 1.8. Read and translate the sentences. Decide which of the underlined nouns
() are countable or uncountable and explain why:
1. We have read all the official papers. There were some sheets of paper on the table. 2.Two coffees, please.
I like strong coffee. 3. Give me two glasses. Are they made of glass or plastics? 4. Many thousands of bricks are
produced at the factory. Our school is built of brick.
Exercise 1.9. Write down the following nouns in plural.
Box, sheep, place, library, photo, mouse, lady, glass, bush, dress, country, bus, party, wife, day, knife,
knowledge, month, pen, hero, goose, company, life, deer, tomato, city, man, play, news, child, fruit, shelf, leaf, foot,
fish, woman, money, information.
Exercise 1.10. Write down the following nouns in plural:
A star, a mountain, a tree, a waiter, the queen, a man, a woman, an eye, a shelf, a box, a city, a boy, a
goose, a watch, a mouse, a dress, a toy, a sheep, a tooth, a child, an ox, a deer, a life, a tomato.
Exercise 1.11. Write down the following nouns in plural:
this man, that match, this tea-cup, this egg, that wall, that picture, this foot, that mountain, this lady, that
window, this knife
Exercise 1.12. Put the following sentences in plural and write them down. Pay attention to the
changes of the verb ():
1. A new house is in our street. 2. This story is very interesting. 3. There was a woman, a man, a boy and a
girl in the room. 4. In the farm-yard we could see an ox, a sheep, a cow and a goose. 5. Put this knife on that table.
6. Why don't you eat this potato? 7. This strawberry is still green. 8. A yellow leaf has fallen to the ground. 9. Can
you see a bird in that tree? 10. Does your tooth still ache? 11. I held up my foot to the fire to warm it. 12. His child
studies very well. 13. Is this worker an Englishman or a German? He is a Frenchman. 14. What is that child's
name? 15. The cat has caught a mouse. 16. I have hurt my foot. 17. The wolf has been shot. 18. He keeps his toy
in a box. 19. This man works at our office.
Exercise 1.13. Put the following sentences in plural and write them down. Pay attention to the
changes of the verb:
1. This is my stocking. 2. He has a new suit. 3. This metal is very hard. 4. That ship is a Russian one. 5. I
heard her voice. 6. His dog does not like bread. 7. The plate was on the table. 8. This town is very large. 9. I was
talking to her at the tram stop yesterday. 10. Is that girl your sister? 11. I shall give you my book. 12. This story will
be a good one. 13. Is this a good match? 14. The boy put his book on the desk. 15. She took off her hat. 16. That
house is new. 17. The pupil put his book into the bag. 18. Is this student coming with us, too? 19. The woman didn't
say anything. 20. Does she speak English?
Examples: The child's toys The children's toys
The boy's books The boys' books
Exercise 1.14. Use the Possessive Case of the Nouns:
Example: The poems of Lermontov. (Lermontov's poems).
1. The toy of their children. 2. The questions of my son. 3. The wife of my brother. 4. The table of our teacher.
5. The life of animals. 6. The voice of this girl. 7. The new tool of the workers. 8. The letter of Peter. 9. The car of my
parents. 10 The room of my friend. 11. The handbags of these women. 12. The flat of my sister is large. 13. The
children of my brother are at home. 14. The room of the boys is large.
Exercise 1.15. Translate into English.
1. . . . 2.
. 3. . 4. ? 5.
. 6. . 7. ? . 8.
? . 9. .
UNIT 2
MY WORKING DAY
I. [], [].
II. Text A: My working day,
Text B: Nick's usual working day.
III. , ,
.
[]
[] .
. . [] ,
.
[]
[] , ,
, .
Exercise A
tanned tent
am Ann lamp
fan fen
man can cat
man men
sat hat bat
pat pet
Pat rat cam
Exercise
Exercise C
tan ten
bat bet
pan pen
pet net red
bad bed
let met
land lend
ten pen men hen
Text A: MY WORKING DAY
Hi again... As you already know, I am a first-year student of the Technical Academy. My parents live in Sochi
and I study in Rostov-on-Don so I need some housing. There are two opportunities for me: I can live in a
dormitory (a students hostel), or to rent a flat (an apartment).
I decided to rent a flat. To make the rent smaller, I also decided to share my flat with another girl Natasha
Kozlova. She studies at the Academy, too, and she is my best friend now. I'll tell you more about her later.
Now, let me describe my usual working day. My classes begin at 8:30. So on week-days I have to get up at
7:15.1 don't have an alarm clock and usually my roommate wakes me up and my working day begins. I turn on
the radio and do my morning exercises while Natasha takes a shower. I don't take a bath in the morning because I
don't have enough time for it. I take a cool shower (that's when I completely wake up), brush my teeth. After that I
go back to our room and get dressed. I brush my hair and put on a light make-up. Then we have breakfast.
Natasha makes breakfast every Monday, Wednesday and Friday. I have to serve breakfast on Tuesdays,
Thursdays and Saturdays. I love to listen to the latest news on the radio while I am eating and Natasha prefers
light music.
We leave the house at ten minutes past eight and walk to the nearest bus-stop. We live rather far from the
Academy and it usually takes us about a quarter of an hour to get there by bus. Sometimes when the weather is
fine and we have enough time we walk to the Academy. It is very healthy to walk much.
The classes begin at 8:30 in the morning and they end at 2:00 p.m. We have lectures in different subjects. As
a rule we have three or four classes a day. Sometimes it is very hard to wait till they end.
Usually I don't miss my classes because I want to pass my exams successfully. But sometimes I do,
especially when the weather is fine and the classes are boring.
At 11:50 we have lunch. That's my favourite time. That is the time to share the latest news and to gossip. My
friends and I prefer not to go to the canteen and we often have lunch in a small cafe not too far from the Academy.
At 12:30 we have to be back to our classes. During the working day we also have several short breaks that last
for ten minutes.
Occasionally I have to stay at the Academy till 5 or even 6 o'clock in the evening because I go to the library
to get ready for my practical classes or to write a report. As a rule I have no free time on week-days. So by the end
of the week I get very tired.
We come home at about 7 o'clock in the evening. We eat supper together and share the latest news.
After supper we wash dishes, drink coffee or tea and watch TV. I prefer old comedies and Natasha likes
serials or films about travelling. Sometimes Natasha and I go for a walk in the park or visit our friends.
At about eleven at night I go to bed. I like to read something before going to bed and Natasha likes to listen
to some music. Sometimes I fall asleep while I am reading and Natasha gets up and switches off the light and says
Good night!
Vocabulary:
housing
to serve
opportunity
make up
dormitory, students hostel
while ,
to prefer
to rent a flat (an apartment)
healthy ,
to share (-)
to miss
week-days
successfully
alarm clock
boring
usually
to gossip
roommate
have to be back
rather
break
to turn on (off) ,
report
enough
share
completely ,
canteen
to get dressed
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY
tape-recorder
to do well ,
to brush one's hair
for the first (second) course ()
it takes me... minutes to get to the Academy by
bus ... ,
to get ready
as a rule
cloackroom
to get tired
upstairs ,
to take pleasure in ...
downstairs ,
to look forward to
to miss classes
acquaintance
to pass exams
Exercise 2.1. Write one sentence with each word:
1. Usual usually as usual unusual
2. occasion occasional occasionally
3. to end to finish to be over
4. to start to begin to get ready for
5. on Sunday at five o'clock in cafeteria ...
6. full time student part time student
7. freshman second year student school graduate
Exercise 2.2. Translate into English:
()
...
(,
)
15:50
Exercise 2.3. Tell about your typical day. The following questions will help you:
1. Do you get up early?
2. Is it easy for you to get up early?
3. Do you wake up yourself or does your alarm-clock wake you up?
4. Do you do your morning exercises?
5. What do you prefer: a hot or a cold shower in the morning?
6. How long does it take you to get dressed?
7. What do you usually have for breakfast?
8. Some people look through newspapers or listen to the latest news on the radio while having breakfast.
What about you?
9. When do you usually leave your house?
10. Do you work? If yes, where?
11. How long does it take you to get to your Academy (Institute)?
12. Do you go there by bus/trolley-bus or walk?
13. Where do you usually have lunch (dinner)?
14. What time do you come home?
15. How long does it take you to do your homework?
16. How do you usually spend your evenings?
17. Do you have a lot of free time?
18. Do you play any musical instrument?
19. Are you fond of listening to music?
20. What kind of music do you prefer?
21. Do you collect anything (stamps, records, postcards, coins, matchboxes, etc.)?
22. What time do you usually go to bed?
Exercise 2.4. Tell about:
a) the working-day of your father or mother
b) the usual weekend at home
c) the best day of your life
d) a holiday spent with your friends or relatives (New Year's day, Christmas, 8 th of March)
e) the working day of famous people (writers, artists, politicians etc.)
Text : NICK'S USUAL WORKING DAY
Hi, nice to meet you all!
My name is Nick Price. I am a freshman at MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology. I am not from
Boston myself. I was born in Vermilion, Ohio, not far from Cleveland.
My family is not very rich, that is why I can't afford to live on a campus. But it is a rule, that every student
must reside during his or her freshman year on the campus. To cover some of the expenses I've got to work parttime on the campus. I work in cafeteria.
Now let me tell you about my usual working day. I wake up at seven in the morning. My alarm-clock radio is
tuned to my favourite radio station. My roommate Todd Hall is a football player. He jogs every morning at 6:30. He
is still out jogging when I get up. First I take a cold shower and brush my teeth. Then I dress myself up and rush to
work to the University cafeteria. I wash dishes and clean the tables. It is not a very interesting job, I know that,
but soon I'll be a cook and will earn more. My boss Suzie is very strict but very nice when you do your job properly.
My first class starts at 11:15. The professor is never late for his classes. The lecture hall we sit in has about
100 seats. MIT is a very big school. I think that it is the best school of science and technology in the US.
At 2:00 p.m. I eat lunch at school cafeteria. The food is free for me because I work there. I am a vegetarian
and I don't like drinks with caffeine. I prefer cool filtered water or juice.
Then I have two more classes. I need to go to the library right after the classes to do my homework. There I
meet my friends and we talk a lot. Twice a week I play basketball with my friends. I swim once a week. Usually after
library we go out to the cafe or just sit outside and talk.
I have dinner at 6:00 p.m. at the little Chinese restaurant not too far from the dormitory or I cook myself in the
kitchen in my dorm. My favourite food is salami pizza and potato salad.
After dinner I watch TV or play ping-pong with my friends. When it is Friday, we go to the football game.
I usually read before I go to bed. It calms me down after the long day. I guess, that's pretty much it for now.
See you later!
General understanding:
1. Where does Nick Price study?
2. What year of study is he in?
3. Is Nick from Boston?
4. Is Nick's family a rich one?
5. What is Nick's job? Do you think he enjoys it?
6. Is Massachusetts Institute of Technology a good school?
7. Where does Nick spend his evenings?
8. What does Nick usually do on Friday nights?
GRAMMAR
1.
1. ( )
-r, -est:
high higher the highest ( ),
big bigger the biggest ( ).
, -, -ier -iest.
.
: happy happier the happiest. hot hotter the hottest
2. , -1,
more (less),
most (least)
interesting more (less) interesting most (least) interesting,
easily more (less) easily most (least) easily.
3. :
good, well (, ) better () the best ( ),
bad () worse () the worst ( )
little (, ) less () the least ()
many (much) more the most
far farther (further) the farthest (furthest)
, ,
: the largest building.
Exercise 2.5. Make up comparative and superlative forms of the listed below adjectives
() and adverbs ():
1. large, tall, long, easy, hot, big, cold, nice, bad, strong, short, wide, good, happy, high, low, busy, well, little,
many, far.
2. wonderful, necessary, quickly, interesting, comfortable, popular, active, famous, pleasant, beautiful, slowly,
clearly.
Exercise 2.6. Open the brackets using the right form of adjectives:
1. Winter is (cold) season of the year. 2. Moscow is (large) than St. Petersburg. 3. Which is (long) day of the
year? 4. The Alps are (high) mountains in Europe. 5. Even (long) day has an end. 6. It is one of (important)
questions of our conference. 7. Your English is (good) now. 8. Who knows him (well) than you? 9. We have (little)
interest in this work than you. 10. Health is (good) than wealth. 11. Your son worked (well) of all. 12. Today you
worked (slowly) than usually.
Exercise 2.7. Translate the sentences:
1. This book is not so interesting as that one. 2. The Baltic Sea is not so warm as the Black Sea. 3. The more
you read, the more you know. 4. My brother is not as tall as you are. 5. The earlier you get up, the more you can
do. 6. Today the wind is as strong as it was yesterday. 7. Your room is as light as mine. 8. John knows Russian as
well as English. 9. Mary is not so lazy as her brother. 10. The longer the night is, the shorter the day. 11. The less
people think, the more they talk.
Exercise 2.8. Translate the sentences:
1. .
2. , .
3. ? , , .
4. .
5. .
6. , .
7. .
8. , .
9. .
10. , .
11. , .
12. , .
2.
, , .
,
1) ,
2) ,
3) (, , )
4) ( , , ).
: 1) I 2) gave 3) my brother 3) a book 4) yesterday.
Exercise 2.9. Build the sentences from the words:
a) Is, best, she, friend, my.
b) Learn, different, students, our, subjects.
c) The, is, Russia, the, in, country, largest, world.
d) In, the, we, city, live, a, flat, in, of, center, the.
e) Reading, is, my, of, best, son's, fond, friend.
3. ,
1.
, yes :
Do you like ice-cream? Yes, I do.
Can you speak English? Yes, I can.
Are you a schoolboy? No, I am not.
Have you bought a text book? Yes, I have.
1) (, -),
2) ( ),
3) ( ).
2.
-
:
What is your name? My name is Peter.
Where do you live? I live in Rostov.
1) (what, where, who, when, how ..),
2) (, -),
3) ,
4) ,
5) ,
6) (, , ..).
, Present Past Indefinite,
do (did) :
Who wants to go to the cinema? Who lives in this house?
3.
:
Do you like coffee or tea? ?
, or
.
4. (Tail Question)
.
( ), , (tail
):
You are a pupil, aren't you? , ?
,
. , , ,
:
You are a student, aren't you?
You don't go to school every day, do you?
Exercise 2.10. Read and translate into English:
1. She is a student.
Is she a student?
Yes, she is. / No, she isn't.
2. He speaks English well.
Does he speak English well?
Yes, he does. / No, he doesn't.
3. They have many books.
Have they many books?
Yes, they have. / No, they haven't.
4. The weather was fine yesterday.
Was the weather fine yesterday?
, , .
[]. .
.
[ei]. , ,
. , ,
[], [].
Exercise A
care dare rare
date may pay
car far bar
fare fair hair
lay hay Ray
half calf bath
Exercise D
part park fart
Exercise
us bus
cart barter shark
tape hate bate
tub mud
spark bath mark
mate plate Kate
must sum
park raft plant
late fate rate
humble tumble
Exercise
brave maple main
sun hunt
mare air pair
pain name day
trust last
Text A: ANN'S ACADEMY
Hello again! Now let me tell you about my Polytechnical Academy. I am really glad that I study here. It is one
of the finest country's higher educational institutions. Many famous people have graduated from my Academy, and
not only engineers or scientists, but many outstanding writers, actors, showmen and politicians. Studying at our
Academy gives a solid background in all spheres of knowledge and prepares for practical work.
Our Academy is quite large and old. It was founded in the 19 th century by the famous Russian inventor
Vladimir Komarov. First, it was a small department of a large University, but later it was rearranged into an
independent institution. Nowadays it is a large school where more than 5,000 students are currently enrolled.
About 3,000 are full-time students, like me, and the rest are part time-students. There are also about 150
graduate students. They conduct independent research work and have pedagogical practice.
The course of study at my academy lasts five years. There are many faculties in my academy. Here are
some of them: the faculty of industrial automation and robotics, the faculty of plastics, the faculty of machine
tools and the faculty of metalworking.
Our academy is large and we have several buildings. One of the buildings is for lectures and seminars only.
There are many large halls there so that students of 3-4 groups together can fit in there. And that is more than 100
people. The acoustics ['ku:stiks] in such large halls is very good but sometimes it is very noisy when students
chat during the lecture.
We have two laboratory buildings which are equipped with up-to-date equipment and there students can
carry on lab works and conduct various experiments. Many students from my group do their own research work.
There are several cafes at the academy. My favourite one is situated in a separate one-storeyed building
and people say that this is the oldest canteen or student's cafe. The food there is tasty and very affordable.
There are also several dormitories or hostel buildings where students from other cities live. But you know
already that I don't live in a dormitory I rent an apartment.
Vocabulary:
currently
metalworking
to be enrolled
figure [f'ig] ,
full-time students
noisy
to chat ,
part time-students
to be equipped with
up-to-date equipment
to conduct
course of study
carry on
industrial automation
research work
one-storeyed
robotics
tasty ['teisti]
plastics
affordable (to afford )
machine-tools
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY
classroom ,
faculty, college, department (ex.
lecture hall
College of physics )
laboratory
department, chair of...
gym (gymnasium)
head of the department, chief of the department,
semester (term)
chair (man, woman) .
school year
substitute
course of studies
teaching instructor (TI)
academy
professor
university
dean
institute
Rector
part-time student ()
student of distant education ()
9. , . 10. ?
) some. any.
.
some any, .
, , some :
Give me something to read, please. I met him somewhere before.
any
:
Have you seen him anywhere? Is there anything I can do for you?
any :
I cannot find this book anywhere.
There is nobody in that room. There isn't anybody in that room.
any some ,
any :
You can find this book anywhere. .
Exercise 3.5. Make 16 pronouns and translate them:
: some + body = somebody -, -
some
body
any
one
no
thing
every
where
Exercise 3.6. Insert somebody, anybody, nobody or everybody:
l. The question was so difficult that ... could answer it. 2. ... left his bag in our classroom yesterday. 3. Has ...
in this group got a dictionary? 4. I am afraid there is ... in the office now. It is too late. 5. ... knows that water is
necessary for plants. 6. Is there ... here who knows English? 7. You must find ... who can help you. 6. ... knew
anything about our home task. 9. ... can answer this question. It is very easy. 10. There is ... in the next room. I
don't know him. 11. Please tell us the story, ... knows it. 12. Is there ... in my group who lives in the hostel? 13.
Has ... here got a red pencil?
Exercise 3.7. Translate into English:
1. -? 2. . 3. -? 4. . 5. . 6. -? 7. -? , . 8.
- . 9. - ? 10. - ?
, . 11. -? , . 12.
- . 13. -
? 14. . 15. . 16. , - . 17.
. 18. .
UNIT 4
MY HOME TOWN
I. [u:], [u].
II. Text A: Sochi.
Text B: Rostov-on-Don.
II1.1. little few a little a few.
2. there is / there are.
[u:]
[u:] ,
, []: moon. ,
k.
: soon , , moon
: book ( )
[u]
[u] , ,
, , : (u ). []
, , :
hook , look
, [u]: put , pull
, push , full
Exercise A
too tooth food
boot fool foot
soon spoon tooth
boot mood shook
Exercise
took shook nook
hook look cook
Exercise
fool pool hook
fool too book
cook boot loop
foot cool mood
shook - soon - spoon - moon
Exercise D
pull () pool ()
tool () full ()
Text A: SOCHI
Big Sochi the best place on the Earth!
Hello, everyone! Here is Ann Sokolova again. This time I'll tell you about my lovely hometown Sochi. I am
sure everyone knows where Sochi is. For those who are not really sure I remind that it is situated on the Black
Sea coast about 1500 km south from Moscow.
But what makes this city so special? Sochi is called the city of three seasons because there's no winter here.
As we usually say, the golden autumn slowly turns into the early spring. When golden leaves slowly fall down on
the earth the first flowers begin to blossom. Sochi is the only northern subtropical city in Russia. One can bathe in
the Black Sea from May till October because the water of the Black Sea is still warm. The water of the Black Sea
contains many chemical substances such as iodine, chlorine, bromine, sulphates, carbonates, sodium,
potassium, etc. All of them react with your body and make you healthier. There are many mineral water springs in
Sochi and its area.
Have you ever heard the name Big Sochi? Sochi is one of the most stretched cities along the sea coast
it is 148 km long! Small towns and cities Adler, Khosta, Kudepsta, Dagomys and Lazarevskoye belong to Big
Sochi!
The history of this area goes back to the ancient times. One can call this area the Cradle of Mankind.
People came here from the Asia Minor 400-350 thousand years ago. There are more than 150 historical places of
interest in the area. Here the camps and caves of prehistoric people have been found.
The dolmens massive prehistoric grave structures from the 2nd thousand B.C. are the features of the
Bronze era. The most ancient five-stone dolmens are found in the Sochi area. Travellers of the 19th century called
dolmens the houses of the giants because each grave stone weighs from 500 to 3000 kg. It is still uncertain
what technical developments made it possible to construct such structures.
The rich lands of Caucasus always attracted invaders: Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Genuese, Turks.
In the VIth century B.C. the Black Sea coast attracted Greek colonists, who have based a number of tradesettlements, such as Dioscuria (modern city of Sukhumi), Pitiunt (Pitsunda), Triglif (Gagra).
Christian religion was brought over from the Byzantynne three centuries earlier than to Russia. In the end of
Xth beginning of the XI th centuries A.D. the first known Christian constructions were built in Loo, Galitsino and
Veseloye.
During the XVIIIth-XIXth centuries Russia conducted long wars with Turkey for the exit to the Black Sea. In
1829, after the end of Russian-Turkish war, by the peace treaty the Black Sea coast of Caucasus, from the mouth
of the Kuban river up to a fort St.Nicholas (to the south of modern city Poti), has departed to Russia.
Symbol of the victory of the Russian weapon in the war of 1829 is the monument near modern hotel Leningrad Anchor and Cannon.
The end of Russian-Turkish war has not solved all the problems of strengthening of Russia on the Black Sea
coast. The Black Sea coastal line consisting of 17 forts was created with this purpose.
On April 21st, 1838 a small wooden fortress was established in the Sochi river area to protect this land from
local tribes. It was named Alexandria in honour of emperess Alexandra. It was renamed one year later, on May 18,
1839 and became Navaginskoye. But in 1854, because of the beginning of the Crimean war, the fortress was
destroyed by Russian army. Russians left this area. Only 10 years later, on March 25th, 1864 the new fortress
named Dakhovskiy was established on the place of the Navaginskiy fortress.
In 1896 by the decision of the Tsarist government fortress Dakhovskiy was renamed in the settlement of
Sochi, after the name of the river Sochi.
In the end of XIXth century the Black Sea coast was intensively occupied by the immigrants from central
parts of Russia, Moldova, the Ukraine, Byelorussia, Georgia and Armenians and Greeks from Turkey. The Sochi
district becomes multinational area of Russian Empire.
In Soviet times Sochi was a quickly developing port, industrial and resort city on the Black Sea. The fast development of the city and construction of modern houses was due to Joseph Stalin's sympathy to this place. Many
streets in the center of Sochi look like the center of Moscow built in 30s and 50s.
Until now the favourite residence of Russian Presidents was Bocharov creek (). Ski resorts of
Krasnaya polyana, warm blue waters of Black Sea, luxurious tennis courts create irresistable atmosphere
around the place.
I guess, I have taken a lot of your attention already. You know yourself what a popular resort is Sochi nowa days. Just buy the ticket and have your suitcases packed!
Vocabulary:
to remind
chemical substances
to turn into e ( -)
iodine
blossom
chlorine
bromine
attract
sulphate
invader
carbonates
trade-settlements ,
sodium
potassium
Byzantynne
to be stretched
A.D. (Anno Domini) (..)
events ,
to conduct
the Cradle of Mankind
exit
suburbs
Great Patriotic War
city
the spring Bogaty istochnik Rich spring. The name of the spring gave the name to the street. The water is
being bottled now and sold all over the country.
But only years later, after the death of Tsar Peter I, under the rule of Katherine II a fortress was built here.
The main purpose of the fortress was to support the customs effectively operating in this trade and trans port active
region. The fortress was named after Dimitry Rostovsky, the Archbishop of Rostov the Great. The town grew later
on, round the walls of the fortress and it was also called Rostov which lies on the river Don.
Rostov is situated on the right bank of the river Don, not far from the Sea of Azov. Due to its geographical
position the city grew rapidly.
After the hard years of the Civil War Rostovites restored the ruined economy of the region.
During the World War II Rostov was occupied by the Germans twice. They destroyed almost all the city.
Nowadays Rostov is the largest city in the South of the country. It's a big sea and river port and an important railway junction. Rostov is called The Gateway to the Caucasus.
The main branch of industry is agricultural machine building. Rostselmash is a giant machine building
plant producing a lot of agricultural machines. Factories of Rostov produce champagne, cigarettes, musical
instruments which are well-known abroad. There is also a big helicopter plant in Rostov.
Rostov is the cultural centre of the Rostov region. There are many educational establishments in Rostov in cluding the Rostov State University founded in Warsaw in 1815. There are six theatres in Rostov (Gorky Drama
Theatre, Philharmonic, Puppet Theatre, Theatre of Musical Comedy, Theatre of Young Spectators and Musical
Theatre).
There are two museums (Local Lore Museum, Fine Arts Museum), eight stadiums, several Palaces of Culture, a lot of cinemas, libraries, parks and gardens.
Rostov is famous for many prominent people who lived here.
The city is very green. There are a lot of parks in the city. In summer you can see a lot of people on the
beach on the left bank of the Don river.
General understanding:
1. What is the status of Rostov-on-Don now?
2. Is Rostov-on-Don an old city?
3. What role did Peter the Great play in the history of Rostov-on-Don?
4. Why did Peter the Great call the spring rich.
5. When was the first fortress built? How was it called?
GRAMMAR
1. little few a little a few.
little a little , few a few :
Give me a little water, please.
There is little milk in the bottle.
I have a few friends in Minsk
I've got only few pencils in the box.
few little , a few a little .
Much () , many () .
Exercise 4.4. Insert much, many, little, a little, few, a few:
1. I'd like to say ... words about my travelling. 2. She gave him ... water to wash his hands and face. 3. He
had ... English books at home, so he had to go to the library. 4. After the lesson everybody felt ... tired. 5. Let's stay
here ... longer. I like it here. 6. There were ... new words in the text and Peter spent ... time learning them. 7. There
was ... sugar in the bowl, and we had to put ... sugar there. 8. My mother knows German ... and she can help you
with the translation of this text. 10. When we walked ... farther down the road we met another group of pupils. 11.
Have you got... time before the lesson?
Exercise 4.5. Translate into English:
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , .
Exercise 4.6. Insert much or many:
1. Please don't ask me ... questions. 2. How ... money have you got? 3.1 never eat... bread with soup. 4.
Why did you eat so ... ice-cream? 5. She wrote us ... letters from the country. 6. ... of these students don't like to
look up words in the dictionary. 7. ... in this work was too difficult for me. 8. He spent ... time writing his composition
in Literature. 9. There were... plates on the table. 10. Thank you very ... ! 11. ... of my friends are preparing for their
entrance examinations now. 12. I don't like ... sugar in my tea.
Exercise 4.7. Translate into English:
1. . 2. . 3. ?
, . 4. -. 5. . 6.
. 7. . 8. , . 9. ,
.
2. there is / there are.
there is / there are () -
. : there was, there
were there will be.
There are some pictures on the wall. .
There was nobody in the room. .
to be , :
There is a chair and two armchairs in the room.
There are two armchairs and a chair in the room. there is /
there are
: Is there anything in the bag? Will there be lessons tomorrow?
: What is there in the bag?
. There are some pupils in the classroom, aren't there?
Exercise 4.8. Insert to be in the right form:
1 .There ... a telegram on the table. 2.... there any telegrams from Moscow? Yes, there ... some . 3....
there ... a flight for Moscow tomorrow? Yes, there .... 4. There ... much snow last winter. 5.There ... a lot of stars
and planets in space. 6.... there... a lift in your future house? Yes, there ... ... . 7. Some years ago there ... many old
houses in our street. 8. ... there any lectures yesterday? No, there... 9. ... there a lamp over the table? Yes,
there .... 10. ... there any interesting stories in this book? 11. ... there a test last lesson? No, there ... . 12. Soon
there ...... a new film on.
Exercise 4.9. Translate the following sentences and put general questions to them:
1. There are some new pupils in our group. 2. There is no book on the table. 3. There were many old houses
in our street. 4. There are 4 seasons in a year. 5. There will be a conference next week. 6. There are many large
cities in our country. 7. There was nobody in the room. 8. There are 7 days in a week. 9. There is something on the
shelf. 10. There are many places of interest in London. 11. There are many beautiful flowers in our garden. 12.
There was much work last week.
Exercise 4.10. Rewrite the following sentences in Past Indefinite and Future Indefinite, translate them
into Russian:
1. There is much snow in winter. 2. There are 4 theatres in our city. 3. There is no lift in our house. 4. There
are many new books in our library. 5. There is little milk in the bottle. 6. There are 3 rooms in our flat. 7. There is a
map on the wall.
UNIT 5
RUSSIA IS MY HOMELAND
I. [o:], [o], [u].
II. Text A: The Russian Federation, Text B: Moscow.
III. 1. ,
2. .
[o:] . , ,
, [:],
.
[o]. , ,
[:], [].
[u]. [] []. .
[u].
Exercise A
more score tore
floor for form
fork pork sport
dawn hawk because
Exercise
tone note smoke
cone loan moan
code hope cope
lobe mould gold
boat soap coat
Exercise
not top hot
dot mop mob
Text A: THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies about 1/6 of the Earth surface. The
country is situated in Eastern Europe, Northern and Central Asia. Its total area is over 17 million square km.
Our land is washed by 12 seas, most of which are the seas of three oceans: the Arctic, the Atlantic and the
Pacific. In the south and in the west the country borders on fourteen countries. It also has a sea-border with the
USA.
There is hardly a country in the world where such a great variety of flora and fauna can be found as in our
land. Our country has numerous forests, plains and steppes, taiga and tundra, highlands and deserts. The highest
mountains in our land are the Altai, the Urals and the Caucasus. There are over two thousand rivers in the Russian
Federation. The longest of them are the Volga, the Ob, the Yenisei, the Lena and the Amur. Our land is also rich in
various lakes with the deepest lake in the world, the Baikal, included.
On the Russian territory there are 11 time zones. The climate conditions are rather different: from arctic and
moderate to continental and subtropical. Our country is one of the richest in natural resources countries in the
world: oil, natural gas, coal, different ores, ferrous and non-ferrous metals and other minerals.
The Russian Federation is a multinational state. It comprises many national districts, several autonomous
republics and regions. The population of the country is about 140 million people.
Moscow is the capital of our Homeland. It is the largest political, scientific, cultural and industrial center of the
country and one of the most beautiful cities on the globe. Russian is the official language of the state. The national
symbols of the Russian Federation are a white-blue-red banner and a double-headed eagle.
The Russian Federation is a constitutional republic headed by the President. The country government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. The President controls only the executive branch
the government, but not the Supreme Court and Federal Assembly.
The legislative power belongs to the Federal Assembly comprising two chambers: the Council of Federation (upper Chamber) and the State Duma (lower Chamber). Each chamber is headed by the Speaker. The executive power belongs to the government (the Cabinet of Ministers) headed by the Prime Minister. The judicial
power belongs to the system of Courts comprising the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and federal
courts.
Our country has a multiparty system. The largest and most influential political parties are the Unity, the
Communist party, the Fatherland-All Russia, The Union of the Right Forces, The Apple, Liberal-Demo cratic
and some others.
The foreign policy of the Russian Federation is that of international cooperation, peace and friendship with
all nations irrespective of their political and social systems.
Vocabulary:
to occupy
surface
state
total area
to comprise ,
to border on
banner ,
numerous
legislative
steppes
executive
taiga
judicial
highlands
Federal Assembly
the Urals
the Council of Federation
the Caucasus
State Duma
climate conditions
Supreme Court
moderate
influential
ore
foreign policy
ferrous and non-ferrous metals
irrespective
General understanding:
1. Is Russia the largest country in the world?
2. What oceans wash the borders of the Russian Federation?
3. How many countries have borders with Russia?
4. Are Russian flora and fauna various?
5. What are the highest mountains in Russia?
6. What is Baikal famous for?
7. What is the climate in Russia like?
8. What is the national symbol of Russia?
9. What does the Federal Assembly consist of?
10. Who is the head of each Chamber of the Federal Assembly?
Exercise 5.1. Translate into English:
1. 17 .
2. .
3. .
4. 11 .
5. .
6. , .
7. , , ,
, , , .
8. .
Exercise 5.2. How well do you know your Homeland?
What is (are):
the biggest Russian lake?
the longest Russian river (in European and Asian parts of the Russian Federation)?
a city with subtropical climate?
cities with arctic climate?
agricultural regions?
old historical cities?
places of recreation and tourism?
Text B: MOSCOW
Moscow is the capital and largest city of Russia. It is also the capital of Moscow Oblast, and it stands on the
Moskva River. Moscow is the economic, political and cultural centre of Russia. Railways and numerous air lines link
the city with all parts of Russia. Navigable waterways, including the Moscow Canal, Moskva River, and Volga-Don
Canal, make the port areas of the city directly accessible to shipping from the Baltic, White, Black, and Caspian
seas and the Sea of Azov.
Moscow covers an area of about 880 sq.km. Concentric boulevards divide the city into several sections. At
the centre of the concentric circles (and semicircles) are the Kremlin, the former governmental seat of Russia, and
adjacent Red Square, which form the centre of a radial street pattern. Moscow has a modern underground system
famous for its marble-walled stations.
Situated on the north bank of the Moskva River, the Kremlin is the dominant landmark of Moscow. A stone
wall, up to 21 m in height and 19 towers, surrounds this triangular complex of former palaces, cathedrals, and other
monuments of tsarist times, some of them dating from the Middle Ages. The Great Kremlin Palace, completed in
1849, is the most imposing structure within the Kremlin. Other notable Kremlin palaces are the Granovitaya Palace
(1491) and the Terem (1636).
Among many cathedrals, now used mainly as museums, are the Cathedral of the Assumption () and
the Archangel Cathedral, each with five gilded domes, and the Cathedral of the Annunciation ( )
(13th-14th century), with nine gilded domes. Another landmark of the Kremlin is the Tower of Ivan the Great, a bell
tower 98 m high. On a nearby pedestal is the Tsar's Bell (nearly 200 tons), one of the largest in the world. A recent
addition to the Kremlin is the Palace of Congresses, completed in 1961. In this huge modern building were held
meetings of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and congresses of the Communist party of the Soviet Union;
theatrical and other artistic performances have been held here as well.
St Basil's Cathedral, famous for its unique architecture and coloured domes, stands at one end of Red
Square.
One of the best-known sections of Moscow is the Kitaigorod (Chinese City), the ancient commercial quarter
lying to the east of the Kremlin. This section is now the site of many government office buildings. Other points of
interest in Moscow include the Central Lenin Stadium, comprising about 130 buildings for various sports and the tall
Ostankino TV tower, which contains a revolving restaurant and an observation platform.
General understanding:
1. Where is Moscow located?
2. Is Moscow a port city?
3. How is Moscow divided into sections?
4. What is known about Moscow Underground system?
5. What are the places of interest in Moscow?
6. Why is the Kremlin the most important place of interest for tourists?
7. What Russian Orthodox cathedrals are situated inside the Kremlin?
8. What is Palace of Congresses used for at present time?
Exercise 5.3. Where are these places of interest situated?
* Granovitaya Palace
* the Cathedral of the Annunciation
* Terem
* the Tower of Ivan the Great
* the Red Square
* the Tsar's Bell
* the Kremlin
* the Palace of Congresses
* the Great Kremlin Palace
* St Basil's Cathedral
* the Cathedral of the Assumption
* the Central Lenin Stadium
* the Archangel Cathedral
Exercise 5.4. Please, write a short story about your visit to Moscow. The following questions will
certainly help you:
1) Have you ever been to Moscow?
2) If yes, when was it?
Present
I write
(, )
Perfect
I am writing
()
I have written
()
Past
I wrote
() ()
I was writing
( )
I had written
(
)
Future
I shall/will write
,
()
I shall/will be writing
(
)
Indefinite (Simple) ,
:
I go to school every day. . , , , , : , .
:
I went to school when I was a boy. , .
I shall go to school when I grow up. , .
Indefinite
do, does, did not, : don't, doesn't, didn't. .
, , .
.
is a student. Is he a student?
We do not write much. Do we write much?
You have a computer. What do you have?
She does not live in Moscow. Does she live in Moscow?
He didn't like the film. Did he like the film?
,
? . :
You speak English, don't you? -, ?
: Let us speak English, shall we? -, ?
2. .
: . (Past Indefinite Tense
Past Participle )
-ed (-d):
to ask asked, to change changed, to receive received, to work worked
:
) - , i
-ed
to supply supplied, to apply applied
- , -ed
to stay stayed
to play played
) ,
:
to stop stopped
-ed -d [d] loved, said,
[t] looked.
[d] [t] -ed (-d) [id] landed, started.
, .
.
Continuous ,
, :
I am reading a book now. (, ).
I was reading a book yesterday at 5 o'clock. 5 .
I will be reading a book tomorrow at 7 o'clock. .
, Present Continuous Tense , :
We are leaving for Moscow in July. .
Perfect ,
( ). , Perfect
, .
Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Future
Perfect.
I have written the letter. (Present Perfect) ( ) (
).
I had written the letter when he came. (Past Perfect) , . (2 , )
I will have written the letter by 10 o'clock tomorrow. (Future Perfect) 10
pa. ( ).
Exercise 5.5. Open the brackets:
1. He (know) several foreign languages.
2. I (learn) English at school.
3. Usually the train (leave) at 10 o'clock.
4. Our grandparents (live) now in Moscow.
5. He (visit) them regularly last year.
6. As a rule I (go) to my Academy by bus.
7. She (work) abroad next year.
8. She (not like) poems.
9. Your children usually (ask) many questions.
10. At present he (work) at school.
11. My brother (like) music.
12. What you (do) yesterday?
13. His sister (go) to the seaside next July.
14. Soon we (leave) the school.
15. Who (take) his book yesterday?
Exercise 5.6. Put the verb to write in the appropriate form:
1. We often ... letters to our parents.
2. What ... you ... now?
3. Yesterday they ... ... tests from 10 till 12 o'clock.
4. Who ... ... this letter tomorrow?
5. I ... ... some letters last week.
6. What ... you ... tomorrow at 10?
7. When I came in she ... ... a letter.
8. Do you often ... letters to your parents?
9. I ... not ... this article now. I ... ... it in some days.
10. ... he ... his report at the moment?
11. What ... she ... in the evening yesterday?
12. As a rule he ... tests well.
Exercise 5.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form:
1. Peter and Ann (go) away five minutes ago. 2. I (write) the letter but I (not send) it. 3. He just (go) away. 4.
She already (answer) the letter. 5. She (answer) it on Tuesday. 6. I just (tell) you the answer. 7. I (read) that book in
my summer holidays. 8. The greengrocer (sell) now all his vegetables. 9. He (sell) all of them half an hour ago. 10. I
(not see) him for three years. I (be) glad to see him again some time. 11. What you (do)? I (copy) the text from the
text-book now. 12. He (go) to Moscow next week? 13. He (not smoke) for a month. He is trying to give it up. 14.
When he (arrive)? He (arrive) at 2:00. 15. You (switch off) the light before you left the house? 16. I (read) these
books when I was at school. I (like) them very much. 17. I can't go out because I (not finish) my work. 18. I already
(tell) you the answer yesterday. 19. What you (do) tomorrow in the morning? 20. I (not meet) him last week. 21. I
usually (leave) home at seven and (get) here at twelve. 22. Here is your watch. I just (find) it. 23. You (not have)
your breakfast yet?
Exercise 5.8. Translate into English. Pay attention to the Tense used:
1. . 2. , . 3.
? 4. . 5. -
? 6. . 7.
. 8. . 9.
? 10. - ? , . 11.
? ? 12. ,
. 13. . 14.
? 15. .
Exercise 5.9. Translate into English:
1. , . 2. , . 3.
, . 4. , . 5. ,
. 6. , . 7. , . 8. , .
Exercise 5.10. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form. Use Past Tenses:
1. When I (arrive) the lecture already (start). 2. Peter (sit) in a dark room with a book. I told him that he (read) in
very bad light. 3. Mother (make) a cake when the light (go) out. She had to finish it in the dark. 4. When I arrived
Jenny (leave), so we only had time for a few words. 5. John (have) a bath when the phone rang. He (get) out of the
bath and (go) to answer it. 6. When we (come) to the airport, the plane already (land). 7. He sud denly (realize) that
he (travel) in the wrong direction. 8. You looked very busy when I saw you last night. What you (do)? 9. I (call) Paul
at 7.00 but it wasn't necessary because he already (get) up. 10. When I (see) him he (cross) the street. 11. While
he (water) the flowers it (begin) to rain. 12. Ann said that she (be) on holiday. I (say) that I (hope) that she (enjoy)
herself. 13. When I (look) through your books I (notice) that you (have) a copy of Jack London. 14. She said that
she (not like) her present flat and (try) to find another. 15. When Ann (finish) her homework she (turn) on TV.
Exercise 5.11. Define the Tense and translate into English:
1. 9 . 2. ,
Exercise. 3. , . 4. ,
. 5. Exercise ,
, . 6. , . 7. ,
. 8. , . 9. , ,
. 10. , . 11.
, . 12. .
, . 13. . 14.
. 15. ? 16.
? 17. ,
. 18. , ,
. 19. . 20.
. 21. . 1989 . 22. 8
. . 23. .
Exercise 5.12. Put in the appropriate words from the list:
1. ... I go to the Institute by bus.
2. I do my morning exercises ...
3. We shall have invited you ...
4. Who has seen him ...?
5. He had worked here ...
6. ... the plant was producing new
machines.
7. We have ... done our work.
8. What are you doing ...?
9. He was going home ...
10. Will you have read the book ...?
11. Did you see them ...?
12.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12) already
Exercise 5.13. Change the sentences into questions as in the example. Answer the questions.
Example: He can play chess. Can't he play chess? Yes, he can. / No, he can't.
1. They left for Moscow.
2. He has finished his work.
3. She will visit us on Monday.
4. She has many relatives.
5. His father works here.
6. You know his address.
7. We shall go home together.
8. They are at home.
9. I am listening to you.
10. His friends were working in the garden.
11. You have done the task.
UNIT 6
THE UNITED KINGDOM
I. [i], [ai], [h].
II. Text A: United Kingdom, Text B: History of London.
III. .
[i]
[i], ,
[/\].
[ai]
, [] .
[i], ,
[i].
[h].
.
, . [] [h]
, ,
.
Exercise A
Exercise
year hear ear
hope heap hat
here near fear
heal heel heal
tear peer beer
health height hear
rear leer mere
hood his ham
her here hate
Exercise
mile pile kite
Exercise D
site side ride
hit heat head
height light fight
hall hollow hammer
might right tight
hand happy hard
pike hike hide
harm hair hazard
Text A THE UNITED KINGDOM
The United Kingdom, officially the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, is an island nation and constitutional monarchy in north-western Europe, member of the European Union (EU).
Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles. It comprises, together with numerous smaller islands,
England and Scotland, and the principality of Wales. Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, occupies the northeastern part of the island of Ireland.
The United Kingdom is bordered to the south by the English Channel, which separates it from
continental Europe, to the east by the North Sea, and to the west by the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The only
land border is between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The total area of the United Kingdom is 242
sq.km. The capital and largest city is London.
The names United Kingdom, Great Britain, and England are often used interchangeably. The
use of Great Britain, often shortened to Britain, to describe the whole kingdom is common and widely accepted, although strictly it does not include Northern Ireland.
However, the use of England to mean the United Kingdom is not acceptable to members of the
other constituent countries, especially the Scots and the Welsh.
England and Wales were united administratively, politically, and legally by 1543. The crowns of England
and Scotland were united in 1603, but the two countries remained separate political entities until the 1707 Act of
Union, which formed the Kingdom of Great Britain with a single legislature. From 1801, when Great Britain and
Ireland were united, until the formal establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the kingdom was officially named
indented .
European Union
latitude .
to comprise
prevailing
numerous
moderate
principality
depressions .
North Sea
mean
interchangeably
throughout
to accept ,
average annual precipitation
strictly , .
include
in terms of ( -)
constituent
GNP (Gross National Product) administratively
.
Exercise 6.1. Translate into English.
1.
.
2. .
3. - .
4. - .
Exercise 6.2. Use the following phrases and word combinations to retell the text:
1. As I understood from the text...
2. According to the text...
3. According to the author...
4. As it is described in the text...
5. As it is said in the text...
6. As the author puts it...
7. According to the figures (data, information, opinions) from the text...
Exercise 6.3. Discuss the following statements. Use the following phrases to express your opinion:
1. It seems to me (that)...
2. I would like to say that...
3. As I see it...
4. I think that...
5. I guess...
6. I suppose...
7. I (strongly) believe that...
8. I am (absolutely) sure that...
Statement A: The United Kingdom is a small country. It is one of the leading countries now because it had many
rich colonies in the past.
Statement B: UK will loose Northern Ireland soon and Wales and Scotland later, like it lost Hong Kong in 1997,
because of the differences in languages, culture and history.
Statement C: British people don't travel much because they live not too far from the sea (ocean).
Exercise 6.4. Which events in the modern history of Great Britain had an impact on world science and
technology. Choose five the most important and briefly describe them.
Exercise 6.5. What inventions in UK made life more convenient and safer? What inventions have
become dangerous for the mankind?
Exercise 6.6. Use the information below to be able to make a report on the following:
1) Land, 2) Climate, 3) Population, 4) Ethnic groups, 5) Economy.
Table: Modern history of Great Britain
1914
1918
1919
1926
1927
1928
1936
1947
1949
1952
1955
1960
1969
1980
1986
LAND
Area
241,752 sq km
Highest Point
Ben Nevis
1,343 m above sea level
Lowest Point
Holme Fen 3 m below sea level
CLIMATE
Average Temperatures
London
January 4C
July 18C
Edinburgh
January 3C
July 15C
Average Annual Precipitation
London 590 mm
Edinburgh 680 mm
POPULATION
Population
58,395,000 (1994 estimate)
Population Density
242 persons/sq km (1994 estimate)
Urban/Rural population
92% Urban
8% Rural
Largest Cities
London (Greater) 6,933,000
Birmingham 1,017,000
Leeds 724,500
Glasgow 681,000
Ethnic Groups
94,5% English, Scottish, Welsh, or Irish
5,5% Other
Languages
Official Language
English
Other Languages
Welsh, Scots-Gaelic, other minority languages
Religions
54% Anglicanism
13% Roman Catholicism
33% Other
including other Protestant denominations, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Sikhism
ECONOMY
Gross Domestic Product
US$1,023,900,000,000 (1994)
Chief Economic Products
Agriculture
Wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, oilseed rape, livestock, animal
products.
Fishing
Mackerel, herring, cod, plaice
Mining
Coal, limestone, petroleum and natural gas.
Manufacturing
Machinery and transport equipment, food products, chemical products,
minerals and metal products.
Employment Statistics
58% Trade and Services
23% Manufacturing and Industry
16% Business and Finance
2% Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
1 % Military and Defense
Major Exports
Industrial and electrical machinery, automatic data processing equipment,
road vehicles, petroleum.
Major Imports
Road vehicles, industrial and electrical machinery, automatic data processing
equipment, petroleum, paper and paperboard, textiles, food.
Major Trading Partners
: Can you help me? Yes, I can. No, I can't. ? .
.
:
can , , could
, , :
I can swim. ( ) .
I could translate this text.- ( , ) .
can to be able to (
- ): I shall be able to help you when I am free. , .
may , ( -),
might
May I help you? ? Yes, you may. , .
may to be allowed to
( -).
will be allowed to take the book. .
must , .
You must write it down now. .
must to have to to be to,
. to have to ,
, , to be to ,
, .
She had to stay at home. ( ) .
The train was to arrive at 8 in the evening. 8 . (
).
to.
must ought to, should
( , , ) shall (
).
You should enter the Institute. (, ),
should
.
You should have helped them. . ( ).
Shall I read? ?
would
:
1) . Would you help me? He ?
2) . would often help me. , ,
.
3) - . wouldn't listen to me.
.
need - , , ,
. You needn't do it now. .
Exercise 6.7. Analyse the use of modal verbs and translate the following sentences:
1. Who can answer my question?
2. Nobody could translate this text.
3. He ought to do this task at once.
4. Must I attend this meeting? No, you needn't.
5. You should have shown your notes to the teacher.
6. I asked him, but he wouldn't listen to me.
7. They should visit her, she is in the hospital.
8. Last summer we would often go to the country.
9. Your son can do this work himself.
10. Would you tell me the way to the station?
11. Your friend might have informed us.
12. May I leave for a while? Yes, you may.
13. She should be more attentive at the lessons.
14. You needn't come so early.
Exercise 6.8. Insert necessary modal verbs:
1. I ... not go to the theatre with them last night, I ... revise the grammar rules and the words for the test. 2.
My friend lives a long way from his office and ... get up early. 3. All of us ... be in time for classes. 4. When my friend
has his English, he ... stay at the office after work. He (not) ... stay at the office on Tuesday, Thurs day and Saturday
and ... get home early. 5. ... you ... work hard to do well in your English? 6. ... we discuss this question now? No,
we ... We ... do it tomorrow afternoon. 7. I'm glad you ... come. 8. ... you ... come and have dinner with us
tomorrow? I'd love to. 9. Please send them this article. Oh, ... I do it now?
Exercise 6.9. Translate into English using modal verbs:
1. ? , . 2.
. 3. ? , ,
. 4. , ? 5.
. . 6. ,
. 7. , . 8.
? , . . 9. .
. 10. ? , .
11. , , , .
UNIT 7
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
I. [], [].
II. Text A: The USA,
Text : Transport Sustem of the USA.
III.1. ,
2. .
[]
. [] .
, , .
.
. , , ,
.
[]
[] ,
[]. [] [] .
Exercise A
through fifth myth
thief booth tooth
thank think thought
theatre theory theft
Exercise
thermometer thick thin
thirst thirty thorough
Washington. There are many large cities in the country: New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit,
San-Francisco, Cleveland and some others.
The United States of America is a federal state, headed by the President. According to the US Constitution
the powers of the Government are divided into 3 branches: legislative, executive and judicial.
The legislative power belongs to the Congress consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Senate represents the states while the House of Representatives the population. The executive power
belongs to the President and his Administration (Vice-President and Cabinet of Ministers). The judicial power
belongs to the Supreme Court and the system of Federal, state and district courts.
There are several political parties in the USA, the largest of them are the Republican (symbolised by a
donkey) and the Democratic (symbolised by an elephant).
Vocabulary:
outlying areas
to be made up from ,
District of Columbia
to pass
stripe
frontier
to symbolize
to include
legislative power
lowlands
to represent
peak ,
to belong
to be located
donkey
aircraft
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY:
a) Great Plains
shopping-mall
Appalachian mountains
shopping plaza ,
Rocky mountains
b) driveway ,
free delivery
sidewalk
telephone order
drive-thru shop ,
sale
discount
toll-road ()
seasons sale
toll-free road
clearance sale
highway, parkway, thruway
discount coupon
turnpike
free gift
Exercise 7.1. Translate into English:
1. , .
2. , .
3.48 , .
4. .
6. : , .
7. .
8.
.
9. .
Text : TRANSPORT SYSTEM OF THE USA
The development of transport facilities was very important in the growth of the United States. The first travel
routes were natural waterways. No surfaced roads existed until the 1790s, when the first turnpikes were built.
Besides the overland roads, many canals were constructed between the late 18th century and 1850 to link
navigable rivers and lakes in the eastern United States and in the Great Lakes region. Steam railways began to
appear in the East in the 1820s. The first transcontinental railway was constructed between 1862 and 1869 by the
Union Pacific and Central Pacific companies, both of which received large subsidies from the federal government.
Transcontinental railways were the chief means of transport used by European settlers who populated the West in
the latter part of the 19th century. The railways continued to expand until 1917, when their length reached a peak of
about 407,000 km. Since then motor transport became a serious competitor to the railway both for passengers and
freight.
Air transport began to compete with other modes of transport after World War I. Passenger service began to
gain importance in 1920s, but not until the beginning of commercial jet craft after World War II did air transport
become a leading mode of travel.
During the early 1990s railways annually handled about 37,5 per cent of the total freight traffic; trucks carried
26 per cent of the freight, and oil pipelines conveyed 20 per cent. Approximately 16 per cent was shipped on inland
waterways. Although the freight handled by airlines amounted to only 0,4 per cent of the total, much of the cargo
consisted of high-priority or high-value items.
Private cars carry about 81 per cent of passengers. Airlines are the second leading mover of people,
carrying more than 17 per cent of passengers. Buses are responsible for 1,1 per cent, and railways carry 0,6 per
cent of passengers.
Past Indefinite
The letter was written
Future Indefinite
The letter will be written
Present Continuous
The letter is being written
Past Continuous
The letter was being written
Future Continuous
The letter will be being written
Present Perfect
The letter has been written
Past Perfect
The letter had been written
Future Perfect
The letter will have been written
- ,
.
: I bought a book. .
The book was bought (by me). ().
1. + :
The letter was sent yesterday. .
2. - (-):
This problem was discussed last week. .
3. - , . . 3
, , :
English is spoken in many countries. .
4. ( ):
Pupils are taught at school by the teachers. .
Exercise 7.3. Translate into English. Determine the Tense and Voice of the verb:
1. He left for Moscow. 2. The news will be of great interest. 3. They were speaking to him. 4. She studied
many subjects. 5. He was much spoken about. 6. New subjects will be studied next term. 7. I am working now. 8.
The text has already been written by them. 9. He studies at our school. 10. You are playing chess, aren't you? 11.
The text is being translated at the moment. 12. Do you work at this lab? 13. When I saw him, he was going home.
14. They will have passed their exams by 3 o'clock. 15. This book was written by our teacher. 16. We shall be
writing our tests at 10 o'clock. 17. The work will have been done when he comes. 18. We translated this text. 19.
The letter had been written before we came. 20. We shall inform you. 21. These toys are made in Japan. 22. Does
he work here? 23. Is he working now? 24. The conference will be held in May. 25. Rostov was named after Dmitry
Rostovsky. 26.What are you doing here? 27. This work must be done at once. 28. You may take my book. 29. I am
often asked at the lessons. 30. This article was being translated when I came.
Exercise 7.4. Translate into English. Determine the Tense and Voice of the verb:
l.They can be seen in our library every day. 2. The delegation is headed by the Prime Minister. 3. The child
was often left home alone. 4. These houses were built last year. 5. All letters had been written when we came. 6.
This film is much spoken about. 7. The machine is being tested now. 8. His work has been already finished. 9.1
was told to wait for him. 10.Your letter will have been answered by Monday. 11. The experiment was being carried
out from ten till twelve o'clock. 12.Children under sixteen will not be admitted here.
Exercise 7.5. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form:
1. I'm not reading these books today. They (return) to the library. 2. The paintings (exhibit) till the end of the
month. 3. Why your home task (not do)? 4. She was taken to the hospital today, and (operate) tomorrow morning.
5. This room (use) only on special occasions. 6. Bicycles must not (leave) here. 7. This newspaper (not read). The
pages (not cut). 8. Dictionaries may not (use) at the examination. 9. Usually this street (sweep) every day, but it
(not sweep) yesterday. 10. This book (leave) in the classroom yesterday; it (find) by the teacher. 11. Thousands of
new houses (build) every year. 12. This room (not use) for a long time. 13. The children are very excited this
morning. They (take) to the circus this afternoon.
Exercise 7.6. Translate into English:
1. . 2. . 3. ? 4.
. 5. . 6.
. 7. . 8. ?
9. . 10. . 11.
. 12. . 13. ? 14. ?
Exercise 7.7. Translate into English:
1. , 10 . 2. ,
, . 3. . 4.
. 5. ? . .
6. , . 7.
. 8. . 9. . 10.
. . 11. .
12. . 13. . 14.
. 15. . 16.
. 17. . 18. ,
. 19. . 20.
9 .
UNIT 8
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UK
I. [w], [].
II. Text A: Higher Education In the UK.
III.1. (Complex object).
2. .
[w]. ,
, [].
.
.
[].
, .
Exercise A
Exercise
what why where
wall wallet walk
whip wheat while
walnut waltz won
Exercise
Exercise D
war wharf water
wing king sting
wedding wage wait
sing nothing something
waitress waist waste
everything anything ring
weather woman wind
Text A: "HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UK
Education after 16 is voluntary in United Kingdom. Students, who live in England, Wales, and Northern
Ireland must take at the age of 16 the examinations for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). In
Scotland students receive the Scottish Certificate of Education. After this exam students can choose to stay on in
school or attend colleges of further education.
British universities are self-governing and are guaranteed academic independence. Funding for education
and research is provided by funding councils set up by Parliament. The number of universities jumped in 1992
when polytechnics and some other higher education establishments were given the right to become
universities. By the end of 1994, there were some 90 universities, almost half of them former polytechnics,
including the Open University.
Many of the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries. All
other universities in Britain were founded in the 19 th and 20th centuries. The Open University, based in Milton
Keynes, England, was founded in 1969. It uses extension techniques of correspondence courses, television and
radio programmes, and video cassettes, supported by local study centres and summer schools, to provide higher
education opportunities to a wide variety of people.
During the 1960s there was a significant increase in the number of new universities, reflecting a fast growth
in student numbers. During the 1980s, an expansion in higher education places led to another large jump in
student numbers. In the 1992-1993 academic year there were more than 1,4 million students in full or part-time
higher education in Great Britain, compared with just under 850,000 a decade earlier. About one quarter of young
people are in higher education in England, Wales, and Scotland; one third in Northern Ireland. About 90 per cent of
students get state grants to cover tuition fees and living costs.
The size of the grant is determined by parents income. Since the late 1980s, however, grants have been
frozen; students can apply for a student loan.
Vocabulary:
voluntary
extension techniques
attend
self-governing
to reflect
funding
decade
funding councils
state grants
to set up
tuition fee
significant
parents income
polytechnics
student loan
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY:
a) high-school diploma
Bachelor of Science (B.S.)
graduation ceremony
personal expenses
books and supplies
to be eligible for admission
to enrol
enrollment
admissions office
student services office
university
bursar's
()
office
( )
1. , ? 2. , ? 3. ,
? 4. , . 5. ,
. 6. , , . 7. ,
? 8. , . 9.
, ?
2. . .
(Participle I)
I ( ), -ing,
:
( ) asking,
( ) having asked.
() being asked,
() having been asked.
I :
1. :
The man sitting at the table is our teacher. , .
The houses being built in our town are not very high. , ,
.
2. :
Going home I met an old friend. , .
Having finished work I went home. , .
II (Participle II)
II ( ) .
-ed .
II :
1. .
The book translated from English is interesting. , ,
.
2. ( ):
Given the task he began to work. .
I
, :
The boy playing in the yard is my brother, , (?) , .
,
:
Smoking is harmful. (?) .
, ,
.
:
1. :
Reading is useful.
2. to finish, to start, to continue, to go on, to keep .
He started reading the book.
3. : I am fond of reading.
4. : Do you mind my reading here?
5. : After reading he closed the book.
6. : Instead of reading he went to the movies.
: giving, beating.
: being given, being beaten.
Exercise 8.4. Open the brackets using the gerund:
1. The grass in the garden is very dry, it needs (water). 2. It's very warm outside. You don't need (put on)
yourcoat. 3. The house is old, and it wants (repair). 4. Famous people don't need (introduce) themselves. 5. The
carpet is covered with dust, it needs (sweep). 6. The shoes are very dirty, they need (polish). 7. These shoes have
a hole, they want (mend). 8. The table cloth is quite clean, it doesn't want (wash) yet. 9. The room needed (clean).
10. (learn) foreign languages is very useful. 12. I know my hair wants (cut) but I never have time to go to the
hairdresser's. 13. John needed (cheer up) when he heard that he'd failed his exams. 14. You should tidy up the
garden. Yes, it needs (tidy). The roses want (water), the peaches want (pick), the grass wants (cut).
UNIT 9
MY FUTURE PROFESSION
I. [au], [dr], [br], [gr], [tr], [fr], [r].
II. Text A: My future profession,
indication ,
explosive
probability theory
to deal with , -
extensively
integration
replacement
application ,
fibre optics
circuits ,
copper
device
digital
transmission
immunity ,
processing
carrying capacity
to rely
light
Fourier analysis
rapidly growing
linear systems theory
artificial intelligence
linear algebra
sophisticated
differential equations
superconducting
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY:
a) mechanical engineer -
unskilled worker
electric engineer -
electronic engineer
experienced worker
computer engineer -
c) to be hired for a job
military engineer
b) prestigious job (work)
to look for a new job (work, position)
well-paid job
employee
to apply for a new job employer
businessman ,
application for a position of
state-employed
-
white-collar worker ,
resume
C.V. (curriculum vitae)
blue-collar worker ,
to be fired
to retire
skilled worker
to be unemployed
Exercise 9.1. Translate into English:
1. , () .
2. .
3. .
4.
.
5. .
6.
, .
Exercise 9.2. How do you see your future profession? Please answer the following questions:
must (send) us a telegram as soon as you (arrive). 10. We (have) a picnic tomorrow if it (be) a fine day. 11. We (go)
out when it (stop) raining. 12. We (not to have) dinner until you (come). 13. I'm sure they (write) to us when they
(know) our new address.
-/ teacher, writer, actor, doctor
-ist scientist, artist, dentist
-ment government, movement, development
-(t)ion revolution, translation, operation
-ity/ty popularity, honesty, ability
-sion/ssion revision, session, discussion,
-ness happiness, illness, darkness
.
re- rewrite, rebuild, reconstruct,
mis- misprint, misunderstand, miscount.
.
un- unhappy, unable, uncomfortable
dis- dishonest, discouraging, disconnectng
.
-teen fifteen, sixteen, eighteen
-ty twenty, thirty, sixty, ninety
-th fourth, seventh, eighteenth
Exercise 9.5. Make up adjectives from the following words:
colour, beauty, peace, use, hope, truth, rain, help, power, pain, care.
2. ,
, , .
.
If I learn his address I shall write to him. , .
:
If I knew his address I would write to him. (),
( ). Past Indefinite,
Future in the Past.
, , ,
,
Future Perfect in the Past, Past Perfect.
If I had known his address I would have written to him. ( ),
( ).
I wish I lived not far from here. ( ). , .
I wish I had lived not far from here ( ). , .
Exercise 9.6. Translate into Russian:
1. If I came later I would be late for the lesson. 2. If he had known the time-table he wouldn't have missed the
train. 3. It would be better if you learned the oral topics. 3. I wish I had known this before the examination. 4. I
would have come to you if you had not lived so far away. 5. If I had seen you yesterday I would have given you my
text-book. 6. If I were in your place I wouldn't buy the tickets beforehand. 7. If I had known that you needed help I
would have helped you.
UNIT 1
METALS
I. Text A: Metals, Text B: Steel, Text C: Methods of steel heat treatment
II. Famous Scientists. Dmitry Ivanovlch Mendeleyev.
Text A: METALS
Metals are materials most widely used in industry because of their properties. The study of the production
and properties of metals is known as metallurgy.
The separation between the atoms in metals is small, so most metals are dense. The atoms are arranged
regularly and can slide over each other. That is why metals are malleable (can be deformed and bent without
fracture) and ductile (can be drawn into wire). Metals vary greatly in their properties. For example, lead is soft
and can be bent by hand, while iron can only be worked by hammering at red heat.
The regular arrangement of atoms in metals gives them a crystalline structure. Irregular crystals are called
grains. The properties of the metals depend on the size, shape, orientation, and composition of these grains. In
general, a metal with small grains will be harder and stronger than one with coarse grains.
Heat treatment such as quenching, tempering, or annealing controls the nature of the grains and their
size in the metal. Small amounts of other metals (less than 1 per cent) are often added to a pure metal. This is
called alloying () and it changes the grain structure and properties of metals.
All metals can be formed by drawing, rolling, hammering and extrusion, but some require hot-working.
Metals are subject to metal fatigue and to creep (the slow increase in length under stress) causing deformation
and failure. Both effects are taken into account by engineers when designing, for example, airplanes, gasturbines, and pressure vessels for high-temperature chemical processes. Metals can be worked using machinetools such as lathe, milling machine, shaper and grinder.
The ways of working a metal depend on its properties. Many metals can be melted and cast in moulds, but
special conditions are required for metals that react with air.
Vocabulary:
property
coarse ,
metallurgy
treatment
separation ,
quenching
dense
tempering ,
arrangement
annealing ,
regularly ,
rolling
to slide
to hammer (. )
malleable , ,
extrusion
metal fatigue
bent pp of bend
creep
to fracture
stress ,
ductile ,
failure ,
to draw ,
vessel , ,
wire
lathe
lead
milling machine
iron ,
shaper
grain
grinder
to depend
to melt ,
size ,
to cast ,
shape ,
mould ( )
composition
General understanding:
1. What are metals and what do we call
metallurgy?
2. Why are most metals dense?
3. Why are metals malleable?
4. What is malleability?
5. What are grains?
6. What is alloying?
Exercise 1.1. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:
1.
11.
2.
12.
3.
13.
4.
14.
5.
15.
6.
16.
7.
17.
8.
18.
9.
19.
10.
Exercise 1.2. Complete the following sentences:
1. Metals are...
2. Metallurgy is...
3. Most metals are...
4. The regular arrangement of atoms in metals...
5. Irregular crystals...
6. The properties of the metals depend...
7. Metals with small grains will be...
8. ...controls the nature of the grains in the metal.
9. Alloying is...
10. All metals can be formed by...
5. alloying
6. creep
to corrode ,
blade
rusty
spring
stainless
inclusion
to resist
to affect
considerably ,
manganese
tough , , ,
silicon
forging
rust-proof
welding
nitrogen
brittle ,
tungsten
General understanding:
1. What is steel?
2. What are the main properties of steel?
3. What are the drawbacks of steel?
4. What kinds of steel do you know? Where are they used?
5. What gives the addition of manganese, silicon and chromium to steel?
6. What can be made of mild steels (medium-carbon steels, high-carbon steels)?
7. What kind of steels can be forged and welded?
8. How can we get rust-proof (stainless) steel?
9. What is used to form a hard surface on steel?
10. What are high-speed steels alloyed with?
Exercise 1.5. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:
1.
8.
2.
9.
3.
10.
4.
11.
5.
12.
6.
13.
7. , ,
14.
15. (, , , , )
4.
8.
2.
5.
6.
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev is a famous Russian chemist. He is best known for his development of the
periodic table of the properties of the chemical elements. This table displays that elements' properties are changed
periodically when they are arranged according to atomic weight.
Mendeleyev was born in 1834 in Tobolsk, Siberia. He studied chemistry at the University of St. Petersburg,
and in 1859 he was sent to study at the University of Heidelberg. Mendeleyev returned to St. Petersburg and
became Professor of Chemistry at the Technical Institute in 1863. He became Professor of General Chemistry at
the University of St. Petersburg in 1866. Mendeleyev was a well-known teacher, and, because there was no good
textbook in chemistry at that time, he wrote the two-volume Principles of Chemistry which became a classic
textbook in chemistry.
In this book Mendeleyev tried to classify the elements according to their chemical properties. In 1869 he
published his first version of his periodic table of elements. In 1871 he published an improved version of the peri odic table, in which he left gaps for elements that were not known at that time. His table and theories were proved
later when three predicted elements: gallium, germanium, and scandium were discovered.
Mendeleyev investigated the chemical theory of solution. He found that the best proportion of alcohol and
water in vodka is 40%. He also investigated the thermal expansion of liquids and the nature of petroleum.
In 1893 he became director of the Bureau of Weights and Measures in St. Petersburg and held this position
until his death in 1907.
UNIT 2
METALWORKING
I. Text A: Metalworking processes: Rolling. Extrusion,
Text B: Drawing. Forging. Sheet metal forming,
Text C: Metalworking and Metal Properties.
II. Famous scientists. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.
Text A: METALWORKING PROCESSES
Metals are important in industry because they can be easily deformed into useful shapes. A lot of
metalworking processes have been developed for certain applications. They can be divided into five broad groups:
1. rolling,
2. extrusion,
3. drawing,
4. forging,
5. sheet-metal forming.
During the first four processes metal is subjected to large amounts of strain (deformation). But if
deformation goes at a high temperature, the metal will recrystallize that is, new strain-free grains will grow
instead of deformed grains. For this reason metals are usually rolled, extruded, drawn, or forged above their
recrystallization temperature. This is called hot working. Under these conditions there is no limit to the
compressive plastic strain to which the metal can be subjected.
Other processes are performed below the recrystallization temperature. These are called cold working.
Cold working hardens metal and makes the part stronger. However, there is a limit to the strain before a cold part
cracks.
Rolling
Rolling is the most common metalworking process. More than 90 percent of the aluminum, steel and copper
produced is rolled at least once in the course of production. The most common rolled product is sheet. Rolling
can be done either hot or cold. If the rolling is finished cold, the surface will be smoother and the product stronger.
Extrusion
Extrusion is pushing the billet to flow through the orifice of a die. Products may have either a simple or a
complex cross section. Aluminum window frames are the examples of complex extrusions.
Tubes or other hollow parts can also be extruded. The initial piece is a thick-walled tube, and the
extruded part is shaped between a die on the outside of the tube and a mandrel held on the inside.
In impact extrusion (also called back-extrusion) ( ), the workpiece is placed in
the bottom of a hole and a loosely fitting ram is pushed against it. The ram forces the metal to flow back around
it, with the gap between the ram and the die determining the wall thickness. The example of this process is the
manufacturing of aluminum beer cans.
Vocabulary:
useful
die , , , , shape ,
rolling
cross section
extrusion ,
window frame
drawing
tube
forging
hollow
sheet
initial ,
to subject
thick-walled
amount
mandrel ,
condition ,
impact
perform ,
loosely ,
to harden ,
fitting .
at least
ram ,
common
force
billet ,
gap ,
orifice
to determine ,
General understanding:
1. Why are metals so important in industry?
2. What are the main metalworking processes?
3. Why are metals worked mostly hot?
4. What properties does cold working give to metals?
5. What is rolling? Where is it used?
6. What is extrusion? What shapes can be obtained after extrusion?
7. What are the types of extrusion?
Exercise 2.1. Find the following in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. ()
15.
.
2. , .
3.
.
4. ,
.
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. -
.
9. , .
10. .
Text : DRAWING
Drawing consists of pulling metal through a die. One type is wire drawing. The diameter reduction that can
be achieved in one die is limited, but several dies in series can be used to get the desired reduction.
Sheet metal forming
Sheet metal forming ( ) is widely used when parts of certain shape and size
are needed. It includes forging, bending and shearing. One characteristic of sheet metal forming is that the thick ness of the sheet changes little in processing. The metal is stretched just beyond its yield point (2 to 4 percent
strain) in order to retain the new shape. Bending can be done by pressing between two dies. Shearing is a
cutting operation similar to that used for cloth.
Each of these processes may be used alone, but often all three are used on one part. For example, to make
the roof of an automobile from a flat sheet, the edges are gripped and the piece pulled in tension over a lower
die. Next an upper die is pressed over the top, finishing the forming operation (), and finally the
edges are sheared off to give the final dimensions.
Forging
Forging is the shaping of a piece of metal by pushing with open or closed dies. It is usually done hot in order
to reduce the required force and increase the metal's plasticity.
Open-die forging is usually done by hammering a part between two flat faces. It is used to make parts that
are too big to be formed in a closed die or in cases where only a few parts are to be made. The earliest forging
machines lifted a large hammer that was then dropped on the workpiece, but now air or steam hammers are used,
since they allow greater control over the force and the rate of forming. The part is shaped by moving or turning it
between blows.
Closed-die forging is the shaping of hot metal within the walls of two dies that come together to enclose the
workpiece on all sides. The process starts with a rod or bar cut to the length needed to fill the die. Since large,
complex shapes and large strains are involved, several dies may be used to go from the initial bar to the final
shape. With closed dies, parts can be made to close tolerances so that little finish machining is required.
Two closed-die forging operations are given special names. They are upsetting and coining. Coining takes
its name from the final stage of forming metal coins, where the desired imprint is formed on a metal disk that is
pressed in a closed die. Coining involves small strains and is done cold. Upsetting involves a flow of the metal
back upon itself. An example of this process is the pushing of a short length of a rod through a hole, clamping the
rod, and then hitting the exposed length with a die to form the head of a nail or bolt.
Vocabulary:
to pull
increase
reduction
open-die forging
to achieve
()
in series ,
hammering ,
beyond ,
within ,
yield point
to enclose
to retain ,
rod ,
to bend
bar ,
shearing ,
involved
edge
tolerance
to grip
upsetting ,
lower die
blow
upper die
coining
forming operation
imprint
dimension ,
clamp
required
to hit
General understanding:
1. How can the reduction of diameter in wire drawing be achieved?
2. What is sheet metal forming and where it can be used?
3. What is close-die forging?
4. What is forging?
5. What are the types of forging?
6. What types of hammers are used now?
7. Where are coining and upsetting used?
8. What process is used in wire production?
elongated
inclusion
to weaken ,
trapped .
transverse
refining ,
flow ,
to avoid
finished
to undergo
thinning
tensile ductility
General understanding:
1. What process improves the mechanical properties of metals?
2. What new properties have hot-worked products?
3. How does the forging of a bar affect the grains of the metal? What is the result of this?
4. How are the flow lines in the forged metal oriented and how does it affect the strength of the forged part?
5. What are the best strain-hardening alloys? Where can we use them?
6. What are the inner flaws in the metal?
ruptures.
Fatigue is the growth of cracks under stress. It occurs when a mechanical part is subjected to a repeated or
cyclic stress, such as vibration. Even when the maximum stress never exceeds the elastic limit, failure of the material can occur even after a short time. No deformation is seen during fatigue, but small localized cracks develop
and propagate through the material until the remaining cross-sectional area cannot support the maximum stress of
the cyclic force. Knowledge of tensile stress, elastic limits, and the resistance of materials to creep and fatigue are
of basic importance in engineering.
Creep is a slow, permanent deformation that results from a steady force acting on a material. Materials at
high temperatures usually suffer from this deformation. The gradual loosening of bolts and the deformation of
components of machines and engines are all the examples of creep. In many cases the slow deformation stops
because deformation eliminates the force causing the creep. Creep extended over a long time finally leads to the
rupture of the material.
Vocabulary
bar ,
remaining
completely ,
shear
compression
simultaneously
creep
to stretch
cross-sectional area
technique
tension
cyclic stress
to propagate
decrease
to bend ,
elastic deformation
to extend ,
elastic limit
to meet the needs
exceed
to occur
external forces
to respond
fatigue
to suffer
fracture ,
torsion
loosen ,
twisting ,
permanent deformation
volume ,
rupture
General understanding:
1. What are the external forces causing the elastic deformation of materials? Describe those forces that
change the form and size of materials.
2. What are the results of external forces?
3. What kinds of deformation are the combinations of tension and compression?
4. What is the result of tension? What happens if the elastic limit of material is exceeded under tension?
5. What do we call fatigue? When does it occur? What are the results of fatigue?
6. What do we call creep? When does this type of permanent deformation take place? What are the results
of creep?
Exercise 3.1. Find the following in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4. , , , ,
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
tre. The density of water is 1000 kg/ m 3 but most materials have a higher density and sink in water. Aluminium
alloys, with typical densities around 2800 kg/ m3 are considerably less dense than steels, which have typical densities around 7800 kg/ m3. Density is important in any application where the material must not be heavy.
Stiffness (rigidity) is a measure of the resistance to deformation such as stretching or bending. The Young
modulus is a measure of the resistance to simple stretching or compression. It is the ratio of the applied force per
unit area (stress) to the fractional elastic deformation (strain). Stiffness is important when a rigid structure is to be
made.
Strength is the force per unit area (stress) that a material can support without failing. The units are the
same as those of Stiffness, MN/m 2, but in this case the deformation is irreversible. The yield strength is the stress
at which a material first deforms plastically. For a metal the yield strength may be less than the fracture strength,
which is the stress at which it breaks. Many materials have a higher strength in compression than in tension.
Ductility is the ability of a material to deform without breaking. One of the great advantages of metals is
their ability to be formed into the shape that is needed, such as car body parts. Materials that are not ductile are
brittle. Ductile materials can absorb energy by deformation but brittle materials cannot.
Toughness is the resistance of a material to breaking when there is a crack in it. For a material of given
toughness, the stress at which it will fail is inversely proportional to the square root of the size of the largest
defect present. Toughness is different from strength: the toughest steels, for example, are different from the ones
with highest tensile strength. Brittle materials have low toughness: glass can be broken along a chosen line by
first scratching it with a diamond. Composites can be designed to have considerably greater toughness than their
constituent materials. The example of a very tough composite is fiberglass that is very flexible and strong.
Creep resistance is the resistance to a gradual permanent change of shape, and it becomes especially
important at higher temperatures. A successful research has been made in materials for machine parts that operate at high temperatures and under high tensile forces without gradually extending, for example the parts of plane
engines.
Vocabulary
ability
gradual
amount
permanent
absorb
rigid
amount
to sink
application
square root
brittle ,
stiffness
car body
strain , ,
constituent
strength
crack
stress ,
creep resistance
tensile strength
definition
toughness ,
density
yield strength
ductility ,
Young modulus
failure
General understanding:
1. What is the density of a material?
2. What are the units of density? Where low density is needed?
3. What are the densities of water, aluminium and steel?
4. A measure of what properties is stiffness? When stiffness is important?
5. What is Young modulus?
6. What is strength?
7. What is yield strength? Why fracture strength is always greater than yield strength?
8. What is ductility? Give the examples of ductile materials. Give the examples of brittle materials.
8. What is toughness?
9. What properties of steel are necessary for the manufacturing of: a) springs, b) car body parts, c) bolts and
nuts, d) cutting tools?
10. Where is aluminium mostly used because of its light weight?
Exercise 3.3. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Exercise 3.4. Translate into English the following:
1. .
2. , .
3. , .
4. .
5. , .
6. , , .
7. , , .
8. ,
.
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Sikorsky Igor Ivanovich was a well-known aircraft engineer and manufacturer.
Sikorsky was born in 1889 in Kiev, in the Ukraine, and got his education at the naval college in St. Peters burg, and later in Kiev and Paris. He was the first to make experiments in helicopter design. In 1913 he designed,
built, and flew the first successful aeroplane. Later he built military aircrafts for Russia and France.
In 1919 Sikorsky moved to the United States and later helped to organize an aircraft company that produced
a series of multiengine flying boats for commercial service. Sikorsky became an American citizen in 1928. In the
late 1930s he returned to developing helicopters and produced the first successful helicopter in the west. Helicopters designed by Sikorsky were used mostly by the US Army Air Forces during World War II. He died in 1972 at
the age of 83.
Tupolev Andrey Nikolayevich, famous aircraft designer, was born in 1888. He graduated from the Moscow
Higher Technical School, where he designed the first Russian wind tunnel. He helped to found the Central
Aerohydrodynamics Institute in 1918 and later worked as the head of its design bureau. During his career he
directed the design of more than 100 military and commercial aircraft, including the TU-2 and TU-4 bombers used
in the World War II. In 1955 he designed the TU-104, the first passenger jet airliner. His TU-144 su personic jet liner
began its commercial passenger flights in 1977.
UNIT 4
MACHINE-TOOLS
I. Text A: Machine-tools, Text B: Lathe,
Text C: Milling, boring, drilling machines. Shapers and Planers, Text D: Dies
II. Famous people of science and technology: George Stephenson, Robert Slephenson.
Text A: MACHINE-TOOIS
Machine-tools are used to shape metals and other materials. The material to be shaped is called the
workpiece. Most machine-tools are now electrically driven. Machine-tools with electrical drive are faster and
more accurate than hand tools: they were an important element in the development of mass-production
processes, as they allowed individual parts to be made in large numbers so as to be interchangeable.
All machine-tools have facilities for holding both the workpiece and the tool, and for accurately controlling
the movement of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. Most machining operations generate large amounts of
heat, and use cooling fluids (usually a mixture of water and oils) for cooling and lubrication.
Machine-tools usually work materials mechanically but other machining methods have been developed
lately. They include chemical machining, spark erosion to machine very hard materials to any shape by means of
a continuous high-voltage spark (discharge) between an electrode and a workpiece. Other machining methods
include drilling using ultrasound, and cutting by means of a laser beam. Numerical control of machine-tools and
flexible manufacturing systems have made it possible for complete systems of machine-tools to be used flexibly
for the manufacture of a range of products.
Vocabulary:
machine-tools
amount
electrically driven
fluid
shape
to lubricate
workpiece
spark erosion
accurate
discharge
development
by means of
to allow ,
beam
interchangeable
drilling
facility
flexible
relative
range ,
Text B: LATHE
Lathe is still the most important machine-tool. It produces parts of circular cross-section by turning the
workpiece on its axis and cutting its surface with a sharp stationary tool. The tool may be moved sideways to
produce a cylindrical part and moved towards the workpiece to control the depth of cut. Nowadays all lathes are
power-driven by electric motors. That allows continuous rotation of the workpiece at a variety of speeds. The mod ern lathe is driven by means of a headstock supporting a hollow spindle on accurate bearings and carrying either
a chuck or a faceplate, to which the workpiece is clamped. The movement of the tool, both along the lathe bed
and at right angle to it, can be accurately controlled, so enabling a part to be machined to close tolerances.
Modern lathes are often under numerical control.
Vocabulary:
lathe
headstock
circular cross-section
spindle
chuck ,
surface
faceplate
stationary ,
lathe bed
sideways
to enable
variety ,
tolerance
depth
General understanding:
1. What are machine-tools used for?
2. How are most machine-tools driven nowadays?
3. What facilities have all machine-tools?
4. How are the cutting tool and the workpiece cooled during machining?
5. What other machining methods have been developed lately?
6. What systems are used now for the manufacture of a range of products without the use of manual labor?
7. What parts can be made with lathes?
8. How can the cutting tool be moved on a lathe?
9. How is the workpiece clamped in a lathe?
10. Can we change the speeds of workpiece rotation in a lathe?
11. What is numerical control of machine tools used for?
Exercise 4.1. Find English equivalents in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. ,
15.
16.
17.
Wiredrawing Dies
In the manufacture of wire, a drawplate ( ) is usually employed. This tool is a metal
plate containing a number of holes, successively less in diameter and known as wire dies. A piece of metal is
pulled through the largest die to make a coarse wire. This wire is then drawn through the smaller hole, and then
the next, until the wire is reduced to the desired measurement. Wiredrawing dies are made from extremely hard
materials, such as tungsten carbide or diamonds.
Thread-Cutting Dies
For cutting threads on bolts or on the outside of pipes, a thread-cutting die ( ) is
used. It is usually made of hardened steel in the form of a round plate with a hole in the centre. The hole has a
thread. To cut an outside thread, the die is lubricated with oil and simply screwed onto an unthreaded bolt or
piece of pipe, the same way a nut is screwed onto a bolt. The corresponding tool for cutting an inside thread, such
as that inside a nut, is called a tap ().
Vocabulary:
chip
matrix
sharp
to employ
friction
to pierce ,
content
to punch
range
matching ,
inexpensive
coarse
to permit ,
wire
common
to draw ,
tungsten
thread
ingredient
hardened
diamond
to lubricate
tips
to screw
ceramic
nut
truing , ,
outside ,
die ,
inside ,
Exercise 4.4. Find English equivalents in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
UNIT 5
PLASTICS
I. Text A: Plastics, Text B: Types of plastics, Text C: Composite Materials
II. Famous People of Science: Alfred Bernhard Nobel.
Text A: PLASTICS
Plastics are non-metallic, synthetic, carbon-based materials. They can be moulded, shaped, or extruded
into flexible sheets, films, or fibres. Plastics are synthetic polymers. Polymers consist of long-chain molecules
made of large numbers of identical small molecules (monomers). The chemical nature of a plastic is defined by
the monomer (repeating unit) that makes up the chain of the polymer. Polyethene is a polyolefin; its monomer unit
is ethene (formerly called ethylene). Other categories are acrylics (such as polymethylmethacrylate), styrenes
(such as polystyrene), vinys (such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)), polyesters, polyurethanes, polyamides (such as
nylons), polyethers, acetals, phenolics, cellulosics, and amino resins. The molecules can be either natural like
cellulose, wax, and natural rubber or synthetic in polyethene and nylon. In co-polymers, more than one
monomer is used.
The giant molecules of which polymers consist may be linear, branched, or cross-linked, depending on the
plastic. Linear and branched molecules are thermoplastic (soften when heated), whereas cross-linked molecules
are thermosetting (harden when heated).
Most plastics are synthesized from organic chemicals or from natural gas or coal. Plastics are light-weight
compared to metals and are good electrical insulators. The best insulators now are epoxy resins and teflon. Teflon
or polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) was first made in 1938 and was produced commercially in 1950.
Plastics can be classified into several broad types.
1. Thermoplastics soften on heating, then harden again when cooled. Thermoplastic molecules are also
coiled and because of this they are flexible and easily stretched.
Typical example of thermoplastics is polystyrene. Polystyrene resins are characterized by high resistance to
chemical and mechanical stresses at low temperatures and by very low absorption of water. These properties
make the polystyrenes especially suitable for radio-frequency insulation and for parts used at low temperatures in
refrigerators and in airplanes. PET (polyethene terephthalate) is a transparent thermoplastic used for soft-drinks
bottles. Thermoplastics are also viscoelastic, that is, they flow (creep) under stress. Examples are polythene,
polystyrene and PVC.
2. Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) do not soften when heated, and with strong heating they
decompose. In most thermosets final cross-linking, which fixes the molecules, takes place after the plastic has
already been formed.
Thermosetting plastics have a higher density than thermoplastics. They are less flexible, more difficult to
stretch, and are less subjected to creep. Examples of thermosetting plastics include urea-formaldehyde or
polyurethane and epoxy resins, most polyesters, and phenolic polymers such as phenol-formaldehyde resin.
3. Elastomers are similar to thermoplastics but have sufficient cross-linking between molecules to
prevent stretching and creep.
Vocabulary:
carbon
to harden
flexible
coil
fibre ,
stretched
chain
transparent
identical ,
rubber ,
molecule
to decompose
branch
soft-drink
to synthesize
to subject
chemicals
polyurethane
to soften
resin
cellulose ,
similar ,
wax
sufficient
thermosetting plastics
to prevent
General understanding
1. What is the definition of plastics?
2. What is the basic chemical element in plastics formula?
3. What do polymers consist of?
4. What are long-chain molecules made of?
5. What are the main types of polymers?
6. Give examples of plastics belonging to these types.
7. What plastics are the best electrical insulators?
8. Describe the difference between thermoplastics and thermosets.
9. What are the main types of structures of polymers?
10. What are the most important properties of plastics?
11. Give the examples of various uses of plastics because of their characteristic properties.
Exercise 5.1. Find English equivalents in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
coating ,
General understanding:
1. What are the types of plastics?
2. What are the features of the epoxy resin?
3. What is epoxy resin used for?
4. What is PVC usually used for?
5. What are the typical applications of polystyrene?
6. When was polyethylen synthesized?
7. Under what conditions is polyethylen synthesized?
8. What sorts of polyethylen can be synthesized?
Exercise 5.3. Translate into Russian:
1. Polythene is a plastic made from ethane.
2. Epoxy resins have outstanding adhesion, toughness and resistance to attack from chemicals.
3. PVC is a colourless solid with outstanding resistance to water, alcohols, and concentrated acids and alkalis.
4. Polystyrene is a thermoplastic produced by the polymerization of styrene.
5. Polythene is a white waxy solid with very low density, reasonable strength and toughness but low
stiffness.
Exercise 5.4. Translate into English:
1. .
2. , .
3. , ,
.
4. .
5. .
6. .
7.
.
Text : COMPOSITE MATERIALS
The combinations of two or more different materials are called composite materials. They usually have
unique mechanical and physical properties because they combine the best properties of different materials. For
example, a fibre-glass reinforced plastic combines the high strength of thin glass fibres with the ductility and
chemical resistance of plastic. Nowadays composites are being used for structures such as bridges, boat-building
etc.
Composite materials usually consist of synthetic fibres within a matrix, a material that surrounds and is
tightly bound to the fibres. The most widely used type of composite material is polymer matrix composites
(PMCs). PMCs consist of fibres made of a ceramic material such as carbon or glass embedded in a plastic matrix.
Usually the fibres make up about 60 per cent by volume. Composites with metal matrices or ceramic matrices are
called metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), respectively.
Continuous-fibre composites are generally required for structural applications. The specific strength
(strength-to-density ratio) and specific stiffness (elastic modulus-to-density ratio) of continuous carbon fibre
PMCs, for example, can be better than metal alloys have. Composites can also have other attractive properties,
such as high thermal or electrical conductivity and a low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Although composite materials have certain advantages over conventional materials, composites also have
some disadvantages. For example, PMCs and other composite materials tend to be highly anisotropic that is,
their strength, stiffness, and other engineering properties are different depending on the orientation of the composite material. For example, if a PMC is fabricated so that all the fibres are lined up parallel to one another, then
the PMC will be very stiff in the direction parallel to the fibres, but not stiff in the perpendicular direction. The
designer who uses composite materials in structures subjected to multidirectional forces, must take these
anisotropic properties into account. Also, forming strong connections between separate composite material components is difficult.
The advanced composites have high manufacturing costs. Fabricating composite materials is a complex
process. However, new manufacturing techniques are developed. It will become possible to produce composite
materials at higher volumes and at a lower cost than is now possible, accelerating the wider exploitation of these
materials.
Vocabulary:
fibreglass
matrix
fibre ,
ceramic
reinforced
specific strength
expansion
specific stiffness
anisotropic
General understanding:
1. What is called composite materials?
2. What are the best properties of fibre-glass?
3. What do composite material usually consist of?
4. What is used as matrix in composites?
5. What is used as filler or fibers in composites?
6. How are the composite materials with ceramic and metal matrices called?
7. What are the advantages of composites?
8. What are the disadvantages of composites?
9. Why anisotropic properties of composites should be taken into account?
Exercise 5.5. Find equivalents in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4. 60%
5.
6.
7. ,
pressure welding
flame
heat welding
edge
instead ,
simultaneously
bolting
filler
riveting
wire
basic
rod ,
to manufacture
to melt ()
to depend
joint ,
purpose
advantage
available
to require
equipment
surface
source
coated
gas welding
flux
arc welding
fusible
resistance welding
to shield ,
laser welding
touching
electron-beam welding -
tip
General understanding:
1. How can a process of welding be defined?
2. What are the two main groups of processes of welding?
3. How can we join metal parts together?
4. What is welding used for nowadays?
5. Where is welding necessary?
6. What do the welding processes of today include?
7. What are the principles of gas welding?
8. What kinds of welding can be used for joining steels?
9. What does arc welding require? 10. What is the difference between the arc welding and shielded-metal
welding?
Exercise 6.1. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:
1.
7.
2.
8.
3. ()
9.
4.
10.
5.
11.
6.
12.
Text : OTHER TYPES OF WELDING
Non-consumable Electrode Arc welding
As a non-consumable electrodes tungsten or carbon electrodes can be used. In gas-tungsten arc welding a
tungsten electrode is used in place of the metal electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding. A chemically inert
gas, such as argon, helium, or carbon dioxide is used to shield the metal from oxidation. The heat from the arc
formed between the electrode and the metal melts the edges of the metal. Metal for the weld may be added by
placing a bare wire in the arc or the point of the weld. This process can be used with nearly all metals and pro duces a high-quality weld. However, the rate of welding is considerably slower than in other processes.
Gas-Metal Arc
In gas-metal welding, a bare electrode is shielded from the air by surrounding it with argon or carbon
dioxide gas and sometimes by coating the electrode with flux. The electrode is fed into the electric arc, and melts
off in droplets that enter the liquid metal of the weld seam. Most metals can be joined by this process.
Submerged Arc
Submerged-arc welding is similar to gas-metal arc welding, but in this process no gas is used to shield the
weld. Instead of that, the arc and tip of the wire are submerged beneath a layer of granular, fusible material that
covers the weld seam. This process is also called electroslag welding. It is very efficient but can be used only with
steels.
Resistance Welding
In resistance welding, heat is obtained from the resistance of metal to the flow of an electric current. Electrodes are clamped on each side of the parts to be welded, the parts are subjected to great pressure, and a heavy
current is applied for a short period of time. The point where the two metals touch creates resistance to the flow of
current. This resistance causes heat, which melts the metals and creates the weld. Resistance welding is widely
employed in many fields of sheet metal or wire manufacturing and is often used for welds made by automatic or
semi-automatic machines especially in automobile industry.
Vocabulary
gas-tungsten
inert
edge
bare
rate .
gas-metal arc
considerably ,
surrounding
carbon dioxide
droplet
liquid ,
beneath , ,
layer
weld seam
resistance
clamp ,
sheet
fusible
granular
semi-automatic
to create
to submerge
General understanding:
1. What is the difference between the arc-welding and non-consumable electrode arc welding?
2. What are the disadvantages of the non-consumable electrode arc welding?
3. How is electrode protected from the air in gas-metal arc welding?
4. What is submerged arc welding?
5. What is the principle of resistance welding?
6. Where is semi-automatic welding employed?
Exercise 6.2. Translate into English:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. , ,
7.
8.
9.
10.
5. .
6. .
7. .
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
James Watt
James Watt was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, known for his improvements of the steam
engine.
Watt was born on January 19, 1736, in Greenock, Scotland. He worked as a mathematical-instrument maker
from the age of 19 and soon became interested in improving the steam engine which was used at that time to
pump out water from mines.
Watt determined the properties of steam, especially the relation of its density to its temperature and pres sure, and designed a separate condensing chamber for the steam engine that prevented large losses of steam in
the cylinder. Watt's first patent, in 1769, covered this device and other improvements on steam engine.
At that time. Watt was the partner of the inventor John Roebuck, who had financed his researches. In 1775,
however. Roebuck's interest was taken over by the manufacturer Matthew Boulton, owner of the Soho Engineering
Works at Birmingham, and he and Watt began the manufacture of steam engines. Watt continued his re search and
patented several other important inventions, including the rotary engine for driving various types of machinery; the
double-action engine, in which steam is admitted alternately into both ends of the cylinder; and the steam indicator,
which records the steam pressure in the engine. He retired from the firm in 1800 and thereafter devoted himself
entirely to research work.
The misconception that Watt was the actual inventor of the steam engine arose from the fundamental nature
of his contributions to its development. The centrifugal or flyball governor, which he invented in 1788, and which
automatically regulated the speed of an engine, is of particular interest today. It embodies the feedback principle of
a servomechanism, linking output to input, which is the basic concept of automation. The watt, the unit of power,
was named in his honour. Watt was also a well-known civil engineer. He invented, in 1767, an attachment that
adapted telescopes for use in the measurement of distances. Watt died in Heathfield, near Birmingham, in August
1819.
UNIT8
COMPUTERS
I. Text A: What is a computer?, Text B: Hardware, Text C: Types of software
II. Famous people of science and engineering: Charles Babbage.
Text A: WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
The term computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic and
electromechanical (part electronic and part mechanical) components. Computer has no intelligence by itself and is
referred to as hardware. A computer system is a combination of five elements:
Hardware
Software
People
Procedures
Data/information
When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer system, connectivity becomes
the sixth system element. In other words, the manner in which the various individual systems are connected for
example, by phone lines, microwave transmission, or satellite is an element of the total computer system.
Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without
software instructions, the hardware doesn't know what to do. People, however, are the most important component
of the computer system: they create the computer software instructions and respond to the procedures that those
instructions present.
The basic job of the computer is the processing of information. Computers accept information in the form of
instruction called a program and characters called data to perform mathematical and logical operations, and
then give the results. The data is raw material while information is organized, processed, refined and useful for
decision making. Computer is used to convert data into information. Computer is also used to store information in
the digital form.
Vocabulary:
characters
purpose
data
raw ,
decision
to come to life
device
to connect
hardware
to convert ,
instruction
to create
intelligence
to evaluate
manner ,
to refer to as -
microwave
to refine
procedures ,
to respond
transmission
various
General understanding:
1) What does the term computer describe?
2) Is computer intelligent?
3) What are five components of computer system?
4) What is connectivity?
5) What is software? What's the difference between hardware and software?
6) Why people are the most important component of a computer system?
7) In what way terms data and information differ?
8) How does computer convert data into information?
Exercise 8.1. Which of the listed below terms have Russian equivalents:
computer, diskette, metal, processor, scanner, information, data, microphones, printer, modem, Internet.
Exercise 8.2. Which of the listed above statements are true/false. Specify your answer using the text.
1) Computer is made of electronic components so it is referred to as electronic device.
2) Computer has no intelligence until software is loaded.
3) There are five elements of computer system: hardware, software, people, diskettes and data.
4) The manner in which computers are connected is the connectivity.
5) Without software instructions hardware doesn't know what to do.
6) The software is the most important component because it is made by people.
7) The user inputs data into computer to get information as an output.
8) Computer is used to help people in decision making process.
Exercise 8.3. Match the following:
1) ... doesn't come to life until it is connected to other parts of a system.
2) ... is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task.
3) ... create the computer software instructions and respond to the procedures that those instructions
present
4) Information in the form of instruction is called a...
5) The manner in which the various individual systems are connected is...
6) ... is organized, processed and useful for decision making
7) The basic job of the computer is the...
a) program
b) information
c) processing of information
d) software
e) connectivity
f) computer
g) people
Exercise 8.4. Translate the text. Retell the text, using the vocabulary.
Exercise 8.5. Questions for group discussion:
1) Why so many people are still computer illiterate?
2) What are the most important applications of computer? (Are computer games just a waste of time or it
is a nice hobby and a lot of fun?)
3) Who has a computer in your group? Ask them what they use it for?
Text B: HARDWARE
What is hardware? Webster's dictionary gives us the following definition of the hardware the mechanical,
magnetic, electronic, and electrical devices composing a computer system.
Computer hardware can be divided into four categories:
1) input hardware
2) processing hardware
3) storage hardware
4) output hardware.
Input hardware
The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert it into a form suitable for computer process ing. The most common input device is a keyboard. It looks very much like a typewriter. The mouse is a hand held
device connected to the computer by small cable. As the mouse is rolled across the mouse pad, the cursor moves
across the screen. When the cursor reaches the desired location, the user usually pushes a button on the mouse
once or twice to signal a menu selection or a command to the computer.
The light pen uses a light sensitive photoelectric cell to signal screen position to the computer. Another type
of input hardware is optic-electronic scanner that is used to input graphics as well as typeset characters. Micro-
phone and video camera can be also used to input data into the computer. Electronic cameras are becoming very
popular among the consumers for their relatively low price and convenience.
Processing hardware
The purpose of processing hardware is retrieve, interpret and direct the execution of software instructions
provided to the computer. The most common components of processing hardware are the Central Processing Unit
and main memory.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It reads and interprets software instructions
and coordinates the processing activities that must take place. The design of the CPU affects the processing
power and the speed of the computer, as well as the amount of main memory it can use effectively. With a welldesigned CPU in your computer, you can perform highly sophisticated tasks in a very short time.
Memory is the system of component of the computer in which information is stored. There are two types of
computer memory: RAM and ROM.
RAM (random access memory) is the volatile computer memory, used for creating loading, and running programs and for manipulating and temporarily storing data;
ROM (read only memory) is nonvolatile, non-modifiable computer memory, used to hold programmed in structions to the system.
The more memory you have in your computer, the more operations you can perform.
Storage hardware
The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and data in a form that is relatively
permanent and retrieve when needed for processing. Storage hardware serves the same basic functions as do
office filing systems except that it stores data as electromagnetic signals. The most common ways of storing data
are Hard disk, floppy disk and CD-ROM.
Hard disk is a rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing programs and relatively large amounts of
data.
Floppy disk (diskette) - thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material, for storing computer
data and programs. There are two formats for floppy disks: 5.25" and 3.5". 5.25" is not used in modern computer
systems because of it relatively large size flexibility and small capacity. 3.5" disks are formatted 1.4 megabytes and
are widely used.
CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) is a compact disc on which a large amount of digitized read-only
data can be stored. CD-ROMs are very popular now because of the growing speed which CD-ROM drives can
provide nowadays. Output hardware
The purpose of output hardware is to provide the user with the means to view information produced by the
computer system. Information is output in either hardcopy or softcopy form. Hardcopy output can be held in your
hand, such as paper with text (word or numbers) or graphics printed on it. Softcopy output is displayed on a
monitor.
Monitor is a component with a display screen for viewing computer data, television programs, etc.
Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data or graphics.
Modem is an example of communication hardware an electronic device that makes possible the
transmission of data to or from computer via telephone or other communication lines.
Hardware comes in many configurations, depending on what the computer system is designed to do. Hardware can fill several floors of a large office building or can fit on your lap.
Vocabulary:
amount
CD-ROM - (CD)
capacity
scanner
circuitry .
sensitive
CPU, microprocessor
sophisticated
hard disk ,
storage hardware
input hardware
temporarily
keyboard
temporary
lap
the purpose
modem
tier
mouse
to affect
,
to connect
output hardware
to convert
to direct
printer
to execute
processing hardware
to interpret
to provide
RAM (
to reach
)
to retrieve
ROM (
to roll ,
)
volatile , ,
General understanding:
1. What is the Webster's dictionary definition of the hardware?
2. What groups of hardware could be defined?
or
9) Keyboard
10) Sound-card
the
9) keyboard
10) character
mainboard
to provide with -
memory capacity
to require
peripheral
to secure
regard
to transfer ,
regardless , ,
Web-browser
(,
security
specific ,
to boot
Internet)
to check
General understanding
1. What is software?
2. In what two basic groups software (programs) could be divided?
3. What is system software for?
4. What is an operating system a system software or application software?
5. What is a driver?
6. What is application software?
7. What is application software used for?
8. What is the tendency in application software market in the recent years?
9. What is the application of the communication software?
Exercise 8.10. Which of the following is Software:
1. Program
4. Word processor
7. Operating system
10. Display
2. Mouse
5. Modem
8. Scanner
3. CPU
6. Web-browser
9. Printer
Exercise 8.11. Which of the listed below statements are true/false. Specify your answer using the
text:
1) Computer programs only instruct hardware how to handle data storage.
2) System software controls internal computer activities.
3) System software is very dependable on the type of application software being used.
4) The information about memory capacity, the model of the processor and disk drives are unavailable for
system software.
5) The driver is a special device usually used by car drivers for Floppy-disk driving.
6) It is very reasonable to ask for a driver when you buy a new piece of hardware.
7) Software developers tend to make their products very small and with poor interface to save computer re-
sources.
8) Communication software is in great demand now because of the new advances in communication
technologies.
9) Application software is merely a general-purpose instrument.
10) Web-browsers is the class of software for electronic communication through the network.
Exercise 8.12. Find English equivalents in the text:
1) .
2) (
).
3) .
4) .
5) , < .
6) ,
.
7)
-.
Exercise 8.13. Give definitions to the following using the vocabulary:
1) Software
2) Driver
3) Application software
4) Operating system
5) Communication software
6) Computer
7) Peripheral device
8) Operating system
Questions for group discussion:
1) What do you think is more expensive hardware or software?
2) Has anyone in your group ever purchased software? Why do you think piracy (audio, video, computer
software) still exists?
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Babbage, Charles (1792-1871), British mathematician and inventor, who designed and built mechanical
computing machines on principles that anticipated the modern electronic computer. Babbage was born in
Teignmouth, Devon, and educated at the University of Cambridge. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in
1816 and was active in the founding of the Analytical, the Royal Astronomical, and the Statistical Societies.
In the 1820s Babbage began developing his Difference Engine, a mechanical device that could
perform simple mathematical calculations. Although Babbage started to build his machine, he was unable
to complete it because of a lack of funding. In the 1830s Babbage began developing his Analytical Engine,
which was designed to carry out more complicated calculations, but this device was never built, too.
Babbage's book, Economy of Machines and Manufactures (1832), initiated the field of study known today
as operational research.
UNIT 9
MODERN COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES
I. Text A: Operating systems, Text B: Windows 95,
Text C: Internet and WWW
II. Famous people of science and engineering: Bill Gates.
Text A: OPERATING SYSTEMS
When computers were first introduced in the 1940's and 50's, every program written had to provide instructions that told the computer how to use devices such as the printer, how to store information on a disk, as well as
how to perform several other tasks not necessarily related to the program. The additional program instructions for
working with hardware devices were very complex, and time-consuming. Programmers soon realized it would be
smarter to develop one program that could control the computer's hardware, which others programs could have
used when they needed it. With that, the first operating system was born.
Today, operating systems control and manage the use of hardware devices such as the printer or mouse.
They also provide disk management by letting you store information in files. The operating system also lets you run
programs such as the basic word processor. Lastly, the operating system provides several of its own commands
that help you to use the computer.
DOS is the most commonly used PC operating system. DOS is an abbreviation for disk operating system.
DOS was developed by a company named Microsoft. MS-DOS is an abbreviation for Microsoft DOS. When IBM
first released the IBM PC in 1981, IBM licensed DOS from Microsoft for use on the PC and called it PC-DOS. From
the users perspective, PC-DOS and MS-DOS are the same, each providing the same capabilities and commands.
The version of DOS release in 1981 was 1.0. Over the past decade, DOS has undergone several changes.
Each time the DOS developers release a new version, they increase the version number.
Windows NT (new technology) is an operating system developed by Microsoft. NT is an enhanced version
of the popular Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programs. NT requires a 386 processor or greater and 8 Mb of RAM. For
the best NT performance, you have to use a 486 processor with about 16 Mb or higher. Unlike the Windows, which
runs on top of DOS, Windows NT is an operating system itself. However, NT is DOS compatible. The ad vantage of
using NT over Windows is that NT makes better use of the PC's memory management capabilities.
OS/2 is a PC operating system created by IBM. Like NT, OS/2 is DOS compatible and provides a graphical
user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse. Also like NT, OS/2 performs best when you are
using a powerful system. Many IBM-based PCs are shipped with OS/2 preinstalled.
UNIX is a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system. Traditionally, UNIX
was run on a larger mini computers to which users accessed the systems using terminals and not PC's. UNIX
allowed each user to simultaneously run the programs they desired. Unlike NT and OS/2, UNIX is not DOS
compatible. Most users would not purchase UNIX for their own use.
Windows 95 & 98 (Windows 2000) are the most popular user-oriented operating systems with a friendly
interface and multitasking capabilities. The usage of Windows 95 and its enhanced version Windows 98 is so
simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly. Windows 95 and 98 are DOS compatible, so all
programs written for DOS may work under the new operating system.
Windows 95 requires 486 processor with 16 megabytes of RAM or Pentium 75-90 with 40 megabytes of free
hard disk space.
Vocabulary:
complex
are shipped
to consume
compatible
consumer
with a click of a mouse
to realize ,
smart
access
decade ,
to allow
version
multiple users
to enhance ,
simultaneously
top ,
to desire
on top of DOS ,
to ship ,
General understanding:
1) What problems faced programmers in the 1940's and 1950's?
2) Why were the first programs complex and time-consuming?
3) What are the basic functions of operating system?
4) What does the abbreviation DOS mean?
5) What company developed the first version of DOS operating system? For what purpose was it done? Was
the new operational system successful?
6) What is the difference between the PC-DOS and MS-DOS
7) What does the abbreviation NT stand for? Is NT DOS-compatible? What are the basic requirements for
NT?
8) Who is the developer of OS/2?
9) What makes UNIX so different from the other operational systems?
10) What are the special features of Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000?
Exercise 9.1. Match the following:
1) Like NT, ... is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programmes with
a click of a mouse.
2)... is the most commonly used PC operating system
3)... is a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system
4)... is an operating system developed by Microsoft, an enhanced version of the popular Microsoft Windows
programs.
5) The usage of... is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly.
a) UNIX
b)DOS
c) NT
d) OS/2
e) Windows 95
Exercise 9.2. Which of the listed below statements are true/false. Specify your answer using the text.
1) When computers were first introduced in 40's and 50's programmers had to write programs to instruct
CD-ROMs, laser printers and scanners.
2) The operational system controls and manages the use of the hardware and the memory.
3) There are no commands available in operating systems, they are only in word processors.
General understanding:
1) What is Internet used for?
2) Why so many activities such as e-mail and business transactions are possible through the Internet?
3) What is World Wide Web?
4) What is Web browser?
5) What does a user need to have an access to the WWW?
6) What are hyperlinks?
7) What resources are available on the WWW?
8) What are the basic recreational applications of WWW?
Exercise 9.8. Which of the listed below statements are true/false. Specify your answer using the text.
1) There are still not so many users of the Internet.
2) There is information on all sorts of topics on the Internet, including education and weather forecasts.
3) People can communicate through e-mail and chat programs only.
4) Internet is tens of thousands of networks which exchange the information in the same basic way.
5) You can access information available on the World Wide Web through the Web browser.
6) You need a computer (hardware) and a special program (software) to be a WWW user.
7) You move from site to site by clicking on a portion of text only.
8) Every time the user wants to move somewhere on the 'eh he/she needs to step by step enter links and
addresses.
9) Films and pictures are not available on the Internet.
10) Radio and TV-broadcasting is a future of Internet. They're not available yet.
Exercise 9.9. Define the following using the vocabulary:
1) Internet
2) World Wide Web
3) Web browser
4) Internet provider
5) Hyperlinks
Exercise 9.10. Find the equivalents:
1) , WWW, .
2) , , ,
- .
3) .
4) , .
5) ,
.
6) , , - ( ) .
Exercise 9.11. Match the following:
1) You access the information through one interface or tool called a...
2) People connected to the WWW through the local... have access to a variety of information.
3) The user doesn't need to know where the site is, the... follows the...
4) In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the...
5) Each... provides a graphical interface.
6) Local... charge money for their services to access... resources.
Words to match with:
1) web browser, providers, link, WWW,
Questions for group discussion:
1) Some people think that Internet is very harmful, especially for young people, because it carries a lot of
information about sex, drugs, violence and terrorism. Do you think that some kind of censorship is necessary on the
WWW?
2) World famous authors and publishers say that the Internet violates their copyright because Web-programmers put all kinds of books, pictures, music, films and programs free on the Internet and this reduces their sales and
profits.
3) Has anyone in your group experience working on the Internet? Ask them 1) about the difficulties they had; 2)
useful information retrieved; 3) fun they got? Why so few people have experience working on the Internet?
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Bill Gates
William Henry Gates was born in Seattle, Washington, in 1955.
He is an American business executive, chairman and chief executive officer of the Microsoft Corporation. Gates
was the founder of Microsoft in 1975 together with Paul Alien, his partner in computer language development. While
attending Harvard in 1975, Gates together with Alien developed a version of the BASIC computer programming
language for the first personal computer.
In the early 1980s. Gates led Microsoft's evolution from the developer of computer programming languages to a
large computer software company. This transition began with the introduction of MS-DOS, the operating system for
the new IBM Personal Computer in 1981. Gates also led Microsoft towards the introduction of application software
such as the Microsoft Word processor.
Much of Gates' success is based on his ability to translate technical visions into market strategy. Although
Gates has accumulated great wealth from his holdings of Microsoft stock, he has been known as a tough competitor
who seems to value winning in a competitive environment over money. Gates still continues to work personally in
product development at Microsoft.
1. ALLOYS
Bronze and brass, the first alloys in the history of metallurgy, were probably obtained by man accidentally when
melting mixed metal ores. Much later alloys of iron were obtained.
Steel was made in small quantities in early times until the mid-19th century when it was manufactured on a large
scale in the iron and steel industry.
The commercial production of pure aluminium in about 1890 began a new range of alloys and among them
duralumin, an alloy of about 94 per cent aluminium, with small quantities of copper, manganese, magnesium, and
silicon. Most of aluminium alloys are both light and strong.
Nickel is often mixed with other metals for special purposes: permalloy is a nickel-iron alloy that is mag netically
soft. The polarity of its magnetic field can be easily changed and it is used for transformer cores. Monel metals contain
about two parts nickel to one part copper, plus other elements. They are stronger than nickel and extremely corrosionresistant. These properties make them useful in chemical production.
Electrum is a natural or artificial alloy of gold and silver containing 15-45 per cent of silver. It was used in the
ancient world for coinage.
Bismuth is frequently used as a part of alloys with low melting-points. Today alloys can be designed for particu lar applications with certain properties.
2. MANUFACTURING OF PLASTICS
The manufacture of plastic and plastic products involves procuring the raw materials, synthesizing the basic
polymer, compounding the polymer into a material useful for fabrication, and moulding or shaping the plastic into its
final form.
Raw Materials
Originally, most plastics were made from resins derived from vegetable matter, such as cellulose (from cotton),
oils (from seeds), starch derivatives, or coal. Casein (from milk) was among the nonvegetable materials used.
Although the production of nylon was originally based on coal, air, and water, and nylon 11 is still based on oil from
castor beans, most plastics today are derived from petrochemicals. These oil-based raw materials are relatively widely
available and inexpensive. However, because the world supply of oil is limited, other sources of raw materials, such as
coal gasification, are being explored.
Synthesizing the Polymer
The first stage in manufacturing plastic is polymerization. As noted, the two basic polymerization methods are
condensation and addition reactions. These methods may be carried out in various ways. In bulk polymerization, the
pure monomer alone is polymerized, generally either in the gaseous or liquid phase, although a few solid-state
polymerizations are also used. In solution polymerization, an emulsion is formed and then coagulated. In interfacial
polymerization, the monomers are dissolved in two immiscible liquids, and the polymerization occurs at the interface of
the two liquids.
Additives
Chemical additives are often used in plastics to produce some desired characteristic. For instance, antioxidants
protect a polymer from chemical degradation by oxygen or ozone; similarly, ultraviolet stabilizers protect against
weathering. Plasticizers make a polymer more flexible, lubricants reduce problems with friction, and pigments add
colour. Among other additives are flame retardants and antistatics.
Many plastics are manufactured as composites. This involves a system where reinforcing material (usually
fibres made of glass or carbon) is added to a plastic resin matrix. Composites have strength and stability comparable
to that of metals but generally with less weight. Plastic foams, which are composites of plastic and gas, offer bulk with
low weight.
Shaping and Finishing
The techniques used for shaping and finishing plastics depend on three factors: time, temperature, and flow
(also known as deformation). Many of the processes are cyclic in nature, although some fall into the categories of
continuous or semicontinuous operation.
One of the most widely used operations is that of extrusion. An extruder is a device that pumps a plastic through
a desired die or shape. Extrusion products, such as pipes, have a regularly shaped cross section. The ex truder itself
also serves as the means to carry out other operations, such as blow moulding and injection moulding. In extrusion
blow moulding, the extruder fills the mould with a tube, which is then cut off and clamped to form a hollow shape called
a parison. The hot, molten parison is then blown like a balloon and forced against the walls of the mould to form the
desired shape. In injection moulding, one or more extruders are used with reciprocating screws that move forwards to
inject the melt and then retract to take on new molten material to continue the process. In injection blow moulding,
which is used in making bottles for carbonated drinks, the parison is first injection moulded and then reheated and
blown.
In compression moulding, pressure forces the plastic into a given shape. Another process, transfer moulding, is
a hybrid of injection and compression moulding: the molten plastic is forced by a ram into a mould. Other fin ishing
processes include calendering, in which plastic sheets are formed, and sheet forming, in which the plastic sheets are
formed into a desired shape. Some plastics, particularly those with very high temperature resist ance, require special
fabrication procedures. For example, polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon) has such a high melt viscosity that it is first
pressed into shape and then sinteredexposed to extremely high temperatures that bond it into a cohesive mass
without melting it. Some polyamides are produced by a similar process.
Uses
Plastics have an ever-widening range of uses in both the industrial and consumer sectors.
Packaging
The packaging industry is a leading user of plastics. Much LDPE (low-density polyethene) is marketed in rolls of
clear-plastic wrap. High-density polyethene (HPDE) is used for some thicker plastic films, such as those used for
plastic waste bags and containers. Other packaging plastics include polypropene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), and polyvinylidene chloride. Polyvinylidene chloride is used primarily for its barrier properties, which can keep
gases such as oxygen from passing into or out of a package. Similarly, polypropene is an effective barrier against
water vapour. Polypropene is also often used in housewares and as a fibre for carpeting and rope.
Construction
The building industry is a major consumer of plastics, including many of the packaging plastics mentioned
above. HDPE is used for pipes, as is PVC. PVC is also used in sheets for building materials and similar items. Many
plastics are used to insulate cables and wires, and polystyrene in the form of foam serves as insulation for walls, roofs,
and other areas. Other plastic products are roofing, door and window frames, mouldings, and hardware.
Other Uses
Many other industries, especially motor manufacturing, also depend on plastics. Tough engineering plastics are
found in vehicle components like fuel lines, fuel pumps, and electronic devices. Plastics are also used for interior
panelling, seats, and trim. Many car bodies are made of fibreglass-reinforced plastic.
Among the other uses of plastic are housings for business machines, electronic devices, small appliances, and
tools. Consumer goods range from sports equipment to luggage and toys
4. RESINS
Resins that cannot be softened by heating include the phenolics, furan resins, aminoplastics, alkyds, allyls,
epoxy resins, polyurethanes, some polyesters, and silicones.
Phenolics or phenol-aldehydes
The important commercial phenolic resin Bakelite is based on phenol and formaldehyde. The two processes in
general use are the one-step process producing resol resins (the first stage in the formation of a phenolic resin) that
are either liquid or brittle, soluble, fusible solids, from more than one molecule of formaldehyde per phenol molecule;
and the two-step process, using an excess of phenol to produce novolacs, resins that have no reac tive methylol
groups and must be mixed with an aldehyde to undergo further reaction.
Resol resins thermoset on heating and are used for adhesives. Novolacs require a further source of formal dehyde in the form of hexamethylenetetramine to produce molding powders. Both resins are run out from the reaction
vessel, after removal of water by distillation, and ground up, then compounded on heated rolls with fillers that vary
from wood flour to mica; for strength and heat resistance fibrous asbestos is used as a filler (hexamethylenetetramine
is also added at this stage in the case of the two-step resin). Final grinding produces the molding powders, which on
further heat treatment will yield the typical thermoset resin.
Phenolic moldings are resistant to heat, chemicals, and moisture and are preferred for wet-dry applications as in
washing machines. Their stability to heat and low heat conductivity suit them for use in appliance parts, and their
electrical insulation qualities qualify them for electric fittings such as switches, plugs, and distributor caps; resistance to
hydraulic fluids has led to their use in automotive parts. All these applications have been made more economical by
the development of injection molding and extrusion methods. Complex phenols are used in manufacture of brake
linings.
Furan resins
Furfural is a five-membered ring compound (i.e., the basic molecule has a ring shape and contains five atoms)
of four carbon atoms and one oxygen atom, carrying the aldehyde group, CHO; it reacts like formaldehyde with
phenols in the presence of an acid catalyst to give a rigid polymer with high chemical resistance, used for coatings in
industry. It can be prepared in semiliquid form with a low viscosity and remarkable penetrating power when applied to
porous forms such as foundry sand cores or graphite blocks, being in this respect superior to other liquid resins.
Aminoplastics
Urea resins are made by the condensation in aqueous solution of formaldehyde and urea in the presence of
ammonia as an alkaline catalyst, giving a colourless solution to which cellulose filler is added to yield a molding
powder upon drying, which when heated in a mold gives a water-white (transparent) molding unless previously
coloured by pigment.
The filler confers considerable strength, so that thin sections such as in cups and tumblers can be molded. Very
large quantities of urea-formaldehyde resin are used in kitchen and bathroom hardware details, and electric appliance
housings and fittings.
Melamine behaves in the same way as urea, but the product is more moisture resistant, harder and stronger,
leading to wide use for plates and food containers. Melamine moldings are glossy and harder than any other plastic
and retain a dust-free surface. Solutions of the thermoplastic forms of urea-formaldehyde resins are widely used as
bonding agents for plywood and wood-fibre products.
Alkyds
Alkyds are polyesters, generally of phthalic acid (with two acid groups) and glycerol, a triol i. e., an alcohol
with three hydroxyl groups. The solid resins are molded at high speed under low pressure, cured quickly, and are used
where insulating properties, strength, and dimensional stability over a wide range of voltage, frequency, temperature,
and humidity are required, as in vacuum-tube bases and automotive ignition parts and with glass-fibre reinforcement
for switch gear and housings for portable tools.
Polyesters of unsaturated alcohols
The resins known as DAP and DAIP, are crossliked allyl esters of phthalic and isophthalic acid, respectively.
They are notable for maintaining rigidity and excellent electrical properties at temperatures up to 230 , prerties also
manifested by allylic resin-impregnated glass cloth, used in aircraft and missile parts. Other advantages are good
storage life and absence of gas evolution during polymerization. The resin allyl diglycol carbonate, optically clear and
colourless, is used for making cast objects; fully cured castings are more heat and abrasion resistant than other cast
resins.
Epoxy resins
Epoxy resins have outstanding mechanical and electrical properties, dimensional stability, resistance to heat
and chemicals, and adhesion to other materials. They are used for casting, encapsulation, protective coatings, and
adhesives, and for reinforced moldings and laminates of the highest quality. Popular adhesives (epoxy glues) contain
the resin components and the curing agent, usually an amine or an anhydride, in separate packages. The two are
mixed just before use.
Polyurethanes
Formed by the reaction between diisocyanates and polyols (multihydroxy compounds), polyurethanes are
among the most versatile of plastics, ranging from rigid to elastic forms. Their major use is for foams, with prop erties
varying from good flexibility to high rigidity. Thermoplastic polyurethanes that can be extruded as sheet and film of
extreme toughness can also be made.
Polyesters of unsaturated acids
Certain esters can be polymerized to resin and are used on a very large scale in glass-fibre-reinforced plastics.
Unsaturated acid (usually maleic acid in the form of its anhydride) is first polymerized to a relatively short
polymer chain by condensation with a dihydric alcohol such as propylene glycol, the chain length being deter mined by
the relative quantities of the two ingredients The resulting condensation polymer is then diluted with a monomer such
as styrene and an initiator for addition polymerization added. This mixture is quite stable at room temperature over a
long period. Frequently, a silicone compound is added to promote adhesion to glass fibres, and wax to protect the
surface from oxygen inhibition of polymerization. Glass-fibre materials are impregnated with the syrup and
polymerization is brought about by raising the temperature. Alternatively, the polymerization can be carried out at room
temperature by addition of a polymerization accelerator to the syrup immediately before impregnation. After an
induction period, which can be controlled, polymerization takes place, with rapid increase in temperature, to give a
glass-fibre-reinforced cross-linked polymer, which is effectively a thermoset type of plastic and very resistant to heat.
The properties of the resin are frequently varied by replacing part of the unsaturated maleic anhydride by anhydrides
of saturated acids.
Silicones
Silicon, unlike carbon, does not form double bonds or long silicon chains. It does, however, form long chains
with oxygen such as in siloxanes with hydrocarbon groups attached to the silicon; these result in a wide range of oils,
greases, and rubbers.
Produced through a series of reactions involving replacement of certain atoms in the chain, silicon resins, or
silicones, can be used for high- and low-pressure lamination, with glass-fibre reinforcement and with mineral or short
glass-fibre fillers, or for molding powders. The outstanding characteristic of these products is high dielectric strength
(that is, they are good insulators at high voltages) with low dissipation over a wide temperature and humidity range.
Silicones are not distorted by heat up to 400 . They are also physiologically inert and therefore valuable for
prostheses (artificial body parts).
5. INDUSTRIAL PLASTICS:
RIGID AND FLEXIBLE FOAMS
Rigid polyurethane foams in sandwich forms have wide applications as building components. They are also the
best insulants known today and so have wide application in refrigeration and in buildings, where they are applied in
fitted slab form or are foamed into cavities at the building site. They can also be applied by spraying about six
millimetres thickness with each pass of the spray gun. The ability to spray a foaming mixture through a single nozzle is
a great advantage in application.
A very important use of rigid foam is for furniture parts to reproduce wood structures; these can be injec tion
molded. Polyurethane foam can be screwed and nailed with a retention about equal to white pine lumber.
A major advance in the manufacture of sandwich structures is a new method of injection molding, in which a
large machine is used to produce moldings up to 1.2 metres square. Moldings of great strength and any de sired
surface are obtained.
Flexible foams
Flexible foams, usually polyurethane, are made in slab form up to 2.4 metres in width and as much as 1.5
metres high; these are then cut to required shapes or sizes or are molded. The molded foams may be hot molded.
This involves filling heated aluminum castings and gives a product having high resistance to compression, as for
automobile seats; or they may be cold molded, a process used particularly for semi-flexible foams with high loadbearing properties. Used almost exclusively by the automobile industry for crash pads, armrests, and dashboard
covers, the process involves machine mixing the ingredients and pouring them into aluminum molds lined with vinyl or
acrylo-nitrile-butadiene-styrene skins, which become the cover material for the part.
Polystyrene foams are made in a wide range of densities, from expandable beads, either by extrusion through
slot-shaped openings to 40 times the original volume to form boards directly or by foaming in steam chests to form
large billets. Using small beads in stainless steel molds, cups can be molded with thin sections.
Thin sheet for packaging can also be made by the tube extrusion technique. Though packaging is a major use
for forms made in closed molds, the largest use is for building panels; they can be plastered directly.
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene can be expanded from pellets and is particularly suitable for wood-grain effects
and for the production of heavy sections.
Expanded vinyls can be made from plastisols for flooring or textile linings by calendering with a blowing agent
and laminating to a fabric base, and by injection molding for insulation and such articles as shoe soles. An improved
material is now obtained from cross-linked polyvinyl chloride and competes with polyester in glass reinforced plastic.
Submerged arc welding is similar to the above except that the gas shield is replaced with a granulated mineral
material as a flux.
Weldability of metals
Carbon and low-alloy steels are the most widely used materials in welded construction. Carbon content largely
determines the weldability of carbon steels. Low-alloy steels are generally regarded as those having a total alloying
content of less than 6 percent. There are many grades of steel available, and their relative weldability varies.
Aluminum and its alloys are also generally weldable. A very thin oxide film on aluminum tends to prevent good
metal flow, however, and suitable fluxes are used for gas welding. Fusion welding is more effective with alternat ing
current when using the gas-tungsten arc process to enable the oxide to be removed by the arc action.
Copper and its alloys are weldable, but the high thermal conductivity of copper makes welding difficult. Metals
such as zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten are usually welded by the gas-tungsten arc process.
Nickel is the most compatible material for joining, is weldable to itself, and is extensively used in dissimilar metal
welding of steels, stainless steels and copper alloys.
7. GEAR
Gear is a toothed wheel or cylinder used to transmit rotary or reciprocating motion from one part of a machine to
another. Two or more gears, transmitting motion from one shaft to another, constitute a gear train. At one time various
mechanisms were collectively called gearing. Now, however, gearing is used only to describe systems of wheels or
cylinders with meshing ( ) teeth. Gearing is chiefly used to transmit rotating motion, but can,
with suitably designed gears and flat-toothed sectors, be employed to transform reciprocating motion into rotating
motion, and vice versa.
Simple Gears
The simplest gear is the spur () gear, a wheel with teeth cut across its edge parallel to the axis. Spur
gears transmit rotating motion between two shafts or other parts with parallel axes. In simple spur gearing, the driven
shaft revolves in the opposite direction to the driving shaft. If rotation in the same direction is desired, an idler gear
() is placed between the driving gear and the driven gear. The idler revolves in the oppo site direction to the
driving gear and therefore turns the driven gear in the same direction as the driving gear. In any form of gearing the
speed of the driven shaft depends on the number of teeth in each gear. A gear with 10 teeth driving a gear with 20
teeth will revolve twice as fast as the gear it is driving, and a 20-tooth gear driving a 10-tooth gear will revolve at half
the speed. By using a train of several gears, the ratio of driving to driven speed may be varied within wide limits.
Internal, or annular, gears are variations of the spur gear in which the teeth are cut on the inside of a ring or
flanged wheel rather than on the outside. Internal gears usually drive or are driven by a pinion, a small gear with few
teeth. A rack, a flat, toothed bar that moves in a straight line, operates like a gear wheel with an infinite radius and can
be used to transform the rotation of a pinion to reciprocating motion, or vice versa.
Bevel gears ( ) are employed to transmit rotation between shafts that do not have parallel
axes. These gears have cone-shaped bodies and straight teeth. When the angle between the rotating shafts is 90,
the bevel gears used are called mitre gears.
Helical Gears
These gears have teeth that are not parallel to the axis of the shaft but are spiraled around the shaft in the form
of a helix. Such gears are suitable for heavy loads because the gear teeth come together at an acute angle rather than
at 90 as in spur gearing. Simple helical gearing has the disadvantage of producing a thrust that tends to move the
gears along their respective shafts. This thrust can be avoided by using double helical, or herringbone, gears, which
have V-shaped teeth composed of half a right-handed helical tooth and half a left-handed helical tooth. Hypoid gears
are helical bevel gears employed when the axes of the two shafts are perpendicular but do not in tersect. One of the
most common uses of hypoid gearing is to connect the drive shaft and the rear axle in motor cars. Helical gearing
used to transmit rotation between shafts that are not parallel is often incorrectly called spiral gearing.
Another variation of helical gearing is provided by the worm gear, also called the screw gear. A worm gear is a
long, thin cylinder that has one or more continuous helical teeth that mesh with a helical gear. Worm gears differ from
helical gears in that the teeth of the worm slide across the teeth of the driven gear instead of exerting a direct rolling
pressure. Worm gears are used chiefly to transmit rotation, with a large reduction in speed, from one shaft to another
at a 90 angle.
8. BEARINGS
Bearing is a mechanical device for decreasing friction in a machine in which a moving part bearsthat is, slides
or rolls on another part. Usually in a bearing the support must allow the moving part one type of motion, for ex ample,
rotation, while preventing it from moving in any other way, for example, sidewise. The commonest bearings are found
at the rigid supports of rotating shafts where friction is the greatest.
Bearings were invented early in history; when the wheel was invented, it was mounted on an axle, and where
wheel and axle touched was a bearing. Such early bearings had surfaces of wood or leather lubricated with animal fat.
Modern bearings have been arbitrarily designated as friction bearings and antifriction bearings. The first
comprises sleeve or journal bearings; the second, ball and roller bearings. Neither type of bearing is completely
frictionless, and both are highly efficient in reducing friction. A large, modern aircraft engine, for example, has more
than 100 bearings, including both types; yet the total power consumed in overcoming bearing friction is less than one
per cent of the total power output of the engine.
Friction bearings () of the sleeve or journal type are simpler than antifriction bearings in construction
but more complex in theory and operation. The shaft supported by the bearing is called the journal, and the outer
portion, the sleeve. If journal and sleeve are both made of steel, the bearing surfaces, even if well lubricated, may grab
or pick up, that is, rip, small pieces of metal from each other. The sleeves of most bearings therefore are lined with
brass, bronze, or Babbitt metal. Sleeve bearings are generally pressure-lubricated through a hole in the journal or from
the housing that contains the bearing. The sleeve is often grooved to distribute the oil evenly over the bearing surface.
Typical clearance (difference between the diameters of journal and sleeve) is nominally 0.0025 cm for every
2.54 cm of journal diameter. When the journal is rotating, it may be about 0.0000001 cm from the sleeve at the side
with the greatest load. The journal is thus supported on an extremely thin film of oil, and the two parts have no actual
contact. As the rotational speed increases, other variables remaining constant, the oil film becomes thicker, so that the
friction increases in less than direct proportion to the speed. Conversely, at lower speeds the oil film is thinner if other
factors are unchanged. At extremely low speeds, however, the film may rupture and the two pieces come into contact.
Therefore, friction is high when the machine is started in motion, and the bearing may fail if high stresses are put on it
during starting. Ball bearings, on the other hand, have low starting friction.
Jewel bearings are used to mount very little shafts such as those found in fine watches. They are friction-type
bearings in which the ends of the shafts are mounted in extremely hard substances. The bearing is lubricated with a
microscopic drop of fine oil.
In a ball bearing, a number of balls rotate freely between an inner ring, which is rigidly fixed to a rotating shaft,
and an outer ring, which is rigidly fixed to a support. Both balls and rings are made of hardened alloy steel, usually
finished to extremely fine tolerances. The balls are generally held in position by a cage or separator that keeps them
evenly spaced and prevents them from rubbing against each other. The bearing is lubricated with grease or oil.
A roller bearing is similar to a ball bearing, except that small steel cylinders, or rollers, are substituted for the
balls. A needle bearing is a roller bearing in which the rollers are extremely long and thin. An ordinary roller bearing
may have 20 rollers each twice as long as it is wide whereas a needle bearing may have 100 needles, each 10
times as long as it is wide. Needle bearings are particularly useful when space is limited.
9. CONSTRUCTION OF AN AUTOMOBILE
The primary components of a car are the power plant, the power transmission, the running gear, and the con trol
system. These constitute the chassis, on which the body is mounted.
The power plant includes the engine and its fuel, the carburettor, ignition, lubrication, and cooling systems, and
the starter motor.
The Engine
The greatest number of cars use piston engines. The four-cycle piston engine requires four strokes of the piston
per cycle. The first downstroke draws in the petrol mixture. The first upstroke compresses it. The second downstroke
the power strokefollowing the combustion of the fuel, supplies the power, and the second upstroke evacuates the
burned gases. Intake and exhaust valves in the cylinder control the intake of fuel and the release of burned gases. At
the end of the power stroke the pressure of the burned gases in the cylinder is 2.8 to 3.5 kg/sq cm. These gases
escape with the sudden opening of the exhaust valve. They rush to a silencer (muffler), an enlarged section of piping
containing expanding ducts and perforated plates through which the gases expand and are released into the
atmosphere.
Greater smoothness of operation of the four-cycle engine were provided by the development of the four-cylinder
engine, which supplies power from one or another of the cylinders on each stroke of the cycle. A further increase in
power and smoothness is obtained in engines of 6,8,12, and 16 cylinders, which are arranged in either a straight line
or two banks assembled in the form of a V.
Carburation
Air is mixed with the vapour of the petrol in the carburettor. To prevent the air and the carburettor from becoming
too cold for successful evaporation of the fuel, the air for the carburettor is usually taken from a point close to a heated
part of the engine. Modern carburettors are fitted with a so-called float-feed chamber and a mixing or spraying
chamber. The first is a small chamber in which a small supply of petrol is maintained at a constant level. The petrol is
pumped from the main tank to this chamber, the float rising as the petrol flows in until the desired level is reached,
when the inlet closes. The carburettor is equipped with such devices as accel erating pumps and economizer valves,
which automatically control the mixture ratio for efficient operation under varying conditions. Level-road driving at
constant speed requires a lower ratio of petrol to air than that needed for climbing hills, for acceleration, or for starting
the engine in cold weather. When a mixture extremely rich in petrol is necessary, a valve known as the choke cuts
down the air intake, permitting large quantities of unvaporized fuel to enter the cylinder.
Ignition
The mixture of air and petrol vapour delivered to the cylinder from the carburettor is compressed by the first
upstroke of the piston. This heats the gas, and the higher temperature and pressure facilitate ignition and quick
combustion. The next operation is that of igniting the charge by a spark plug. One electrode is insulated by porcelain
or mica; the other is grounded through the metal of the plug, and both form part of the secondary circuit of an induction
system.
The principal type of ignition now commonly used is the battery-and-coil system. The current from the battery
flows through the coil and magnetizes the iron core. When this circuit is interrupted at the distributor points by the
interrupter cam, a current is produced in the primary coil with the assistance of the condenser. This induces a highvoltage current in the secondary winding. This secondary high voltage is needed to cause the spark to jump the gap in
the spark plug. The spark is directed to the proper cylinder by the distributor, which connects the secondary coil to the
spark plugs in the several cylinders in their proper firing sequence. The interrupter cam and distributor are driven from
the same shaft, the number of breaking points on the interrupter cam being the same as the number of cylinders.
The electrical equipment controls the starting of the engine, its ignition system, and the lighting of the car. It
consists of the battery, a generator for charging it when the engine is running, a starter and the necessary wiring.
Electricity also operates various automatic devices and accessories, including windscreen wipers, directional signals,
heating and air conditioning, cigarette lighters, powered windows and audio equipment.
Lubrication
In the force-feed system, a pump forces the oil to the main crankshaft bearings and then through drilled holes in
the crankpins. In the full-force system, oil is also forced to the connecting rod and then out to the walls of the cylinder
at the piston pin.
Cooling
At the moment of explosion, the temperature within the cylinder is much higher than the melting point of cast
iron. Since the explosions take place as often as 2,000 times per minute in each cylinder, the cylinder would soon
become so hot that the piston, through expansion, would freeze in the cylinder. The cylinders are therefore provided
with jackets, through which water is rapidly circulated by a small pump driven by a gear on the crankshaft or camshaft.
During cold weather, the water is generally mixed with a suitable antifreeze, such as alcohol, wood alcohol, or ethylene
glycol.
To keep the water from boiling away, a radiator forms part of the engine-cooling system. Radiators vary in shape
and style. They all have the same function, however, of allowing the water to pass through tubing with a large area, the
outer surface of which can be cooled by the atmosphere. In air cooling of engine cylinders, vari ous means are used to
give the heat an outlet and carry it off by a forced draught of air.
The Starter
The petrol engine must usually be set in motion before an explosion can take place and power can be developed; moreover, it cannot develop much power at low speeds. These difficulties have been overcome by the use of
gears and clutches, which permit the engine to work at a speed higher than that of the wheels, and to work when the
vehicle is at rest. An electric starter receiving its current from the storage battery, turns the crank shaft, thus starting the
petrol engine. The starter motor is of a special type that operates under a heavy overload, producing high power for
very short periods. In modern cars, the starter motor is automatically actuated when the ignition switch is turned on.
The Power Transmission
The engine power is delivered first to the flywheel and then to the clutch. From the clutch, which is the means of
coupling the engine with the power-transmission units, the power flows through the transmission and is delivered into
the rear-axle drive gears, or differential, by means of the drive shaft and universal joints. The dif ferential delivers the
power to each of the rear wheels through the rear-axle drive shafts.
The Clutch
Some type of clutch is found in every car. The clutch may be operated by means of a foot pedal, or it may be
automatic or semi-automatic. The friction clutch and the fluid coupling are the two basic varieties. The friction clutch,
which depends on solid contact between engine and transmission, consists of: the rear face of the fly wheel; the driving
plate, mounted to rotate with the flywheel; and the driven plate, between the other two. When the clutch is engaged,
the driving plate presses the driven plate against the rear face of the flywheel. Engine power is then delivered through
the contacting surfaces to the transmission.
Fluid coupling may be used either with or without the friction clutch. When it is the sole means of engaging the
engine to the transmission, power is delivered exclusively through an oil medium without any contact of solid parts. In
this type, known as a fluid drive, an engine-driven, fan-bladed disc, known as the fluid flywheel, agitates the oil with
sufficient force to rotate a second disc that is connected to the transmission. As the rotation of the second disc directly
depends on the amount of engine power delivered, the prime result of fluid coupling is an automatic clutch action,
which greatly simplifies the requirements for gear shifting.
Manual and Automatic Transmissions
The transmission is a mechanism that changes speed and power ratios between the engine and the driving
wheels. Three general types of transmission are in current use: conventional or sliding-gear, Hydra-Matic, and torqueconverter systems.
The conventional transmission provides for three or four forward speeds and one reverse speed. It consists of
two shafts, each with gears of varying diameters. One shaft drives the other at a preselected speed by meshing the
appropriate set of gears. For reverse speed/an extra gear, known as the idler gear, is required to turn the driven shaft
in the opposite direction from normal rotation. In high gear, the two shafts usually turn at the same speed. In low,
second, and reverse gears, the driven shaft turns more slowly than the driving shaft. When a pair of gears permits the
driven shaft to turn more rapidly than the driving shaft, the transmission is said to have overdrive. Overdrive is
designed to increase the speed of a car.
The Hydra-Matic type of transmission combines the automatic clutch provided by fluid coupling with a semiautomatic transmission. A mechanical governor, controlled by the pressure exerted on the accelerator pedal, regulates
gear selection through a system of hydraulically controlled shift valves. Hydra-Matic transmission pro vides for several
forward gears.
The torque-converter type of transmission provides an unlimited number of gear ratios with no shifting of gears.
The torque converter is a hydraulic mechanism using engine power to drive a pump, which impels streams of oil
against the blades of a turbine. The turbine is connected to the drive shaft and causes it to rotate.
Both Hydra-Matic and torque-converter systems are controlled by a selector lever on the steering column, which
provides also for reverse and sometimes for emergency-low gears.
The Running Gear
The running gear of the car includes the wheel-suspension system, the stabilizers, and the wheels and tyres.
The frame of the car may be considered the integrating member of the running gear. It is attached to the rear axle and
to the front wheels by springs. These springs, along with the axles, the control and support arms, and the shock
absorbers, constitute the wheel-suspension system. In modern cars the front wheels are independ ently suspended
from the frame in a manner that permits either wheel to change its plane without appreciably affecting the other. This
type of front-wheel suspension is known popularly as independent suspension. The stabilizers consist of spring-steel
bars, connected between the shock-absorber arms by levers, to decrease body roll and improve steerability.
The Control System
Steering is controlled by a hand wheel, mounted on an inclined column and attached to a steering tube inside
the column. The other end of the tube is connected to the steering gear, which is designed to provide maximum ease
of operation. Power steering, adapted for passenger cars in the early 1950s, is generally a hydraulic mechanism used
as a booster to reduce the effort of steering.
A car has two sets of brakes: the hand or emergency brake and the foot brake. The emergency brake gener ally
operates on the rear wheels only. The foot brake in modern cars is always of the four-wheel type, operating on all
wheels. Hydraulic brakes on cars and hydraulic vacuum, air, or power brakes on lorries apply the brak ing force to the
wheels with much less force on the brake pedal than is required with ordinary mechanical brakes. The wheel brakes
are generally of the internally expanding type, in which a convex strip of material is forced against a concave steel
brake drum.
12. AC MOTORS
Two basic types of motors are designed to operate on alternating current: synchronous motors and induction
motors. The synchronous motor is essentially a three-phase alternator operated in reverse. The field magnets are
mounted on the rotor and are excited by direct current, and the armature winding is divided into three parts and fed
with three-phase alternating current. The variation of the three waves of current in the armature causes a varying
magnetic reaction with the poles of the field magnets, and makes the field rotate at a con stant speed that is
determined by the frequency of the current in the AC power line.
The constant speed of a synchronous motor is advantageous in certain devices. However, in applications where
the mechanical load on the motor becomes very great, synchronous motors cannot be used, because if the motor
slows down under load it will fall out of step with the frequency of the current and come to a stop. Synchronous
motors can be made to operate from a single-phase power source by the inclusion of suitable circuit elements that
cause a rotating magnetic field.
The simplest of all electric motors is the squirrel-cage type of induction motor used with a three-phase supply.
The armature of the squirrel-cage motor consists of three fixed coils similar to the armature of the synchronous motor.
The rotating member consists of a core in which are imbedded a series of heavy conductors arranged in a circle
around the shaft and parallel to it. With the core removed, the rotor conductors resemble in form the cylindrical cages
once used to exercise pet squirrels. The three-phase current flowing in the stationary armature windings generates a
rotating magnetic field, and this field induces a current in the conductors of the cage. The magnetic reaction between
the rotating field and the current-carrying conductors of the rotor makes the rotor turn. If the rotor is re volving at exactly
the same speed as the magnetic field no currents will be induced in it, and hence the rotor should not turn at a
synchronous speed. In operation the speeds of rotation of the rotor and the field differ by about 2 to 5 per cent. This
speed difference is known as slip.
Motors with squirrel-cage rotors can be used on single-phase alternating current by means of various arrangements of inductance and capacitance that alter the characteristics of the single-phase voltage and make it
resemble a two-phase voltage. Such motors are called split-phase motors or condenser motors (or capacitor motors),
depending on the arrangement used. Single-phase squirrel-cage motors do not have a large starting torque, and for
applications where such torque is required, repulsion-induction motors are used. A repulsion-induction motor may be of
the split-phase or condenser type, but has a manual or automatic switch that allows current to flow between brushes
on the commutator when the motor is starting, and short-circuits all commutator segments after the motor reaches a
critical speed. Repulsion-induction motors are so named because their starting torque depends on the repulsion
between the rotor and the stator, and their torque while running depends on induction. Series-wound motors with
commutators, which will operate on direct or alternating current, are called universal motors. They are usually made
only in small sizes and are commonly used in household appliances.
accidental contact with the operator, to put cutoff switches within reach of the operator and to eliminate dangerous
sharp parts. In designing roads the safety engineer seeks to avoid such hazards as sharp turns and blind intersections
that lead to traffic accidents
because they are generally configured for a particular product made in high volume. Programmable assembly
machines are represented by the component-insertion machines employed in the electronics industry.
16. MEASUREMENTS
Metric System is a decimal system of physical units, named after its unit of length, the metre, the metric sys tem
is adopted as the common system of weights and measures by the majority of countries, and by all coun tries as the
system used in scientific work.
Weights and Measures
Length, capacity, and weight can be measured using standard units. The principal early standards of length
were the palm or hand breadth, the foot, and the cubit, which is the length from the elbow to the tip of the mid dle
finger. Such standards were not accurate and definite. Unchanging standards of measurement have been adopted
only in modern time.
In the English-speaking world, the everyday units of linear measurement were traditionally the inch, foot, yard
and mile. In Great Britain, until recently, these units of length were defined in terms of the imperial standard yard,
which was the distance between two lines on a bronze bar made in 1845.
In Britain units of weight (ounces, pounds, and tons) are now also derived from the metric standard kilogram.
This is a solid cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy maintained at constant temperature at Sevres, near Paris. Copies, as
exact as possible, of this standard are maintained by national standards laboratories in many countries.
International System of Units is a system of measurement units based on the MKS (metre-kilogram-second)
system. This international system is commonly referred to as SI.
At the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures, held in Paris in 1960 standards were defined
for six base units and two supplementary units:
Length
The metre had its origin in the metric system. By international agreement, the standard metre had been defined
as the distance between two fine lines on a bar of platinum-iridium alloy. The 1960 conference redefined the metre as
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the reddish-orange light emitted by the isotope krypton-86. The metre was again
redefined in 1983 as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time inter val of 1/299,792,458 of a
second.
Mass
When the metric system was created, the kilogram was defined as the mass of 1 cubic decimetre of pure water
at the temperature of its maximum density or at 4.0 C.
Time
For centuries, time has been universally measured in terms of the rotation of the earth. The second, the basic
unit of time, was defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day or one complete rotation of the earth on its axis in relation to
the sun. Scientists discovered, however, that the rotation of the earth was not constant enough to serve as the basis of
the time standard. As a result, the second was redefined in 1967 in terms of the resonant frequency of the caesium
atom, that is, the frequency at which this atom absorbs energy: 9,192,631,770 Hz (hertz, or cycles per second).
Temperature
The temperature scale is based on a fixed temperature, that of the triple point of water at which it's solid, liquid
and gaseous. The freezing point of water was designated as 273.15 , equaling exactly 0 on the Celsius temperature
scale. The Celsius scale, which is identical to the centigrade scale, is named after the 18th-century Swedish
astronomer Anders Celsius, who first proposed the use of a scale in which the interval between the freezing and
boiling points of water is divided into 100 degrees. By international agreement, the term Celsius has officially replaced
centigrade.
One feature of SI is that some units are too large for ordinary use and others too small. To compensate, the
prefixes developed for the metric system have been borrowed and expanded. These prefixes are used with all three
types of units: base, supplementary, and derived. Examples are millimetre (mm), kilometre/hour (km/h), megawatt
(MW), and picofarad (pF). Because double prefixes are not used, and because the base unit name kilogram already
contains a prefix, prefixes are used not with kilogram but with gram. The prefixes hecto, deka, deci, and centi are used
only rarely, and then usually with metre to express areas and volumes. In accordance with established usage, the
centimetre is retained for body measurements and clothing.
In cases where their usage is already well established, certain other units are allowed for a limited time, subject
to future review. These include the nautical mile, knot, angstrom, standard atmosphere, hectare, and bar.
17. COMPUTERS
Computer is an electronic device that can receive a program (a set of instructions) and then carry out this
program by calculating numerical information.
The modern world of high technology is possible mainly due to the development of the computer. Com puters
have opened up a new era in manufacturing by means of automation, and they have enhanced modern
communication systems.
Personal computers
Personal computers are also called microcomputers or home computer. The most compact are called laptops.
They are portable and work on built-in batteries.
Personal computers are designed for use at homes, schools, and offices. At home they can be used for home
management (balancing the family finances, for example) and for playing computer games, watching films or listening
to music. Schoolchildren can use computers for doing their homework and many schools now have com puters for
independent learning and computer-literacy studies. In the office personal computers may be used for word
processing, bookkeeping, storage and handling of necessary information.
Personal computers were made possible by two technical innovations in the field of microelectronics: the
integrated circuit, or I, which was developed in 1959 and the microprocessor that first appeared in 1971. The I
permitted the miniaturization of computer-memory circuits, and the microprocessor reduced the size of a computer's
CPU to the size of a single silicon chip.
Because a CPU calculates, performs logical operations, contains operating instructions, and manages data
flows, a complete microcomputer as a separate system was designed and developed in 1974.
In 1981, IBM Company offered its own microcomputer model, the IBM PC that became a necessary tool for al most every business. The PC's use of a 16-bit microprocessor initiated the development of faster and more powerful
personal computers, and its use of an operating system that was available to all other computer makers led to a
standardisation of the industry.
In the mid-1980s, a number of other developments were especially important for the growth of personal com puters. One of these was the introduction of a powerful 32-bit CPU capable of running advanced operating sys tems at
high speeds.
Another innovation was the use of conventional operating systems, such as UNIX, OS/2 and Windows. The
Apple Macintosh computers were the first to allow the user to select icons graphic symbols of computer func tions
from a display screen instead of typing commands. New voice-controlled systems are now available, and users are
able to use the words and syntax of spoken language to operate their personal computers.
Use of agricultural machinery substantially reduces the amount of human labour needed for growing crops. The
average amount of labour required per hectare to produce and harvest corn, hay, and cereal crops has fallen to less
than a quarter of what was required only a few decades ago.
,
to (), :
Come to me. .
from (), :
Take this book from the table. . '
I come from Russia. .
into :
Put the book into the bag. .
out of :
Take the book out of the table. .
on(to) /onto :
Snow fell onto the ground. .
through , : went in through the door. .
,
at (), , :
I am sitting at the table. .
I study at school. .
The pupils are at the lesson. .
in :
is in the office. .
The books are in the bag. .
on :
The book is on the desk. .
under :
The book is under the table. .
across : My school is across the street. .
above :
There is a lamp above the table. .
between : Between us. .
in front of () ()
There is a telephone in front of him. .
behind () (),
There is a sport ground behind our school. .
around :
We are sitting around the table. .
beyond : Beyond the limits of the city. .
over , , : There is a bridge over the river. .
near , , , , :
She is sitting near the table. .
up : Up the river. .
down : Down the river. .
in : In April, in 1999. , 1999 .
in : in an hour, in two days ,
at ( ) at 5 oclock, at midnight 5 ,
on ( , ): on Monday, on the 10th of February - , 10
by : by 8 o'clock tomorrow 8
from... till / from... to... ... : from 5 till 6 o'clock/from 5 to 60' clock 5- 6-
for ( ): for an hour
during (-): during the lesson
after (-): after work
before (-): before the lesson-
within , : within a month
b , , : by the window, by plane ,
with : with a friend
for : I'll do it for you. - .
.
here ,
:
there
somewhere -, -
anywhere , , -
nowhere
inside
outside
now ,
before , ,
ever -
never
always
often
usually
down
back ,
away , ,
downward
upward
:
seldom
tomorrow
still
yesterday
already
recently
just ,
lately
yet ,
commonly
sometimes
today
slowly
quickly
easily
:
calmly
brightly
hardly ,
much ,
little ,
enough
:
too
almost ,
very
-er/or teacher, writer, actor, doctor
-ist scientist, artist
-ment movement, development, government
-ess fortress, hostess, actress
-ian musician, technician, politician
-ance distance, importance, appearance
-(t)ion revolution, translation, operation
-ity/'ty popularity; honesty, morality, ability
-hood childhood, neighborhood
- energy, assembly
-ship friendship, leadership
-age passage, marriage
-ism heroism, socialism, capitalism
-ant assistant, consultant
-ence conference, silence, difference
-ure culture, picture, agriculture
-ing building, reading, meeting
-dom freedom, kingdom, wisdom
-sion/ssion revision, session, discussion,
-ness happiness, illness, darkness (-s)ure pleasure, treasure, measure
II.
re reconstruction,
cooperation, coexistence
dis disadvantage, discomfort, distaste
in inaccuracy, independence
mis misunderstanding, misprinting, misinformation
im impossibility, impatience
un unemployment, unconcern, unreality
il illegality, illiteracy.
I.
en deepen, lighten, strengthen;
fy classify, electrify, specify
ize organize, characterize, mechanize
ate indicate, activate, translate
cooperate, coexist, collaborate
de decode, decompose, demobilize
to be
was/were
been
being
to bear
bore
born
bearing
to beat
beat
beaten
beating
to begin
began
begun
beginning
()
to bend
bent
bent
bending
to bind
bound
bound
binding
to bite
bit
bitten/bit
biting
to blow
blew
blown
blowing
to break
broke
broken
breaking
to bring
brought
brought
bringing
to build
built
built
building
to burst
burst
burst
bursting
to buy
bought
bought
buying
to catch
caught
caught
catching
to choose
chose
chosen
choosing
to cut
cut
cut
cutting
to dive
dived/dove
dived
diving
to do
did
done
doing
to draw
drew
drawn
drawing
to drink
drank
drunk
drinking
to drive
drove
driven
driving
to eat
ate
eaten
eating
to fall
fell
fallen
falling
to feel
felt
felt
feeling
to feed
fed
fed
feeding
to fight
fought
fought
fighting
to fly
flew
flown
flying
to forbid
forbade
forbidden
forbidding
to forget
forgot
forgotten
forgetting
to forgive
forgave
forgiven
forgiving
to freeze
froze
frozen
freezing
to get
got
got
getting
to give
gave
given
giving
to go
went
gone
going
to grow
grew
grown
growing
to hang
hung
hung
hanging
to have
had
had
having
to hear
heard
heard
hearing
to hit
hit
hit
hitting
to hold
held
held
holding
to hurt
hurt
hurt
hurting
to know
knew
known
knowing
to lay
laid
laid
laying
to lead
lead
lead
leading
to leap
leapt/leaped
leapt/leaped
leaping
to leave
left
left
leaving
to lend
lent
lent
lending
to let
let
let
letting
to lie
lay
lain
lying
to light
lit
lit
lighting
to lose
lost
lost
losing
to make
made
made
making
to meet
met
met
meeting
()
to pay
paid
paid
paying
to put
put
put
putting
to read
read
read
reading
to ride
rode
ridden
riding
()
to ring
rang
rung
ringing
to rise
rose
risen
rising
to run
ran
run
running
to say
said
said
saying
to see
saw
seen
seeing
to sell
sold
sold
selling
to send
sent
sent
sending
to shake
shook
shaken
shaking
to shine
shone
shone
shining
to shoot
shot
shot
shooting
to show
showed
shown
showing
to sing
sang
sung
singing
to sink
sank
sunk
sinking
to sit
sat
sat
sitting
to sleep
slept
slept
sleeping
to speak
spoke
spoken
speaking
to spend
spent
spent
spending
to stand
stood
stood
standing
to steal
stole
stolen
stealing
to stick
stuck
stuck
sticking
to strike
struck
struck
striking
to swear
swore
sworn
swearing
to sweep
swept
swept
sweeping
to swim
swam
swum
swimming
to take
took
taken
taking
to teach
taught
taught
teaching
to tear
tore
torn
tearing
to tell
told
told
telling
to think
thought
thought
thinking
to throw
threw
thrown
throwing
to wake
woke
woken
waking
to wear
wore
wakened
wearing
to weep
wept
wept
weeping
to win
won
won
winning
to write
wrote
written
writing